Apportionment: Mathematics in The Modern World

Mathematics
in the Modern World
Apportionment
Ezra Aguilar, Ph.D.

Xandro Alexi Nieto
University of Santo Tomas
Apportionment
The act of dividing people among places

Terminologies
States - the parties having a stake in the apportionment.

- may also be the cities, regions, towns, or municipalities
Seats - indivisible objects that are divided among n states.

- may also be the number of people to be divided among states
Population - a positive integer n, which refers to the number

of residents, or citizens in a locale,
- the basis for the apportionment of the seats to the states.
Terminologies
Standard Divisor (𝒅)

- ratio of the total population to the
total number of seats to be allocated
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑑=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠
Terminologies
Standard Quota (𝒒)

- ratio of a state’s population to the
standard divisor
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 ! 𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑞=
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝑑
Apportionment
Hamilton’s Method
Jefferson’s Method
Adam’s Method
Webster’s Method
Hill-Huntington Method
Lowndes’ Method
Hamilton’s
Method
Hamilton’s Method
§ Proposed by Alexander
Hamilton in 1792
§ first method used to apportion
the seats in the US
§ Adopted to apportion the US
House of Representatives
every 10 years between 1852
& 1900
Steps in Hamilton’s Method
• Compute for the standard divisor.

1
• Compute for the standard quota.

2
• Cut off all the decimal parts (round down) of all

3 the quotas. Add up the remaining whole numbers.
• Add all the lower quota & check if it is equal to the

4 number of representatives.
• If the sum of the lower quotas is less than the number

of representatives, the remaining number of
5 representatives are assigned to the state whose
decimal part of the standard quota are the highest.
Example 1
Use the 2015 population of the Philippines per region

and apply the Hamilton’s method to allocate the 250
members of the House of Representatives. Us
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Example 1
No Region Population
1 National Capital Region (NCR) 12,877,253
2 Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) 1,722,006
3 Region I (Ilocos Region) 5,026,128
4 Region II ( Cagayan Valley) 3,451,410
5 Region III (Central Luzon) 11,218,177
6 Region IV-A (CALABARZON) 14,414,774
7 Region IV-B (MIMAROPA) 2,963,360
8 Region V (Bicol Region) 5,796,989
9 Region VI (Western Visayas) 4,477,247
10 Region VII (Central Visayas) 6,041,903
11 Negros Island Region (NIR) 1 4,414,131
12 Region VIII (Eastern Visayas) 4,440,150
13 Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) 3,629,783
14 Region X (Northern Mindanao) 4,689,302
15 Region XI (Davao Region) 4,893,318
16 Region XII (SOCCSKSSARGEN) 4,545,276
17 Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) 3,781,387
18 Region XIII (Caraga) 2,598,843
Total 100,981,43712
Example 1 (Solution)
Region Population Standard

Quota 1. Compute for the standard divisor:
NCR 12,877,253 31.880 !"!#$ %"%&$#!'"( ,--,/0,,123
𝑑 = !"!#$ (" ") *+#!* = 45-
=403,925.75
CAR 1,722,006 4.263
Region I 5,026,128 12.443
Region II
Region III
3,451,410
11,218,177
8.545
27.773
2. Compute for each standard quota:
Region IV-A 14,414,774 35.687 e.g. 12,877,253 ÷403,925.75= 31.880
Region IV-B 2,963,360 7.336
Region V 5,796,989 14.352
Region VI 4,477,247 11.084 3. Cut off all the decimal parts of all the
Region VII 6,041,903 14.958 quotas. Add up the remaining whole
NIR 4,414,131 10.928 numbers.
Region VIII 4,440,150 10.992
Region IX 3,629,783 8.986
Region X 4,689,302 11.609
Region XI 4,893,318 12.114
Region XII 4,545,276 11.253
ARMM 3,781,387 9.362
Region XIII 2,598,843 6.429
Total 100,981,437
13
Region Population Standard Lower
Quota Quota
NCR 12,877,253 31.880 31
CAR 1,722,006 4.263 4
Region I 5,026,128 12.443 12
Region II 3,451,410 8.545 8
Region III 11,218,177 27.773 27
Region IV-A 14,414,774 35.687 35
Region IV-B 2,963,360 7.336 7
Region V 5,796,989 14.352 14
Region VI 4,477,247 11.084 11
Region VII 6,041,903 14.958 14
NIR 4,414,131 10.928 10
Region VIII 4,440,150 10.992 10
Region IX 3,629,783 8.986 8
Region X 4,689,302 11.609 11
Region XI 4,893,318 12.114 12
Region XII 4,545,276 11.253 11
ARMM 3,781,387 9.362 9
Region XIII 2,598,843 6.429 6
Total 100,981,437 240
14
If that the total from Step 3 was

