KILOMBERO AGRICULTURE TRAINING AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE

KATRIN

PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATION

GST 05107

CAP II

MODULE TUTOR: MR MUSA MASOLWA DOMINICO

2020/2021

Contact: 0762224169
SUB - ENABLING OUTCOMES
3.1.1 Describe teaching aids for technology dissemination
3.1.2 Describe methods for individual dissemination of crop and livestock
technologies
3.1.3 Describe methods for group dissemination of crop and livestock
technologies
3.1.4 Describe methods for mass dissemination of crop and livestock technologies
3.1.5 Describe evolving methods for dissemination of crop and livestock
technologies
3.2.1 Describe approaches of technology dissemination;
3.2.2 Apply participatory approaches for dissemination of technologies
3.2.3 Describe the adoption process of crop technologies
3.3.1 Explain the importance of communication skills
3.3.2 Explain types of communication
3.3.3 Explain factors influencing effective communication
3.3.4 Assess impact of HIV /AIDS on dissemination of agriculture technology
3.3.5 Describe aspects of group dynamics.
 CHAPTER ONE
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS OF EXTENSION METHODOLOGIES FOR
DISSEMINATION OF CROP TECHNOLOGIES
Definition of terms
a Dissemination: Is a process of transferring information/technology from research center
to farmers and from farmers to research centers.
b Dissemination agent: Is a person who spreads information to the farmers sometimes is
called extension agent or change agent or extension worker.
c Technology: Is the combination of management practices/techniques used for
producing/keeping/storing a given crops, livestock and their products.

Roles of Extension agent

a. Extension worker is a person whose primary role is to achieve a transformation of attitude,

behaviour and social organization.
b. Change agents are multipurpose agents serving as links between government and people.
c. A change agent is a person who sets in motion a process of change after realizing that
certain changes are necessary for the rural society.
d. He/she is an activist whose main role is to help people form their own organizations in
order to be able to tackle their problems
e. He is a professional who influences the innovation/decision-making process in a direction
deemed desirable by the change agency.
Various teaching aids when disseminating technology
a. Chalkboard
b. Flip chart
c. Flannel board,
d. Leaflet,
e. Poster,
f. Camera,
g. Radio,
h. TV,
i. Books,
j. Newspaper
k. Periodical reports.
 METHODS OF AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATION
To disseminate technology to farmers there are three major methods
a. Individual methods
b. Group methods
c. Mass methods
Classification of methods
Individual Group methods/contact Mass methods/contact
methods/contact

-Farm and home visit - Method demonstration - Printed materials

- Results demonstration

-Telephone calls -Group discussion -Radio programmes

-Personal letters - All types of meetings -TV programmes

-Training courses -Exhibition

-Office calls/visits -Tours -Film shows

Person letter -Campaigns

-Circular letters

-e-mails

-Internet
 INDIVIDUAL METHODS
a. This is a method which provides direct contact by the extension worker with an individual
(farm man, farm woman, youth, etc.) or the members of his family for a specific purpose.
b. Extension worker/agent meets farmer at home, farm, office or through informal contact
etc.
Advantages of individual method
a. Provides opportunities of making friends and gaining the confidence of the farmer
b. Helps extension to discover local leaders of public opinion or progressive farmers
c. Helps extension worker to gain insight to the lives and outlook of the farming community
Disadvantages of individual method
a. Costs are high in terms of staffs, time and travel
b. When there are few extension agents it becomes ineffective
c. The method is based on high level of trust between farmers and extension agent.
Individual dissemination method is grouped in to the following:-
a. Farm visit
b. Home visit
c. Telephone call
d. Personal letter
e. Informal contact
1.1 Farm and home visits
a. Are face to face type of individual contact by the extension worker with the farmer and
/or members of the family at his farm or home for one or more specific purposes
connected with extension.
Points to be considered while adopting this method
a. The visit should be made with a definite purpose
b. Be punctual
c. Save time – by proper planning
d. Remote farms and home should be given first preference
e. This method should be used to reinforce other methods when other methods
alone cannot be adopted
Procedures to follow when planning and conducting home and farm visit
Before visit
a. Obtain or prepare a community map which show where each family lives and works. This
map will assist in planning area to visits also enables extension worker to plan the visit
efficiently in terms of time and mileage (kms).
b. Preparation and review of the visitation records: A visitation records should be maintained;
it should contain the date each client /farmer was visited and notes describing the purpose
and activity of the visit. When planning the follow-up visit to a client the visitation record
should be reviewed to refresh the memory.
c. Maintaining the activity calendar: - Extension worker should always plan in advance.
d. Maintain a list of activities and objectives on a calendar which can be carried Plan for
transportation:- the visit can be by bicycle, walk or motor cycle
e. Plan for visiting period:- select visit when farmer is not so busy
AN EXAMPLE OF THE CALENDAR OF ACTIVITIES (RICE CULTIVATION)
Activities/month
s January February March April May June July

Farmer selection

Farmer training

Nursery establishment

Field preparation

D
A
Transplanting P

Weeding

Urea application

Farm surveys

Harvest

Follow up
 During the visit
a. Great the farmers and members of the farm family upon entering the farm or home and
accept hospitality offered according to local customs. Spend some time talking with the
clients
b. Identify the topic of interest of the farmer
c. Observe the conditions and activities of the farm operation.
d. In order to start discussion, begin the conversation with a question put in such a way
that it cannot be answered by merely saying `yes` or `no`
e. Discuss with farmer the observations, be tactful in criticizing something or when
suggestion changes. When offering solutions discuss what should be done and how the
changes should be carried out
f. Allow the farmer to do more of talking, do not interrupt him/her in the middle
g. The extension agent should speak when the farmer is willing to hear and talk according
to the interest of the farmer. Use the language of the farmers` family and common terms
with cheerful nature.
h. Leave the farm or home with genuine friendliness and appreciation
i. If additional information is needed suggest a return visit
After the visit
a. Immediately after the visit, record the date of visit, purpose of visit, problems noted for
follow-up action. Make notes in the visitation record and record location on map
b. Prepare any additional information promised to the client. It is necessary to fulfill such
promises so as to build and maintain trust.
c. Respect the clients privacy and do not discuss the family`s business with others.
 Advantages of farm and
home vist
a. Extension agent can provides information and assistant on time
b. Extension agent can visit different homes and farm
c. It establish contact with women and men farmers and other members of the
farmhouse hold.
d. Extension agent learn what practices and problems exist in the farm
e. Extension worker gets first- hand information on rural problems
f. Those farmers who could not be contacted by other methods can be contacted by this
method
g. Percentage of adoption is high
Disadvantages
a. Costly in terms of money for extension agent to visit many different homes and farms
b. The number of client contacted per day will be few
c. It consumes most of extension worker`s time and energy
d. Neighbour and friends to the farmers will blame the extension worker of favoritism,
if they are not visited
e. Tendency to visit the same farm again and again may be created
1.2 Office calls
 This method concerned with personal visit made by the client/farmer to the
extension office to seek information and assistance.
To encourage office visit extension worker should do the following:-
a. Place the extension office in a convenient location
b. Keep regular office hours for farmers to know the time extension worker will be
available
c. Provide visitors record book as farmers may register their visit and inquiry when
extension worker is out
d. Maintain an up-to-date bulletin board and have information material readily
available
e. Make a special effort to put the visitor at ease especially if the individual appears to
be shy in the unfamiliar environment
f. Keep the office neat, orderly and attractive which encourage both workers and visitor.
 Advantages of office calls
a. This method save time, costs and energy of extension agent
b. Extension agent is confident that the farmer is in his office and respect for his ability
c. It reinforces other methods
Disadvantages
a. Sometimes individuals may appear to be shy due to unfamiliar environment
b. Farmer lack confident
c. It is not possible to get detailed first-hand knowledge of the farmer`s problems
and activities
d. Waiting for visitors who are not turning up is waste of time
1.3 Telephone calls
a. It is a contact between the extension worker and farmer over the telephone for one or
specific purposes connected with extension.
b. Telephone calls serve purposes similar to office call although face to face contact is
missing.
c. Normally this is initiated by farmers in order to solve his /her problems quickly example
need advice for treatment a certain diseases to his/her livestock, control invention of
pest, request for bulletin or circulars.
Advantages of telephone calls
a. It saves time and cost of travelling
b. It is quick method
Disadvantages
a. Most farmers live in rural areas where telephone network is not available
b. Some farmers cannot afford to buy telephone
c. Extension worker cannot see the farmer`s face and his farm (lack first hand information)
 1.4 Informal contact
 Informal contact occurs continuously all over the period when extension worker meet
people in a street and ask questions or in a market days, holidays, celebration or
religious event, these events will bring in to contact with farmers by asking questions,
eventually farmers talk about their problems.
Advantages of informal contact
a. Atmosphere of meeting is very informal and relaxed, farmer become very free.
b. Less costful as it occurs by chance.
Disadvantages
a. Extension agent can give incorrect information
b. The method is based on high level of trust between farmer and extension agent

2.0 GROUP METHOD

a. A group is a body of individuals drawn together around a common interest.
b. This takes place when an extension agent meets people in groups.
c. Group methods are more frequently used in extension work than individual methods.
This is not surprising because by utilizing group techniques an extension worker can
reach more people than individual method.
There are many approaches of group dissemination methods some of them
are:-
a. Meeting
b. Group discussion
c. Result demonstration
d. Method demonstration
e. Contact tour/field trip
f. Seminars
2.1 Demonstrations
 To demonstrate is to show how a certain technology works, in agriculture
demonstration is divided in to two groups
 Method demonstration
 Result demonstration
 2.1.1 Method Demonstration

a. Extension worker shows a group how something is done step by step for the purpose of
teaching new technique and practices to farmers/clients.
b. For example method demonstration can show how to use a tool, how to use a new
planting technique to prevent erosion or how to apply pesticides.
c. The main purpose of method demonstration is to teach a certain skill to a group.
Steps to follow in conducting method demonstration
a. Decide exactly what you want to accomplish with demonstration (objectives)
b. Gather all information you can find about the practice then familiarize yourself
with the practice
c. Talk over the problem with a few village leaders ask them to help plan the
demonstration
d. Gather all materials you will need, this includes everything the farmer will need in
order to apply the practice
e. Plan your presentation step by step, including introduction and summary at the end
f. Whenever possible rehearse the presentation two or three times
g. When people are gathered to watch the demonstration explain: What you
are going to do
h. Why it is important for them to learn the new practices
i. Ask a person from the audience to help you with different task (ifnecessary)
j. Go through demonstration explain step by step, pause to answer questions from the
audience and repeat difficult steps
k. Check the effectiveness of your instructions by allowing members of audiences to
repeat some or all steps
l. Summarize the importance of the practices, steps applied and equipment needed,
distribute illustrated folders or other literatures show the procedures step by step
Advantages
a. It is very effective in teaching new skill
b. It stimulate action
c. Builds confidence
d. It introduce a change of practice at a low cost
Disadvantages
a. Suited only to skill involving technologies
b. Transporting the materials and equipment’s to the demonstration plot is difficult
c. It causes a setback if the programme is improperly coordinated
2.1.2 Result demonstration
a. Result demonstration is used to teach a result of doing something in an improved way,
example the effect of using fertilizer to crops; it teaches why new practice or input
should be adopted.
b. The purpose of using the result demonstration is to prove that the new practice is
superior to the one currently being used.
c. An example of result demonstration is to compare two wheat crops, one with an
application of fertilizer and other without. Two plots would be held out in the field side-
by- side:
 In the first plot wheat would be planted using the local seeds and local cultivation
practices no fertilizer would be used
 In the second plot would be also planted subjected to same practices and conditions but
fertilizer would be added
 Both crops would be harvested at the same time.
 If all go well the fertilized plot will produce a greater yield than unfertilized plot
Steps to follow in a result demonstration
a. Decide exactly what you want to accomplish with demonstration (objectives)
b. Gather all information you can find about the practice then familiarize yourself with
the practice
c. Talk over the problem with a few village leaders ask them to help plan the
demonstration
d. Gather all materials you will need, this includes everything the farmer will need in order
to apply the practice
e. Develop a complete plan of work, showing each required step and indicating who
will do what
f. Whenever possible rehearse the presentation two or three times
g. Select demonstration sites which are centrally located and near a road so people can
get there easily
h. Ask village leaders to encourage villagers to be present in the start of the demonstration
i. When people are gathered to watch the demonstration explain: What you are
going to do
j. Why it is important for them to learn the new practices
k. Ask a person from the audience to help you with different task
l. Go through demonstration explain step by step, pause to answer questions from the
audience and repeat difficult steps
m. Check the effectiveness of your instructions by allowing members of audiences
to repeat some or all steps
n. Summarize the importance of the practices, steps applied and equipment needed,
distribute illustrated folders or other literatures show the procedures step by step.
o. Visit the demonstration plots often and call meetings and tours there as the
demonstration progress
p. Keep records and compare the results with local practices
q. Refer this demonstration in meeting as well as writing about it in
newspapers, magazine and radio
r. Plan for follow-up if necessary
Advantages of result demonstration
a. It is an effective method for introducing an innovation
b. High percentage of people will understand
c. Appeals for eyes
d. Provide a good source of information for meeting, news, pictures, radio talks etc.
Disadvantages of result demonstration
a. It takes long time to mature
b. It is costful in use of extension resources

