GED S3 01 (M/P)

Sociological Foundation of Education

SEMESTER - III

EDUCATION
BLOCK - 1
(Major / Pass)

KRISHNA KANTA HANDIQUI STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 1

 Subject Experts
1. Prof. Swarnalata Das, Dept. of Education, Gauhati University
2. Prof. Gayatree Goswamee, Dept. of Education, Gauhati University
3. Dr. Sadhana Goswami ,Dept. of Education, Cotton College
Course Coordinator: Indrani Kalita
SLM Preparation Team
UNITS CONTRIBUTORS
Unit 1 Indrani Kalita
Krishna Kanata Handiqui State Open University
Unit 2 Piyali Roy
Bodoland University, Kokrajhar
Unit 3 & 8 Dr. Haimya Gohain
Chaiduar College, Gohpur
Unit 4 & 5 Dr.Runumi Devi
North Guwahati College
Unit 6 Karabi Devi & Archana Adhikary
Pragjyotish B.Ed College Pacharia
Teachers’ Training College, Mirza
Unit 7 Archana Adhikary & Dr. Haimya Gohain
Teachers’ Training College, Mirza
Chaiduar College, Gohpur
Editorial Team
Content Editor : Prof. Nilima Bhagabati (Retd.),Gauhati University.
Dr. Pranab Saikia, KKHSOU
Language Editor : Rupam Hazarika,R.G Baruah College
Chayanika Roy & Pallavi Gogoi, KKHSOU
Format Editor : Indrani Kalita, KKHSOU
May, 2018, Reprint- May 2019

This Self Learning Material (SLM) of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University
is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike4.0 License
(international): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
Printed and published by Registrar on behalf of the Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open
University.
The University acknowledges with thanks the financial support provided by the
Distance Education Bureau, UGC for the preparation of this study material.
Headquarters: Patgaon, Rani Gate, Guwahati-781017
City Office: Housefed Complex, Dispur, Guwahati-781006; Web: www.kkhsou.in
2 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)
 CONTENTS Page No.

UNIT 1 : Educational Sociology 7 - 29

Concept,Meaning and Definitions of Sociology, Relationship
between Education and Sociology, Meaning, Definition, Nature
and Scope of Educational sociology,Need and Importance of
Sociological approach in Education, Educational Sociology and
Sociology of Education,Limitations of Educational Sociology.

UNIT 2 : Education and Society 30 - 43

Society and its Origin, Factors of Society and their Influence on
Education, Education as a Social System, Meaning of
Socialisation, Education as an instrument of Socialisation
Process.

UNIT 3 : Process of Socialisation 44 - 77

Meaning, definition and Characteristics of Socialisation, Process
of Socialisation- Co-operation, Competition, Conflict,
Accomodation, Socialisation and Social Interaction.

UNIT 4 : Education and Social Change 78 - 92

Meaning, Nature, Characteristics, Causes and Agencies of Social
Change, Education as a factor of Social Change.

UNIT 5 : Social Change in India 93 - 117

Meaning, Concept, Characteristics of Modernization,
Westernization and Globalization with special reference to Indian
Society.

UNIT 6 : Social Organization and Disorganization 118 - 143

Concept and Characteristics of Social Organization, Factors
influencing Social Organization, Meaning of Folkways and Mores
and its educational implications, Meaning, Causes and Types
of Social Disorganization, Role of Education in Prevention of
Social Disorganization.

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 3

 Page No.

UNIT 7 : Social Group 144 - 172

Meaning, Definition, Characteristics and Types of Social Groups,
Meaning, Characteristics and Factors of Social Interaction,
Educational Implications of Social Interaction, Concept and
Definition of Group Dynamics, Educational Significance of Group
Dynamics, Concept, Meaning, Definition, Objectives and Types
of Leadership, Role of Education in Leadership Training.

UNIT 8 : Social Stratification 173 - 187

Origin, Concept, Definition, Nature and Functions of Social
Startification, Theories of Social Stratification, Types or Forms
of Social Stratification, Education and Social Stratification.

4 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)

COURSE INTRODUCTION : SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

Education as a process and an idea exists within a societal context. Whether formal or informal
learning, education is organized in the society by individuals who are members of a particular group,
community, states and nation. So, you can understand the significance of the society in educational
transactions and organizing curricular events.This is the course in Education for the Third Semester of
Three Years Degree level Course. This course depicts the relationship between education and society
and also the role and importance of education upon society. Sociology is the scientific study of society, as
such, it closely examines human interactions and cultural phenomena, including topics like inequality and
urbanization and the effects of these on groups and individuals. This course is designed to introduce you
to a range of basic sociological principles so that you can develop your own sociological imagination.

BLOCK INTRODUCTION (BLOCK-1)

In this course, the First Unit deals with the meaning, concept, scope of educational sociology and
also its needs and importance. The Second Unit identifies the origin of society and the role of education
towards socialisation.The Third Unit explains the entire process of socialisation in detail. The Fourth Unit
deals with the concept, causes, agencies of social change and also explains how education palys a
significant role in social change. Fifth Unit explains in detail the concept and causes of modernisation,
westernisation and globalisation and role of education towards such changes in India. Sixth Unit reflects
on the important concept like social organisation and disorganisation. Again, in the Seventh Unit there is
a very detail discussion on various social groups and how education can play a significant role in the
formation of group leader. And in the last unit of the block, i.e, in the Eight unit, a clear description is given
on social stratification and the relation of education on social stratification.

While going through a unit, you will notice some along-side boxes, which have been included to
help you know some of the difficult, unseen terms. Some “ACTIVITY’ (s) have been included to help you
apply your own thoughts. Again, we have included some relevant concepts in “LET US KNOW” along with
the text. And, at the end of each section, you will get “CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” questions. These
have been designed to self-check your progress of study. It will be better if you solve the problems put in
these boxes immediately after you go through the sections of the units and then match your answers
with “ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS” given at the end of each unit.

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 5

6 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)
UNIT 1: EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY
UNIT STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction

1.3 Concept of Sociology

1.3.1 Meaning and definition of Sociology

1.3.2 Relationship between Education and Sociology

1.4 Meaning of Educational Sociology

1.4.1 Definitions of Educational Sociology

1.4.2 Nature of Educational Sociology

1.4.3 Scope of Educational Sociology

1.5 Need and importance of sociological approach in education

1.6 Educational Sociology and Sociology of Education

1.7 Limitations of Educational Sociology

1.8 Let Us Sum Up

1.9 Further Reading

1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.11 Model Questions

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 define the concept of Sociology
 discuss the meaning, nature, and scope of Educational Sociology
 explain the need and importance of Sociological approach in
education

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Unit 1 Educational Sociology

1.2 INTRODUCTION

A man is born in society and he has to pass his life in the society. In
the society, he is influenced by various factors and he also influences the
society. The individual and society both react upon each other. Both of these
have a mutual relationship. It is an account of this factor that this interaction
becomes an important topic of study in the domain of education. Sociology
is such a subject which studies this interaction. The social significance of
education is studied by Educational Sociology. This unit introduces you to
some basic concepts of Sociology and Educational Sociology, its relevance
and its need and importance in day-to-day life of every individual.

1.3 CONCEPT OF SOCIOLOGY

The history of the development of Sociology starts from 1837 when

French Philosopher, Auguste Comte coined this word. In 1837, in one of his
lectures, he used the word ‘Sociology’. By Sociology, he meant the
application of scientific method in the study of the relationship between the
society and the individual. Comte considered this subject as ‘Pure
Knowledge’ because its study can be made through methodical and pure
researches.

1.3.1 Meaning and definition of Sociology

Compared to other sociological sciences, Sociology is a new

subject of study. It is described as the youngest of all social sciences.
Aristotle had commented that man is a social animal. He realized
the need and prospect of sociological study of man. Of course, in
those days Sociology did not come out as a distinct science of study.
The word “Sociology” has been derived from the Latin word “Socius”
meaning “associates” or “companions” and the Greek word “Logos”
meaning “scientific study”. So, the etymological meaning of
Sociology is, “the science of society”. In order to make our modern
concept of Sociology clear, some of the definitions on the subject
may be taken into consideration:

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Educational Sociology Unit 1

 According to Giddings, “Sociology is an attempt to account for

the origin, growth, structure and activities of society.”
 According to Kimball Young, “Sociology deals with the behaviour
of man in a group.”
 According to Moore and Cole, “Sociology studies plural
behaviour.”
 Emile Durkheim defines Sociology as the “science of social
institutions”.
As a summary to the above definitions, it may be said that
Sociology is the scientific study of society. It studies behaviour of
man in relation to society. Man has two aspects of consideration-
biological and social. Sociology, as a subject, studies man not as a
biological individual but as a social individual.
On analysis of the above definitions we may deduce certain general
points for our consideration on sociology as a subject. They are-
 Sociology is the science of society.
 It studies the nature of social relations and behaviour of man.
 It studies the origin, growth and development of human
society.

1.3.2 Relationship between Education and Sociology

Sociology and Education, as two branches of knowledge,

concerned essentially with man and his life, are intimately related.
Education has come to be known as one of the basic activities of
human societies everywhere. The continued existence of a society
depends upon the transmission of its heritage to the young. It is
essential that the young be trained according to the ways and
expectations of the groups so that they will behave in a desired way.
All societies have their own ways and means of meeting this need.
‘Education’ as a process has come to stay as an effective means
of meeting this need.

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 9

Unit 1 Educational Sociology

The term “education” comes from the Latin word “educare” which
means to bring up. Another Latin word“educere” which means to

bring forth. So, the derivative meaning of the word Education is to

bring forth as well as bring up. Education, in its widest sense, can
mean everything that is learned by an individual in society. Durkheim

conceived of education as the ‘socialisation of the younger

generation’. It is a process of transmission of social heritage.
Education consists of “an attempt on the part of the adult members

of human society to shape the development of the coming generation

in accordance with its own ideals of life.”

Education and Sociology are intimately related. Education is one

of the major institutions of society. It is the creation of society itself.

Educational activities constitute a part of the social activities of man.
In this way ‘education’ appears as a branch of Sociology. Educational

Sociology is a branch of the discipline of sociology which is

confronted with the problems of relationship between society and
education.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1 : Who first coined the term “Sociology”?

.......................................................................…………………………

.......................................................................…………………………

Q 2 : Define the term Sociology in your own words.

.......................................................................…………………………

.......................................................................…………………………

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Educational Sociology Unit 1

1.4 MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

Education is a process of socializing the individual child. It means

that the child needs to be given education in accordance with the needs,
hopes and aspirations of the society. Education should help the child in
making him a socially efficient individual. As an individual he should enjoy
the benefits of society and, at the same time, the society should also be
benefited in turn by his own creative and productive work. Education is,
therefore, a conscious and purposeful activity through which the child is
trained to live an effective life in society. Schooling is nothing but a process
of socialisation of the individual child through formal educational agencies
of society. Educational Sociology as a subject may be described as an
important branch of Applied Sociology. It applies the theoretical principles
of Sociology in the field of education, more particularly in the classroom
situation of learning. It is a subject that helps to tackle the problems of
education by making use of the sociological principles. Educational
Sociology makes us aware of the social nature, implications and significance
of education. It evolves methods and procedures, prepares plans and
programme in bringing about the desired changes in behaviour and attitude
of the students and the teachers. It involves the whole school community
that includes the students, the teachers, the parents, the administrators,
social leaders and the community people concerned with the whole of
educative process.
Educational Sociology, after studying of the interactions of the
different elements of the society with the individual, throws light on their
importance in education. This science emphasizes the progress of the
society through the medium of education. The problems of schooling and
instructions are looked upon especially as the problems of society. For
example, it studies as to what type of education should be given to the
children? What should be its curriculum, which books are to be taught and
also why the children become delinquents, truants etc.? The answer to
these questions can only be obtained through a study of the nature and
form of the society. Educational Sociology also tries to search a suitable
Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 11
Unit 1 Educational Sociology

solution for these problems. This science throws light on those institutions
and organizations and on those social interactions which are of great
importance in the educational process. In short, this science utilizes the
total educational interaction which helps in the personality development of
the individual so that he becomes a better social being.
The discussion on Educational Sociology, thus, bring us two basic premises,
namely,
 Studies of the educational system as a sub-system of the total
system of the society and
 The perspectives of Sociology are applied in the analysis of
educational phenomena.