less than the total number of
representatives, assign the
remaining representatives, one
each, to the states whose decimal
parts of the quota were largest,
until the desired total is reached.
Region Population Standard Lower Extra Final
Quota Quota Seat Allocation
NCR 12,877,253 31.880 5th 31 1 32
CAR 1,722,006 4.263 4 4
Region I 5,026,128 12.443 10th 12 1 13
Region II 3,451,410 8.545 9th 8 1 9
Region III 11,218,177 27.773 6th 27 1 28
Region IV-A 14,414,774 35.687 7th 35 1 36
Region IV-B 2,963,360 7.336 7 7
Region V 5,796,989 14.352 14 14
Region VI 4,477,247 11.084 11 11
Region VII 6,041,903 14.958 3rd 14 1 15
NIR 4,414,131 10.928 4th 10 1 11
Region VIII 4,440,150 10.992 1st 10 1 11
Region IX 3,629,783 8.986 2nd 8 1 9
Region X 4,689,302 11.609 8th 11 1 12
Region XI 4,893,318 12.114 12 12
Region XII 4,545,276 11.253 11 11
ARMM 3,781,387 9.362 9 9
Region XIII 2,598,843 6.429 6 6
Total 100,981,437 240 10 250
16
Example 2
1 (Solution)
Suppose 100 doctors have to

be assigned to different
parts of Metro Manila during
New Year’s eve due to
firecracker reported injuries
that may happen.
Allocations will depend on
the number of reported
injuries of the previous
years. Below is the report of
WHO of reported firecracker
injuries from 2010 to 2014.
17
Example 2
1 (Solution)
Use the Hamilton method to determine how many doctors have

to be assigned at different parts of Metro Manila.
City Number of Standard Lower Final
Reported Injuries Quota Quota Quota
Mandaluyong 548
Manila 508
Marikina 290 Standard divisor:
Las Pinas 286
2810 / 100 = 28.10
Navotas 261
Quezon City 252
Pasig 245
Pateros 218
Valenzuela 202
TOTAL: 2810
18
Example 2
1 (Solution)

Mandaluyong 548
Manila 508
Marikina 290 Divide each by
Las Pinas 286
the standard divisor
Navotas 261
Quezon City 252
d = 28.10
Pasig 245
Pateros 218
Valenzuela 202
TOTAL: 2810
19
Example 2
1 (Solution)

Mandaluyong 548 19.50178
Manila 508 18.07829
Marikina 290 10.32028
Las Pinas 286 10.17794
Navotas 261 9.288256
Quezon City 252 8.967972
Pasig 245 8.718861
Pateros 218 7.758007
Valenzuela 202 7.188612
TOTAL: 2810
20
Example 2
1 (Solution)

Mandaluyong 548 19.50178 19
Manila 508 18.07829 18
Marikina 290 10.32028 10
Las Pinas 286 10.17794 10
Navotas 261 9.288256 9
Quezon City 252 8.967972 8
Pasig 245 8.718861 8
Pateros 218 7.758007 7
Valenzuela 202 7.188612 7 21
TOTAL: 2810
Example 2
1 (Solution)

Mandaluyong 548 19.50178 19 20
Manila 508 18.07829 18 18
Marikina 290 10.32028 10 10
Las Pinas 286 10.17794 10 10
Navotas 261 9.288256 9 9
Quezon City 252 8.967972 8 9
Pasig 245 8.718861 8 9
Pateros 218 7.758007 7 8
Valenzuela 202 7.188612 7 7
TOTAL: 2810 100
22
Alabama Paradox
Increasing the number of seats may
cause a party to lose a seat.
Jefferson’s
Method
Jefferson’s Method
§ Proposed by Thomas
Jefferson
§ adopted in the US Congress in
1791 until 1840.
§ First three steps are the same
with Hamilton’s method
Steps in Jefferson’s Method
Same as Steps 1 to 3 of Hamilton’s method.

