Cereal Technology

The word cereal originates from the Romans (goddess named Ceres, the giver of grain).
Cereals are mononcots and part of the grass family (Gramineae). The seed is consumed
(humans).
Webster’s Dictionary:
1: a plant (as a grass) yielding starchy grain suitable for food; also: its grain
2: a prepared foodstuff of grain
Botanical:
Members of the grass family (Graminaeae) which are cultivated.
Includes: wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn, sorghum, rice, triticale, millet
The Cereals: Overview
Cereals are the edible seeds (fruits) of plants of the grass family. Critically important food
sources for humans and animals. Cereal crops are energy dense, containing 10,000 -15 000
kJ/Kg, about x10-20 times > than most fruits and vegetables. Important sources of dietary
protein, carbohydrates, the B complex of vitamins, vitamin E, iron, trace minerals, and fibre.
The cereal grasses provide the grain that is the staple food of most of mankind Cereals can
be grown almost anywhere in the world.
Plants used for Food
Approximately 350,000 plant species exist. 195,000 are flowering plants, 300 are used for
food, 50 are actively cultivated for food around the world. Worldwide 17 different species
supply most (90%) of our food.
The Big 17 Species
These 17 species that supply food occupy 75% of cultivated land
Of these 8 are cereals
Wheat Triticum aestivum
Rice Oryza sativa
Corn Zea mays
Barley Hordeum vulgare
Millet Pennisitum typhodium
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor
Oat Avena sativa
Rye Secale cereal
Triticale Tritico secale ( man made)

The 8 cereals provide 56% of the earth’s consumed energy and 50% of the protein consumed on
earth.Wheat, corn and rice make up 75% of the world’s grain production. Wheat and rice are food
staples, corn is a dominant source of livestock feed. Wheat, corn and rice are the most important
cereals world wide.
❖ Triticale is formed by crossing wheat and rye
❖ It is man made cereal
Why Triticale is Formed
❖ Cereal grains are deficient in lysine (first limiting amino acid in cereal grains)
❖ Scientist consider that rye contains relatively higher lysine than all other grains.

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❖ Wheat is considered as No.1 food grain crop according to the production and
consumption
❖ It posseses the unique properties of forming viscoelastic dough
❖ So Triticale is made to get the following objectives
❖ higher lysine level
❖ Similar baking quality to that of wheat

Nutritional Quality
Essential components provided by cereals
⚫ carbohydrates
⚫ protein
⚫ fats
⚫ vitamins and minerals
⚫ fiber
The starch of a cereal (carbohydrate) provides energy. World-wide, humans acquire over 1/2 of
proteins from cereals. Poorer areas consume more cereals than developed areas. Developed areas
have less cereals in their diet and more fats, animal protein, etc. Cereals are not an adequate source
of protein on their own as they are deficient in certain essential amino acids.
World Utilization of Cereals
Food 66%
Industrial 7%
Feed 20%
Seed 7%
Utilization in Pakistan
Food 85%
Industrial+ seed+feed 15%
Improvement of Protein and Lysine in Food
❖ In Pakistan more than 60% protein and calories of total requirement are derived from
cereals
❖ Soyabean is rich in lysine but deficient in methionine. It contains 40% protein
❖ Cereals are rich in methionine but deficient in lysine
❖ First approach is the addition of protein and lysine in food artifically
❖ Second approach is to develop lines that possess high protein and lysine
❖ Hiproley and RISO M 1508 (lines of barley) contain high lysine and protein
❖ Now breeders are working and crossing these to obtain the better varieties
❖ Yield and protein have negative correlation, and this is the main hurdle in this work
Position of Wheat in This Respect
Worldwide there is very less work done to identify the line with more lysine and protein by
conventional breeding. Some lines have been developed containing high protein but not higher
lysine (ATLAS 66,NAPHAL). Genetic engineering is being used to develop new wheat
varieties.
Wheat Grain Structure & Composition

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 Structure of Cereals:The Wheat Grain
A grain of wheat is a seed which
can grow into a new wheat plant.
It is also the part of the wheat
plant which is processed into
flour, a major foodstuff, and the
basic ingredient of bread

MAIN PARTS OF A WHEAT GRAIN

1- Bran
❖ 14.5% of whole grain
❖ It contain five layers
Epidermis
Epicarp Pericarp
Endocarp
Episperm or testa
Aleurone cells

Pericarp

❖ Immature pericarp helps in the transport of nutrients to other parts of grain

❖ Mature pericarp gives protection to endosperm
❖ High in fiber
❖ Low in proteins
❖ Low in lipids except rice grain pericarp
❖ Devoid of starch except sorghum
Episperm or testa
❖ Contain coloring matter that distinguishes the berry as being of red or white
Aleurone layer
❖ Help in synthesis and transport of nutrients