1.4.1 Definitions of Educational Sociology

There are many important definitions given by different sociologists

regarding the concept of Educational Sociology. We can consider
the following definitions of Educational Sociology as important:
 Ottowa has defined the subject of Educational Sociology in
the following words- “Educational Sociology starts with
assumption that education is an activity which goes on in
the society and the society in its turn determines the nature
of education.”
 According to Cook and Cook, “Educational Sociology is the
application of sociological knowledge and technique to
educational problem in the field of human relations and
material well-being.”
 According to Robert Stalcup, “Educational Sociology is the
application of general principles and findings of Sociology to
the administration and process of education. This approach
attempts to apply principles of Sociology to the instruction
of education as a separate social unit.”
 According to Brown, “Educational Sociology is the study of
interaction of the individual and his cultural environment.”

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Educational Sociology Unit 1

 According to Good, “Educational Sociology is the scientific

study of how people live in social group especially including
the study of education that is obtained by living in the social
groups and education that is needed by the members to live
effectively in the groups.”

1.4.2 Nature of Educational Sociology

The nature of Educational Sociology may be discussed as

follows :
 Man is a social being. He has to learn the lesson of social
adjustment in school with the help of his teachers and school
mates. Educational Sociology recognizes the social nature
of man and plans accordingly.
 As social beings all men are equal. They cannot be
discriminated on the basis of birth, occupation, beliefs and
place of living. Educational Sociology recognizes this
fundamental principle and makes education accessible to
all persons without distinction. She/He is given opportunities
to receive education to the maximum level of his capacity.
 Individual is necessarily affected with the social elements.
Educational Sociology studies these impacts objectively and
applies them in the educational environment of the school.
 Culture which is the most important element of society is
formally preserved and transmitted in the school. Educational
Sociology analyses the desirable and undesirable aspects
of culture by comparing them with the national and
international culture.
 Educational Sociology helps the philosophers in constructing
curriculum keeping in view the socio-economic tendencies
and demands of the society.
 It helps us to provide sound social bases for educational
researches. Sociological researches in education have
special significance.

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Unit 1 Educational Sociology

 Educational Sociology studies the causes of social and group

conflicts which are to be removed by imparting suitable
education.
 Educational Sociology paves the way for independent living
of the child in the society.

1.4.3 Scope of Educational Sociology

Educational Sociology as a subject has its special field of

study so far as educational theory and practice are concerned. From
the sociological point of view education is not merely the act of
schooling or teaching-learning process or a certain body of subjects.
It is equivalent to the development of character and social personality
of the learner by means of imparting education of social life and its
experiences. Our social life is consisted of variety and multiplicity of
experiences in society that include games and sports, music, art
and culture, religious and communal observances and ceremonies,
debate, discussion and intellectual exchange of experiences of
socio-political situation inside and outside the classroom. So, it is
education that provides the wider scope of study in Sociology. Modern
education therefore, identifies itself with the sociological study. Its
main objective is to socialize the individual child through the
programmes of school activity. Some of the scope or major areas
of study that have been provided by Educational Sociology may be
described as below-
Aim of education :
Determination of an appropriate aim of education acceptable
to all sections of people in society is a major problem of education.
Sociology as a subject plays an important role in determination of
aims and objectives of education. Sociologically considered the aim
of education is to make an individual live a better life in society.
Individual biological qualities, and instinctive tendencies and urges
of a child need to be trained and developed in society for social
progress. John Dewey had emphasized the aim of education from

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Educational Sociology Unit 1

sociological point of view. According to this aim, education should

make a child socially fit and efficient. Sociology has a direct influence
on determination of a suitable aim of education. Sociological study
can help the teacher and the educator to decide the aim of education
helpful for individual development in society.
Functions of education :
Sociology as a subject identifies itself with the
comprehensive function of education. Educational thinkers have
pointed out that the functions of education are broadly of two types
- conservative and progressive. The task of education is to conserve
and preserve the social heritage of the people in the past. Every
new generation should be acquainted with the art, culture, literature,
science and technology of their predecessors. Little children should
learn them in the form of books and the courses of study in school.
Teacher is to help the society to conserve the past heritage of man
in the young minds. Similarly, education is to make necessary
progress and development of social heritage for future. It helps to
evolve new ideas, thoughts, principles and new creations in human
mind for social progress. Sociology as a subject can only give us
the idea and the insight into progressive development of the social
heritage through education.
Curriculum :
Sociology provides the wider scope of determination of
effective curriculum for modern education. As the needs of society
are in the process of change, curriculum is to follow the principle of
dynamism and progressivism with the changes of time and its need.
From sociological point of view, curriculum should reflect the social,
cultural, scientific and technological values of society, its hopes and
aspirations and the future needs and prospects. Planning of a
curriculum should therefore be based on the conditions and needs
of society. The subject matter of school curriculum must include
the items of knowledge that have their relevance to society of the
past and the present. There are again certain new subjects which
Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 15
Unit 1 Educational Sociology

are to be evolved in the curriculum on consideration of sociological

needs, hopes and prospects of society. It is therefore quite evident
that Sociology as a subject provides the basis of the determination
of the school curriculum.
Method of education :
Sociology as a subject has influenced the method of teaching
in modern education. In old days education was the unilateral activity
of the teacher. He used to dominate curriculum and the method of
teaching, and the standard of discipline maintained in school. It was
somewhat authoritarian role of the teacher that was imposed on
the students. Their interests, aptitude, hopes and wishes did not
find consideration in education. At present such a method has been
rejected and the unilateral and authoritarian role of the teacher is
removed. School is now considered as a society or a community
where young boys and girls are being trained for social efficiency
and development. Children are given opportunity for self-expression
through self-activity in learning. They enjoy freedom and democratic
status as members of school. Modern methods of teaching
emphasize on social behaviour, social participation and co-operation
in learning. Modern methods of teaching try to utilize the social forces
that operate in the group life of the classroom situation. Sociology
has therefore influenced modern methodology of teaching.
Discipline :
Disciplinary method and its underlying principles are have
been influenced by the sociological concept at present. The old
concept of discipline was dominated by the principle of control and
repression by using punishment. This repressive method has been
replaced by the concept of freedom of self activity and self discipline
through self realization. Education today believes in the spontaneous
self-expression of children in the social situation of the classroom.
Pragmatic philosophy of Dewey believes in discipline of children
through collective responsibility of work in the group life. This type
of discipline has been worked out in the project method of education.
16 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)
Educational Sociology Unit 1

Thus, it is Sociology that helps the teacher to evolve an effective

method of discipline workable in modern education.
Role of the teacher :
The concept of teacher’s role and responsibility has also
been influenced largely by the sociological concept. The teacher is
not to be treated merely as the lesson maker and a disciplinarian of
the young minds. His role and responsibility have been extended to
the society or community to which the school belongs. He is to give
effective leadership to the community in facing and solving the
various social problems. A teacher is responsible for educating the
illiterate adults to develop the community life of the people. He takes
necessary care of their health and hygiene, and also promotes their
economic and cultural life. On consideration of these broad
objectives of the teacher, the school is at present described as the
community development centre. Study of Sociology can only make
such role and responsibility of the teacher clear in his mind.
Besides, the above mentioned scope of Educational Sociology, Dr.
S.S Mathur mentioned some specific problems which are vital organs
in its study. They are as follows:
 What is the importance of teacher in the society and how
can he be given a place of honour in it?
 What type of relationship should be established between the
teacher and the taught? How do social feelings influence
this relationship?
 How can mutual relationships be established between school
and other agencies?
 What are the needs and the motives of the local community?
 How can social elements be broken into smaller units like
school, playground etc. and what relationships exist between
them?
 How does the social life influence the school and the
individual?

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Unit 1 Educational Sociology

 How can through ideal social life and good schooling

democratic feelings be inculcated?
 How can such desirable changes in the curriculum which
may help in the progress of the individual and the society be
brought about?
 What is the importance of press, radio and films in the
sociological progress?
 How are the social progress and social control possible?
In this way, we can say that in the scope of Educational Sociology,
the study of each and every type of social relationship is included.

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Educational Sociology Unit 1

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 3 : What do you mean by Educational Sociology?

......................................................................…………………………

.......................................................................…………………………

Q 4 : Mention two important characteristics of Educational Sociology.

.......................................................................…………………………

...........................................................................…………………………

1.5 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL

APPROACH OF EDUCATION
The twentieth century was marked by significant development of
the all social sciences. In this context the need and importance of Sociology
as a science of human relationship has been widely felt. Scientific study of
society is at present well developed in different branches of the humanities
subjects such as Economics, Politics, Psychology and Education.
Importance of the study of Educational Sociology is quite obvious from the
point of view of democratic concept and its growing popularity in education
at present. It helps to understand human relations and interactions in the
field of learning and development. Modern educationists are interested in
interpreting educational problems from sociological point of view. In fact, in
the second half of the twentieth century Sociology has gradually come nearer
to education. The need and importance of the study of sociological approach
in education may be highlighted with the following points-

 The study of Educational Sociology is a must to evolve an acceptable

aim of education to the satisfaction of different sections of people in
society.

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Unit 1 Educational Sociology

 Its study can help to construct curriculum effectively for the society
that may help to realize the hopes and aspirations of the people in
the society.
 Educational Sociology can readily explain the conservative and
progressive role of education to the teachers and the students.
 Sociology helps to understand relation between school and society
or the community and the functions of the school as a special society
for community for social progress.
 It helps the teacher and the students to understand and appreciate
their own responsibility towards society and thereby to perform them
more appropriately.
 Through Sociology man can learn how to live a better life with other
members in the society, without any prejudice and with
consciousness of the rights and duties of the individual.
 Its study can help to understand inter-relationship of the social
institutions and can control conditions of social life and to improve
them.
 Nature and characteristics and the role of the family as a social unit
towards school and society are clearly explained by Sociology.
 Sociological concept of education can help to understand the present
democratic principles of education and appropriate application of
them.
 Sociological study can help to understand clearly the present
complexities of modern society created by science and technology
and help to tackle them effectively.
 Modernization of the present society through development of the
new outlook and attitude of the people may be made possible through
sociological study.
 Educational Sociology helps to understand national and international
issues and problems and thereby develop the sense of national
integration and international and global understanding in human
mind.