2.2 Group discussion:

a. Is a method by which two or more persons meet, express orconvey their ideas clarity
and bring about a solution to the commonly felt problems by their own efforts OR Is a
meeting or conversation between two or more people discussing a topic of mutual
concern
b. Members of the group normally share a common background
c. This method is used for various discussion in different societies e.g. political discussion,
extension services in community
d. Group discussion is usually in group of 5-20 members

How to conduct a group discussion

a. The extension worker or village leader should locate and identify the individuals
interested in a particular problem through individual contact and invite them informally
to meet for informal group discussion
b. The time, date, place and the topic should be informed to the people concerned well
in advance
c. The seating arrangements should be in a circular or semicircular or semi-circular
fashion, so that the speaker faces the audience.
d. The extension worker should receive the member with a welcoming smile and see that
they are comfortably seated.
e. The extension worker should lead the discussion or choose any member who is
capable to lead the discussion
f. The atmosphere of the meeting should be kept friendly and informal
g. The group leader should be elected democratically
h. Extension worker should not dominate the discussion
i. The extension worker should encourage all the persons of the group to express their
suggestions, because the objective of group discussion is to get maximum participation
by the members present
j. The discussion should promote recognition of problem by the group and also create the
desire for a solution
k. The extension worker should not give the impression that his solution is the best and
should not condemn the existing and suggested practices.
l. At the end of group discussion, make the summary of the problems; solution arrived at
by the members through discussion and the actions that are to be taken should be
given.
m. Appreciate the members for their valuable contribution.
n. Undertake a systematic follow-up
Advantages of group discussion:
a. Farmers discuss more aspects more than that extension agent does on his/her
own
b. Language used is familiar to the participants It stimulates participants own
activities
c. Increase knowledge by assisting the transfer of knowledge from expert to the group
d. Attitude change by:
 Creating awareness of problem
 Concrete formulation of problems- group discussion helps to clarify the problem in more
detailed
 Change norms- the norms can change if the group itself realizes that the norm need to
be changed
 Behaviour change: group discussion is important tool in behavioral change.
 Disadvantages of group discussion
a. The transfer of information takes more time
b. There is a danger of some participants to dominate discussion
c. Socio-emotional climates has a greater influence in group discussion
d. Group discussion need a capable extension agents who can handle unexpected
problem
2.3. Meetings:
 Meeting is the coming together of people to discuss certain information, problems and
introduce new ideas. Meetings are one of the oldest and the most important group
method of extension teaching.
Types of meetings
a. There are about five types of meetings involved in extension work
b. Organizational meetings (board of directors`, youth clubs, etc.)
c. Planning meetings (village planning meeting)
d. Training meetings (rural leaders` training)
e. Special interest meetings (special meeting about dairying)
f. Community meeting
Classification of meetings
a. General meetings,
b. Lecture,
c. Group discussion,
d. Debate,
e. Panel,
f. Forum,
g. Buzz sessions,
h. Workshop,
i. Seminar,
j. Conference,
k. Institute
l. Syndicate studies
m. Brain storming
2.3.1 General meetings
a. Is broadly a meeting of heterogeneous participants wherein certain information is passed
on for consideration and future action.
b. This is employed effectively to reach and serve large numbers to prepare the people for
other methods of extension work; to find the reaction of the people to certain activities.
c. Village meetings should be planned well in advance and involve local leaders. These
meetings can leads to the formation of various groups such as farmers groups, women
cooperatives, youth clubs etc.
 Some general guidelines on planning and conducting the meeting are as
follows
a. Purpose: Initial stage is to identify the purpose of the meeting. Extension worker should
review all the information that he or she has at hand about the subject
b. Type: Choose type of meeting to best accomplish the purpose
c. Plan: Once purpose and type of meeting have been established planning for meeting can
begin such as date, time, place, speaker, publicity, number expected to attend the
desired set up (number of chairs, tables, visual slides etc.) and how the meeting shall be
conducted
d. Publicity: publicize the meeting in advance including the subject of the meeting, where
the meeting will be conducted, when it will be conducted, why it is being held and the
name of a speaker (if appropriate)
e. Holding the meeting: In holding the meeting bears in mind the following facts
 Subject should be of interest to the audience Start a meeting with challenges
 Present the idea in a logical sequence with ample opportunity for questions and answers
 Use visual aids whenever possible
 After general discussion a summary and conclusion should be drawn
 Advantages
a. Large number of people can be reached
b. serves as a preparatory stage for other methods
c. Group psychology can be used in promoting the programme Adoption of
practices can be accomplished at low cost
Limitations
a. Meeting place and facilities are not always adequate
b. Scope of discussion is possibly for few questions and answers
c. Handling topic becomes difficult because of mixed composition of audience
d. Circumstances beyond control like factions and weather might reduce the attendance
2.4 Tours/Field Trips
a. Tour or field trip take place when a group travel to another location to observe
agricultural practices, project or demonstrations which are not available in their locality.
b. A field trip destination may be agriculture experimental station/research farms,
demonstration plots, farms of progressive farms, community organizations such as
women marketing cooperation etc.
Purpose of tour
a. To stimulate interest, conviction and action in respect of a specific purpose
b. To impress the group about the feasibility and utility of a series of related practices
c. To induce a spirit of healthy competition.
d. To help people to recognize problems, to develop interest, to generate discussions and to
promote action.
e. To see the result of new practice, operation of new tools and implements ofother villages,
college, farms etc.
 Planning the field trip
a. Identify the objective of a trip
b. Set adequate time to plan a trip because a trip involves many things to plan e.g. people,
transportation, time etc.
c. Contact site operator to obtain permission to visit
d. Secure transportation- what kind of transport is required for the trip
e. Draw up a tentative timetable work with local leaders
f. Finalize a detailed schedule and assign tasks
g. Coordinate with the host to be clear that one understand the time of arrival, the number
of visitors, the purpose of the trip and their own role
h. During the trip keep the group moving to maintain interest and keep to the time table
also arrange for food and drinks during a trip
i. Conclude a trip with short summary of the main event and note the comments on
conclusion
Advantages of field trip/tour
a. It provides first hand observation of practice.
b. It enables the group to interact with knowledgeable individuals about the practice
c. It presents fresh and different learning environment for both extension worker and the
clients
d. Adoption percentage is high
e. It develops better personal relationship between the participants and extension worker
Disadvantages
a. It is difficult to plan because it involves many things such as time, transport, and other
number of preparations
b. It is most expensive method
c. It is difficult to fix up season and time suitable for all
 3.0. Mass method
a. Mass method is design to reach large number of people quickly.
b. Individual and group methods, cannot reach everyone who wants and needs information.
c. Mass method involves different media which make the dissemination process to be
effective.
Types of mass method /media
There are many types mass method/media however can be classified into three major
groups
a. Audio mass media example radio, radio tapes/cassettes and audio C.D
b. Audio-visual, moving picture and sound example television and cinema
c. Visual media (printed media) example newspapers, magazine, poster,leaflets articles,
displays etc. (projected media) example motion pictures, slides, film strips and overhead
transparencies.

3.1 Audio media

The most common audio media is radio and audio cassette or audio C.D
Radio: Is the most useful for mass communication tool for extension workerdue to the
following reasons
a. It offer immediacy
b. It permits the listeners to take their radio wherever they go
c. Radio program can be changed quickly to meet the new conditions
d. Is the best media for spreading awareness of new ideas to largenumber of people and
can be used to publicize extension activities
Limitations of radio use in extension work are as follows:
a. In most parts of rural areas there are no electricity for radio operation also batteries in
rural areas are very expensive to obtain
b. In rural areas there are few repair facilities
c. For listener point of view radio is an inflexible medium, program is transmitted in a
specific time of a day, if farmer does not switch on the radio at that time there is no
further opportunity to hear it
d. There is no record of message, farmer cannot stop the program and go back to the point
that was not heard clearly
 Radio talk:
It is one of quickest way of communicating technical information and innovations to the
farmers. Method of preparation: - There are five important steps involved in preparation
of radio talk
a. Selection of topic
b. Collection of facts
c. Preparing outline
d. Building scrip
e. Presentation
Selection of topic:
i. The topic selected for radio suit to the area. Know the coverage zone of the AIR station and
identify the topic relevant to the farmers of that area.
ii. Topic related to season and timely information are preferred by the AIR programme
executives and the also by the user.
Collection of facts
i. Collect the facts which are related to the selected topic
ii. Use real experience and success stories
iii. Use quotations
iv. Have the recent research findings
Preparing outline
i. Know the duration of time allotted by farm radio section. Prepare the speech according to
the allotted time. A single page typed in double spacing is sufficient for two minutes talk.
The five minutes talk is ideal
ii. Choose a most appealing mode of presentation like straight talk, interview, plays, question
and answer etc.
iii. Treat the message according to the level of the target mass
iv. Write down the main idea of the talk
v. Then add all the important points you wish to emphasize
vi. Arrange the topic in the logical order
vii. Add additional points and illustrate with local example
 Building script
i. The script should be brief, clear and awaken the attention and interest of the audience
ii. Write the script with empathy, keeping the target audience in the mind. Write for the ears
not for the eyes. As radio is personal, the approach has to be personal
iii. Write brief introduction about the selected topic and do not cover too many ideas
iv. Use personal words, active verbs and simple familiar language
v. Write complete information and do not end with waiting details
vi. Use widely known abbreviations only like YMCA, JICA and the like
vii. Script should be written in such a way that the audience understands the talk in the first
hearing. Prepare the speech well ahead according to the time available and edit it. Write the
script in single side of the paper.