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❖ Devoid of starch
❖ High in protein
❖ High content of vitamin B
❖ Low in fiber
❖ High in lipid contents
2- Endosperm
❖ 83% of whole grain
❖ High in starch
❖ Low in fiber
❖ Low in ash
❖ Low in lipids except oat
❖ Low in proteins
3- Germ
❖ 2-3% of whole grain
❖ Reproductive part
❖ High in sugar
❖ Devoid of starch
❖ High in proteins(enzymatic)
❖ High in lipids
❖ High in ash
❖ High in B vitamin except wheat
Composition of Wheat Grain
1- Moisture
❖ At harvesting 8-10%
❖ Increases in rainy season
❖ Decreases in dry season
❖ Vital role in wheat quality
2-Proteins
❖ Varies from 8-10%
❖ Variation is due to
- Rainfall
- Climate
- R.H
- Fertilizers
- Irrigations
3-Ash
❖ 1.5-2.5%
❖ Influenced by
- Grain size
- Grain shape
4-Crude fiber
❖ 2-3.5%
❖ Influenced by

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 - Grain size
- Grain shape
5- Fat
❖ 2-3%
❖ Sometimes <2%
✓ 1% protein is removed during milling and some other nutrients are also lost
✓ White flour is inferior than whole wheat flour

Classification of Wheat Based on Different Criteria

1- Botanical criteria
❑ The wheat genus is Triticum and within that genus there are 5 domestic species and
three wild species
❑ Most common are
Triticum aestivum - bread wheat
Triticum durum - macaroni (pasta) wheat Triticum compactum- cookies, cakes, pastries
and noodles
❑ Within the bread wheat class there are 3 factors used to determine market class:
• Kernel hardness
❑ hard, medium or soft
❑ related to protein content and gluten strength
• Color
❑ red, amber, white
❑ related to sprouting resistance
❑ red wheats have more resistance to sprouting than white wheats.
• Growth habit
❑ spring or winter
❑ In Pakistan mostly spring wheat is grown
❑ if winter wheats can survive the winter, they are usually better yielding.

❑ Combination of the three factors make these wheat classes:

• HRS - hard red spring
• HRW - hard red winter
• ES - extra strong
• SWS - soft white spring
• SWW - soft white winter
Other Wheat Classes
❑ CPS - Canada prairie spring - previously called 3M wheats for medium hardness, medium
gluten strength and medium protein content
❑ Amber Durum is the commonly grown class of durum wheat
• Durum has a very hard kernel, high protein (12 to 14%) and high gluten strength
• A light, amber color is required for top grade
2-Physical Criteria
❑ Indicative of flour yield

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ These physical parameters are
➢ Test wt.
➢ Kernel wt.
➢ Kernel hardness
➢ Vitrreousness
➢ Damaged grain
➢ Grain shape and size
➢ Foreign matter

A- Test Weight
❑ Measures wt. of grains per unit volume
❑ Two different units – lb/bushel, kg/hl
❑ Average of our wheat is 60 lbs/bushel, 70 kg/hl
❑ Tells us grain size, shape and also density
❑ By increasing moisture, the test weight decreases because volume is increased but weight
is not increased at the same ratio
B- Kernel weight
❑ Expressed in wt in grams per 1000 kernels
❑ Gives rough yield of flour
❑ The correlation b/w test wt and kernel wt is generally that if test wt is more, the kernel wt
is also high but it is not always true
❑ Yield have more correlation with test weight
C- Grain size and shape
❑ Size and shape affect the milling yield and machine
D- Kernal hardness
❑ It is generally the strength of the texture of kernal
❑ Two types of starch granule (small and large) in endosperm
❑ Starch granules are bounded with each other by protein
❑ If bond is strong, grain will be hard
❑ Other factor is the continuity of protein matrix around starch
❑ Basis on which hardness is measured
1. Particle size index
2. NIR
3. Power required for grain crushing
4. Noise during crushing
5. Barley pearler method
E- Vitreousness
❑ It is the appearance of kernel which makes it vitreous or non-vitreous
❑ Vitreous kernel is horn like with no air spaces
❑ In case of non-vitreous it is opaque or mealy
F- Damaged grain
❑ Contains broken kernals, shrivelled kernals, insect damaged kernals or disease affected
kernals

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ It affects milling quality
G- Foreign matter
❑ It contains dust, dirt, small stones and weed seeds
❑ Any impurities in wheat which can be removed by cleaning operation is called as refraction
3- Chemical Criteria
A- Moisture contents
❑ Important for storage of wheat
❑ At harvesting moisture is less than 10%
❑ For storage it should be 12%
❑ If it is > 16%, growth of fungi will take place
❑ Moisture contents can be determined by oven drying at 105oC
B- Protein contents
❑ Protein contents have a linear relationship with loaf volume
❑ In wheat vary from 8% - 16%
❑ Depend upon agroecological conditions and inputs applied
❑ The prime factor for determining the protein is gluten
❑ Gluten quality in protein determines its baking quality
❑ Among varieties it vary from 10-20% but among commercial varieties 8-10%
Methods for determining baking quality
❑ Mixograph
❑ Farinograph
❑ Extensograph
❑ Alveograph
C- Ash contents
❑ Indicate mineral contents in wheat grain
❑ Have direct relationship with flour yield. Higher the ash contents lower will be the flour
yield
❑ Ash contents determine milling quality
❑ Should not be more than 0.03% in wheat
❑ If we separate bran from flour, we are removing minerals and flour is of inferior quality
D- Crude fiber
❑ Any plant material which cannot be digested by enzymes present in human body is called
dietary fiber
❑ Crude fiber in wheat ranges from 2-3%
❑ High bran contents high will be the crude fiber
❑ Similarly, shrivelled grains have high crude fiber contents.
Utilization and Quality Characteristics
❑ Hard wheats
• Used for pan bread and hearth breads.
• Medium to high protein content and strong dough properties
❑ Soft wheats
• Cookies, cakes, pastries
• Low protein content and weak dough properties.