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Educational Sociology Unit 1

1.6 EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY

OF EDUCATION

It is acceptable to most of the sociologists that Emile Durkheim

was the first thinker who clearly indicated the need for sociological approach
to the study of education. But it is to be seen that even though Durkheim
had put the position regarding the sociological approach to education with
lucidity and clarity yet it was after many years that the sociologists started
to pursue their studies in this direction.
Smith, Zorbaugh, Kulp and many others subscribed to the viewpoint
that Educational Sociology is the application of sociology to educational
problems. According to this view, Educational Sociology is strictly technology
and not science at all. In the words of Francis Brown, “The educational
sociologists utilizes all that has been learned in both fields, but joins them
in a new science by applying sociological principles to the whole process
of education.” Educational Sociology can thus be described as that discipline
which applies the general principles and findings of Sociology to the process
of education. The findings of sociological researches are applied to the
planning of educational programmes and activities. Educational Sociology
formulates ideals by which educational planning is to be guided. Thus, the
sociological researches provide the guidelines for education.
As the number of investigations and the directions in which these
investigations were made increased among the sociologists and educators,
there appeared confusion as to what the proper dimensions of Educational
Sociology should be. There were differences of opinion regarding what types
of researches are to be classified under the head of Educational Sociology.
This led to the thinking that there is a separate branch of knowledge which
can be designated as Sociology of Education. Soon Educational Sociology
became a historical phenomenon. In 1963, the Journal of Educational
Sociology became the Journal of the Sociology of Education.
Angell in 1928 expressed the view that “Educational Sociology is
merely a branch of the pure science of sociology.” He preferred to call the
area of the discipline developing on the basis of the researches in school
Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 21
Unit 1 Educational Sociology

situation as the Sociology of Education, thereby indicating that the school

as a source of data could be analyzed. Later on Reuter also made a similar
delineation of the field. He also emphasized that there should be developed
an area of study known as sociology of education not only as application of
sociology which was being referred hereto as the Educational Sociology.
To sum up the distinction between the Educational Sociology and
the Sociology of Education, we may quote Znaniecki. He said, “Educational
Sociology like educational psychology, evolved as a discipline designed to
prepare educators for their future tasks. It uses the results of sociological
research in planning educational activities and in developing effective
methods of realizing these plans. On the other hand, we may describe
Sociology of Education as that branch of knowledge which presents a
sociological theory of education developed through the various analytical
studies of the interactions between individuals in the formal school like
educational situations or the other multiple informal educational situations.”
The Sociology of Education includes the analysis of the relationship
of the educational system to other aspects of society. This analysis is done
with respect to several sub-divisions, among which may be included:
 The function of education in the culture.
 The relationship of the educational system to the process of social
control and the power system.
 The function of the educational system in the process of social and
cultural change or in the maintenance of the status quo.
 The relationship of education to the social class or status system in
the relationship among racial, ethnic and other groups.
A second area of analytical studies as referred to by Brookover and
Gottlieb is the analysis of the school as an ongoing social system. There
may be described two general types of sociological analysis in this area: (i)
the nature of the school culture, particularly as it differs from the culture
outside the school and (ii) the patterns of social interaction or the structure
of the school society.
A student comes in contact with various teachers in the school.
The teacher also comes in contact with many students. With each he
22 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)
Educational Sociology Unit 1

develops certain social relations. These relations are inter-connected with

one another because the task of the teacher is to educate the students and
all these relationships develop in the process of the performance of these
tasks and so they are described as inter-connected. We call a system of
inter-connected social relations between an individual and a number of
others a social role. The social role of the teacher differs from the social
role of the student and both these roles differ from other social roles. An
analysis of the social role or roles also comes under the purview of analytical
studies included in field of Sociology of Education.

Besides the above three areas there are many more areas of
sociological analysis with reference to education and the field is extending
day to day with a large number of investigations being conducted relating to
the social process of education.

We can draw the difference between Educational Sociology and

Sociology of Education in the following manner:

 Educational Sociology recognizes the social nature of man and plans

accordingly whereas Sociology of Education analyses the
institutions and organizations of education.

 Educational Sociology analyses the desirable and undesirable

aspects of culture by comparing them with the national and
international culture whereas Sociology of Education studies
education as an agent of transmission of culture.

 Educational Sociology as a subject tries to study human nature,

culture and social heritage of man comprising the past, present
and future whereas Sociology of education makes studies of school
organizations and the relation between schools and social structure,
especially social class, family and neighborhood.

 Educational Sociology describes a man as a social individual

whereas Sociology of Education stresses upon the social
importance of education.

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 23

Unit 1 Educational Sociology

1.7 LIMITATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY

Educational Sociology has greatly helped in the immense progress

which education has achieved. This discipline has made us conversant
with the fact that education is a social process and it cannot be given in a
desirable manner till it does not study the social environment and its influence
on human personality. But if we take social point of view as foremost in
education then its progress will not be very much. We will have to decide
the aims, methods, curriculum, discipline etc, on the basis of our knowledge
of educational philosophy because this discipline provides us with a desirable
point of view to solve such problems. Educational Sociology informs us
about the social nature of education and emphasizes the mutual relationship
of education and society. But it fails to tell us as to what type of society is
needed? What should be its aims? What should be its ideals and values?
What should be the ideals and aims of life? Only philosophy can provide
answer to these questions. Therefore, we can say that Educational Sociology
can function efficiently only within certain limitations. It does not determine
the important factors in education. It does not answer the ultimate questions
raised in providing education to the new generation. Therefore, it must be
helped by educational philosophy so that education may be planned most
effectively.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 5 : Mention two limitations of Educational Sociology.

..............................................................…….........……………….……
...............................................................………………….........………

1.9 LET US SUM UP

 The history of the development of Sociology starts from 1837 when

French Philosopher, Auguste Comte coined this word. In 1837, in
one of his lectures, he used the word ‘Sociology’.

24 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)

Educational Sociology Unit 1

 The word “Sociology” has been derived from the Latin word “Socius”
meaning “associates” or “companions” and the Greek word “Logos”
meaning “scientific study”. So, the etymological meaning of sociology
is “the science of society”.
 Education and Sociology are intimately related. Education is one of
the major institutions of society. It is the creation of society itself.
Educational activities constitute a part of the social activities of man.
In this way ‘education’ appears as a branch of Sociology. Educational
sociology is a branch of the discipline of sociology which is
confronted with the problems of relationship between society and
education.
 Educational Sociology as a subject may be described as an
important branch of applied Sociology. It applies the theoretical
principles of Sociology in the field of education, more particularly in
the classroom situation of learning. It is a subject that helps to tackle
the problems of education by making use of the sociological
principles.
 Educational Sociology makes us aware of the social nature,
implications and significance of education. It evolves the methods
and procedures, prepares plan and programmes in bringing about
the desired changes in behaviour and attitude of the students and
the teachers. It involves the whole school community that includes
the students, the teachers, the parents, the administrators, social
leaders and the community people concerned with the whole of
educative process.
 Educational sociology informs us about the social nature of
education and emphasizes the mutual relationship of education and
society. But it fails to tell us as to what type of society is needed?
What should be its aims? What should be its ideals and values?
What should be the ideals and aims of life? Only philosophy can
provide answer to these questions. Therefore, we can say that
Educational Sociology can function efficiently only within certain
limitations.
Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 25
Unit 1 Educational Sociology

 School as a specialized formal agency of education, helps the child

to be a socialized human being from the point of communicating
with others, playing co-operatively, showing sympathy and beginning
to recognize the rights of others and of learning some control over
infantile emotional outbursts.
 Sociology is related to Anthropology in the sense that Sociology
studies society whereas anthropology studies man. But as man
and society are mutually interrelated hence it is very difficult to
distinguish two.
 Again, Sociology depends on History because History helps and
enriches Sociology. History is the store house of knowledge from
which Sociology gained a lot. Sociologist always refers to the
historical material available for understanding social and cultural
change.
 Sociology has a great affinity with Psychology because there are
many Psychological problems which must have a Social Cause.
Psychology requires the help from Sociology to understand these
social problems.

1.10 FURTHER READING

1) Talsera Hemlata, (2009), “Sociological Foundations of Education”,

Kanishka publishers, distributors, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New
Delhi-110002
2) Dr. S.S. Mathur, (2008), “A Sociological Approach to Indian Education”
Vinod Pustak Mandir, Dr.Rangeya Raghava Marg, Agra-2
3) Bhattacharya, Srinibas. (2006): Sociological Foundation of Education:
Atlantic Publishers
4) Singh, Y.K. (2007): Sociological Foundation of Education: APH
Publishing
5) Aggarwal, J.C. (2002): The Philosophical and Sociological
Perspectives on Education: Shipra Publication

26 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)

Educational Sociology Unit 1

6) Bhatia, Kamala. (1992): The Philosophical and Sociological

Foundations of Education: Doaba House.

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1 : The term “Sociology” was first coined by Auguste Comte.
Ans to Q. No. 2 : Sociology is the theory or science of human association
or human society. It recognizes the social nature of man. It studies
the nature of social relations and behaviour of man. It studies the
origin, growth and development of human society.
Ans to Q. No. 3 : Educational Sociology as a subject may be described as
an important branch of applied Sociology. It applies the theoretical
principles of Sociology in the field of education, more particularly in
the classroom situation of learning. It is a subject that helps to tackle
the problems of education by making use of the sociological principles.
Educational Sociology makes us aware of the social nature,
implications and significance of education. It evolves the methods
and procedures, prepares plan and programmes in bringing about
the desired changes in behaviour and attitude of the students and the
teachers. It involves the whole school community that includes the
students, the teachers, the parents, the administrators, social leaders
and the community people concerned with the whole of educative
process.
Ans to Q. No. 4 : The two important characteristics of Educational
Sociology are :
 Educational sociology recognizes the social nature of man and plans
accordingly.
 Educational Sociology recognizes this fundamental principle and
makes education accessible to all persons without distinction.
Ans to Q. No. 5 : Two limitations of Educational Sociology are :
 It does not determine the important factors in education.

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 27

Unit 1 Educational Sociology

 It does not answer the ultimate questions raised in providing

education to the new generation.
Ans to Q. No. 6 : Yes, there is a strong co-relation between sociology and
anthropology. The relationship is so close that Anthropologists like
A.L. Kroeber consider Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters.
They often appear as two names for the same subject. R. Redfield
recognizes the closeness between these two social sciences.
Anthropology contributes to the growth of Sociology. Without the help
of anthropology the study of Sociology can’t be complete. It is a part
of Sociology. Anthropology provides knowledge about ancient
societies. To have a comprehensive understanding of present society
Sociology takes the help of anthropology.
Ans to Q. No. 7 : Sociology is a subject which has an affinity with psychology.
Each and every social problems and social phenomenon must have
a psychological basis for the solution of which sociology requires the
help from psychology. A new branch of knowledge has developed
with the combination of sociology and psychology which is known as
social psychology.
Ans to Q. No. 8 : History helps and enriches Sociology. History is the store
house of knowledge from which Sociology gained a lot. History provides
materials which sociologists use. History is a record of past social
matters, social customs and information about different stages of
life. Sociology uses this information. Books written by historians like
A. Toynbee are of great use for Sociologists. To know the impact of a
particular past event sociology depends on history.

1.12 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q 1 : Who used the word Sociology for the first time and when?

Q 2 : Define Sociology.

Q 3 : Define Educational Sociology.

28 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)

Educational Sociology Unit 1

B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1 : Discuss the relationship between Education and Sociology.

Q 2 : Explain in brief the nature of Educational Sociology.

Q 3 : Point out the difference between Educational Sociology and

Sociology of Education.

Q 4 : Mention briefly the limitations of Educational Sociology.

C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q 1 : Discuss the scope of Educational Sociology.

Q 2 : Discuss the need and importance of Sociological Approach of

Education.

*** ***** ***

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 29

 UNIT 2 : EDUCATION AND SOCIETY
UNIT STRUCTURE

2.1 Learning Objectives

2.2 Introduction
2.3 Society and its Origin
2.4 Factors of Society and their Influence on Education
2.5 Education as a Social System
2.6 Meaning of Socialisation
2.7 Education as an Instrument of Socialisation Process
2.8 Let us Sum up
2.9 Further Reading
2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.11 Model Questions

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 explain the meaning of society and its origin
 identify the factors of society and their influence on education
 discuss education as a social system
 explain the meaning of socialisation and education as an important
tool of socialisation process

2.2 INTRODUCTION

Man is a social animal and cannot live outside the society. From
birth to death whatever we do, is within the limits of society. Thus, it is very
important to know our society and its origin as well. This unit will help us to
know the facts about our society and its origin, theories of society and
different factors of society and their influence on education. Social system
is also a very important aspect of society. It describes the interrelationships,
mutual understanding and the ‘we-feeling’ among the members of a society.
Education is also considered as a social system because it is the base of
any modification or betterment of the society. It preserves our culture and
30 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)
Education and Society Unit 2

transmits the same from generation to generation. Man learns about the
different values and norms of society through the process of socialization.
Again, without education socialization is not possible.

2.3 SOCIETY AND ITS ORIGIN

Man cannot live alone. His existence is impossible without society.