Don`ts
i. Avoid technical jargons, long and confusing numbers, offensive statements and jaw
breaking words
ii. Avoid listing names at great lengths. Often unfamiliar names need to be used.
iii. Avoid complex sentence
Presentation
Do`s
i. Rehearse, recheck, pre-record and criticize yourself by listening to the tape recording,
correct the pronunciation and adjust the length of the script
ii. Be friendly, natural and conversational; speak as if you talk to a friend nearby. The speed of
a talk should be on an average 125 words per minutes
iii. Believe in your subject matter and let your interest show it and sound enthusiastic
iv. Main and important points should be repeated as many time as possible without boring the
listeners.
v. In conclusion first summarize the main points, tell the audience what you expect them to do
 Dont`s
i. Avoid referring back to any statement
ii. Conclusion should not contain any new ideas
iii. Don`t shout before the microphone
iv. Don’t read the script
v. Don`t speak fastly.
Audio-cassettes
 Audio cassettes are more flexible to use than radio because they permit extension worker
to record some program and then use them later
Advantages of cassettes over radio:
a. Tapes can be stopped and replayed
b. Listeners do not have to listen at a specific time of a day
c. The same tape can be used over and over with new information andunwanted
information can be removed
Disadvantages/limitations
a. Cassette recorders are less common in rural areas than radio
b. Cassette recorders are less familiar in rural areas as source of information
3.2 Audio-visual media
 This media involves vision and sound which are combined together and transmitting
information direct to mass audience.
 Audio-visual include television, Audio-visual CDs and VHS
Television: There are two types of which are available for training purposes
i. Broadcast television: This is a type of television on which programs/informations are
aired over a large geographical area.
ii. Closed-circuit television: Is a television transmission system in which cameras
transmit pictures by cable to connected monitors. Also takes a video signal from a tape or
cassette carries it over a cable to one or more monitors, the monitor may be in several
locations or next to the video player.
 Factors in TV programmes
a. The farm programmes should be telecast at the suitable time. It varies according to the
target viewer e.g. Farmer, farmwomen.
b. Frequency and the length of farm telecast depends on the farmer’s need, season,
information, manpower for production, availability of the sorting, editing and other
equipment’s and budget.
c. Format of the programme depends upon the content and purpose
d. Content of the programme should be complete, correct and fulfill the needs of the
farmers
e. Treatment of the message is related to nature of the target mass, subject matter, time
allotted and mode of presentation
f. Assess the accuracy of the information before presentation and telecast
g. Rehearse is an important aspect to produce the best programme
h. The specialist who deliver the subject in the programme should wear a dark colour dress.
i. The speaker should avoid distract mannerisms.
j. The speaker must carry suitable visuals and required quantity of specimens if any

Film show (cinema)

Film is an influential medium that can be used to teach both literate and illiterate masses.
Before the advent of TV this was the only medium which was used in the villages for
education and entertainment. While playing films in the villages following points should
be kept in mind
a. Selection of the film (subject) based on the teaching objective
b. Check the cinema projector, film, seating, ventilation, electricity etc.
c. Just before the projection, the participants should be briefed about the subject to be
played and points to be observed and noted
d. The show should end with a discussion with the participants regarding the utility of the
subject matter played
 3.3 Visual media
 Visual media involve visual media such as projected visual and printed media
3.3.1 Projected visuals:
 Examples of projected visuals are motion pictures, slides,film strips and overhead
transparencies; these have much appeal and are among the most effective of the visual
teaching aids.
Limitations of projected visual
a. Require a special equipment to produce and show visuals.
b. These equipment is relative expensive
c. They need electrical power to operate
d. Transportation maintenance and storage of equipment’s requires a special consideration
3.3.2 Printed Media:
a. Cover those communication techniques that relay principallyon combination of printed
words and pictures.
b. To apply this method effectively the educational levels and literacy rate of the audience
must be considered.
c. Printed media includes newspapers, leaflets, poster, newsletters, magazine, article,
displays, pamphlets, bulletin, booklets and etc.
Tips for writing for farmers
a. The writing should be in spoken form, but slang should be removed and the language
should not be too stylistic.
b. Avoid words of other language. As possible use right and commonly used words
c. Write short sentences, there should be link between one sentence and the other
d. Write in active voice and never in passive voice
e. Do not use words or sentences which have double meaning or ambiguity
f. Don`t use double negatives sentences, positive sentence followed by negative sentence
would create interest
 Newspapers:
 The newspapers vary greatly in their audience and coveragefrom the urban to community
newspapers.
 Newspapers can be published by government sectors and other organizations like
extension e.g. ‘Mkulimawa kisasa’

The following are six key ingredients that newspapers editors often use to
determine what they print and how they use it:
a. Timeliness: The more timely the information the greater the news value
b. Nearness: The closer the information seems to the readers the greater its news value.
That is why local newspapers prefers to write local news
c. Consequences: The more the readers are affected by information the greater is the
news value
d. Prominence: Prominent people, places, title and things carries more news value
e. Human interest: Readers are attracted by human interest element such as
unusualness, conflict, progress emotional and others
f. Newspapers policy: Any newspaper has additional policies that influences the kind and
amount of information they publish, therefore the use of various kinds of extension
information will vary from paper to paper, period to period based on editorial policies
Importance and limitation of newspapers (As presented)
a. Article: An article is a piece of writing on a particular subject in a newspapers or
magazines. Articles are useful means of creating public awareness and interest in
extension activities and every extension worker should know how to write a brief article
for local newspapers Examples of extension articles that extension agent submits to
newspapers:

b. Advance effect articles: example the announcement of meeting, tours,

demonstration etc.
c. Follow up event articles: these include report to readers about the recent meeting
tours, demonstration speeches or other extension events. The main purpose is to report
the result of various activities.
d. Information articles: these are used to provide a helpful information of various kinds,
example timely advice, reports of research findings, market news, relevant statistics and
other information colours to print picture and words. Highlight the main prominent
message with a more prominent colour. Do not use more than three colours.

Posters
a. A poster is a sheet of paper or card board with illustrations and usually few words.
b. A poster is designed to make a public announcement of a special idea, and timely
information.
c. It usually includes only a few words with an illustration to catch the attention of the
viewers and to pass a simple message at a glance
There are few features to consider when designing good posters
a. Meeting announcing posters, should clearly state the purpose, place, date and time of
meeting
b. Illustration or picture: it should be bold and bring out the message clearly. Avoid
unnecessary details in the illustration. Dramatic illustrations would stop people and make
them to look
c. Layout:- poster should gain the attention of the passer-by and clearly bring out the
message to the viewer
d. Colour: use bright attractive Background colours preferred by the villagers are yellow,
green, light blue and dark blue
e. Display:- Posters should be seen and understood from a distance, place poster
where people pass or where people gather
f. The size:-Must be large enough to be easily seen from a distance at least
g. 15”x20” to 28”x 44” size is more effective with two inch size for plain letters for caption
in slogan form
h. Lettering:- use plain, bold lettering and lines
i. Space: -plenty of space must be given between letters, words, lines and illustrations
As people in rural areas are not such a hurry as urban areas it perhaps possible to
include more information on a poster intended for them than for an urban
 NB: Posters are put up on walls of buildings, fences trees, poles, bulletin boards,
store windows, trucks and automobile and other places where they are likely to be
seen by people passing by.
Exhibition and Displays
Exhibition:
a. Is a planned systematic display of models, specimens, charts, information, posters, etc.,
presented to public view for instruction, judging and creating interest or entertainment.
b. An exhibition covers three stages of extension education such as arousing interest,
creating desire to learn and providing a chance to take a decision.
c. Fairs and festival are usually taken advantages for arranging exhibition. There is different
between exhibits and displays. The exhibits are more of 3-dimensional nature, while
displays are mostly 2-dimensional.
Importance of exhibition
a. To acquaint the people with better standards
b. To influence the people to adopt better practices
c. To create interest in a wide range of people
d. To promote understanding and create goodwill towards extension
Points for arranging exhibition
a. Planning is the first step in preparing exhibits and displays. Decide who the audience is,
what the message is, what you want the audience to do. Answering these questions will
help you plan the scope of the exhibit, the appeal to use and the content.
b. The most effective exhibits are built around a single idea with a minimum of supporting
information. Make it simple, understandable, portable and impressive in size.
c. Let there be sequence and continuity
d. Use a few rather than many objects
e. Select durable, attractive, and action exhibits. Keep written materials at a minimum.
Cluttering is the worst enemy of an exhibit. The fewer elements in your exhibit or display
the better. This might be a live object such as a goat, milk in an exhibition
f. Label the exhibits legibly and briefly
g. Spacing and decoration should be appealing to the eye and to tell the story without any
interpreter.
h. Keep the exhibits at a height not less than 2 feet, and not more than 7 feet from the
floor.
i. Give adequate publicity
j. Evaluate the effectiveness by the attendance, enquiries and requests
k. Distribute relevant literature
Suggestions in laying out exhibitions
a. Use local materials as far possible since specimens from locality have greater significance.
b. Take advantage of the festivals and fairs
c. Exhibitions can be used for a wide range of topics such as improved home
d. Living, model villages, feeding practices, shed construction, product promotion and
display of best material in the community etc.
Advantages
a. Best method to teach illiterate
b. Most fit for festive occasion
c. Promotes goodwill towards the extension
d. It is also for recreational purpose
e. Can create market for certain products
f. It promotes creative abilities to some extent
g. It can stimulate competitive spirit when used for the purpose
Limitations
a. Require much preparation and investment
b. It cannot be used frequently or widely
c. Normally extension exhibits are arranged in a routi6ne manner, without specific teaching
aim.
d. It cannot be used again at the same place without making substantial changes
e. It cannot represent all phases of work
 Displays
a. Are collection of objects or picture arranged for people to look at or a performance to
people to watch.
b. A part from being a beautiful way of sharing information, attractive neat displays suggest
to people that the extension agent and his organization are efficient and keen to
communicate.
c. Displays are suitable to notice boards inside and outside extension offices, at
demonstration places (when the process of demonstration can be recorded in pictures)
and at agricultural shows.
d. With displays on permanent notice boards it is important that the materials be changed
regularly, so that people develop the habit of looking there for up–to-date information.
e. Displays should stick to the single theme broken into small number of message; it should
include several pictures (preferably photographs) and diagrams which must be clearly
labeled
Leaflets, folders and pamphlets and others
a. Summarize the main points of a talk or demonstration, or provide a detailed information
that would not be remembered by hearing
b. These can be used in many ways in extension program, can be used singly or can be
used in a coordination with other visual methods
c. Because of its lowest size can be given to every audience members and also offered
on radio programme
d. Takes little time to understand the information from it
Leaflet
a. Is a sheet of paper used to present information on only one topic in a brief
manner and simple language.
Preparation
a. Select a suitable topic based on farmer`s felt needs
b. There should be only one idea, technique or practice
c. Collect all relevant points and select only the most essential one
d. Use simple and familiar words
e. Include relevant pictures, illustrations etc., in order to help the farmer`s
understandings
f. Refer to local situations whenever possible
g. Remember all points for written materials.
h. Give the sources of obtaining further information.
i. Personal sentences, short paragraphs, less technical terms, illustrations etc. are
desired characteristics.
Printing
a. Attractiveness can be increased by using different colours papers or inks and by
illustrations or photographs
b. Printing on pink or yellow paper is likely by farmers.
c. The size of leaflet preferred by the farmer is 4” x 8”
Advantages
a. Reach large number of literate farmers
b. Preserved and used for future reference
c. Comparatively cheap and easy to make
d. Provides accurate information
e. Promote literacy
Limitations
a. Less useful in low literacy area
b. Cannot be used in exclusion of other methods.
c. Will lose its significance if not carefully prepared and used
Folder
 Folder is a single piece of paper folded ones or twice. When it is opened the
material presented are in sequence.
Preparation All the factors to be considered for the leaflet are to be considered for
the folder also. In addition to that the following factors may also be considered:
a. Arrange the facts collected in a logical order. Select the important points in 1-2-3 order
(step-by-step)
b. Folder will most suit to give `how to do` a and b, package of practices to be followed
in growing poultry, steps to be followed in solving a home or farm problems, etc.
c. Folder need not to be complete, as it complements the other methods. However the
title, printing etc. should be attractive otherwise it may not read at all.
Printing:
a. Make the folder attractive by using photographs, line drawings and various colour papers
and inks
b. 4” x 8” folder is found to be very attractive from the farmers view point
c. Print folder on heavier paper than the leaflet
d. The front page of the folder is exclusively allotted for printing the design withtitle.
e. Prepare a cover page design with two or three colours.
Advantages and limitations: (same as leaflet)
Pamphlet
a. Pamphlet size varies from 2-12 pages.
b. The first cover page should be printed in two or three colours with some action pictures.
c. Full information about the selected topic is presented at greater length. When compared
to a folder, pamphlet serves to the needs of farmers at different stages
Bulletin
 A bulletin contain large amount of information. Its primary objective is to give
information which the reader can apply to his own local situations. It size varies from
12-20 pages
Booklet
 When the material is more and exceeds 20 pages and limited to 50 pages then it is
called booklet
Book: - when the number of pages exceeds 50 then we can call it a book.
Charts
 A chart is a visual symbol summarizing or comparing or constructing or performing other
helpful services in explaining subject matter
Points to considered while printing a chart
 Chart should be with bold and simple lettering, brief words, simple design, colouful (not
more than 3 colours) and large enough to be seen
Types of charts
a) Flip chart- this is a series of pictures or ideas, each on a separate page whichare
fastened/bound together at the top, they are shown one to one to illustrate a story or a
 message. Therefore the pictures/ideas should be in planned sequence so that a story
unfold as each page is turned
 During teaching, these flips are turned one by one in sequence
 The top of chart is concealed with one or more blank sheets until the person is ready to
take the topic
 The sheet should be rolled smoothly over the top to avoid wrinkling which will become
increasingly annoying as more and more sheets are turned over
 The person must stand to one side while displaying and turning the chart
 Each heading is covered by a strip of white paper attached by paper clips and they are
removed at the appropriate moment. This process creates a certain amount of suspense
and adds attention
 If it is necessary to refer to special pages, mark them in some way such asfolded corners,
paper clips etc.
Advantages of flip chart
 Cheap and easy to make
 They can be small and easy to carry
 They cannot be blown away in the wind like other charts
 Can be used as chalkboard
 It is suitable for telling consecutive story with a number of points which need to be
emphasized in outline fashion
b) Wall charts
 Wall charts are used for teaching purposes or to supply reference material. They would
be placed in position where they could be discussed or explained such as classroom or a
farmers club, such charts can show a process of events.
 People have time to study the wall charts and there can be a number of message or
ideas in each chart. Charts are quite different from poster.
 3.4 Shows
 A show is an event at which a group of related things are available for the public to look
at. Example agricultural show, fashion show etc.
 Agricultural shows are an excellent medium for mass instructions and are particular in
starting campaign including new projects or improved practices.
 They include great deal of planning propaganda and hard work to insure large
attendances.
 All government departments concerned with national building should take part in the
show as means of putting across some clear cut message to the people
3.5 Campaign
 Is a coordinated communication and educational effort aimed at focusing attention on a
particular problem and solution over a period of a time.
Campaign may take many forms
 Charity campaign
 Sales campaign
 Political campaign
 Educational campaign
3.5.1 Educational campaign-
 An educational campaign is a well-organized plan for bringing about a wide spread of
adoption of a particular practice, it is a continued teaching effort concentrated into a set
period of time.
 The more often people are exposed to a new idea the more likely they are to adopt it.
 In campaign people have their attention focused on new practice through many
methods, when a campaign works well and people accept the practice you (extension
worker) can leave that practice to them and concentrate your effort on teaching other
practices
Points to follow in using a campaign
 Campaign must be directed toward the solution of problems the people recognized.
People must first see the need to change
 Deals with the problem which is important to a large number of people. To justify time
and effort you put a campaign only on an important problem and use variety of methods
to reach many people
 Offer a solution that people turn and accept
 Emphasize one idea at a time, most people heard only one thing at time,
 Awell planned campaign does not present too much things, the learners must have time
to try a new practice and experience success
Planning a campaign
 In any campaign first plan then carry out the campaign and evaluate the results.
Planning a good campaign take time but save time later on, careful planning helps to
ensure success so local leaders should be evolved in the planning.
Therefore planning consist of the following stages
 Analyze the situation
 Selecting the practice to promote
 Set objectives
 Plan for evaluation
 Decide how to involve people
 Schedule events
 Arrange for equipment and supplies
Analyses the situation:
 Before you start a campaign know the facts aboutthe practice to be changed, know
exactly to whom you will direct the campaign, to get these facts make a survey.
 This may mean: - visiting farms or homes observing and discussing with the people. Get
names of people who need new practice
Select the practice to promote:
 After a careful study you may find many things need to be done, however you must
select one practice to be given a priority with a campaign
Set objectives:
 Objective helps to determine what should be done.
Statement of objective must do three thing such as
 Specify kind and amount of change desired
 Pin point the intended audience
 State the period of time intended
Plan for evaluation:
 Evaluation of a campaign is done in two phases
 Evaluation during the campaign which can deal with aspects suchas adequacy of
resources, the degree by which deadlines are being met
 Evaluation after the campaign, this should focus on the achievement of the intended
objectives
Decide how to involve people:
 During planning campaign
 Involve people in planning
 Decide how much is enough – should be planned to reach most or all the intended
audience members and to reach several time
Schedule events:
 Have a work chart which identifies each activity that must be carried out before,
during, and after the campaign
Arrange for equipment and supplies:
 Make sure all equipment’s and materials are well arranged
Conducting a campaign
 Conduct the campaign with the help of local leaders as per plan. Open your campaign
by doing something dramatic that focuses attention on the problem.
Apply all your creativity and device unusual and interesting approaches.
 Use meetings of all kinds to carry the message
 Make farm and home visit to encourage them and to speed up their progress and
to identify their difficult in adopting the practice
 Arrange tours and field trip to show the results
 Conduct demonstration to prove the people that the recommended practice will
work
 Wide publicity can be given by using all mass media. Exhibits are a good way to show
the value of the show the value of the recommended practice. Keep some exhibits in
markets.
 Announce contest to assure interest
 Set a definite time to end the campaign. Feature the final day so the people can
share the satisfaction of completing the project. Invite an important person.
Report result to the people. Recognize community leaders for their work
 Evaluate the results review the objective and if necessary reconsider it. Failure
should be avoided
Follow-up
 By discussion the reaction of farmers should be found out
 The extent of adoption should be assessed
 The reason for the failures should be found out
 The success stories must be published
 The local leaders must be properly recognized for the contributions
Advantages of a campaign approach
 Can handle large complex program of public information and education e.g. HIV/AIDS
test campaign, MALARIA campaign KILIMO KWANZA campaign,etc.
 Campaign exploits the group psychology for introduction of new practices
 Permit the use of combination of methods all directed towards the same
programming objectives
 Produces a planned schedule of coordinated activities
 Reaches more intended members of the audience by using combination of
communication methods
Disadvantages of a campaign approach
 It is very costful interms of time and funds
 Need skilled people to plan and conduct