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ Medium hard wheats
• All-purpose flour for noodles, flat bread, steamed breads
• Have medium protein & medium dough strength
• CPS wheat, French wheat, some Australian wheats.

Utilization and Quality Characteristics - Popular Products

❑ In Japan, increased demand for pan bread as consumer preference has changed
❑ Steamed bread is the most common in Asian countries; noodles
❑ Pan breads are the largest use of high quality wheat.
❑ Hearth bread - French bread is also popular.
❑ India - flat breads (baked for short time at high temp).
❑ Pasta popular in Europe and North America.
Quality Characteristics
❑ Market class determines the type of wheat chosen for food products
❑ Quality Characteristics include
• kernel physical hardness
• kernel soundness
• water absorption
• protein content
• milling quality
• gluten strength

Kernel Physical Characteristics

❑ The size, color, shape, & bulk density important

• Color
• inspected for color for class which intended
• Size
• should be same size
• Density
• test weight = weight per unit volume
• Prefer large, dense kernel with uniform shape
• Low density from poor growing/harvesting conditions (shrunken, shriveled
kernels)
• Weathered grain expands from taking up moisture but then does not return to its
original density when it dries
Kernel Soundness
❑ Important to have resistance to sprouting and weathering
❑ Kernel color is related to sprouting resistance by the level of amylase enzymes in the grain
❑ Amylase is the enzyme that converts starch in to sugar during germination
❑ Red wheats have low levels of amylase and longer periods of post-harvest dormancy.

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ White wheats have shorter dormancy and prone to have increased levels of amylase if wet
weather occurs before the crop is harvested
❑ If the level of amylase increases (such as when the grain matures) but prolonged wet
weather delays harvest, the enzymes go to work and convert starch to sugar. This lowers
the quality of the flour
❑ White wheats are not used for baking breads and are suitable for cake flour which is not as
sensitive to amylase levels.
❑ However, if sprouting or other damage (frost) occurs, the milling quality of white wheat is
reduced as well.
Water Absorption
❑ Kernel hardness affects the water absorption capacity of flour which is directly related to
the amount of bread produced from a given weight of flour
❑ Hard wheats have vitreous (glossy) endosperm which requires more energy to to grind;
soft wheats are easier to grind
❑ Increased grinding damages starch granules in the kernel.
❑ Water absorption capacity is higher when a larger proportion of the starch granules have
been damaged
❑ Higher water absorption is desirable for bread making
❑ An instrument called a Farinograph is used to measure water absorption capacity in the
baking lab - based on protein levels and starch granule damage
Protein Content
❑ All other factors being equal, high protein flour produces bread with high loaf volume,
high water absorption, and better keeping properties
❑ The bran and germ are higher in protein than the endosperm.
❑ White flour has 0.4% to 1.2% less protein than the whole grain (bran removed in milling)
❑ Wheat with <11% protein is unsuitable for making bread unless blended with higher
protein wheat (Canadian wheat)
❑ Long term average of HRS wheat protein is 13.6%
Milling Quality
❑ The goal is high yield of bright colored flour
❑ Although hardness is desirable for water absorption, energy to grind the grain should not
be excessively high
❑ Mineral ash content is an indicator of how well the miller has separated the endosperm
from the bran and germ
❑ Whole wheat flour - 1.6% ash
❑ White flour (75% extraction) - 0.5% ash or less
Gluten Strength
❑ Gluten strength is related to the ability of flour to produce high volume bread, a well-
shaped loaf, and fine crumb structure.
❑ Gluten creates the elasticity of dough and determines its ability to contain carbon dioxide
during rising (what produces carbon dioxide?).
Storage of Cereals
❑ Cereal grains are amenable to storage for relatively long periods of time

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ Harvested at a relatively low moisture contents and when stored and protected from insects
and rodents, easily store for years
❑ Under ideal storage conditions (low temperature, inert atmosphere), safe storage may be
measured in decades.
❑ Throughout history, cereal grains have given humans a buffer against crop failure and
starvation
❑ In comparison with dairy products, meat and fresh vegetables, cereals are easy to store
❑ If storage conditions are not proper, they can and do go out of condition
❑ Such loss of cereal stores has led to starvation in the past and even today in some parts of
the world
❑ Basic Types of Storage
Ground storage
❑ Grain is harvested once or twice during the year and consumed throughout the year
❑ Storage can vary from the simple expedient of pouring the grain on the ground or on streets
up to storage in large concrete structures.
❑ Grain is piled on ground during harvest season when transportation equipment is in short
supply
Underground storage
❑ It offers a number of advantages
❑ Protects grain from daily and seasonal variations in temperature
❑ Construction is relatively simple
❑ Protects grain from insects and molds because of low oxygen and high carbon dioxide
contents of intercede air.
Storage in bags
❑ Bagged grain can be stored in any shelter that protects bags from weather and from
predators
❑ Handled without any equipment
❑ Relatively expensive
Bulk storage in bins
❑ Most widely used type of storage today
❑ Bins have variable size
❑ Made up of wood, steel, concrete
❑ When grain is poured in to a bin, it forms an angle from the horizontal that is called the
angle of response
❑ With most grains this angle is about 27o
❑ Damp grain or very small grain gives a slightly flatter slope
❑ Smaller bins require steeper slope because of the greater friction on the sides of the hopper
Factors affecting cereal storage
1. Moisture
2. Insects
3. Rodents
4. Changes during storage
Moisture, No.1 for Safe Storage