Steps in Jefferson’s Method
Except that:
If the total from Step 3 was less than the
total number of representatives, reduce
the divisor and recalculate the quota
and allocation. Continue doing this until
the total in Step 3 is equal to the total
number of representatives.
*The divisor we end up using is called the
modified divisor or adjusted divisor.
Example 3
The House of Representatives of a certain country needs

41 new members to divide among three states A, B, and
C. The population data of the 3 states are as follows:
State Population
A 162310
B 538479
C 197145
Total 897934
Use the Jefferson’s method to allocate the 41 new
members.
Example 3
Standard
State Population Quota Lower Quota
A 162,310 7.411 7
B 538,479 24.587 24
C 197,145 9.002 9
Total 897,934 40
1. Compute for the standard divisor: 3. Cut off all the decimal parts of all the
!"!#$ %"%&$#!'"( 0/3/21 quotas. Add up the remaining whole
𝑑= = = 21,900.83
!"!#$ (" ") *+#!* 1, numbers.

Example 3
Standard
A 162,310 7.411 7
B 538,479 24.587 24
C 197,145 9.002 9
Total 897,934 40
4. Reduce the standard divisor (21,900.83) until

the sum of lower quota is 41.
Example 3
Standard
A 162,310 7.729 7
B 538,479 25.642 25
C 197,145 9.388 9
Total 897,934 41
4. Trying modified divisor as 21,000.

Example 2
1 (Solution)
Use the Jefferson method to determine how many doctors have

Mandaluyong 548 19.50178 19 20
Manila 508 18.07829 18 18
Marikina 290 Using Hamilton’s
10.32028 10 method,
10
Las Pinas 286 with standard10divisor:
10.17794 10
Navotas 261 of 28.10
9.288256 9 9
Quezon City 252 8.967972 8 9
Pasig 245 8.718861 8 9
Pateros 218 7.758007 7 8
Valenzuela 202 7.188612 7 7
TOTAL: 2810 100
32
Example 2
1 (Solution)

City Number of Standard Lower
Reported Injuries Quota Quota
Mandaluyong 548
Manila 508
Marikina 290 Reduce the divisor!!!
Las Pinas 286
Navotas 261
Quezon City 252
Pasig 245
Pateros 218
Valenzuela 202
TOTAL: 2810
33
Example 2
1 (Solution)

Mandaluyong 548
Manila 508
Marikina 290 Trying the divisor as 27.
Las Pinas 286
Navotas 261
Quezon City 252
Pasig 245
Pateros 218
Valenzuela 202
TOTAL: 2810
34
Example 2
1 (Solution)

Manila 508 18.815 18
Marikina 290 10.741 10
Las Pinas 286 10.593 10
Navotas 261 9.667 9
Quezon City 252 9.333 9
Pasig 245 9.074 9
Pateros 218 8.074 8
Valenzuela 202 7.481 7
TOTAL: 2810 100
35
Adam’s
Method
Adam’s Method
§ Proposed by Quincy Adams in

1822
§ Exact opposite of the Jefferson’s
method
Steps in Adam’s Method
Instead of rounding down to get the

standard quota, round up.
If the sum of the upper quotas is higher
than the number of representatives, get a
modified divisor, by increasing the
standard divisor, until the total number of
representatives is met.
Example 3

State Population
A 162310
B 538479
C 197145
Total 897934
Use the Adam’s method to allocate the 41 new
members.
Example 3
Standard
State Population Quota Upper Quota
A 162,310 7.411 8
B 538,479 24.587 25
C 197,145 9.002 10
Total 897,934 43
1. Compute for the standard divisor: 3. Round up the standard quota to get
!"!#$ %"%&$#!'"( 0/3/21 the upper quota.
𝑑= = = 21,900.83
!"!#$ (" ") *+#!* 1,

Example 3
Standard
A 162,310 7.411 8
B 538,479 24.587 25
C 197,145 9.002 10
Total 897,934 43
4. Increase the standard divisor (21,900.83)

until the sum of lower quota is 41.
Example 3
Standard
A 162,310 7.057 8
B 538,479 23.412 24
C 197,145 8.572 9
Total 897,934 41
4. Trying modified divisor as 23,000.