Society is the most essential condition for a human to survive. That is why
long back Aristotle said that man is a social animal. Douglas S. Massey
(2001) of University of Pennsylvania in his research stated that “Human
society emerged over 6 million years of hominid evolution. During this time
group size steadily increased, and to maintain group cohesion human
beings gradually evolved a well developed social intelligence based on the
differentiation and refinement of emotions…. Full rationality came rather
late in human evolution, and it has only been within the last 100 years that
the social conditions emerged for a mass culture based on rationality.”
The beginning of the human society is still a mystery. There is no
exact date or time of its creation. The path from the past to present society
is not a simple one. It experienced many beginnings and changes and is
still going through the same process of change. We are known as the
survivors of the bipedal primates – ‘hominids’. The term ‘society’ has its
roots in Latin and French languages. It can be shown as :

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Unit 2 Education and Society

Generally, society can be understood as a group of human beings

who are sharing a common geographical area, values, ideas and ideals,
lifestyles and culture etc. They maintain some common norms with a sense
of mutual understanding. The society does not have any particular size; it
may be small or large. For the formation of any society some essential
conditions are needed like mutual contact between persons, exchange of
thoughts and ideas, the feeling of oneness, preservation of rights etc.
If we want to track the origin of the society more closely, we must
have a detailed discussion on the theoretical aspects. There are basically
two important theories which explain the relationship between man and
society. They are – Social Contract Theory and the Organismic Theory.
Between them, it is the Social Contract Theory which directly deals with
the origin of society.
This theory supports equality and freedom to each and every
individual. Individuals were living on earth even before the existence of society
in its true sense. Society is originated as a result of the sharing and mutual
agreement among the individuals of a particular geographical area. This
theory was mainly led by Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and J.J. Rousseau.
They supported the view mutually that before the beginning of civil society,
men lived in a ‘state of nature’, which was the pre-social state and by
establishing a contract among the members the society formed. Their
thoughts may be discussed as follows:
Thomas Hobbes :
The famous English thinker Thomas Hobbes believed that society was
created to protect men against the consequences of their own selfish nature.
People were “selfish, self-seeking, cunning, egoistic, brutal and aggressive”
in the state of nature. So, to ensure security they established a mutual
contract among them and surrendered their natural rights to the higher
authority.
John Locke :
John Locke viewed the state of nature as a state of “peace, goodwill, mutual
assistance and preservation.” But as there was no system of law and justice,
men faced some negative or ‘ill condition’. So, to escape from the disturbed
32 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)
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situation created by ‘corruption and viciousness of degenerate men’, the

other members entered into a sort of contract and thus society came into
existence.
Jean Jacques Rousseau :
J.J. Rousseau is the author of the famous book ‘The Social Contract’
(1762). He believed, in the state of nature, men enjoyed a life which was
healthy, out of any fear, good, pure, innocent and positivity. They enjoyed
some sort of freedom and equality uncontrolled by social laws. But this
happiness started to disappear as the population increased. As a result
conflicts began in the society. To escape from this situation men started to
live collectively and a contract among the members was established. Thus,
a civil society came into existence.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1 : Give the etymological meaning of Society ?

.............................................................………………...............…………
........................................................................…………………………

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 33

Unit 2 Education and Society

2.4 FACTORS OF SOCIETY AND THEIR INFLUENCE

ON EDUCATION

Society is a group of people sharing common ways of living,

philosophies, beliefs, norms etc. It experiences different changes from time
to time. Society is also influenced by different factors which are interacting
and overlapping one another continuously. They determine the process,
progress and structure of the society. Some of the determinants of society
can be mentioned as follows:
 Human Factor :
A society is characterized by the interrelationships among its
members. Human Factor determines the understanding and
interactions among humans and other elements of a social system.
It deals with how humans behave physically and mentally in relation
to their particular environment, relations and services.
 Social Factor :
Society is a complex aggregate of different social factors like family,
social and religious institutions, poverty, illiteracy, unemployment
etc. These also determine the growth and structure of the society.
 Cultural Factor :
Material and non-material culture determines the actual base of any
society. It is the ideas, ideals, philosophy, morals, values, norms,
customs, traditions, rules, laws etc. through which a society
develops.
 Education :
Education is the most powerful and influential factor of any society.
It brings all round development in the members and as a result they
form and run a better society. Without education no society can
develop.
 Religious Factor :
Religion is nothing but the faith or belief in the supernatural power or
God. It tries to control the society through different beliefs, rituals,
customs, traditions, rules etc. It is a system of our behaviours and
practices.
34 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)
Education and Society Unit 2

 Demographic Factor :
These factors are used to collect and evaluate the population data
from a particular region which influences the society in different ways
like unemployment, population explosion, urbanisation, migration etc.
It again includes different sub-factors like age, gender, marital status,
race, education, income, profession etc.
 Political Factor :
At present every country, state or society is run by some kind of
political party. The ruling party tries to establish their beliefs, ideas,
philosophies and principles in the society. Their philosophy also
influences the rules and regulations, laws and norms of the society.
But it also undergoes some changes from time to time.
 Economic Factor :
The economic condition of a country is a very important factor to
determine the status and lifestyle of the members of a society.
 Science and Technology :
Due to the advancement of science and technology every society
is enjoying a much easier life than before. Society cannot progress
if it does not accept the positive sides of science and technology.
Besides these, there are some other factors of society like environment,
geographical condition, corruption, industrialisation, migration, urbanisation,
social change, cultural change etc.

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 35

Unit 2 Education and Society

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 2 : Mention any three factors of society.

...............................................................……………..........……………
.......................................................................……………………..……

2.5 EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM

When a group of people start to share a common geographical

area with almost common values and culture and follow same norms or
laws fixed for the group, they form a ‘society’. A society demands natural
contact among the members and exchange of ideas too. It must have
permanency and continuity. Society also undergoes some modification,
but these changes or modifications should not threat the continuity and
existence of society.
Merriam Webster said, “A social system is the patterned series of
interrelationships existing between individuals, groups and institutions and
forming a whole.” Talcott Parsons framed the Theory of Social Systems for
the first time. It is an organisation of individuals into different segments
having different nature, function and status. The term social system implies
a systematic arrangement of the different parts of the society. Thus
relationship among the various parts demands interaction. A social system
cannot be maintained properly without the ‘we feeling’ among its members.
Mutual understanding, interaction and interrelation of individuals are the
bases of a Social System. Here the members share the common norms
and values.
Developments or modifications for the betterment of the society
are impossible without education. Education is the main instrument towards
bringing social change and progress. Again the pattern of any educational
system is influenced and determined by the society it serves. Education
generally follows the ideas of the society. It preserves the culture and values
of the society and transmits it from generation to generation to shape its
pattern.
36 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)
Education and Society Unit 2

Education as a social system can be discussed on the following

grounds :
 Development of the individual : Society completely depends on
its members for development. Therefore education is needed to
bring all round development among the individuals so that they may
contribute towards bringing the betterment for the society.
 Process of socialisation : Socialisation is the process through
which a child learns all the social norms, traditions etc. Education
is the major instrument of socialisation, because it is through
education only that the child learns all social behaviour.
 Preservation and transmission of culture : Culture can be
understood as the social heritage of a group or community. It includes
all beliefs, customs, traditions, ideals, ideas, laws etc. Education
preserves the culture of the society and transmits the same to the
next generation.
 Social change : Change is a common phenomenon. It is present
in every society. With the passage of time society undergoes some
changes. Education plays a very important role towards bringing
the positive changes in the society and to hold the change for a long
time. Modification and advancement of the society is impossible
without education.
 Social Mobility : Both man and society is dynamic by nature. Social
mobility is very important for the development of any society.
Education can only bring change in the status and lifestyle of a man
and lead society toward progress.
 Responsibilities towards society : Education drains the citizens
to realise their responsibilities towards society. To run the social
system in a more effective way, it is very important so that its
members perform their duties and responsibilities towards society.
 Social Organisation : Social organisation generally means the
mutual understanding and interdependence of different groups in
the society. It is also known as a system or pattern of different

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 37

Unit 2 Education and Society

relationships in the society. Quality education is needed to develop

this healthy relation with proper personality development.
 Development of ideal citizens : A social system is the organised
whole of its members with mutual respect and understanding.
Education is primarily associated with the development of personality
and social qualities of the members. Education makes them aware
and responsible towards their rights and duties.
The word ‘system’ generally means ‘organisation’ or
‘systematic presentation’. Whenever, we consider education as a
social system, we try to project how education is attached with each
and every element of the society.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q3: What is a social system?

...............................................................…………………....……........
........................................................................…………………………

38 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)

Education and Society Unit 2

2.6 MEANING OF SOCIALISATION

Socialisation is the process through which the child learns about

the social behaviour, values and his role towards his society. After birth, a
child slowly learns his role by living as a member of the society. He
understands the values of his role and grasps it for lifetime. Through the
process of socialisation, the child slowly learns his prescribed role towards
the society. In other words, socialisation prepares the individual for a healthy
social life. The details about socialisation will be discussed in the next
chapter.

2.7 EDUCATION AS AN INSTRUMENT OF

SOCIALISATION PROCESS

Education covers the entire life of the individual with an aim to achieve
all round development. It reflects the beliefs and systems of the society.
School is the first social institution which is directly connected with providing
education to the members of the society. School itself is a miniature society.
Children from different social backgrounds come here and link the school
with the outer society. Education has no existence without society and society
can never develop without education. Education is the most important tool
to inject all the social qualities in children. Through the different forms of
education, like formal, informal or non formal, individuals learn about their
society, culture, traditions, values, social behaviour, social role etc.

We may have a more clear idea about education as process of

socialisation in the following ways-

 Education preserves the past of the society and its values and the
knowledge of which is transformed to the future generation.

 Preservation and transmission of culture is impossible without

education. It is education only which specially preserves our non
material culture and transmits it to the next generation, so that they
can realise and value it properly.

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 39

Unit 2 Education and Society

 Education provides us knowledge about our rights and duties

towards society. It helps in forming different laws and politics for
protecting our society.

 Modernisation and advancement of science and technology can

only be realised and accepted in the society with the help of
education.

 It is through education only that we come to know about our values,

beliefs, traditions, festivals, rules and regulation etc. Socialisation
cannot be processed without any knowledge of these.

 Students come to the school from different social backgrounds.

Hence, a sense of we feeling and mutual respect is developed
among the students. They learn about different cultures and social
systems.

 In the process of socialisation, different social evils like blind

superstitions, religious narrow mindedness, blind faith and beliefs
should be removed. Only education can help in this regard.

 Socialisation involves the method of imitation. Here, children can

learn good social behaviour imitating their parents, teachers and
elders.

 Educational institution should encourage different community

development programs to grow a sense of responsibility among
students.

 Society undergoes different kinds of changes with the passage of time.

Education prepares man to accept and adjust with those changes.

Socialisation and education both are continuous by nature. They

cover the entire life of the individual. They together prepare a man
for this society. It is the man only who can protect his social world.
Socialisation enables him to learn about different social behaviour,
where education shows him direction to achieve that.

40 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)

Education and Society Unit 2

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4 : Define socialisation.
...............................................................……………..….......…………
........................................................................…………………………

2.8 LET US SUM UP

 We have a better conception on the definition and the meaning of

society.
 A clear concept of social contract theory is also developed by
discussing the various view of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and
J.J. Rousseau.
 There are different factors of society which is influencing it in different
ways like Human Factor, Social Factor, Cultural Factor, Education,
Religious Factor, Demographic Factor, Political Factor, Economic
Factor, Science and Technology etc.
 The term social system implies a systematic arrangement of the
different parts of the society. Thus relationship among the various
parts demands interaction.