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ It is of the greatest importance in safe storage of grains
❑ Certain species of fungi are the major cause of grain deterioration
❑ Major factors which control the rate of fungal growth
- Moisture (more important)
- Time
- Temperature
❑ Fungal growth begins at about 14% moisture
❑ Between about 14 and 20%, a small addition to moisture level
- Increases the rate of fungal growth
- Changes the number and type of species
❑ A mass of grain in a bin looks deceptively uniform but moisture content is not uniform
through out the bin.
❑ Grain coming from a single field may vary in moisture content because of

- Differences in the soil

- Differences in stages of ripeness of grain
❑ Safe storage moisture content of cereal grains depend upon the grain hygroscopic
properties
❑ Most damaging factor in grain storage is mold growth
❑ Generally molds will not grow on grain in equilibrium with air of < 70% R.H
❑ Maximum moisture levels for safe storage of major grains
❑ Corn 13%
❑ Wheat 14%
❑ Barley 13%
❑ Oat 13%
❑ Sorghum 13%
❑ Rice 12 – 13%

Insects
❑ Major problem for storage of grains
❑ Consume and contaminate the grain
❑ USDA estimated that storage losses due to insects exceed 470 million dollars per year
❑ Insects that live on grain are of two types
- Live inside the grain (hidden infestation)
- Live outside the grain.
❑ Species responsible for hidden damage
1. Granary weevils
2. Rice weevils
3. Maize weevils
4. Grain borers
5. Angoumois grain moth
❑ Species responsible for outer damage of grain
1. Red flour beetles

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 2. Saw-toothed grain beetles
3. Cadelles
4. Khapra beetles
5. Indian meal moths
Control
❑ Most grain damaging insects are of subtropical region and do not hibernate
❑ Damage can be controlled by low temperature < 10oc
❑ Moisture is another important factor in controlling grain infestation.
❑ Moisture contents of 9% or lower restrict infestation
Rodents
❑ Next to humans rats and mice are the most damaging animals
❑ Destroy millions of tons of food each year
Control
❑ Killing of rodents whether by baits or traps is effective only over short time spans
❑ Control is rodent proofing of buildings and good sanitation

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING STORAGE

1. Germination
❑ High germination with vigorous seedlings is important for seed grain and malting barley
❑ For malting, the barley should all germinate at the same time and in the shortest time
❑ The germination of barley decreases during storage as the moisture content deviates above
or below 12%
❑ Germination is also greatly affected by the growth of moulds or insect and mite damage
2. Fat acidity and odour formation
❑ Fat acidity increases with storage time and growth of moulds and insects in the grain
❑ Increased fat acidity reduces the milling and baking quality of wheat
❑ Odors produced by moulds, insects, and mites can be carried into the finished food product
3. Gluten
❑ Protein content and gluten quality remain constant or increase slightly during proper
storage
❑ Large reductions in protein content or gluten quality caused by mould growth will normally
be preceded by off-flavors, odors, etc
4. Nutritive changes
❑ Carbohydrates, minerals, and protein content change little if the grain is stored under dry,
cool conditions
❑ Vitamin content appears to be unchanged in storage except for vitamin A content in yellow
corn, which can decrease as much as 70% during one year of storage.

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

What is Quality Wheat?
❑ If “You” are a farmer:
– Grade
– Yield
– Disease and insect Resistance
– Selling Price (premiums or discounts for
“Quality”)

❑ If “you” are a miller or processor:

– Protein content
– Flour yield (% extraction)
– Dough strength (protein quality)
– Baking performance
– Pasta processing and pasta quality
Wheat Market - The Past:
❑ 85% of exports purchased by government entities 15 years ago.
❑ Grading factors established quality levels.
❑ Nearly all wheat sold through local elevators, grain handlers and exporting companies.
Wheat Market - The Present
❑ 50% of U.S. HRS wheat is exported
❑ 40% of U.S. Durum is exported
❑ 65% of exported wheat is purchased by private milling companies/processors
❑ Processors are becoming more sophisticated – increased automation
❑ Wheat purchased using grading and non-grading or marketing factors
Wheat Market - The Future?
❑ Increased market demands for specific wheat varieties, quality and performance
❑ Most exported wheat purchased by individual interests
❑ Hard White Spring wheat
❑ Organic Wheat
❑ Identity Preserved Wheat
❑ Genetically Modified/Non-GM Wheat.
What Do Processors Want?
❑ Clean and Sound wheat
– Less dockage and contamination
– High Falling Number (>300 seconds)
❑ High protein content & quality
– 14 to 15% protein desired in most markets
– Excellent quality bread - desired loaf volume
– High quality pasta
❑ Consistent functional quality
Dry Milling
❑ The term “Milling” covers a wide range of processes