Example 2
1 (Solution)
Use the Adam’s method to determine how many doctors have to

be assigned at different parts of Metro Manila.
Mandaluyong 548 19.50178 19 20
Manila 508 18.07829 18 18
10.32028 10 method,
10
10.17794 10
9.288256 9 9
Quezon City 252 8.967972 8 9
Pasig 245 8.718861 8 9
Pateros 218 7.758007 7 8
Valenzuela 202 7.188612 7 7
TOTAL: 2810 100
43
Example 2
1 (Solution)

City Number of Standard Upper
Mandaluyong 548
Manila 508
Marikina 290 Increase the divisor!!!
Las Pinas 286
Navotas 261
Quezon City 252
Pasig 245
Pateros 218
Valenzuela 202
TOTAL: 2810
44
Example 2
1 (Solution)

Standard Upper
City Number of
Quota Quota
Reported Injuries
Manila 508 17.523 18
Marikina 290 10.003 11
Las Pinas
Trying the divisor 286
as 9.865 10
Navotas 261 9.003 10
28.99.
Pasig 245 8.451 9
Pateros 218 7.52 8
TOTAL: 2810
45
101
Example 2
1 (Solution)

City Number of Standard Upper
Manila 508 17.517 18
Marikina 290 10.000 10
Las Pinas
Trying the divisor 286
as 9.862 10
Navotas 261 9.000 9
29.00.
Pasig 245 8.448 9
Pateros 218 7.517 8
TOTAL: 2810
46
99
Webster’s
Method
Webster’s Method
§ Proposed by Daniel Webster
§ Used by the US Congress from

1842 to 1852, 1911 and 1931
Steps in Webster’s Method
Instead of rounding up or rounding down round

OFF the standard quota.
If the sum of the upper quotas does not equal the
total number of seats to be apportioned, choose a
modified divisor greater or less than the standard
divisor and calculate the modified quotas and upper
modified quotas.
Example 3

State Population
A 162310
B 538479
C 197145
Total 897934
Use the Webster’s method to allocate the 41 new
members.
Example 3
Standard Rounded
State Population Quota Quota
A 162,310 7.411 7
B 538,479 24.587 25
C 197,145 9.002 9
Total 897,934 41
1. Compute for the standard divisor: 3. Round off the standard quota to get
!"!#$ %"%&$#!'"( 0/3/21 the rounded quota.
𝑑= = = 21,900.83
!"!#$ (" ") *+#!* 1,

Example 2
1 (Solution)
Use the Webster’s method to determine how many doctors have

Mandaluyong 548 19.50178 19 20
Manila 508 18.07829 18 18
10.32028 10 method,
10
10.17794 10
9.288256 9 9
Quezon City 252 8.967972 8 9
Pasig 245 8.718861 8 9
Pateros 218 7.758007 7 8
Valenzuela 202 7.188612 7 7
TOTAL: 2810 100
52
Example 2
1 (Solution)
Use the Webster’s method to determine how many doctors have

City Number of Standard Rounded
Manila 508 18.078 18
Marikina 290 10.320 10
Las Pinas 286 10.178 10
Navotas 261 9.288 9
Pasig 245 8.719 9
Pateros 218 7.758 8
TOTAL: 2810 100 53
Hill-Huntington
Method
Huntington-Hill’s Method
§ Proposed by Edward
Huntington and Joseph Hill
§ Currently being used by the
US Congress since 1941
Steps in Huntington-Hill’s Method
Compute for the standard divisor and the standard

quota of each state.
Compare the standard quota of each state with
its geometric mean, 𝑛(𝑛 + 1), where n is the
lower quota.
Round up the standard quota if it’s greater than the
geometric mean. Round down if it’s less than the
geometric mean.
Steps in Huntington-Hill’s Method
If the sum of the rounded up/down

quotas is less than the number of
representatives, reduce the standard
divisor. But if the sum of the quotas is
greater than the number of
representatives, increase the standard
divisor, until the total number of
representatives is achieved.
Example 3