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 41

Unit 2 Education and Society

 Education as a social system can be discussed on the basis of the

different aspects like Development of the individual, Process of
socialisation, Preservation and transmission of culture, Social
change, Social Mobility, Responsibilities towards society,
Development of ideal citizens, Social Organisation and so on.
 Socialisation is the process through which the child learns about
the social behaviour, values and the role towards his society.
 Education is the main instrument towards bringing social change
and progress. It is the most important tool for socialisation.

2.9 FURTHER READING

1) Shankar Rao, C.N, (2012) Sociology : Principles of Sociology with

an Introduction to Social Thought, New Delhi: S.Chand &Company
PVT LTD
2) Mathur S.S (2008): “A Sociological Approach to Indian Education”
Vinod Pustak Mandir, Dr.Rangeya Raghava Marg, Agra-2
3) Bhattacharya, Srinibas. (2006): Sociological Foundation of
Education: Atlantic Publishers
4) Singh, Y.K. (2007): Sociological Foundation of Education: APH
Publishing
5) Aggarwal, J.C. (2002): The Philosophical and Sociological
Perspectives on Education: Shipra Publication
6) Bhatia, Kamala. (1992): The Philosophical and Sociological
Foundations of Education: Doaba House.

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1 : The term ‘society’ has been derived from two different
languages, i.e. Latin and French. In Latin, the word is ‘socius’ which
means ‘companion’ and in French the term is ‘societe’ which means
company.

42 Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1)

Education and Society Unit 2

Ans to Q. No. 2 : Religion, Culture and Education.

Ans to Q. No. 3 : A social system is the organised whole of its members
with mutual respect and understanding. The term social system
implies a systematic arrangement of the different parts of the society.
Thus relationship among the various parts demands interaction.
Ans to Q.No. 4 : a) According to E.A Ross, socialisation is, “the development
of we feeling in association and the growth in their capacity and will to
act together.”
b) According to Ogburn, “Socialisation is the process by which the
individual learns to conform to the norms of the group.”

2.11 MODEL QUESTIONS

A. Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1 : What is society?
Q 2 : What is social system?
Q 3 : Who are the chief exponents of social Contract Theory?
B. Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1 : Discuss the Social Contract Theory.
Q 2 : What are the different factors of society?
Q 3 : Who are the chief exponents of Social Contract Theory ?
Q 4 : Explain education as an important instrument of socialisation.

*** ***** ***

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 43

 UNIT 3 : PROCESS OF SOCIALISATION
UNIT STRUCTURE

3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction
3.3 Meaning of Socialisation
3.4 Definition of Socialisation
3.5 Characteristics of Socialisation
3.6 Process of Socialisation
3.7 Socialisation and Social Interaction
3.7.1 Meaning and Definition of Co-operation
3.7.2 Types of Co-operation
3.7.3 Meaning and Definition of Competition
3.7.4 Nature and Characteristics of Competition
3.7.5 Forms of Competition
3.7.6 Difference between Co-operation and Competition
3.7.7 Meaning and Definition of Conflict
3.7.8 Nature and Characteristics of Conflict
3.7.9 Types of Conflict
3.7.10 Difference between Competition and Conflict
3.7.11 Difference between Co-operation and Conflict
3.7.12 Causes of Conflict
3.7.13 Meaning and Definition of Accommodation
3.7.14 Characteristics of Accommodation
3.7.15 Forms or methods of Accommodation
3.7.16 Need for Accommodation
3.7.17 Meaning and Definition of Assimilation
3.7.18 Characteristics of Assimilation
3.7.19 Factors Favouring Assimilation
3.7.20 Factors Retarding or Hindering Assimilation
3.7.21 Difference between Accommodation and Assimilation
3.8 Let us Sum up

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3.9 Further Reading

3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.11 Model Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 define the term socialisation
 identify the characteristics of socialisation
 explain the process of socialisation
 explain the various forms of social interaction
 discuss about the role of education in the new social order.

3.2 INTRODUCTION

The human infant comes into the world as biological organism with
animal needs and is gradually moulded into a social being and it learns
social ways of acting and feeling. Without this process of moulding, the
society could not continue itself, nor could culture exist, nor could individual
become a person. This process of moulding is called “Socialisation”. The
process of socialisation is conditioned by culture. In this unit, we will basically
deal with the concept and process of socialisation and different types of
social interaction.

3.3 MEANING OF SOCIALISATION

Socialisation is a process of making an individual social. In other

words, socialisation is a process through which society develops an
individual according to its ideals, beliefs and traditions and bestows
recognition as social being. In short, the basis of socialisation is interaction.
In other words, socialisation refers to the process through which an individual
interacts with other individuals and learns social ideals, attitudes and patterns
of behaviour. The individual, inspired by the ideals of social service and
social welfare through interaction, adjusts well with his or her family,
neighbours and other social groups so that he himself becomes a true

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Unit 3 Process of Socialisation

social being in the real sense of the term. In this way, the whole process of
socialisation falls within the scope of interaction or social act.

3.4 DEFINITION OF SOCIALISATION

W.F. Ogburn : “Socialisation is the process by which the individual learns
to conform to the norms of the group.”
MacIver : Socialisation is the “process through which social being develops
relationships and associates with each other.”
J.S. Ross : “Socialisation is the development of we-feeling in associates
and the growth in their capacity and will to act together.”
Peter Worsley explains socialisation as the process of “transmission of
culture, the process whereby men learn the rules and practices of social
groups.”
Green : Socialisation is the process by which the child acquires a cultural
content, along with selfhood and personality.”
H.T. Mazumdar : Socialisation is a process whereby original nature is
transformed into human nature and the individual into person.”
Every individual tries to adjust himself to the condition and
environment predominantly determined by the society of which he is a
member. If he fails to do so, he becomes a social deviant and is brought
back onto track by the efforts of the group of which he is a member. This
process of adjustment may be termed as socialisation. It is the opposite of
individualisation. It is a process of the expansion of the self that develops in
the person a sense of community feeling.

3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIALISATION

We can discuss the characteristics of socialisation as follows:

 Socialisation inculcates basic discipline among individuals.
 It helps to control human behaviour.
 Socialisation takes place rapidly if the agencies of socialisation are
more unanimous in their ideas and skills.
 Socialisation takes place formally and informally. It takes place
informally through family and formally through educational institutions.

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 Socialisation is a continuous process. It begins with the birth of the

individual and continues throughout their life.

3.6 PROCESS OF SOCIALISATION

The social order is maintained largely by socialisation. Unless the

individuals behave in accordance with the norms of the group it is going to
disintegrate. It is said that socialisation process starts long before the child
is born. The social circumstances preceding his birth determines extent
the kind of life he is to lead to a great extent. The parents’ courtship, and
marital selection, the customs concerning pregnancy and birth and the entire
system of cultural practices surrounding the family are important for the
child’s growth. The techniques of parental care affects his chances of being
healthy. Of course, direct socialisation begins only after birth.
As discussed above the process of socialisation makes a child social
in his or her interactions. Among the various factors which play a vital role
in this process, the following are the prominent ones:-

 Child Rearing : The upbringing of a child plays a significant role in the

socialisation of a child. Parenting or the ways in which parents bring up
the child and the environment in which the child grows up determines
the feelings and experiences that develop in the child. It means that
improper upbringing of a child leads to the growth of antisocial tendencies
in him because of mal-adjustment. Hence, for effective socialisation,
healthy and proper upbringing is essential.

 Sympathy : Similar to one’s upbringing, sympathy also plays an

important role in the socialisation of a child. It may be noted that during
infancy, a child is fully dependent on his family for the fulfilment of all his
needs and requirements. Not only fulfilling their needs is sufficient,
others should also show full and genuine sympathy towards the child.
It is sympathy which develops the sense of we-feeling in the child and
he or she learns to discriminate between his or her real well-wishers
and other members of society.

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Unit 3 Process of Socialisation

 Co-operation : Society makes the child social. In other words, the co-
operation of society plays an important part in socialising the child. As
the child receives co-operation of others towards him, he also begins
to extend his hearty co-operation towards other members of society.
This strengthens his social tendencies.

 Suggestion : Social suggestion powerfully influences the socialisation

of a child. It is a natural fact that a child acts according to the suggestion
received from his well-wishers. Thus suggestion determines the
direction of social behaviour.

 Identification : Sympathy, love and suggestion of parents, relations

and well-wishers develop a feeling of identification with others in the
child. Those who behave with the child sympathetically, the child
considering them as his well-wishers, begins to act according to their
ideals, language and standard of living.

 Imitation : The basic factor in socialisation is the process of imitation.

This is the most potent way of learning by a child. He or she imitates
the behaviour, impulses and feelings of his or her family members. In
this way, learning by imitation is the most powerful means of socialising
a child.

 Social Teaching : Besides imitation, social teaching also influences

the socialisation of a child. It may be noted that social teaching takes
place in the family, among friends and relations who guide the child in
one way or the other.

 Reward and Punishment : Reward and punishment have a great

influence on the socialisation of a chi ld. When a child behaves according
to the ideals and beliefs of society, people appreciate and approve his
behaviour. On the contrary when he does some anti-social act, he or
she is criticised and condemned by society. This type of punishment
means the child is away from unsocial activities leading him or her
towards proper socialisation.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1 : Socialisation is a ....................... process.

(Fill up the blank)
Q 2 : Write about the characteristics of Socialisation.
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

3.7 SOCIALISATION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

All socialisation implies social interaction. Socialisation which means

behaving socially implies awareness of the presence of others and reaction
of other peoples’ words and gestures. It is a process of coming into contact
with others, of noticing others and responding to them and of evoking
responses of others to you. Social interaction, leading to socialisation, at
two levels: (i) primary, and (ii) secondary. Primary interaction means
interaction between the individuals and secondary interaction means
interaction between the individuals and the culture of their society- religious
beliefs, artistic tastes, literature, customs, morals, traditions and other
institutions. Besides the levels at which social interaction takes place, there
are various forms of social interaction takes place in the form of cooperation,
competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation.

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3.7.1 Meaning and Definition of Co-operation

Co-operation is the most persistent and continuous of the
social processes. It is an integrating activity and is believed to be
the opposite of competition. In reality, however, it is conflict rather
than competition which is opposite to co-operation. Co-operation
generally means working together in the pursuit of like or common
interest. The word ‘co-operation’ is derived from two Latin words,
‘Co’ meaning together and ‘operari’ meaning to work. Literally, co-
operation means joint work or working together for common
rewards. It is thus joint activity in pursuit of common goals or shared
rewards. It is goal oriented and conscious form of social interaction.
It involves two elements (i) common ends and (ii) organised effort.
Green defines co-operation as, “the continuous and common
endeavour of two or more persons to perform a task or to reach a
goal that is commonly cherished.”
In the words of Merrill and Eldredge, “Cooperation is a
form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together
to gain a common end.”
Fairchild writes, “Cooperation is a process by which
individuals or groups combine their effort, in a more or less organised
way for the attainment of common objective.”
Cooley says, “Cooperation arises when men see that they
have a common interest and have at the same time, sufficient
intelligence and self-control to seek this interest through united
action: perceived unity of interest and faculty of organisation are
essential facts in intelligent combination.”

3.7.2 Types of Cooperation

There are many modes of cooperation in social life but its

principal types are as follows:
(i) Direct Co-operation: In this form of co-operation individuals
do things together, that is, perform identical functions like moving
a pile of stones or pushing a motor car out of the mud. The
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essential character of this kind of co-operation is that people

perform tasks or activities in company which they can also do

separately. They do them together either because the face- to-
face situation is itself a stimulus to the performance of the task

or because it brings them social satisfaction.

(ii) Indirect Co-operation: In this form of co-operation individuals

work together for a common end but each has his or her own

specialised functions too, for example, when carpenters,

plumbers and masons co-operate to build a house. This co-
operation is based on the famous principle of the division of

labour. In the modern society, it is the indirect co-operation which

is more in play than the direct co-operation because the present
technological age requires specialisation of skills and functions.

(iii) Primary Co-operation: It is the co-operation that is found in

primary groups such as family. In this form of co-operation, there

is an identity of interests between the individual and the group.