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ In general, they are methods of transforming whole grains in to forms suitable for
consumption or conversion in to consumable products
❑ Milling schemes are conveniently classified as
➢ Wet milling
➢ Dry milling
Dry milling
❑ Objective
➢ Separation of bran and germ from endosperm
➢ Reduction in the particle size of endosperm
Wet milling
❑ Based on separation of grain or compositional constituents
❑ Constituents are protein, starch and lipids
❑ Applicable in case of corn.
Wheat Milling
❑ Carried out by dry milling
❑ Steps involved in wheat milling are
➢ Cleaning
➢ Tempering and conditioning
➢ Roller milling
➢ Flour treatment
Cleaning
❑ Wheat arriving in mill contain foreign matter
❑ It includes dust, dirt, seeds of other crops, straw and pieces of metals
❑ These impurities decrease milling efficiency
❑ Cleaning is required to increase milling efficiency
Methods of separating wheat impurities
❑ Cleaning methods based upon different principles
❑ Impurities are removed based on following characteristics
➢ Magnetic properties
➢ Size and dimension
➢ Shape
➢ Specific gravity
➢ Behavior in air current
➢ Surface friction
➢ Friability under impact
➢ Electrostatic properties
➢ Color differences
Equipment used for cleaning

Magnetic Separator
❑ The wheat first passes by a magnet that removes iron and steel particles
Separator

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ Vibrating screens remove bits of wood and straw and almost anything too big and too small
to be wheat
Aspirator
❑ Air currents act as a kind of vacuum to remove dust and lighter impurities
De-Stoner
❑ Using gravity, the machine separates the heavy material from the light to remove stones
that may be the same size as wheat kernels
Entoleter
❑ Revolves at 800 rpm
❑ Break infested grains and eggs of insects
Disc Separator
❑ The wheat passes through a separator that identifies the size of the kernels even more
closely
❑ It rejects anything longer, shorter, more round
Scourer
❑ The scourer removes outer husks, crease dirt and any smaller impurities with an intense
scouring action
❑ Currents of air pull all the loosened material away.
Color sorter
❑ Color sorting of seeds is common practice in rice milling industry
❑ Seeds are separated from the bulk of grains based on differences in their color
❑ Electronic sensors are used for this purpose
Electric field
❑ Separation is achieved by charging particles and placing them in to an electric field
❑ Electrostatic forces cause mechanical movement which used for separation process.
Tempering and Conditioning
Tempering
❑ Addition of water to optimum level and allow the grain to stand for some time to equilibrate
moisture contents
Objectives
➢ To toughen the bran
➢ To soften the endosperm
➢ There are different requirements for optimum water contents and duration
➢ Harder wheat requires more water and time for tempering
➢ Softer wheat requires less water and time for tempering
➢ Hard wheat grains are tempered to moisture content of 13.5% for 16-20hrs
➢ In case of soft wheat, the optimum moisture is 15% and time is 8 hrs.
➢ How to calculate quantity of water
➢ water req.= 100- original moisture - 1
➢ 100- desired moisture
➢

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

Conditioning
❑ Tempering in conjunction with heat treatment
❑ Commonly used by millers
➢ to increase the rate of water penetration wheat
➢ To modify wheat physiochemical characteristics
Heat conditioning
❑ During conditioning wet wheat is heated by direct application of steam or through
radiators at< 55oC
❑ Then wheat is dried to milling moisture.
Vacuum conditioning
❑ Grain is conditioned at 35oc
❑ Then temperature is reduced to 25oc within vacuum treatment stages
❑ The pericarp is not dried out, as with conditioners heated by direct application of steam or
through radiators
❑ System is independent of climate
❑ Milling stock characteristics can be easily adjusted to quick changes in temperature and
humidity.
Roller Milling
❑ Gradual reduction system comprising of break roll and reduction roll systems
❑ A pair of rolls accomplishes milling
❑ The pair of rolls rotates in opposite direction
❑ Difference in speed of rolls is called differential
❑ Fast roll rotates 2.5 times faster than the slower
❑ The point at which these rolls approach each other is known as nip
❑ Shearing and crushing of grain take place at this point
Break roll system
❑ 4-5 pairs of rolls
❑ Surfaces of rolls are corrugated
❑ After passing through pair of rolls the grain goes through sifter
❑ If it is moving back and forth it is known as simple sifter and if moving in plenary motion,
then plane sifter.
❑ Size of sieve decreases from top to bottom
❑ Different actions taking place in break roll system
❑ Sharp to sharp
❑ Dull to dull
❑ Sharp to dull
❑ Dull to sharp
❑ Corrugations are 10-12 inches in first roll and 28-32 in last roll
❑ Slow speed roll hold the material and fast speed roll scrap the material
❑ Sifter comprises of 12 sieves of different sizes
❑ Top is coarser and lower is finer
Overs
❑ Material which remain at top of sieve

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 Thrus
❑ Material which passes through sieve
❑ Sometime material is also sent to purifier.
Reduction roll system
❑ 8-16 pairs of rolls
❑ Differential is 1.5:1
❑ After passing through each pair of roll, material passes through sifter and purifier
❑ Different fractions obtained in reduction system.