State Population
A 162310
B 538479
C 197145
Total 897934
Use the Hill-Huntington method to allocate the 41
new members.
Example 3
Standard
A 162,310 7.411 7
B 538,479 24.587 24
C 197,145 9.002 9
Total 897,934
1. Compute for the standard divisor: 3. Round down the standard quota to
!"!#$ %"%&$#!'"( 0/3/21 get the lower quota.
𝑑= = = 21,900.83
!"!#$ (" ") *+#!* 1,

Example 3
Standard Lower Geometric Initial

State Quota Quota Mean Allocation
A 7.411 7 7.483 7
B 24.587 24 24.495 25
C 9.002 9 9.49 9
Total: 41
4. Get the geometric mean 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) of each lower quota.

5. If the standard quota < 𝑛(𝑛 + 1), round up. Otherwise, round down.
Example 3
Standard Lower Geometric Initial

State Quota Quota Mean Allocation
A 7.411 7 7.483 7
B 24.587 24 24.495 25
C 9.002 9 9.49 9
Total: 41
If the sum of the initial allocation is not equal
to the number of representatives, adjust the
divisor and recompute everything.
Example 2
1 (Solution)
Use the Hill-Huntington method to determine how many doctors

have to be assigned at different parts of Metro Manila.
Mandaluyong 548 19.50178 19 20
Manila 508 18.07829 18 18
10.32028 10 method,
10
Las Pinas 286 10.17794
with standard10divisor:
10
Navotas 261 9.288256 9
of 28.10 9
Quezon City 252 8.967972 8 9
Pasig 245 8.718861 8 9
Pateros 218 7.758007 7 8
Valenzuela 202 7.188612 7 7 62
TOTAL: 2810 100

Example 2
1 (Solution)

City Number of Standard Lower Geometric
Reported Injuries Quota Quota Mean
Mandaluyong 548 19.50178 19 19.494
Manila 508 18.07829 18 18.493
Marikina 290 10.32028 10 10.488
Las Pinas 286 10.17794 10 10.488
Navotas 261 9.288256 9 9.487
Quezon City 252 8.967972 8 8.485
Pasig 245 8.718861 8 8.485
Pateros 218 7.758007 7 7.483
Valenzuela 202 7.188612 7 7.483
TOTAL: 2810
63
Example 2
1 (Solution)

City Standard Quota Geometric Mean Initial Allocation
Mandaluyong 19.50178 19.494 20

Manila 18.07829 18.493 18
Marikina 10.32028 10.488 10
Las Pinas 10.17794 10.488 10
Navotas 9.288256 9.487 9
Quezon City 8.967972 8.485 9
Pasig 8.718861 8.485 9
Pateros 7.758007 7.483 8
Valenzuela 7.188612 7.483 7
TOTAL: 100 64
Lowndes’ Method
Lowndes’ Method
§ Proposed by William Lowndes

§ Never been used in the US
Congress
Steps in Lowndes’ Method
Like Hamilton’s and Jefferson’s where

standard quota is rounded down.
Assuming that the total was less than the
total number of representatives, divide
the decimal part of each state’s quota
by the whole number part. Assign the
remaining representatives, one each, to
the states whose ratio of decimal part to
whole part were largest, until the desired
total is reached.
Example 3

State Population
A 162310
B 538479
C 197145
Total 897934
Use the Hill-Huntington method to allocate the 41
new members.
Example 3
Standard
A 162,310 7.411 7
B 538,479 24.587 24
C 197,145 9.002 9
Total 897,934
1. Compute for the standard divisor: 3. Round down the standard quota to
!"!#$ %"%&$#!'"( 0/3/21 get the lower quota.
𝑑= = = 21,900.83
!"!#$ (" ") *+#!* 1,

Example 3
Standard Lower
State Quota Quota Ratio
A 7.411 7 0.0587
B 24.587 24 0.0245
C 9.002 9 0.0002
Total:
4. Divide the decimal part of each
state’s quota by the whole number
part.
Example 3
Standard Lower
State Quota Quota Ratio Allocation
A 7.411 7 0.0587 8
B 24.587 24 0.0245 24
C 9.002 9 0.0002 9
Total: 41
5. The state(s) with the highest ratio

will each have one extra seat.
Example 2
1 (Solution)
Use the Lowndes’ method to determine how many doctors have