 Not suited to individual problems

 PROGRAMME PLANNING
a. Planning: Is define as a process of identifying or defining problems, formulating goals,
thinking of ways to accomplish goals and measuring progress towards goal achievements.
Or Outline philosophy, policy objectives and resultant things to be accomplished, and the
technique of accomplishment. If you don’t know where you are going, then you won’t
know when you have arrived.
b. Programme: A plan of activities to be done of thing to be achieved.
c. Programme Planning: Is the process of making decision about the direction and
intensify of extension education efforts of extension-service to bring about social,
economic and technological changes. Or Details of work schedules and extension
activities planned at local level, by field staff in consultation with their immediate
supervisors.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF AGRICULTURE EXTENSION PROGRAMME PLANNING
a. Planning from below: Farmers with extension agents makes plans for developing local
agriculture on the basis of local needs and potential, and then make requests for specific
assistance from national and regional authorities.
b. Planning from above: The agent is simply expected to implement plans made at
national level e.g. given target number of hectares to be planted with improved seeds
IMPORTANCE OF PROGRAMME PLANNING
a. Helps justify budget appropriations and brings understanding among the public.
b. Offers opportunity to people who participate in it to learn, hence building leadership skills
in the community that will likely contribute to self-help, independence and positive end
results.
c. Involve an integrated analysis of needs and interests, opening up new horizons for action
d. Promote a concentration of efforts, channeling energies and resources in appropriate
direction.
e. Strengthen programme resource and attract-funds, thus allowing the sustainability or
expansion of activities.
f. Improve team and community capacities, motivations and performance.
g. Show commitment to address and solve problems.
h. Strengthen the quality of staff performance.
i. Serve as means to open dialogue with other organizations involved in development.
EXTENSION PROGRAMME PLANNING:
a. Extension activity requires careful planning if it is to be effective;
b. No extension activity is planned in isolation;
c. Every demonstration public meeting or film show is part of an overall extension agent
and farmers work toward the agricultural development of their area.

ELEMENTS OF EXTENSION PROGRAMME

An extension programme is a written statement which contains the following
four elements
a. Objectives, which the agent expects to be achieved in the area within a specified period
of time, often one year.
b. Means of achieving these objectives
c. Resources that are needed to fulfill the programme.
d. Work plan, indicating the schedule of extension activities that will lead to the fulfillment
of the programme objectives. Successful extension programme should include both
planning approaches. Agent should therefore balance national and local requirements.

STAGES IN PROGRAMME PLANNING

Whatever particular procedures of programme planning laid down by the extension
organization, fire distinct stages can be identified.
a. Analyse the present situation
b. Set objectives for the extension programme
c. Develop the programmeby identifying what needs to be done to achieve the
objectives, and then prepare a work plan
d. Implement the programmeby putting the work plan into effect.
e. Evaluate the programmeand its achievements as a basis for planning future
programmes.
NB: The different stages of extension programme planning are interrelated and the
planning does not always proceed neatly from one stage to another
1. SITUATION ANALYSIS:

Involves three activities

(a) Collecting facts
There is a good deal of information that the agent will need about the people in the area,
their farming systems, natural resources and the facilities available e for local
development. Information e.g. on social structure local culture, farming systems,
education and literacy levels, size of farms, local channels of communication, transport
facilities, local credit systems, marketing, health and nutrition level and crop and
livestock.
(b) Analyzing facts
If farmer’s reports that yield have declined in recent years, the agent must look for other
information that would suggest an explanation. Is it because of low rainfall, declining soil
fertility or poor seed? The agent must also separate fact opinion and guest work. He
must judge the reliability between two different sources
(c) Identifying problems and potential priority
It should now be possible to decide what the main problems facing farmers in the area
and what potential there is for agricultural improvement. This is where the agents’
technical knowledge becomes important. Farmers may know what their problems are, but
the agent can bring his own perception of local problems based on a more scientific
understanding of farming. A full situation analysis is not needed every year
2. SETTING OBJECTIVES

The key question are how will local problems be solved and how will local potential be
developed. The stage involved three stages:

(a) Finding solutions. The sources of ideas for developing an area’s potential include:-
The agents own technical knowledge Farmers and agents from other areas which have
tackled similar problem success fully applied research which tests new ideas under farm
conditions National priorities and directives Projects which make funds available for
particular activities.
 (b) Selecting Solutions:
When selecting from among the range of solutions and possible improvements, agent
and farmers should ensure that proposed solutions are
 Acceptable to farmers in the area.
 Technically sound and tested by research and experience elsewhere.
 Consistent with national policy and with the local activities of other agencies.
 Feasible within the time and with the resources available to farmers and the extension
service.
 Within the scope of the agent’s ability and job description.
(c) Stating Objectives

It should new be possible to state what the objectives of the extension programme are to
be. Objectives with higher priority are to be decided first. Wherever possible, objectives
should be expressed in terms of amount and numbers rather than general statements. As
the agent breaks down each programme objective into specific steps, he will in effect be
preparing a schedule of extension activities for the progamme period

3. Develop the programme by identifying what needs to be done to achieve the

objectives, and then prepare a work plan.
4. IMPLEMENTATION To implement the programme, the agent carries out the
activities specified in the work plan. The tuning of some activities may have to be
changed or additional method demonstration may be planned if more farmers than
expected want to take part. An extension programme should be flexible enough to allow
the agent to respond to circumstances in this way.