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan
Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan
 Farina
❑ From common wheat
Semolina
From durum wheat
Straight grade flour

❑ Stream of ground flour obtained from all rolls

❑ 72% of total product
❑ Permissible amount of ash in flour is0.4%
❑ It is difficult to sift soft wheat flour because smaller particles interact with each other and
form aggregates
Short patent flour
❑ 45% flour of total product
❑ Contain less bran and less fines.
❑ Long patent flour
❑ 65% flour of total product
❑ Cut off flour
❑ 20% flour between short patent and long patent flour
❑ Air classification of flour
❑ Flour is separated on basis of particle size

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ 1-17um higher protein than parent flour
❑ 17-35um equal to parent flour
❑ >35um lower than parent flour
Flour Treatment
❑ Flour is treated for
➢ Bleaching
➢ Improving functional properties
❑ Benzyl peroxide, acetone peroxide and chlorine dioxide are used in bleaching
❑ Bleaching is done to destroy carotenoids in flour
❑ Cake flour is mandatory treated with chlorine gas but this flour is not used for bread
making.
❑ Natural bleaching takes place when flour is exposed to air
❑ The function oxidizing, maturing and enrichment is to improve the strength of gluten
❑ These processes decrease S-H bonds and increase S-S or double sulfur bonds
❑ ADA (Azodicarbon amide) is common maturing agent.
❑ Vitamin C acts both oxidizing and bleaching agent
❑ Acetone peroxide and chlorine act as bleaching and maturing agents.

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan
Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan
Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan
Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan
Corn
❑ Botanically known as Zea mays
❑ Maize is known as corn in U.S.A
❑ It is used for animal feeding, for human consumption and for manufacture of starch, syrup
and sugar
Nutritive value
• Lower nutritive value than that of wheat
• Deficient in niacin and has relatively low content of protein which is deficient in lysine and
tryptophan
• Pellagra is prevalent among some people who rely upon maize for a large proportion of
their daily food
• It contains niacin but 50-80% of it occurs in bound form as niacytin.
• The content of vitamins in maize flour
• Thiamine 0.23-0.39mg/100mg
• Riboflavin 0.08-0.15
• Niacin 0.90-1.92
• In order to make maize products satisfactory as the main item of diet, the addition of lysine,
tryptophan, vitamin B1, niacin and riboflavin would be desirable
Milling
❑ Milled by dry or wet processes
❑ First objective in both processes is separation of germ from the remainder grain in order to
extract and recover oil
❑ After degermination, the dry milling employs roller mills and plan- sifter, whereas wet
milling involves a steeping stage to recover starch and protein as separate products from
endosperm.
Wet Milling Process Steps of Corn
1. Corn 12. Germ
2. Cleaned 13. Corn bran
3. Steeping 14. Starch & Protein
4. Steep water 15. meal
5. Wet corn 16. Ethanol
6. Germ 17. Corn
7. Grind 18. Corn gluten
8. Degerm 19. sweeteners
9. Condensed 20. meal
10. Wash 21. Corn gluten feed
11. Oil

Wet milling process of Corn

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

Drying
❑ Carried out for safe storage of grain
❑ Temperature should not exceed 130oF
❑ If temperature is above 130oF, the germ becomes rubbery and tends to sink in the ground
maize slurry
❑ The process of germ separation depends on the floating of germ.
Steeping
❑ Purpose of steeping is
➢ To soften the kernel and assist separation of the hull, germ and fiber from each
other
➢ To disrupt –SS- bonds in the protein matrix, facilitating starch/protein seperation
❑ Cleaned maize is steeped for about 48 h in warm water containing 0.02-0.03% sulphur
dioxide
❑ Optimum temperature is 50oC.
❑ Carried out in a number of wooden steps through which steep water is pumped counter-
current
❑ Moisture content of grain increases rapidly to 35-40% and more slowly to 43-45%
❑ During steeping about 6% of corn is dissolved in water
❑ It is drained, dried and used as animal feed
Degerming
❑ After steeping, steep water is drained off and maize coarsely ground in degerminating mills
❑ The objective is to free the germ from remainder of grain without breaking or crushing
germ
❑ Fuss mill is used for this purpose
❑ It contains a bronze-lined chamber housing two upright metal plates studded with metal
teeth
❑ One plate rotates at 900 rpm and other is stationary
❑ Water and maize are fed in to machine which cracks open the grain and releases the germ
❑ By addition of starch-water suspension, the density of ground material is adjusted to 8-
10Be which causes the germ to float while grits and hulls sink.
Germ separation
❑ Ground material flows down separating troughs in which hulls and grits settle, while the
germ overflows
❑ Germ is washed and freed of starch on reels, de-watered in squeeze presses and dried on
rotary steam driers
❑ The germ is cooked by steam and oil is extracted by hydraulic presses or by solvent
❑ Extracted germ cake is used for cattle feed
❑ The degerminated underflow from germ separator is strained off from the liquor and finely
ground on stone mills
❑ After this the starch and protein of endosperm are in finely divided state and remain in
suspension
❑ The hulls and fiber can then be separated from the protein and starch by sieving.
Separation of starch from protein