The achievement of the interest of the group includes the
realisation of the individual’s interests.

(iv) Secondary Co-operation: It is the type of co-operation that is

found in the secondary groups such as government, industry,
church and trade unions etc.

(v) Tertiary Co-operation: This co-operation is found in the

interaction between the various big and small groups to meet a
particular situation. In such a type of co-operation the attitudes

of the co-operating parties are purely opportunistic; the

organisation of their co-operation is both loose and fragile.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q3: Mention the different types of co-operation.

...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

3.7.3 Meaning and Definition of Competition

Competition implies mutual rivalry or struggle between two

or more persons for the purposes of obtaining a non-divisible goal.
It is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It is a natural
result of the universal struggle for existence. It is based on fact that
all people can never satisfy all their desires. Competition takes place
whenever there is an insufficient supply of things that human beings
commonly desire.

According to Sutherland, Woodward and Maxwell,

“Competition is an impersonal, unconscious, continuous struggle
between individuals or groups for satisfaction which, because of
their limited supply, all may not have.”

Park and Burgess defines, “Competition is an interaction

without social contact.”

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In the words of Biesanz, “Competition is the striving of two

or more persons for the same goal which is limited so that all cannot
share it.”
According to Bogardus, “Competition is a contest to obtain
something which does not exist in a quantity sufficient to meet the
demand.”
Majumdar defines competition as the “impersonalised
struggle among resembling creatures for goods and service which
are scarce or limited in quantity.”

3.7.4 Nature and Characteristics of Competition

The following characteristics determine the nature of competition:

 Scarcity as a condition of Competition : Wherever there are
commonly desired goods and services, there is competition. In
fact, economics starts with its fundamental proposition that while
human wants are unlimited the resources that can satisfy these
wants are strictly limited.
 Competition and Affluence : Competition may be found even
in circumstances of abundance or affluence. In a time of full
employment, competition may take place for the status of the
top class.
 Competition is Continuous : Competition is continuous. It is
found virtually in every area of social activity and social interaction.
Particularly, competition for status, wealth and fame is always
present in almost all societies.
 Competition is Universal : Competition is found in every society
and in every age. It is found in every group. As the things people
wish to secure are limited in supply, there is competition all-
round to secure them.
 Competition is Dynamic: It stimulates achievement and
contributes to social change. It lifts the level of individual
aspirations from lower level to a higher level.

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 Competition-A Cause of Social Change : Competition is a

cause of social change in that; it causes persons to adopt new
forms of behaviour in order to attain desired ends. New forms of
behaviour involve inventions and innovations which naturally bring
about social change. Also, it is an effect of social change,
because a changing society has more goals to open than a
relatively static society.
 Competition may be personal or impersonal : Competition
is normally directed towards a goal and not against any individual.
Sometimes, it takes place without the actual knowledge of other’s
existence. It is impersonal as in the case of civil service
examination in which contestants are not even aware of one
another’s identity. Competition may also be personal as when
two individuals contest for election to an office. Competition in
the social world is largely impersonal.
 Competition may be Constructive or Destructive:
Competitions may be healthy or unhealthy. If one of the two or
more competitors tries to wins only at the expense of the others,
it is destructive. Sometimes, big industrialists or capitalists resort
to such a kind of competition rendering the small petty
businessmen virtually bankrupt in the process. But constructive
competition is mutually stimulating and helpful. It contributes to
the welfare of all at large. For example, farmers may compete
to raise the best crops, workers in a factory to maximise
production, students in a college to get distinctions and so on.
 Competition is always governed by norms : Competition is
neither limitless nor is it unregulated. There is no such thing as
‘unrestricted competition’. Such a phrase is contradiction in
terms. Moral norms or legal rules always govern and control
competition.
 Competition may also be Unconscious : Competition may
take place on an unconscious level. Many times individuals who
are engaged in competition may become oblivious of the fact
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that they are in a competitive race. Rarely do they know about

other competitors.

3.7.5. Forms of Competition

Bernard mentions three broad types of competition: Social,

Economic and Political competition.
1. Social Competition : People always compete to get into higher
status and position. Competition of this kind is mostly observed in
‘open’ societies. Wherever individual ability, merit, talent and
capacities are recognised, competition for status is acute.
Democratic nations encourage such competitions.
2. Economic Competition : The most important and at the same
time, the most vigorous form of competition is the economic
competition. It is witnessed in the processes of production,
distribution and consumption of goods. Man always struggles for
higher standard of living. Economic competition can be observed at
the individual,as well as, the group level.
3. Political Competition : In the modern world, competition for
political power is always present. Political parties are always engaged
in competition to secure power. Such a competition becomes
apparent especially during elections. Similarly, at the international
level, there is a sharp competition between nations. Nations such
as Russia and America that are engaged in different political
ideologies, are always at a competition for one issue or the other.
4. Cultural Competition : Some sociologists have also spoken
cultural competition. It may take place between two or more cultural
groups. Human society provides examples of such a competition.
For example, there has always been a keen competition between
the culture of the natives and that of the invaders.
Competition may also take place between racial groups such as
the Blacks and the Whites, religious groups such as Protestants
and the Catholics, Hindus and Muslims, Muslims and Christians
and so on.

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3.7.6. Difference between Co-operation and Competition

Co-operation Competition

 Co-operation refers to a form of  Competition is a form of social

social interaction wherein two or interaction wherein the individuals
more persons work together to
try to monopolise rewards by
gain a common end.
surpassing all the rivals.
 Co-operation is always based  Competition can take place at the
on the combined or the joint level of the group and also at the
efforts of the people.
level of the individual.
 Co-operation normally brings  Though competition can bring
about positive results. It rarely about positive results, it can cause
causes losses to the individuals damages or losses to the parties
involved in it.
and persons involved.
 Co-operation is boundless. It  Competition has its own limitations.
has no limitations. One can go It is bound by norms. Limitless or
to any extent to help others. unregulated competition can
cause much harm.

 As C.H. Cooley has pointed out  Competition requires qualities

co-operation requires qualities such as –strong aspirations, self-
such as kindness, sympathy, confidence, the desire to earn
concern for others, mutual
name and fame in society, the spirit
under standing an d som e
amount of readiness to help of adventure and the readiness to
others. suffer and to struggle.

 Co-operation brings people  But competition may cause

satisfaction and contentment satisfaction as well as
dissatisfaction, anxiety,
indefinitenessand uncertainties.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q4: ............... is the most fundamental form of

social struggle.(Fill in the blank)
Q 5 : Mention the characteristics of Competition.
.......................................................................…………………………
.......................................................................…………………………

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3.7.7 Meaning and Definition of Conflict

Conflict is an ever present process in human relations. It is

one of the forms of struggle between individuals or groups. Conflict
takes place whenever a person or group seeks to gain a reward not
only by surpassing other competitors but by preventing them from
competing effectively. As a social process, it is the anti-thesis of
cooperation.
Horton and Hunt : Conflict may be defined as a process of seeking
to monopolise reward by eliminating or weakening the competitors.
A.W.Green : “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist, or
coerce the will of another or others.”
Young and Mock : “Conflict takes the form of emotionalised and
violent opposition, in which the major concern is to overcome the
opponent as a means of securing a given goal or reward.”
Gillin and Gillin : “Conflict is the social process in which individuals
or groups seek their ends by directly challenging the antagonist by
violence or threat of violence.”

3.7.8 Nature and Characteristics of Conflict

 Conflict is Universal: Conflict or clash of interests is universal

in nature. It is present in almost all the societies. In some societies
conflict may be very acute and vigorous while in some others it
may be very mild. Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Saint Simon,
Gumplowicz and others have emphasised the role of conflict as
a fundamental factor in the social life of man.

 Conflict is Conscious Action : Individuals and groups who are

involved in conflict are aware of the fact that they are conflicting.

 Conflict is Personal : When competition is personalised it leads

to conflict. In the struggle to overcome the other person or group,
the goal is temporarily relegated to a level of secondary
importance.

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 Conflict is not Continuous but Intermittent: Conflict never

takes place continuously. It takes place occasionally. No society
can sustain itself in a state of continuous conflict.
 Conflict is Conditioned by Culture: Conflict is affected by the
nature of the group and its particular culture. The objects of
conflicts may be property, power and status, freedom of action
and thought, or any other highly desired value. When the stability
of a political order is threatened, it may result in political conflict.
 Conflict and Norms: Not only culture modifies conflict and its
forms but also controls and governs it. When conflict is frequent
and when no adequate techniques have been worked out, more
violent and unpredictable sorts of conflict such as race riots can
arise from such situations.
 Conflict may be Personal or Impersonal: Conflict may
assume a variety of forms. We may observe conflicts between
two individuals, families, classes, races, nations and groups of
nations. It may take place between smaller or larger groups.

3.7.9 Types of Conflict

Georg Simmel has classified four types of conflict: (i) war, (ii)
feud or factional strife, (iii) litigation and (iv) conflict of impersonal ideals.
(i) War, according to Simmel, represent, a deep seated antagonistic
impulse in man. But to bring out this impulse into action some
definite objective is needed. The objective may be the desire to gain
material interests. (ii) Feud, is an intra-group conflict. It may arise
because of injustice alleged to have been done by one group to
another. (iii) Litigation is a judicial struggle by an individual or group
to protect right to possessions. This kind of conflict is more objective
in nature. (iv) Conflict of impersonal ideas is a conflict carried on
by the individuals not for themselves but for an ideal. In such a conflict
each party attempts to justify truthfulness of its own ideals.
Apart from Simmel’s typology the following forms of conflict may
generally be observed in our social life.

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 Corporate and Personal Conflict: Corporate conflict occurs

among the groups within a society or between two societies. When
one group tries to impose its will on the other conflict takes place.
Personal conflict takes place within the groups. It is more severely
restricted and disapproved than the conflict between the groups.
The group as a whole has nothing to gain from internal conflict.
Personal conflicts arise on account of various motives, envy , hostility,
betrayal of trust and so on.
 Latent and Overt Conflict: Conflict may be overt or latent. In most
cases, long before conflicts erupts in hostile action, it has existed in
latent form in social tension and dissatisfaction. Latent conflict turns
into overt conflict when an issue is declared and when hostile action
is taken. The overt conflict takes place when either side feels strong
and wishes to take advantage of this fact. For example, the latent
conflict between democratic and communist countries may become
overt when a war is waged between them.
 Class Conflict: It arises between social classes which have
mutually hostile or opposite interests. Karl Marx has spoken much
about the conflict between the social classes: the rich and the poor
or the capitalists and the proletariats.
 Racial Conflict: Racial conflict is mostly due to social constructions
such as physiological differences which are apparently seen among
people of different races. One race may claim superiority over the
other and start suppressing the other resulting in conflict. For
example: conflicts between Whites and Blacks.
 Caste Conflict: A sense of ‘highness’ and ‘lowness’, of ‘superiority’
and ‘inferiority’ of ‘holy’ and ‘unholy’ prevalent among different
categories of caste have been responsible for caste conflicts. The
so-called upper-caste or ‘Savarna Hindus’ engaged in caste conflict
the so-called ‘Harijans’ or lower castes(untouchables) is still prevalent
in India.
 Group Conflict: Group conflict is found between two or more groups
of any kind-political, social, economic, religious or otherwise.
Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 59
Unit 3 Process of Socialisation

 International Conflict: It refers to conflict between two or more nations

or groups of nations. It may take place for political, religious, economic,
imperialistic or ideological or for any other such reasons.

3.7.10 Difference between Competition and Conflict

Competition Conflict

1. Competition is a process  Conflict is a process of seeking

of seeking to monopolise a to possess a reward by
reward by overtaking all rivals. weakening or eliminating all rivals.

 Competition may be  Conflict is always a conscious

conscious or unconscious. activity.

 Competition is universal, as  Conflict is universal but not

well as, continuous. continuous. It is intermittent.