5. EVALUATION
The agent will be constantly reviewing and evaluating his progress during the year. At the
end of the year, a more thorough evaluation should be carried out in which the agent
identifies how fully each objective has been achieved, and the reasons for lack of
progress this evaluation, together with an up-dated situation analysis, provides the basis
for planning the next year’s programmers.
 CHAPTER TWO
METHODS FOR DISSEMINATION OF CROP TECHNOLOGIES

2.1 APPROACHES OF TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATION;

Extension approaches for used in Tanzania are:
I. Convectional T & V Training and visit (T&V)
II. Participatory (contact farmer, special enterprise project (SEP), Field school approach
(FSA), participator research approach (PRA) and Field farmer school (FFS).
CONVECTIONAL T&V (TRAINING AND VISIT)
 Is the contact group which meet fortnightly to discuss agricultural messages deliverer to
them by the extension agent
 Example: Extension officers discussed on the good methods of Agriculture then they go
to the farmer direct and deliver their education to those farmer in order to make the
farmer practice what they decided on Agriculture methods of production.
FARMING SYSTEMS APPROACH / FIELD SCHOOL APPROACH (FSA)
a. Is a group of 20 – 25 farmers meet once a week in a local field setting and under the
guidance of a trained facilitator.
b. Farming system is an integrated set of activities that farmers perform in their farms
under their resources and circumstances to maximize the productivity and net farm
income on a sustainable basis.
c. The farming system takes into account the components of soil, water, crops, livestock,
labour, capital, energy and other resources, with the farm family at the centre managing
agriculture and related activities
d. The farming system conceptually is a set of elements or components that are interrelated
which interact among themselves. At the center of the interaction is the farmer exercising
control and choice regarding the types of results of interaction.
e. “ Farming System is defined as a complex inter related matrix of soil, plants,animals,
implements, power, labour capital and other inputs controlled in part by farming families
and influenced to varying degrees by political, economic, institutional and social forces
that operate at many levels.
Need for Farming System Approach
a. The need for Farming Systems Approach in the present scenario is mainly due to high
cost of farm inputs, fluctuation in the market price of farm produce, risk in crop harvest
due to climatic vagaries and biotic factors.
b. Environmental degradation, depletion in soil fertility & productivity, unstable income of
the farmer, fragmentation of holdings and low standard of living add to the intensity of
the problem
Why Farming Systems Approach
a. To develop farm – house hold systems and rural communities on a sustainable
basis
b. To improve efficiency in farm production
c. To raise farm and family income
d. To increase welfare of farm families and satisfy basic needs
e. Understanding dominant enterprises and most common existing farming system
f. Analysis of economic viability of existing farming systems
g. Understanding relationship between different enterprises
h. Analysis of linkages between different farming systems

Understanding the modifications made in existing farming system by

innovative farmers
a. Understanding the changing scenario in rural areas and its impact on existing farming
system
b. Identification of new market opportunities and its impact and relevance to socio-
economic situation
c. Suitable modification made by innovative farm families in existing farmingSystem
d. Type of modification made (diversification or intensification of the enterprises)

New options recommended by the Researchers/ Extensionists

a. Identification of new suggested options by researchers/extensionists around each
dominant enterprise
b. Understanding the technological details about new options

Economic analysis of recommended options and working out alternatives:

a. Analysis of relative profitability of recommended options ascompared to existing farming
system
b. Understanding of implications of each options with regard to reallocation of Resource

In the absence of any recommendations, work out an alternate model by

fine tuning the existing model (without major changes) considering the
resources, market, profitability and sustainability
a. Propose an alternate model by fine-tuning the existing farming system by working out
the possibilities of diversification or intensification of an enterprise.
b. Work out the economic analysis and benefits of alternate model compare to existing and
identify the gaps in knowledge and skill so as to adopt the new model
c. Develop strategies and activities to overcome the gaps in knowledge and skills
d. Testing the effectiveness of recommended options over a period of time

FARMER FIELD SCHOOL

a. The FFS approach is an innovative, participatory and interactive learning approach that
emphasizes problem solving and discovery based learning.FFS aims to build farmers’
capacity to analyze their production systems, identify problems, test possible solutions,
and eventually encourage the participants to adopt the practices most suitable to their
farming systems. FFS can also provide an opportunity for farmers to practice and
test/evaluate sustainable land use
b. FFS is usually a time bound activity (generally one agricultural production cycle or a
year), involving a group (commonly 20 30) of farmers.
c. It is facilitated by farmer facilitators (FFs). The method emphasizes group observation,
discussion, analysis, presentation, and collective decision making and actions. The basic
 component of FFS is setting up of a Participatory Comparative Experiment (PCE),
commonly referred to as Participatory Technology Development (PTD), whereby the
farmers put the FFS concept into practice.
d. Technologies, and introduce new technologies through comparing their conventional
technologies developed with their own tradition and culture
 What are the Core Principles of FFS?
a. The field is the learning place. Learning takes place in the field, usually on ahost farm
where a PCE is established and all learning sessions are held. Participants observe and
learn from the field work instead of from textbooks and lectures from extension workers.
Improved farm practices must be suitable for the local context, which is usually
influenced by local ecological and socio economic conditions as well as farmers’
preferences.
b. Facilitation, not teaching. The role of the facilitator is crucial for successful learning
and empowerment because FFS does not focus on teaching but on guiding FFS members
through the learning process. To foster the learner centred process, the facilitator
remains in the background, listening attentively and reflectively, asking questions and
encouraging participants to explore more in the field and present their ideas. The
facilitator must stimulate FFS members to think, observe, analyze and discover answers
by themselves.
c. Hands-on and discovery-based learning. The process of learning adheres to
principles of adult education and “learning by doing”. Adults tend not to learn and change
behaviour by passive listening, but as a consequence of experience. Through learning by
doing in a discovery based manner, group members cherish ownership over their
knowledge and gain confidence in what they have learned.
d. The farmer as expert. The FFS approach recognizes community members as the
experts within their particular contexts, and considers indigenous and local knowledge an
important source of information to be used within the FFS learning process. Through the
process, FFS members learn how to improve their own abilities to observe and analyze
problems, and to develop practical and relevant solutions. The approach inspires
members to learn continuously by exploring and educating themselves on issues and
topics that affect their livelihoods.
e. Equity and no hierarchy. An FFS is designed for all to participate on an equal basis.
FFS supports no hierarchy between farmers and 28 facilitators, group leaders and
ordinary members, diploma holders and those who do not read and write. All are equal
partners in the FFS learning experience
f. Integrated and learner-defined curriculum. The FFS curriculum is defined by the
learners and is unique for each group, though much of learning enterprises are pre
designed under the mandate of FFS implementing agencies. The basic principle for any
FFS is that all topics must be related to what is important to the group members and aim
to fill their particular gaps in knowledge.
g. Comparative experiments. Knowledge is gained through practical experiments where
different options are compared with each other. The trials are regularly observed and
analyzed. Issues are discussed as they occur — in reality. This aspect of the approach
dictates the “duration” of an FFS cycle that has to match the life cycle of the enterprise
being studied, i.e. from “(planted) seed to (harvested) seed”, or from “egg to egg” in the
case of poultry.
h. Agro-ecosystem analysis. The agro ecosystem analysis (AESA) is one of the
cornerstones of the FFS approach. AESA is practiced by all FFS members through all
stages of FFS cycle. It involves observation, analysis and presentation for synthesis and
discussion. This activity enhances participants’ analyzing skills as well as their
presentation, thereby improving knowledge based decision making in addition to their
communication capabilities.
i. Special topics. The focus of special topics is decided on by the group and plays a
central role in FFS. Special topics can cover a wide range of topics and can be multi
sectoral. It is part of the FFS curriculum and learning experiments. The selection of
special topics should be demand driven, usually addressing wider livelihood issues. These
special topics can also be facilitated by external resource persons rather than by the FFS
group facilitator.
j. Team building and social animation. Aspects of team building, group dynamics and
social animation are important components of learning sessions. Through song, dance
and drama people share knowledge and culture, build cohesion, and learn communication
and leadership skills. This also creates a platform for dealing with difficult subjects such
as abuse, gender and HIV/AIDS.

How does FFS benefit Farmers?

a. Strengthening observation capability and increasing knowledge ownership
through discovery based learning: FFS does not rely mainly on information and
techniques brought by extension agents and transferred to farmers. Instead, it
b. Aims to encourage farmers’ systematic observation and informed decision making based
on discovery based learning so that new knowledge and practices are generated by the
farmers themselves. This process stimulates ownership of the learning process and
ensures local adaptation. The main role of extension workers is to enhance farmers’ skills
in practicing new ideas, discovering their own solutions, and developing coping strategies
to deal with ever changing situations. Technologies practiced under FFS usually are site
specific and suitable to the farmers who use them because the FFS participants
themselves set up learning sites and put technologies into practice. As a result, adoption
rates are usually high among FFS members. Transfer of knowledge to neighbors is also
common in FFS since learning results are based on farmers’ experiences applicable to
their neighbors.
c. Building self-confidence and enhancing decision-making capacity: FFS is not
about transferring and teaching knowledge and techniques, as it is the case in
conventional extension. The FFS approach empowers farmers in various aspects through
confidence building and decision making exercises. In addition, participants in FFS are
divided into sub groups and discussions among sub group members are encouraged.
These exercises involving tangible field results usually provide a foundation for
participants to “own” the learning process, build their confidence and personal skills, and
thus become empowered in their farming activities and collaborating with other farmers
in finding solutions
d. Minimizing risks in experimenting with new practices: It is risky for subsistence
farmers to switch from their conventional land use practices to new ones based only on
information or short training sessions provided by extension workers. They simply cannot
afford crop failures when trying out new systems. FFS provides farmers with the
opportunity to try out new practices on a group farm where risks are minimal, and
potential losses would be shared by group members. Learning sites are usually very small
in size; sufficient only to test and compare new technologies and farmers’ own
conventional farmers’ practices. They need only to contribute a half day per week of their
time to participate in FFS, while they can continue working on their own food crops using
their conventional farming methods. FFS does not promote new methods in isolation from
regular farmer practices; rather it provides an opportunity for the participants to test and
compare alternatives in a relatively risk free environment with measurable figures for
discussion and debate among participating farmers. FFS is therefore a less risky approach
for subsistence farmers compared to most conventional extension methods.
e. Changing deep-rooted beliefs and practices: Farmers have a wealth of knowledge,
which is usually based on their experience. It is also true that they are sometime based
on misconceptions. Wrong ideas or false deep rooted impressions cannot be easily swept
aside through short term training or field visits.
f. FFS provides an analytical structure and season long regular interactions with the field,
facilitators, and other FFS members, which enables participants to learn firsthand the
benefits of testing new technologies in PCE and to understand the behaviour of
introduced crops. The FFS experience can as well assist them to recognize
misunderstandings and avoid errors in farming practices or beliefs.
g. Developing problem-solving capabilities: A farmer is an agricultural entrepreneur
who has to deal with constantly changing natural and socio economic circumstances. To
be successful, a farmer needs a range of skills including natural resource management,
accounting, marketing, negotiation, and problem solving and conflict management.
Without such capacities, farmers may be unprepared for uncertain events caused by
political and economic unrests as well as climate change.
h. Any one off training event cannot provide solutions for all farm related problems, nor can
it provide the broad range of skills needed to support improved productivity at the farm
level. However, FFSs offer integrated learning opportunities for a period of one year in
which participating farmers acquire problem solving capabilities that can encourage
proactive behavior and positive attitude towards an often uncertain future

What are the Weaknesses of FFS?