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

 ❑ In raw grain, the starch is embedded in a protein network which swells during steeping and
tends to form tiny globules of hydrated protein
❑ Dispersion of protein, which frees the starch, is accelerated by sulphur dioxide
❑ The suspension of starch and protein from the wet screening is adjusted to a density of 6Be
by de-watering over string filters and starch separated from the protein in continuous
centrifuges.
❑ Finally, the starch is filtered and dried
❑ Moisture content is reduced to 10-12% by kiln drying and further reduced by vacuum
drying to 5-7%
❑ The protein in the steep water is recovered by vacuum evaporation and dried as gluten feed
❑ The water recovered is re-used as steep water

Corn Wet Milling

The corn wet-milling is a process of breaking corn kernels into their component parts: corn
oil, protein, corn starch, and fiber. It uses water and a series of steps to separate the parts to be used
for various products.
The corn wet-milling industry has been a primary component of American manufacturing for more
than 150 years. Corn refiners established the process of separating corn kernels into their
component parts to produce a variety of value-added products. The four main component such as
oil, protein, starch, and fiber are the primary product from the corn wet-milling process. The
Associated Manufacturers of Products from Corn was formed in 1913 when the group of corn
refining companies’ industry successfully grew.
Corn wet-milling is a process where components of corn kernels are extracted to produce a highly
purified product. Most of the products from this process are valuable and mainly required by the
food industry. Through this process, every part of the corn is useful to produce the quality
ingredients. The characteristics of this process are based on physical separation of components,
mostly by weight and size. Water is needed as it is a wet process and it works as separation/carrier
agents in washing steps. Therefore, this process can be considered as having high capital cost. The
only chemical use in this process is aqueous sulfur dioxide solution, which is used in the steeping
process. The corn is soaked in this solution to soften the kernel so that the oil in the germ will not
contaminate other products and is easy to separate.

Process steps
Cleaning
As per the standards of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Grade 2[further explanation needed]
corn is usually used for wet-milling. Harvested corn has to be cleaned before it is milled. Dockage
tester with appropriate sieve number is used to removes particles other than the required grain like
cob pieces, foreign seeds, metal pieces, leaves, dirt and the percentage of dockage contained can
be calculated. The cleaned corn is then analyzed for its composition using NIR spectrometer (Near
Infrared (NIR) Spectroscopy. The compositional analysis of Yellow dent corn carried out at the
Center for Crops Utilization Research, Iowa State University, is recorded in the table below.
Steeping

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

Steeping is the soaking in liquid (usually water) of a solid so as to extract flavors or to soften it.
In this process, the corn is hydrated in order to loosen starch granules from the protein matrix and
to make germ resilient to milling. This process reduces the germ density and softens the kernel
making the milling easy. Chemicals like sulphur dioxide and lactic acid are added to the water too.
Lactic acid breaks down the endosperm protein matrix and helps in better separation of starch. It
also lowers pH preventing growth of microbes. SO2 reacts with the disulphide bonds and weaken
matrix allowing starch granules to separate out cleanly. It also serves as an anti-microbial. At the
end of steeping, the protein matrix is weakened, endosperm proteins are solubilized and some
soluble solids diffuse out into the steep water. The clean corn is steeped in large tanks with water
at 125-130˚F containing Lactic acid and SO2 for nearly 40 hours. The steepwater is then drained
using appropriate sized mesh screen and concentrated using multiple effect evaporators. Use of
concentrated Steep water: This extract is protein rich and can be used as nutrient media for
fermentation to produce enzymes or antibodies. It is also used in animal feed.
Germ recovery
As the process step suggests, in this step the germ is separated from the other parts of the corn.
Recovering germ as intact as possible is necessary to prevent any oil contamination in the final
products. Attrition mills like Disk mill is used to coarse grind the softened corn kernels. The
grinding is slow and the elements used to grind are blunt to ensure intact removal of germ. Water
is added to the ground material to make a thick slurry of macerated kernels and whole germ. 40-
50% of crude oil in germ makes it less dense than other particles and as a result germ floats in the
mixture. The mixture is then passed through germ hydrocyclones with an over and underflow.
Overflow will be composed majorly of germ and water and underflow will have fiber, starch,
protein and water. The overflow is passed through the hydroclone multiple times since 100%
separation cannot be achieved in single pass. The separated germ is cleaned, dried and passed
through germ press to extract oil from it. Solvent extraction can also be used alternatively. The
solid particles remaining after oil extraction is called germ meal which is further dried. Use of
germ meal: It is a good source of amino acids and is carrier of micro-ingredients in animal food
formulations. Use of corn oil: The refined corn oil can be used as salad oil and cooking oil. It is
also used to prepare corn oil margarines.
Fiber recovery
The underflow from the hydroclone consisting of fiber, protein and starch is finely ground and
screened using multiple grind mills and pressure fed screens. Screens are used to separate the fiber
from the mixture. Various screen sizes are used to remove coarse and fine fibers. A wedge bar or
profile bar screen is used. Starch and protein passes through the screen and collected whereas the
fibers remain on the screen and it is called corn gluten feed. The principle of separation is
difference in size. The corn gluten feed has approximately 21% protein, 1% fat and 10% fiber and
15% starch. Use of Gluten Feed: Since it is high in water-soluble nutrients, it is used as one of the
main ingredients in animal feed. It can also be used to produce refined corn fiber to be used for
human consumption.
Gluten recovery
The slurry containing just the protein (gluten) and starch is called millstarch. Water is removed
from the millstarch in a thickener before moving it into a separator. Centrifugal forces are applied
to separate starch and gluten which differ in density. The heavier starch slurry is then washed