 Here, the attention of an  Here, the concentration is on

individual is concentrated on the the person rather than the object.
object or the goal. It is mostly Hence it is mostly personal in
impersonal in nature. nature.

 Competition may lead to  Conflict mostly brings negative

positive, as well as, negative results. Its negative results
results. Healthy competition outweigh its positive results.
even contributes to progress.

 When competition becomes  When competition becomes

rigorous, it results in conflict. personalised, it leads to conflicts.

3.7.11 Difference between Cooperation and Conflict

Cooperation Conflict

 It refers to “joint activity in  Conflict is a process of seeking

to monopolise a reward by
pursuit of common goals or
weakening or destroying the other
shared rewards.”
competitors.

 Cooperation may be conscious

 Conflict is mostly conscious in
or unconscious. It may not be nature. It is mostly a deliberate act.
deliberate act always.

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 Cooperation requires sympathy  But conflict is always

associated with the deepest
and identification, kindness and emotion and the strongest
consideration for others. sentiments. In it, there no regard
for others.
 Cooperation is universal and  Conflict is universal no doubt.
continuous in nature. But it is not continuous, it is
intermittent.
 Cooperation brings mostly
 Conflict brings mostly negative
positive results. It builds,
results. It harms, destroys and
conserves, and leads to progress.
retards progress.
 Cooperation is basic to group
 Conflict is not fundamental to
life. There can be no society
the group life of man. Society can
without cooperation. persist without it.

 Cooperation assumes different  W e may speak of class

forms-primary, secondary and conflict, group conflict, international
conflict, conflict of impersonal
tertiary cooperation, direct and ideas, religious, cultural racial and
indirect cooperation. caste conflicts.

3.7.12 Causes of Conflict

Conflict is universal. It occurs in all times and places. There has

never been a time or a society in which some individuals or groups
did not come into conflict. The causes of conflict are as follows:

 Individual Differences : No two men are alike in their nature,

attitudes, ideals and interests. On account of these differences
they fail to accommodate themselves which may lead to conflict.

 Cultural Differences : Culture is the way of life of a group.

The culture of a group differs from the culture of the other group.
The cultural differences among the groups sometimes causes
tensions and leads to conflict. The religious differences has
occasionally led to wars and persecution in history.

 Clash of Interests : The interests of different people or groups

occasionally clash. Thus, the interests of the workers clash with
those of the employers which leads to conflict among them.

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 Social Change: Social change becomes a cause of conflict

when a part of society does not change along with changes in
the other parts. Social change causes a cultural lag which leads
to conflict. The parent-youth conflict is the result of social change.
In short, conflict is an expression of social disequilibrium.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q6: What are the causes of conflict?

...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

3.7.13 Meaning and Definition of Accommodation

Conflict, as we have seen above, is a continuous though

intermittent social process but life cannot continue if groups are
engaged in conflicts. Conflicts are exhausting if not annihilating.
These must, therefore, be resolved inorder to make social life
peaceful. Accommodation is resolution of conflicts which generally
means adjusting oneself to the new environment. Adjustment may
be made to the physical or social environment. Adjustment to the
former takes place through organic or structural modification
transmitted by heredity and is termed adaptation, while adjustment
to the latter is achieved by an individual through the acquisition of
behaviour patterns transmitted to him socially and through the

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adoption of new ways of behaving, and is termed accommodation.

Thus, animals lower than man adjust themselves most frequently
through adaptation; man does so chiefly through accommodation
as he lives in a truly social environment. Accommodation is a social
process, adaptation is a biological process. Some of the definitions
of accommodation are as follows:
MacIver : “The term accommodation refers particularly to the
process in which man attains a sense of harmony with his
environment.”
Ogburn and Nimkoff : “Accommodation is a term used by the
sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile individuals or
groups.”
H.T.Mazumdar : “Accommodation is a non-violent response or
adjustment (a) to a stubborn situation which cannot be changed,
or (b) to a situation which has changed as a result of violence
and hostility, or as a result of new rules and requirements.”
Gillin and Gillin : “Accommodation is the process by which
competing and conflicting individuals and groups adjust their
relationship to each other in order to overcome the difficulties
which arise in competition, contravention or conflict.”

3.7.14 Characteristics of Accommodation

 Accommodation is the Natural Result of Conflict : Since

conflicts cannot take place continuously they make room for
accommodation. When parties or individuals involved in conflict
do not relish the scene of conflict they sit down for its settlement.
Such settlements temporary or permanent may be called
‘accommodation’. In the absence of conflicts the question of
arriving at accommodation does not arise.
 Accommodation may be Conscious or Unconscious : Man’s
adjustment with the social environment is mostly unconscious.
From birth to burial man has to behave in conformity with the
normative order. The new born individual learns to accommodate

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himself with the social order which is dictated by various norms

such as customs, morals, traditions etc.
Accommodation becomes conscious when the conflicting
individuals and groups make a deliberate and an open attempt
to stop fighting and start working together example: Striking
workers stopping strike after having an understanding with the
management, etc.
 Accommodation is Universal : Accommodation as a ‘condition’
and as a ‘process’ is universal. Human society is composed of
antagonistic elements and hence conflicts are inevitable. Since
no society can function smoothly in a state of perpetual conflict,
accommodation becomes necessary. Thus, accommodation is
found in all societies and in all fields of social life.
 Accommodation is Continuous : The process of accomm -
odation is not confined to any particular stage of human life. It is
not limited to any fixed social situation also. On the contrary,
throughout the life one has to accommodate oneself with various
situations. Also, as and when conflicts take place sooner or later
accommodation would follow.
 The Effects of Accommodation may Vary with the
Circumstances : It may act to reduce the conflict between
persons or groups as an initial step towards assimilation. It may
serve to postpone outright conflict for a specific period of time,
as in a treaty between nations or labour-management
agreement. It may permit groups marked by sharp socio-
psychological distance to get along together.

3.7.15 Forms or Methods of Accommodation

Accommodation is social adaptation that involves the invention or

borrowing of devices whereby ethnic group develops modes of life,
economic and otherwise, that complement or supplement those of
the others. Accommodation or resolution of conflicts may be brought

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about in many different ways and accordingly may assume various

forms, the most important of them being the following:
 Yielding to Coercion or Admitting one’s Defeat : Coercion
means the use of force or the threat of force to terminate a
conflict. It usually involves parties of unequal strength, the weaker
party yields because it has been over-powered or because of
fear of being over-powered. An armistice or peace treaty
following a war is an example of this form of accommodation.
 Compromise : When the combatants are of equal strength
neither may be able to prevail over the other, they attain
accommodation by agreeing to a compromise. In compromise
each party to the dispute makes some concessions and yields
to some demand of the other. The ‘all or nothing’ attitude gives
way to a willingness to yield certain points in order to gain others.
The settlement of the parliament disputes involves
accommodation of this kind.
 Arbitration and Conciliation : Accommodation is also achieved
by means of arbitration and conciliation which involves attempts
on the part of the third party to bring about an end of the conflict
between the contending parties. The labour management
conflicts, the conflict between the husband and wife and
sometimes even the political conflicts are resolved through the
intervention of an arbitrator or mediator in whom both the parties
have full confidence. In International Law, mediation or arbitration
is a recognised mode of settling international disputes.
 Tolerance : Tolerance is one form of accommodation in which
there is no settlement of difference but there is only the avoidance
of overt conflict. In toleration, no concession is made by any of
the groups and there is no change in basic policy. It involves
acceptance of some state of affairs definitely objectionable to
the accepting group but for some reasons not deemed possible
or/ and advisable to dispose of in a more conclusive manner.
Tolerance is best exemplified particularly in the field of religion
Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 65
Unit 3 Process of Socialisation

where the different religious groups exist side by side, each

according some rights to the others which it claims for itself.

 Conversion : Conversion involves conviction on the part of one

of the contending parties that it has been wrong and its opponent
right. Accordingly, it may go to the other side and identify itself
with the new point of view. This process thus consists of the
repudiation of one’s beliefs or allegiance and the adoption of
others.

 Sublimation : Adjustment by means of sublimation involves

the substitution of non-aggressive attitudes and activities for
aggressive ones. It may take place at the individual, as well as,
at the group level. The method suggested by Jesus Christ,
Gandhiji and most of the religious prophets to conquer violence
and hatred through love and compassion, is that of sublimation.

 Rationalisation : Accommodation through rationalisation

involves plausible excuses or explanations for one’s behaviour
instead of acknowledging the real defect in one’s own self. One
thus justifies one’s behaviour by ascribing his failure to
discrimination against him instead of admitting lack of ability.
Not only individuals but groups also try to justify their action on
purely imaginary grounds. Nazi Germany, for example, had
advanced the reason for starting Second World War that the
Allies were planning to destroy Germany.

 Superordination and Subordination: The most common

accommodation is the establishment and recognition of the order
of superordination and subordination. The organisation of any
society is essentially the result of such a type of accommodation.
In the family, the relationships among parents and children are
based in terms of superordination and subordination. In large
groupings whether social or economic the relationships are fixed
on the same basis.

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3.7.16 Need for Accommodation

It is clear from the above that accommodation assumes

various forms. Without accommodation social life could hardly go
on. Since conflict disturbs social integration, disrupts social order
and damages social stability, in all societies efforts are made to
resolve them at the earliest. Accommodation checks conflicts and
helps persons and groups to maintain co-operation. It enables
persons and groups to adjust themselves to changed functions and
statutes which are brought about by changed conditions. It helps
them to carry on their life activities together even with conflicting
interests. It is a means of resolving conflict without the complete
destruction of the opponent. It makes possible co-operation between
antagonistic or conflicting elements or parties. Hence, it is often
called “antagonistic co-operation”. Thus, two or more conflicting
political parties may come together to forge a union to defend a
third party. Accommodation may take place at personal or social
level.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 7 : “The term accommodation refers particularly to

the process in which man attains a sense of harmony with his
environment.” Who said this?
...............................................................………………….........………
...............................................................………………….........………
Q 8 : Mention the forms of Accommodation.
...............................................................………………….........………
...............................................................………………….........………

3.7.17 Meaning and Definition of Assimilation

Assimilation is one of the types of interaction. Like
accommodation it is also a form of social adjustment. But it is more
permanent than accommodation. Assimilation is the process
whereby persons and groups acquire the culture of other group in
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Unit 3 Process of Socialisation

which they live, by adopting its attitudes and values, its patterns of
thinking and behaving- in short, its way of life. When the process of
assimilation takes place, the people in two distinct groups do not
just compromise with each other, they become almost
indistinguishable. Some of the definitions of assimilation are the
following:
Park and Burgess : “Assimilation is a process of interpenetration
and fusion in which persons and groups acquire the memories,
sentiments, attitudes of other persons or groups and by sharing
their experiences and history are incorporated with them in a
cultural life.”
Young and Mack : “Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two
previously distinct groups into one.”
Bogardus : Assimilation is the “social process whereby attitudes
of many persons are united, and thus develop into a united
group.”
Ogburn and Nimkoff : “Assimilation is the process whereby
individuals or groups once dissimilar become similar and
identified in their interest and outlook.”

3.7.18. Characteristics of Assimilation

 Assimilation is Not Confined to Single Field Only : The term

assimilation is generally applied to explain the fusion of two
distinct cultural groups. But this process is by no means limited
to any single field. For example, children are gradually assimilated
into adult society.
 Assimilation is a Slow and Gradual Process : Assimilation
cannot take place all of a sudden and it takes time. Fusion of
personalities and groups usually take time. It occurs only when
there is a relative continuous and direct contact. The speed of
the process of assimilation depends on the nature of contacts.
If the contacts are primary assimilation occurs naturally and
rapidly. On the contrary, if the contacts are secondary and

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superficial, assimilation takes place very slowly. The assimilation

of the Anglo-Saxon and Norman cultures has taken more than
two centuries in Britain.
 Assimilation is an unconscious process : In the process of
assimilation the individual or group is usually unconscious of
what is taking place. Mostly in an unconscious manner individuals
and groups discard their original cultural heritage and substitute
it with the new one.
 Assimilation is a Two-Way Process : Assimilation involves
the principle of give and take. It is normally preceded by another
process called ‘acculturation’. Acculturation is a preliminary and
necessary step towards assimilation. It takes place when one
cultural group which is in contact with another borrows from it
certain cultural elements and incorporates them into its own
culture. Contact between two groups essentially affects both.