There are several key planning and managerial issues in implementing FFS. The FFS
planners must address the following points in preparing an FFS programme.
a. FSS requires having a group of experienced FFS facilitators: Experience shows
that FFS must be implemented according to its key principles and cannot be applied
simply on the basis of knowledge of extension methods. FFS facilitators must have at
least two weeks of intensive FFS facilitation training TOF delivered by experienced FFS
master trainers, which must be followed up with continuous backstopping to maintain the
quality of FFS during field application by the trained facilitators.
b. Appropriate fund release mechanism and effective logistics: FFS is carried out
according to the crop cycle, and must start according to the planting season. An FFS
programme must be carefully planned to ensure that study material and inputs for the
particular FFS activities can be delivered in a timely manner. An appropriate fund release
mechanism is also essential to enable timely procurement and delivery of materials and
inputs. Methods for procurement of materials in bulk may need to be supplemented by a
cash account for each FFS for small scale expenditure of essential items. Timely payment
of allowances to facilitators is important to ensure they remain motivated and are able to
purchase fuel for their motorcycles.
c. Quality Control: FFS requires effective backstopping by experienced FFS facilitators to
maintain the quality of FFS.
 d. Cost: The cost per FFS varies according to the duration of the crop cycle ,accessibility of
FFS sites and the allowances paid to facilitators. This is equivalent to USD 40 to 70 per
person for one FFS cycle assuming 25 members per FFS. In addition, experience in
implementing FFS shows that a monthly meeting with facilitators, experience sharing
workshops, and exposure of facilitators to new technologies are essential to maintain a
dynamic relationship between the project management, facilitators and FFS members.
Such activities are important to successful FFS outcomes. If budget is a constraint, it is
preferable to reduce the scope of the programme (i.e. the number of target FFSs) than to
compromise on FFS quality
e. Monitoring of FFS: Generally the monitoring of extension activities is difficult to
conduct. However, the FFS platform allows project management to undertake random
spot check monitoring because of the fixed date and place of FFS activities. Nevertheless,
effective performance monitoring of all FFSs under a programme can be a challenge.

SPECIAL ENTERPRISE PROJECT (SEP)

 This approach concentrates efforts on a particular location, for a specific time period,
often with outside resources. Parts of its purpose is often to demonstrate technique and
methods that could be extended and sustained after the projected period.
PARTCIPATORY RESEARCH APPROACH
i. PRA were established to involve farmers in the research process. The reason to start was
that researchers experienced a low acceptance rate for their recommendations and
started to explore ways to get astronger link between farmers’ needs and research
outcome.
ii. Farmers are included in the research process to identify the farmers ‘needs and test the
possible solutions. Farmers are trained to conduct formal research.
iii. This will increase the credibility of their findings with the official research institutions
because the data are gathered in a scientific way.
Main Types of Farmer Participatory Research
a. Researcher-Managed On-Farm Trials: In this type the researchers work in farmers'
fields to develop technology for farmers or to test and validate research findings obtained
in the research station. They generally design, implement and evaluate the technology in
the farmers' fields, or they define the research agenda and design trials which farmers
are allowed to implement under their supervision. The experimental designs used in this
approach are similar to those used in research stations. The relationship
 Between the researcher and farmer is hierarchical. Researchers are the main decision-
makers, setting the research agenda and designing and implementing trials. The
researchers identify the problem upon which research is based
b. Consultative Researcher-Managed On-Farm Trials: Farmers are consultedby
researchers about their needs, problems, goals and preferences. They are also asked
about their agricultural practices and knowledge of the local environment, resource
availability. Researchers may also ask farmers for feedback on their perceptions of the
new technology under study. Farmer’s consultation is aimed primarily at assisting
researchers in interpreting farmers' circumstances, problems, or needs, and to arrive at
experimental designs for trials which often will not include farmer participation in the
initial stages of on-farm testing.
c. Collaborative Farmer-Researcher Participatory Research: Farmers and
researchers work together on problem definition, design, management and
implementation of trials, and evaluation. In the early phases of the process, scientists and
farmers discuss potential areas for collaborative research and choose decision-making
and evaluation criteria. By combining informal research by farmers with formal on-farm
testing procedures, indigenous knowledge and science-based knowledge are mixed to
meet farmers' needs. Ideally, a collaborative relationship means balanced participation in
and control over the research process in order to achieve the objectives of both farmers
and scientists.
d. Farmer-Managed Participatory Research: Farmers are the main actors and decision-
makers. Developing technology through a process that includes problem definition, trial
design, the implementation of experiments, and the evaluation of results. In the
diagnostic phase, farmers identify the problems and needs they want to address. In the
planning and design phase, they choose the most important problem, identify potential
solutions, design prototype technology, and decide how to test it. In the experimentation
phase, they test and evaluate the technology. Finally, in the adaptation and validation
phase, farmer’s further test the technology developed prior to dissemination and the
experimental capacity and indigenous knowledge of farmers are used to the maximum in
this approach. The scientist's role is to assure that the community's local experimental
capacity is fully utilized and to link farmers to information and resources for which the
community has expressed a need but which are unavailable at the local level
Some of the strengths of participatory research are
i. The technology is easy to adopt and to spread;
ii. It can empower individual farmers and rural communities;
iii. Strengthens the link between farmer, extension worker and researcher;
iv. Farmer experimentation directs the research agenda.
 Some of the weaknesses/ constraints are:
i. Initially it takes more time and resources;
ii. It requires skills, change of attitude and flexibility of mind on the part of both farmers,
extension and research staff, which is often lacking.

Materials used in Tanzania i.e. Convectional T & V and participator (contact

farmer, SEP, FSA, PRA, and FFS)
When the extension having an elected approach used in order to deliver information to
the farmer should have the following materials for the process;
i. Community mapping
ii. Transect walks
iii. Focus group discussion
iv. Gender role analysis
v. Used of drawings
vi. Posters
vii. Role – play
viii. Threatre
ix. Songs.

The criteria to be used in election of the selected approaches.

The extension officer should choose a specific approach in order to deliver the education
about the Agriculture to the farmer accordingly to the following criteria;
i. Capital: Including in posters, television, seminars and Radio in which extension officer
need money in order to broadcast the education of agriculture to the famer so that those
farmer who shall get the message can use on their production activities.
ii. Type of audience to be reached: Before having or choosing the methods of approach
for using to the farmer the extension officer need to know what kind of farmer is going to
reach either the farmer are illiterate or
iii. Infrastructure: In terms of communication and transportation of the extension officers
to deliver the agricultural skills and experience as the aims of approach the farmer to
practice. When the road infrastructure and communication are poor will hinder the
services to reach so infrastructure should be considering n.
iv. Materials: Before to conduct the specific approach which is going to conceptualizes
what the extension agent is delivering to the farmer using different materials. Example
manila sheet

ADOPTION PROCESS AND DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION

Diffusion of innovation:
 Is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channel over time
among members of a social system.
Four main elements of diffusion
i. Innovation
ii. Communication channel
iii. Time Lag
iv. Social system
Innovation
  This is an idea, practice or object perceived as new by an individual or other unit of
adoption e.g. household, company etc.
Characteristics that influence the rate of adoption of the innovation
a. Relative advantages: This is the way an innovation is perceived as better by an
individual, the greater the perceived relative advantage of an innovation the more rapid
the rate of adoption is going to be
b. Compatibility: Is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent
with existing value, management traditional objectives, stage of farmer development etc.
c. Complexity: Refers to the degree by which the innovation is perceived as difficult to
understand and use. In general new ideas that are simple to understand will be adopted
more rapidly than ideas that require adopters to develop new skills and understand it
d. Triability: This is a degree by which an innovation may be experimented or tried
e. Observability: The degree to which the result of an innovation are visible to others, the
easy the of an individual to see the results the more rapid rate of adoption
Communication channel

 This is a means by which messages get from one individual to another e.g. radio,
newspapers, television, telephones etc.
 Extension worker needs to know his/her audience so that he/she can choose suitable
media/channel of communication
Time
 This is a time or period between introductions of innovation to adoption stage. Time
refers to earliness or lateness by which an innovation is adopted.
Some people may be willing to accept innovation quickly but are not able to
act because of certain constraints or limitation such as:
i. Lack of access to credit
ii. Insecure land tenure
iii. Lack of resources
iv. Extension worker should make effort to remove these constraints and ensure that time
between introduction of innovation to adoption is shortened
Social system
 This is a set of interrelated units that are engaged into a joint problems solving to
accomplish a certain goal.
 In traditional systems innovations are diffused slower than in modern ones, social
controls (norms and rules) influence the redness of an individual to adopt innovation
Adoption process/ innovation decision
Adoption process is the process through which an individual passes from the first
knowledge of an innovation through decision to adopt or reject to implementation of new
idea to confirmation of the decision
Elements of adoption process/innovation decision process
a. Knowledge: occurs when an individual has exposed to an innovation and get some
understanding of how it functions
b. Persuasion/attitude: occurs when an individual forms a favorable or unfavorable
altitude towards an innovation.
c. Decision: occurs when an individual engaged in activities that lead to a choice to adopt
or reject the innovation.
d. Implementation: occurs when an individual put an innovation into use.
e. Confirmation: occurs when an individual seeks reinforcement of the decision already
made. But he/she may reverse this conflicting message about the messages she/he has
made
 Stages of adoption process
Adoption process consists of five stages.
i. Awareness stage: The individual learns of the existence of the new idea/innovation but
lack detailed information about it. This is just like seeing something without attaching
meaning to
ii. Interest stage: Individual develops interest to the innovation {new idea}and seeks
additional information about it. An individual wants to know what is it, how it works and
what its potential may be.
iii. Trial stage: Individual actually applies new idea on a small scale in order to determine
its utility in he/she own situation
iv. Evaluation stages: Individual makes mental application of the new ideas to his present
and anticipated future situation and decides whether or not to try it. Individual considers
the relative advantage of the new idea over other practices
v. Adoption stage: The individual uses the new idea continuously on a full scale.

Adopter categories
All farm people do not adopt new practice at the same time.
Farmers may be classified into five adopter categories according to the relative time at
which they adopt new practices.
i. The first to try out the new idea are called innovators,
ii. If the ideas survives for appreciative length the second category of farmers called early
adopters try out the new ideas.
iii. If the new idea continues to spread, The third and four categories called early majority
and
iv. late majority accept the new idea depending on the time at which they make decision
to adopt.
v. Finally, some minority of farmers accepts the idea very late and are called laggard.
vi. Some farmers never adopt the new idea at all and are called rejectors

Characteristics of adopter categories

 Innovators (venturesome) (2.5%)
i. The first farmer to accept the new idea, they like to try out new things
ii. They are known as experimenters since they try out farm practices before anyone else in
the community
iii. Considered as “crazy” by the community
iv. Not looked upon as a good sources of information by neighbours
v. Higher education, larger farms higher incomes, high social status, younger age
vi. They are cosmopolitan – travel widely than average farmers
vii. Often belong to formal organizations outside the community
viii. They are research minded and read experimental research bulletins, thus they are
scientific and venture some
ix. Communicate direct with agricultural scientists and other innovators
x. Make very little use of village extension officers/workers (VEO/VEW)
xi. They require shorter adoption period to pass from awareness to adoption
Early adopters (respectable) (13.5%)
i. Follow the motto “Be not the first by which the new idea is tried, nor the last”
ii. Slightly higher education
iii. Younger age than average farmer but older than innovators
iv. Fairly high social status
v. Have many informal contacts within the community
vi. More local than innovators
vii. Looked upon as good source of information
viii. Have more contact with VEO than any other category
ix. They are progressive farmers
Early majority (deliberate) (34%)
i. They adopt just before the late majority
ii. In most respect they are typical average farmers, their education, farming experience,
readership of farm magazine and contact with VEO is slightly higher but not as early
adopters
iii. Contact largely within a community (high social contact)
iv. Source of information:- agricultural agents, early adopters, farm magazines, radio,
television, agricultural shows etc.
v. Slightly conservative
Late majority (skeptical) (34%)
 i. Have the same characteristics as the early majority but to a slightly lesser degree
ii. Have slightly less education, social status and extension contact than early majority
iii. Slightly older age than early majority (average farmers)
iv. No contact outside the community
v. More conservative and traditional
Laggards (traditional) (16%)
i. Last to adopt new idea
ii. They are the oldest farmers
iii. Have the least education
iv. Have very few social contact, participate least in formal organizations (semi- isolated)
v. Read very few farm magazine
vi. Believe in agricultural magic and cling (stick) to traditional attitudes
vii. Regard extension workers and other change agents with negative attitude and suspicion
(doubt)
viii. Some of this group actual try out the new idea and then discontinue for one reason or
another. But some of them never try the new idea at all and are called rejectors
 CHAPTER THREE
COMMUNICATION SKILLS TO DISSEMINATE CROP TECHNOLOGIES.

COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Introduction
a. A society need to communicate
b. Communication is part and parcel of social life.
c. A greater party of our life is communication either verbal or non- verbal
What is communication?
a. Defined as exchange of information between people
b. Defined as the transmission of information from senders to receivers and from receivers
to senders.
c. Defined as the process by which people attempt to share meaning via transmission of
symbolic message
Importance of communication
a. Need to interact with others
b. To reduce communication breakdown
c. To implement new concept and technology
d. To accomplish organizational goals or tasks
e. To build trust
f. To create and facilitate awareness
Communication Terms
a. Source -Originator – may be an individual (speaking, writing, drawing, gesturing etc.)
or a communication organization (like a newspaper, publishing house, television
station, etc.)where the information originate
b. Message - The information to be communicated, may be in the form of ink on paper,
sound waves in the air, impulses in an electric current or any other signal capable of
being interpreted meaningfully
c. Encoding - The process by which an idea/information/message is converted intoa form
that can be transmitted to a receiver such as spoken or written words, gestures, or
actions
d. Channel - A medium of communication or means of conveying/carrying messages (e.g.
TVs, Radio, Film, air, wire, paper, light etc.
 e. Receiver - (Destination) May be an individual listening, watching or reading; or a
member of a group such as a discussion group, a lecture audience, a football crowd or a
mob
f. Decoding - It involves giving meaning to the symbols the receivers receives. The
receiver searches his or her memory bank for a translation of the symbols received.
g. Sharing - When people are communicating they make common or share their ideas or
feelings
h. Perception - The process by which we organize, interpret, experience, process and use
stimulus materials in the environment. Deals with the ways in which we sense or become
immediately aware of our environment
i. Feedback- Response to a message in communication process. After the message has
been received and translated, the receiver may transmit a return message that stimulates
the original communicator or someone else. The communication is a continuous and
never-ending process.
j. Noise –It consist of both external interference in the channels and the internal
perceptions and experiences that affect communication

Components of communication
 Sender/source ,Message, Channel, Receiver, Feedback
Forms of communication
There are three forms of communication:-
Oral/interpersonal/verbal communication:
 It may be face to face meeting between two or more people, example; telephone,
interview, meeting, home visit etc.
Advantages
i. Can provide immediate feedback
ii. People can ask questions and point get clarified
iii. The effect/ response can be noted
Disadvantages
i. Does not always save time
ii. Lack permanence and reference
iii. Sometimes can be costly in terms of moneys
 Written communication:
 It involves letters, reports, books, notice or Bulletin boards
Advantages
i. Provides records, reference and legal defense
ii. Message can be correct prepared and directed to a large audience
iii. Promote or reduce costs in some cases
iv. The impact of the message remains in a person`s mind for a longer period
Disadvantages
i. No guarantee that it has reached the right destination
ii. No guarantee that it has been read and properly understood
iii. May provide no immediate feedback
iv. Resume paper work and may be poorly expressed by ineffective written
Visual/Non-verbal communication –
i. is a communication without language, It is also known as gestural communication
ii. It involves the use of pictures, charts, posters, diagrams, exhibits and displays, films,
gestures, etc.
iii. Visual communication is expected to support verbal or spoken communication especially
when serving people with a limited level of literacy.
Advantages
i. Draw attention to the message being depicted
ii. Easy to understand the illustration used
iii. The impact of the message remains in a person`s mind for a longer period
Disadvantages
i. Messages can be misinterpreted if not well illustrated
ii. Difference in understanding of what symbols mean between people ofdifferent
backgrounds
iii. Films if too sophisticated can be dismissed as magic
 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Formal - arranged or approved by the management
Informal - unofficial and unplanned methods of communication
One-way - the sender makes no provision for a reaction from the receiver. It is quick
and preserves management authority
Two-way - Is framed such a way that response from the receiver is provided and
encouraged. It is much slower and indicates a more participative approach to decision
making
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO THEIR DIRECTION
i. Downward- From a higher level in the organization to a lower level - it is used by group
leaders and managers to assign goals provide job instruction, inform underlines of
policies and procedures, point out problems that need attention and offer feedback.
 Head

 Field Functionaries
ii. Upward-From a lower level in the organization to a higher level - upward communication
keeps managers aware of how employees feel about their jobs co-workers and
organization in general.
 Head

 Field Functionaries
 Communication model
 There are different communication models as described by different authors
1 Aristotle model: - The model recognize three elements as constituting the
communication process
 The speaker
 The speech
 The audience
Speaker Speech Audience
Shortcomings
 It does not look on the medium/channel and feedback
 It is one way communication
 It is a top down communication
2 Berlo`s Model of communication Process
Source Encoder Message Channel Decoder
Receiver
5.5.3 Westley-Maclean`s Model of communication Process
Sender Encoding Channel Decoding Receiver

Feedback

Ten rules of good communication

i. Clarify ideas before attempting to communicate
ii. Examine the purpose of communication
iii. Understand the physical and human environment when communicating
iv. In planning communication, consul with others to obtain their support as well as the facts
v. Consider the content and the overtones of the message
vi. Whenever possible, communicate something that helps or is value by the receiver
vii. Communication to be possible, requires follow up
viii. Communicate messages that are of short-run and long- run importance
ix. Action must be agreeable with communication
 Barrier to effective communication
Differing perception
 One of the most common sources of communication barriers is individual variation.
 People who have different backgrounds of knowledge and experience often perceive the
same phenomenon from differing perspectives
Language difference
 Language differences are closely related to difference in individuals` perceptions
 For a message to be properly communicated, the words used must mean the same thing
to sender and receiver
 The same symbolic meaning must be shared
Noise
 Noise is a factor that disturbs, confuses or otherwise interferes with communication
 For example a person talking on the phone in a busy office may not hear the message
her secretary is giving her form across the room
Emotionality
 Emotional reactions like anger, hate, jealousy, fear embarrassment- influence how we
understand other messages and how we influence others with our own messages.
 For example fear. If we are in an atmosphere where we feel threatened with loss of
power or prestige, we may lose the ability to gauge the meanings of the messages we
receive
Inconsistent verbal and Nonverbal communication
 We think of language as the primary medium of communication, but the messages we
send and receive are strongly influenced by such nonverbal factors as body movements,
clothing, gestures, and facial expression.
 For example: A busy manager who does not want to be disturbed might respond to a
subordinate`s greeting without looking up from his or her work. This might bring bad
impression to the subordinate.
 Lack of awareness and interest
 A person may not listen to the idea because the basic needs are being not satisfied.
Example she /he is hungry, cold/hot, thirst, etc.

Overcoming barriers to communication

 Overcoming barriers is a two-step process; first one must learn to recognize the various
types of barriers that can occur, second one must act to overcome the barriers.
Overcoming differing perception:
 To overcome differing perceptions, the message should be explained so that those with
different views and experiences can understand it
 Whenever possible, we should learn about the background of those with whom we will be
communicating
Overcoming difference in language
 To overcome language differences, the meanings of technical terms should be explained
 Simple direct language should be used
 To ensure that all important concept have been understood, asking the receiver to
confirm or restate the main points of the message is particularly helpful
Overcoming noise
 Noise is best dealt with by eliminating it
 If noise from machine makes talking difficulty, turn off the machine or move to a new
location
 If you notice that your receiver is not listening closely, try to regain his/her attention
 When noise is unavoidable, increase the clarity and strength of the message
 Overcoming emotionality
 Being sensitivity to one`s own moods and being aware to how they might influence
others before communicating
 Also try to understand the emotional reactions of others and preparing for dealings with
them
Overcoming inconsistent verbal and nonverbal communication
 The key to eliminate inconsistencies in communication are being aware to them and not
attempting to send false message
 Gestures, facial expression and other powerful nonverbal communication should agree
with the message.

EFFECT OF HIV/AIDS ON COMMUNICATION OF AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY

DEFINITION OF TERMS
 HIV is a sexual transmitted infection which can be spread by contact with infected blood
or from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breast feeding. Without
medication it may take years before HIV weakens your immune system to the point that
you have AIDS.
 The great majority of the population in the countries most affected by HIV/AIDS live in
rural areas. In many African countries, farming and other rural occupations provide a
livelihood for more than 70 per cent of the population. Hence, it is to be expected that
the HIV/AIDS epidemic will cause serious damage to the agriculture sector in those
countries, especially in countries that rely heavily on manpower for production.

Causes

HIV is caused by a virus. It can spread through sexual contact or blood, or from mother
to child during pregnancy, childbirth or breast-feeding.

How does HIV become AIDS

 HIV destroys CD4 T cells — white blood cells that play a large role in helping your body
fight disease. The fewer CD4 T cells you have, the weaker your immune system
becomes.
 You can have an HIV infection, with few or no symptoms, for years before it turns
into AIDS. 
 AIDS is diagnosed when the CD4 T cell count falls below 200 or you have an AIDS-
defining complication, such as a serious infection or cancer.

How HIV spreads

 To become infected with HIV, infected blood, semen or vaginal secretions must enter
your body. This can happen in several ways:

i. By having sex. You may become infected if you have vaginal, anal or oral sex
with an infected partner whose blood, semen or vaginal secretions enter your body. The
virus can enter your body through mouth sores or small tears that sometimes develop in
the rectum or vagina during sexual activity.

ii. By sharing needles. Sharing contaminated IV drug paraphernalia (needles and

syringes) puts you at high risk of HIV and other infectious diseases, such as hepatitis.

iii. From blood transfusions. In some cases, the virus may be transmitted through
blood transfusions. American hospitals and blood banks now screen the blood supply
for HIV antibodies, so this risk is very small.

iv. During pregnancy or delivery or through breast-feeding. Infected mothers

can pass the virus on to their babies. Mothers who are HIV-positive and get treatment for
the infection during pregnancy can significantly lower the risk to their babies.

How HIV doesn't spread

 You can't become infected with HIV through ordinary contact. That means you
can't catch HIV or AIDS by hugging, kissing, dancing or shaking hands with someone
who has the infection.
 HIV isn't spread through the air, water or insect bites.

Risk factors

Anyone of any age, race, sex or sexual orientation can be infected with HIV/AIDS.
However, you're at greatest risk of HIV/AIDS if you:

i. Have unprotected sex. Use a new latex or polyurethane condom every time you
have sex. Anal sex is more risky than is vaginal sex. Your risk of HIV increases if you
have multiple sexual partners.

ii. Have an STI. Many STIs produce open sores on your genitals. These sores act as
doorways for HIV to enter your body.

iii. Use IV drugs. People who use IV drugs often share needles and syringes. This
exposes them to droplets of other people's blood.

SYMPTOMS
What are the stages of HIV?
i. When people with HIV don’t get treatment, they typically progress through three stages.
ii. But HIV medicine can slow or prevent progression of the disease.
iii. With the advancements in treatment, progression to Stage 3 is less common today than
in the early days of HIV.

Stage 1: Acute HIV Infection

 People have a large amount of HIV in their blood.