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

multiple times in hydrocyclones with fresh water. The starch stream typically has 90% starch and
the gluten stream consists of 60% protein. The lighter gluten, separated out from the top, is
thickened and the heavy gluten is further sent for dewatering into vacuum rotary filter. This corn
gluten meal consist of approximately 60% protein, 1% fat and 3% fiber. The process water from
both the processes are either added to steepwater or removed. Use of Gluten Meal: Since it has
around 60% protein, it is used as Animal feed and zein products.
Starch processing
Starch goes through multiple stage washing using hydrocyclones. The supernatant are separated
at each washing stage. The water from each stage is recycled to the previous hydrocyclones to
ensure maximum amount of starch is separated. A very high purity of starch (>99.5% db) can be
recovered by wet-milling. Purity is important when the end product is high fructose corn syrup or
when we need to modify starch (using chemicals or enzymes) but it is not important during ethanol
production. After centrifugation and washing, the starch is dried.
Decibel (dB), unit for expressing the ratio between two physical quantities, usually amounts of
acoustic or electric power, or for measuring the relative loudness of sounds. One decibel (0.1 bel)
equals 10 times the common logarithm of the power ratio.
Co-product manufacture
Co-products account for 34% of wet-milled yield. In fact, 23% of corn that is processed has very
low or no value. The fiber, concentrated steepwater and germ meal are mixed to produce corn
gluten feed. As mentioned before, corn gluten meal is also used as animal feed. Although both
have ‘gluten’ in the name, no gluten protein is present in them – there is none in corn on whole.
A typical solid yield (on db) data for yellow dent corn is shown in the table below.
Fraction Yield on dry basis (in %)
Starch 58-68
Gluten Meal 5.8-15.4
Fiber (coarse+fine) 8.8-19.2
Germ 5.2-10.5
Steepwater solubles 5.1-7.5
Total solids recovery 97.3-99.9

Primary products
The wet-milling process will have five major products: steep water solids, germ, fiber, starch, and
gluten. However, the co-product from this process will produce corn oil, corn gluten meal, corn
germ meal, corn gluten and feed steep water. The average of one bushel of corn generally will
have about 32 lb of starch or 33 lb sweeteners or 2.5 gallons of fuel ethanol and 11.4lb gluten feed
and 3 lb gluten meal and 1.6lb corn oil.
The libra (Latin for "scales / balance") is an ancient Roman unit of mass that was equivalent to
approximately 328.9 grams. It was divided into 12 unciae (singular: uncia), or ounces. The libra is
the origin of the abbreviation for pound, "lb".

Research in the field of corn wet-milling

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

Even though corn wet-milling has been used for years to produce food products, animal feed and
fuel, research in this field is still going on to make the process more and more efficient. Studies
have shown that the steeping time can be decreased from 40 hours to 6–8 hours if enzymes like
protease are added and the milling is modified to a two-stage procedure. This even eliminates the
need of sulphur dioxide. The yield were found to be equivalent to the conventional process. In a
similar study, it was shown that adding phytic acid degrading enzyme reduced the steeping time.
Phytic acid is present in the corn which largely ends up in corn steep liquor. Adding phytic acid
degrading enzymes along with cellulose can decrease the steeping time. Effect of drying was tested
on the final yield of corn wet-milling and it was found that decreasing the initial moisture content
of corn and increasing the drying air temperature decreased the yield. This is because low water
content made protein and starch separation difficult.
Maize and Corn Procducts
Baby, Blue, Dent, Field Flint Flour, MON 810,
MON 863, Quality Protein Maize, Shoepeg,
Varieties Sweet, Genetically modified maize, Waxy,
Bolivia varieties, Ecuador varieties, Italian
varieties, Sweetcorn varieties
• Cob, Kernel, Stover
Parts
Amylomaize, Corn construction, Maize
Processing milling, Nixtamalization, Wet-milling,
Popcorn maker
Pathology BBCH-scale Corn allergy Maize streak virus
Raw materials; Cornmeal Masa Mielie-meal
Oil Samp Starch Steep liquor Syrup
Beverages; Atole, Bourbon, Champurrado,
Chicha, Colada morada, Pinolillo, Pozol,
Tejate, Tejuino, Tesgüino
Dishes; Arepa, Bread, Conkies, Cookie, Corn
Corn Products
flakes, Corn on the cob Cou-cou, Fufu, Grits,
List of maize dishes, Mazamorra, Popcorn
Pudding corn,
Corn Syrup
Glucose syrup, High-fructose corn syrup
(Public relations) High-maltose corn syrup

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan

Dr. Adnan Amjad, IFSN-BZU, Multan