Mandaluyong 548 19.50178 19 20
Manila 508 18.07829 18 18
10.32028 10 method,
10
10.17794 10
9.288256 9 9
Quezon City 252 8.967972 8 9
Pasig 245 8.718861 8 9
Pateros 218 7.758007 7 8
Valenzuela 202 7.188612 7 7
TOTAL: 2810 100
72
Example 2
1 (Solution)
Use the Lowndes’ method to determine how many doctors have

City Standard Quota Lower Quota Ratio Allocation
Mandaluyong 19.50178 19 0.0264 19
Manila 18.07829 18 0.0043 18
Marikina 10.32028 10 0.0320 10
Las Pinas 10.17794 10 0.0177 10
Navotas 9.288256 9 0.0320 10
Quezon City 8.967972 8 0.1209 9
Pasig 8.718861 8 0.0898 9
Pateros 7.758007 7 0.1082 8
Valenzuela 7.188612 7 0.0269 7
TOTAL: 96 100
73
Recap of
Apportionment
Methods
Hamilton’s
Method
• Get the lower quota.
• The state(s) with the highest decimal values,
will each get additional one representative.
Jefferson’s
Method
• Reduce the divisor if the sum is not equal to
the number of representatives.
Adam’s
Method
• Get the upper quota.
• Increase the divisor if the sum is not equal to
the number of representatives.
Webster’s
Method
• Get the rounded quota.
• Increase/Decrease the divisor if the sum is
not equal to the number of representatives.
Hill-Huntington
Method
• Get the standard quota.
• Get 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) , where n is the lower quota.

• Compare the standard quota with 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) to
decide whether to round it up or round it down.
Lowndes’
Method
• Get the ratio by dividing the decimal value and the

lower quota of the standard quota.
• The one with highest ratio receives one extra
allocation.
Other Methods of Apportionment
Dean’s Method
Condorcet’s Method

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Mathematics

in the Modern World

Ezra Aguilar, Ph.D.

The act of dividing people among places

States - the parties having a stake in the apportionment.

Seats - indivisible objects that are divided among n states.

Population - a positive integer n, which refers to the number

Standard Divisor (𝒅)

Standard Quota (𝒒)

• Compute for the standard divisor.

• Compute for the standard quota.

• Cut off all the decimal parts (round down) of all

• Add all the lower quota & check if it is equal to the

• If the sum of the lower quotas is less than the number

Use the 2015 population of the Philippines per region

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

Region Population Standard

If that the total from Step 3 was

Suppose 100 doctors have to

Use the Hamilton method to determine how many doctors have

Use the Hamilton method to determine how many doctors have

Use the Hamilton method to determine how many doctors have

Use the Hamilton method to determine how many doctors have

Use the Hamilton method to determine how many doctors have

Same as Steps 1 to 3 of Hamilton’s method.

The House of Representatives of a certain country needs

2. Compute for each standard quota:

4. Reduce the standard divisor (21,900.83) until

4. Trying modified divisor as 21,000.

Use the Jefferson method to determine how many doctors have

Use the Jefferson method to determine how many doctors have

Use the Jefferson method to determine how many doctors have

Use the Jefferson method to determine how many doctors have

§ Proposed by Quincy Adams in

Instead of rounding down to get the

The House of Representatives of a certain country needs

2. Compute for each standard quota:

4. Increase the standard divisor (21,900.83)

4. Trying modified divisor as 23,000.

Use the Adam’s method to determine how many doctors have to

Use the Adam’s method to determine how many doctors have to

Use the Adam’s method to determine how many doctors have to

Use the Adam’s method to determine how many doctors have to

§ Proposed by Daniel Webster

§ Used by the US Congress from

Instead of rounding up or rounding down round

The House of Representatives of a certain country needs

2. Compute for each standard quota:

Use the Webster’s method to determine how many doctors have

Use the Webster’s method to determine how many doctors have

Compute for the standard divisor and the standard

If the sum of the rounded up/down

The House of Representatives of a certain country needs

2. Compute for each standard quota:

Standard Lower Geometric Initial

4. Get the geometric mean 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) of each lower quota.

Standard Lower Geometric Initial

Use the Hill-Huntington method to determine how many doctors

TOTAL: 2810 100