 They are very contagious.
 Some people have flu-like symptoms. This is the body’s natural response to
infection.
 But some people may not feel sick right away or at all.
 If you have flu-like symptoms and think you may have been exposed to HIV, seek
medical care and ask for a test to diagnose acute infection.
 Only antigen/antibody tests or nucleic acid tests (NATs) can diagnose acute
infection.
 Possible signs and symptoms include

 Fever
 Headache
 Muscles aches and joint pain
 Rash
 Sore throat and painful mouth sores
 Swollen lymph glands, mainly on the neck
 Diarrhea
 Weight loss
 Cough
 Night sweat
 These symptoms can be so mild that you might not even notice them. However
the amount of virus in your blood stream (viral load) is quite high at this time as a result
the infection spreads more easily during primary infection than during the next stage

Stage 2: Chronic HIV Infection

 This stage is also called asymptomatic HIV infection or clinical latency.

 HIV is still active but reproduces at very low levels.
 People may not have any symptoms or get sick during this phase.
 Without taking HIV medicine, this period may last a decade or longer, but some
may progress faster.
 People can transmit HIV in this phase.
 At the end of this phase, the amount of HIV in the blood (called viral load) goes up
and the CD4 cell count goes down. The person may have symptoms as the virus levels
increase in the body, and the person moves into Stage 3.

 People who take HIV medicine as prescribed may never move into Stage 3.
 The signs and symptoms of some of these infections may include:

 Sweats
 Chills
 Recurring fever
 Chronic diarrhea
 Swollen lymph glands
  Persistent white spots or unusual lesions on your tongue or in your mouth
 Persistent, unexplained fatigue
 Weakness
 Weight loss
 Skin rashes or bumps

Stage 3: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

 The most severe phase of HIV infection.

 People with AIDS have such badly damaged immune systems that they get an
increasing number of severe illnesses, called opportunistic infections.
 People receive an AIDS diagnosis when their CD4 cell count drops below 200
cells/mm, or if they develop certain opportunistic infections.
 People with AIDS can have a high viral load and be very infectious.
 Without treatment, people with AIDS typically survive about three years.

When to see a doctor

 If you think you may have been infected with HIV or are at risk of contracting the virus,
see a doctor as soon as possible.

Prevention

 There's no vaccine to prevent HIV infection and no cure for AIDS. But you can protect
yourself and others from infection.

To help prevent the spread of HIV:

i. Use treatment as prevention (TasP). If you're living with HIV, taking HIV medication

can keep your partner from becoming infected with the virus. If you make sure your viral
load stays undetectable — a blood test doesn't show any virus — you won't transmit the
virus to anyone else. Using TasP means taking your medication exactly as prescribed and
getting regular checkups.

ii. Use post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) if you've been exposed to HIV. If you think
you've been exposed through sex, needles or in the workplace, contact your doctor or go
to the emergency department. Taking PEP as soon as possible within the first 72 hours
can greatly reduce your risk of becoming infected with HIV. You will need to take
medication for 28 days.

iii. Use a new condom every time you have sex. Use a new condom every time you
have anal or vaginal sex. Women can use a female condom. If using a lubricant, make
sure it's water-based. Oil-based lubricants can weaken condoms and cause them to
 break. During oral sex use a nonlubricated, cut-open condom or a dental dam — a piece
of medical-grade latex.

iv. Consider preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP). The combination drugs emtricitabine plus

tenofovir (Truvada) and emtricitabine plus tenofovir alafenamide (Descovy) can reduce
the risk of sexually transmitted HIV infection in people at very high risk. PrEP can reduce
your risk of getting HIV from sex by more than 90% and from injection drug use by more
than 70%, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Descovy hasn't
been studied in people who have receptive vaginal sex.

v. Your doctor will prescribe these drugs for HIV prevention only if you don't already
have HIV infection. You will need an HIV test before you start taking PrEP and then every
three months as long as you're taking it. Your doctor will also test your kidney function
before prescribing Truvada and continue to test it every six months.
vi. You need to take the drugs every day. They don't prevent other STIs, so you'll still need
to practice safe sex. If you have hepatitis B, you should be evaluated by an infectious
disease or liver specialist before beginning therapy.
vii. Tell your sexual partners if you have HIV. It's important to tell all your current and
past sexual partners that you're HIV-positive. They'll need to be tested.

viii. Use a clean needle. If you use a needle to inject drugs, make sure it's sterile and don't
share it. Take advantage of needle-exchange programs in your community. Consider
seeking help for your drug use.

ix. If you're pregnant, get medical care right away. If you're HIV-positive, you may
pass the infection to your baby. But if you receive treatment during pregnancy, you can
significantly cut your baby's risk.

x. Consider male circumcision. There's evidence that male circumcision can help reduce
the risk of getting HIV infection.

EFFECTS OF HIV/AIDS ON INDIVIDUAL HEALTH AND COMMUNITY

 Thus, the figure below summarizes the potential dynamics in an affected household that
can lead to a downward spiral of livelihood degradation.
  When a member of a household becomes infected with HIV, household labor will be
reduced, both due to the decreased health status of the person living with AIDS and
through the labor requirements for caretaking.
 Loss of labor will result in decreased agricultural productivity.
 Household resources are likely to decline due both to increased HIV related expenses and
to decreases in the value of agricultural production. These reduced resources may lead to
further reductions in agricultural output as production-related capital is depleted.
 Reduced household resources may also decrease food consumption at the household
level, which is particularly damaging because of the potentially increased demands for
highly nutritious foods for the PLWA.
 Decreased nutritional status can, in turn, potentially result in reduced health status for
both the PWLA and other members of the affected household. Illness and fatigue lead to
additional reduced labor productivity.

GROUP AND GROUP DYNAMICS

Definitions
a. Group:- Is a collection of two or more people responsible for a task or number of tasks
that can be more effectively achieved collectively
b. Group dynamics: - Once groups are formed, there are actions and reactions
that take place in a group activity. Their actions and interactions/reactions are
commonly referred to as group dynamics
Basic characteristics of a group
i. Sustained interactions
ii. Members have common goals
iii. Members have a set of norms to guide their activities
 Types of groups in relevant to extension
There are many types of groups among them are the following:-
i. Participatory Farmers Groups (PFGs) e.g. NSPFP ( National SpecialProgramme on
Food Production) – Farmer`s groups with homogenous smallholders farmers voluntarily
selected themselves basing on their socio-economic characteristics interests and
objectives
ii. Discussion groups e.g. group of farmers who meet regularly to discussfarming
problems
iii. Statutory groups- legally formed e.g. village communication
iv. Learning groups: - e.g. group of people doing a course on crophusbandry, animal
husbandry etc.
v. Interest groups: - organized around a common goal e.g. Dairyfarmers, vegetable or
“Malimbichi” farmers.
vi. Contact groups e.g. T & V (Train and Visit) contact groups whichmeet fortnightly to
discuss agricultural messages delivered to them by extension officers.
 Stages in group Development (Formation)
There are about four stages of group development:-
1. Forming stage (Initial
awareness) Behaviour characteristics
 Individuals tend to be polite, dependability and complaints about lack ofdirection
 Anxiety about expectations of the tasks before the group, each individualin his/her own

way will be trying to answer the questions “will I be accepted?”

 Hesitant participation by some members

2. Storming stage (Conflict)
Behaviour characteristics
 This is a sorting out process-bidding for control and power
 Personal conflicts to some degree will be present
 People themselves start to assert to regain their individuality, power and influence
 Challenging the ideas of others, leadership, authority and positions
 Withdrawal by some team members, lack of collaboration, competing for control
 High level of reacting and defending
 Output at this stage is of low quality
 Group cannot move to the third stage until it breaks out the frustrationsand establish
acceptable processes of decision making
3. Norming stage (self
organization) Behaviour
characteristics
 Personal relations have developed to a sense of “groupness”, closeness
 Receptiveness to others ideas/opinions
 Criticisms’ are no longer seen as personal attack
 Active listening, participation by all
 Individual skills and knowledge being acknowledge and used - Shared
leadership and open exchange of ideas
 4. Performing stages (Maturity and initial
acceptance)
Behaviour characteristics
 Members experience an intense of loyalty to the group
 There is a willingness to explore new ideas, to consider change to “dare”
 From outside it is seen as `closed` and it can be difficult for a new memberto be
introduced into the group
 There is high creativity, openness and trust
 Strong relationship, shared leadership and easy acceptance of differencesof views
 Feelings of achievement are high - Less
dependent on structure
Elements of group dynamics
The following are main elements of group dynamics
1. Communication
2. Decision making
3. Group growth and development
4. Group maintenance
5. Conflict resolution
1. Communication
 In group process it is important to observe the pattern of communication such as:-
 Who talks, for how long and how often?
 Whom people look at when they talk? individuals, the group or no body in particular
 Who talk after whom? Who interrupt who?
 What style of communication is used (questions, gestures etc.)
2. Decision making
Some of methods group of farmers use to reach decisions are:-
 The one person decision –only one person makes decision. It is quickly anddepends
on the free will or voluntary support of others
 The hand claps –one person makes a suggestion, others agree by clappinghands
without further discussion, the matter is decided
 The clique decision –a decision is made by a small group of people whoplan before to
have their own way
 Minority decision –few powerful personalities dominate the group oftenunconsciously
 Majority vote –in a big group this is the most effective way to make adecision. This
should only be taken after there is fully discussion of the facts
 Consensus –this is an agreement after all opinions have been heard anddisagreements
and minority views points discussed full
3. Group growth and development
For the group to grow and develop the following types of behaviour for group to fulfil its
tasks are shown below:-
 Initiating - for any group to function, some must be willing to take some initiatives
 Seeking and giving information or opinions clear and efficient – flow of information, facts
and opinions is essential to any tasks accomplishment
 Clarifying and elaborating – this is an important behavior as it ensures useful inputs into
the group work to ensure the group do not get lost
 Summarizing – at various points during a group activity it is very helpful if someone takes
a moment to summarize the group discussions. Thus give the entire group an opportunity
to pause for a while, step back, see how far they have come, where they are, and how
much further they must go complete their work
4. Group maintenance
This can be fulfilled by the type of behavior relevant to group members such as
 Encouraging such as nodding in supporting
 Harmonizing and compromising such as pointing to similarities in view expressed
 Standard setting such as keeping time and keeping discussion relevant to agenda
 5. Conflict resolution
Strategies for overcoming and resolving conflicts in groups are:-
 Attempt to depersonalize the conflict so that difference of ideas or policies become
central
 Collaboration – transparency is instrumental to this aspect as it helps to explore all
physical options or alternatives
 Smoothing – no one wants to hurt others
 Compromising – the will to negotiate, everyone gets something and no one solution is
preferred
Causes of conflicts
 Conflicts occur when an individual or groups are not obtaining what they need or want
and are seeking their own interests
Beginning of conflict
 Poor communication
 Seeking power
 Dissatisfaction with management style
 Weak leadership
 Lack of openness
 Change in leadership
 Personality, race or gender gap

Conflict indicators
 Lack of clear goal
 Body language
 Disagreement regardless of issues
 Withholding bad news
 Desire for power
 No discussion of progress etc. Lack of
respects
 GROUP LEADER AND LEADERSHIP

 Leader:- is a person who effectively influences a group to co-operate insetting and

achieving goals
 Leadership:- is defined as a process by which an individual directs, guidesand
influences the thoughts, feelings and impressions of others
Qualities of a good leader
i. Leader understands and adheres to democratic principles
ii. He respects the rights and dignity of the others
iii. He is committed to work and readily accepts responsibility and work for the group
iv. He has knowledge of basic needs and interests of the group
v. He is unbiased
vi. He will recognize and praise where it is ought to be
vii. He is optimistic, enthusiastic and realistic
viii. He possesses integrity and also enjoys the trust and confidence for his group
ix. He makes decision only after understanding the problem