3.7.19 Factors Favouring Assimilation

 Toleration: Assimilation is possible only when individuals and

groups are tolerant towards the cultural differences of others.
Tolerance helps people to come together, to develop contacts
and to participate in common social and cultural activities. When
the majority group or the dominant group itself is secure,
hospitable and tolerant toward differences, the immigrant groups
or minority groups have a greater opportunity to join and to
participate in the total community life.
 Intimate Social Relationships : Assimilation is the final product
of social contacts. The relative speed in which it is achieved
depends on the nature of the contacts. It takes place naturally
and quickly in primary groups such as family and friendship groups.
On the contrary, where contacts are secondary, that is, indirect,
impersonal and superficial assimilation takes place slowly.
 Amalgamation or Intermarriage : A factor which helps
complete assimilation is amalgamation which refers to the

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intermarriage of different groups. W ithout biological

amalgamation complete assimilation is not possible. Mere
intermixture of the groups to a limited degree does not guarantee
assimilation. But intermarriage or amalgamation must be
accepted in the social mores and become a part of the
institutional structure, before the process of assimilation.
 Cultural Similarity : If there are striking similarities between
the main constituents of culture of groups assimilation is quick
to take place. In America, for example, English-speaking
Protestants are assimilated with greater speed than non-
Christians who do not speak English.
 Education : Education is another conducive factor for
assimilation. For immigrant people, public education has played
a prominent role in providing culture contact. Maurice R. Davis
has pointed out in his “World Immigration” that in America the
public school has been playing the vital role in the process of
Americanising the children of foreign-born parents.
 Equal Social and Economic Opportunity : Public education
alone is not enough. People of all groups must have equal
access to socio-economic opportunities. Only then, they can
come closer and establish relations among themselves with
mutual trust.

3.7.20 Factors Retarding or Hindering Assimilation

 The State of the Development of the Society Entered : The

nature of the immigrant’s reception in the new land is dependent
on the conditions prevalent at that particular time to a very large
extent. For instance, immigrants were most acceptable in America
before 1880 when strength and skill of every kind were required
in the development of new lands and growing industries but those
coming in the year after 1880 have not been accepted with the
same advantages- those entering after 1933 have been rather
viewed as a threat to the economic well-being of native workers.

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 Isolation : Assimilation is possible only when the groups and

individuals are in continuous contact with others. Hence, isolation
is a negation of assimilation. Isolation can be only physical
isolation, mental isolation and can also retard assimilation.
 Background occupational skills : The immigrant has a great
advantage when he already possesses the skill and training in
the work for which there is a need in the new country. For
instance, the immigrants skilled in industries have better chances
of being readily accepted in industrially undeveloped countries
and so have the people of rural background in countries of
agrarian economy.
 Physical or Racial Differences : Differences in physical
appearance are often used as a means of discrimination. It is
easy to keep some people apart on the basis of their skin colour
or other physical features. For example, we can see widespread
discrimination between the Whites and the Blacks in almost all
the places in the world.
 Cultural Differences : If there are no common elements in the
two cultures, the groups may remain apart socially even though
they happens to stay together physically. They may even struggle
for supremacy in their intermittent conflicts. Thus wide cultural
differences between groups in customs, religious beliefs, morals,
values, languages come in the way of assimilation.
 Prejudice as a Barrier to Assimilation : Prejudice is the
attitude on which segregation depends for its success. As long
as the dominant group is prejudiced against a particular group
which is kept apart assimilation cannot take place. Prejudice
also hampers assimilation between constituent elements within
a given society. Prejudice within a community, within a family, or
within any group can only contribute to disunity and not to unity.
 Dominance and Sub-ordination : Dominance and sub-
ordination often come in the way of close and intimate contact

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between groups. If the dominant group does not provide equal

chances and opportunities for the minority or immigrant groups,
assimilation is very slow to take place. Further, complete
assimilation may not take place. Strong feeling of superiority and
inferiority associated with dominance and sub-ordination also
retard the process of assimilation.

3.7.21 Difference between Accommodation and Assimilation

Accommodation Assimilation

 Accommodation is non-  Assimilation is permanent.

permanent. In accommodation the Assimilation is a form of
differences among the groups are accommodation and is more
not resolved permanently. It may thorough going and permanent
only provide a temporary solution. method of adjusting intergroup
differences.

 Accommodation may take  Assimilation is a slow and

place suddenly and in a radical a gradual process. It takes time.
manner. Example: Workers after For example: Immigrants take
having talk with the management time to get assimilated with the
majority.
may decide to stop there month-
long strike all of a sudden.

 It may be both conscious and  Assimilation is mostly an

unconscious process. In most of unconscious process.
the instances it takes place Individuals and groups involved
in it are often not aware of what
consciously. Example: labour
actually happens within
leaders who come for talks are themselves or in the group.
sufficiently aware of the fact that
they are purposefully seeking out a
solution of their dispute.

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Process of Socialisation Unit 3

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 9 : Assimilation is a simple process. (Write True

or False)
............................................................................................................

3.8 LET US SUM UP

 Socialisation is a process of making an individual social in his or her

interactions. In other words, socialisation is a process through which
society develops an individual according to its ideals, beliefs and
traditions and bestows recognition as social being. In short, the basis
of socialisation is interaction.
 The process of socialisation makes a child social. Among the various
factors which play a vital role in this process, the following are the
prominent ones (i) Child rearing (ii) Sympathy, (iii) Cooperation, (iv)
Identification (v) Imitation (vi) Suggestion (vii) Social Teaching and (viii)
Reward and Punishment.
 Conflict is an ever present process in human relations. It is one of the
forms of struggle between individuals or groups. Conflict takes place
whenever a person or group seeks to gain a reward not only by
surpassing other competitors but by preventing them from effectively
competing. As a social process, it is the anti-thesis of cooperation.
 Social interaction, leading to socialisation, is at two levels: (i) Primary,
and (ii) Secondary. Primary interaction means interaction between the
individuals. Secondary interaction means interaction between the
individuals and the culture of their society- religious beliefs, artistic
tastes, literature, customs, morals, traditions and other institutions.
 Different types of social interaction are: co-operation , competition,
conflict, accommodation and assimilation.
 Co-operation generally means working together in the pursuit of like or
common interest. The word ‘co-operation’ is derived from two Latin

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Unit 3 Process of Socialisation

words, ‘Co’ meaning together and ‘Operari’ meaning to work. Literally,

co-operation means joint work or working together for common rewards.
 Competition implies mutual rivalry or struggle between two or more
persons for the purposes of obtaining a non-divisible goal. It is the most
fundamental form of social struggle. It is a natural result of the universal
struggle for existence. It is based on fact that all people can never satisfy
all their desires. Competition takes place whenever there is an
insufficient supply of things that human beings commonly desire.
 Conflict is an ever present process in human relations. It is one of the
forms of struggle between individuals or groups. Conflict or clash of
interests is universal in nature. It is present in almost all the societies.
Conflict is affected by the nature of the group and its particular culture.
Individuals and groups who are involved in conflict are aware of the fact
that they are conflicting. Conflict never takes place continuously. It takes
place occasionally.
 Accommodation is resolution of conflicts which generally means
adjusting oneself to the new environment. Adjustment may be to the
physical or social environment. Adjustment to the former takes place
through organic or structural modification transmitted by heredity and
is termed adaptation, while adjustment to the latter is achieved by an
individual through the acquisition of behaviour patterns transmitted to
him socially and through the adoption of new ways of behaving, and is
termed accommodation.
 Assimilation is one of the types of interaction. Like accommodation it is
also a form of social adjustment. But it is more permanent than
accommodation. Assimilation is the process whereby persons and
groups acquire the culture of other group in which they become to live,
by adopting its attitudes and values, its patterns of thinking and behaving-
in short, its way of life. When the process of assimilation takes place,
the people in two distinct groups do not just compromise with each
other, they become almost indistinguishable.

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3.10 FURTHER READING

1) Mathur, S.S. (1965) ‘A Sociological Approach to Indian Education’ Vinod

Pustak Mandir, Agra.
2) Safaya & Shaida(2003) ‘Modern Theory and Principles of Education”,
Dhanpat Rai Publishing Co. (P) Ltd. New Delhi.
3) Dr. Sharma (2005) ‘Sociological Foundations of Education’ Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra .

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1 : Life long process

Ans to Q. No. 2 : (i) It has to be borne in mind that socialisation is a
life-long process. While this process is very much marked
in the early period of life, nonetheless an individual has to
learn throughout his life.
(ii) Another important aspect of socialisation is that it ‘is
house breaking’. In other words, a biological being tries to
enter the world through the process of socialisation. The
way he enters the society has been termed ‘house-
breaking’.
(iii) Nonetheless, the individual who has to live in a society,
must learn to control his impulses and develop certain types
of attitudes and values which are socially desirable for him.
All this has to be learnt through the process of socialisation.

Ans to Q. No. 3 : The different types of co-operation are as follows :

i. Direct Cooperation
ii. Indirect Cooperation
iii. Primary Cooperation
iv. Secondary Cooperation
v. Tertiary Cooperation

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Ans to Q. No. 4 : Competition

Ans to Q. No. 5 : The following are the characteristics of competition:
i. Scarcity as a Condition of Competition
ii. Competition and Affluence
iii. Competition is Continuous
iv. Competition is Universal
v. Competition is Dynamic
Ans to Q. No. 6 : The causes of conflict are as follows:
i. Individual Differences
ii. Cultural Differences
iii. Clash of Interests
iv. Social Change
Ans to Q. No. 7 : MacIver
Ans to Q. No. 8 : The different forms or methods of accommodation are
as follows :
i. Yielding to coercion or admitting one’s defeat
ii. Compromise
iii. Arbitration and Conciliation
iv. Tolerance
v. Conversion
vi. Sublimation
vii. Rationalisation
viii. Superordination and Subordination
Ans to Q. No. 9 : False

3.12 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions(Answer each questions in about 50 words)

Q 1 : Define Socialisation?
Q 2 : What do you mean by social interaction?
Q 3 : What is synergism?

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Process of Socialisation Unit 3

Q 4 : Mention one factor that provide hindrance in the process of

assimilation.
B) Short Questions(Answer each questions in about 150 words)
Q 1 : Write about the characteristics of socialisation.
Q 2 : Mention the different types of cooperation.
C) Long Questions (Answer each questions in about 300-500 words)
Q 1 : Explain the process of socialisation with illustration.
Q 2 : Define ‘Social Interaction’ and discuss its various forms.
Q 3 : Evaluate the role of Co-operation and Competition in social
life.
Q 4 : What part do Assimilation and Accommodation play in the social
process?
Q 5 : How would you differentiate between Competition and Conflict?
Give illustrations.

*** ***** ***

Sociological Foundation of Education (Block 1) 77

 UNIT 4: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
UNIT STRUCTURE

4.1 Learning Objectives

4.2 Introduction
4.3 Meaning of Social Change
4.4 Nature and Characteristics of Social Change
4.5 Causes of Social Change
4.6 Agencies of Social Change
4.7 Education as a factor of Social Change
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Further Reading
4.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.11 Model Questions

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 define the meaning of social change
 describe the nature of social change
 identify the causes of social change
 discuss about the agencies of social change
 explain the role of education as a factor of social change.

4.2 INTRODUCTION

A society, generally, has two distinct tendencies- conservative and

progressive. People in society have a tendency to conserve and preserve
the social heritage of the past. It is due to the conservative tendency that
every society is proud of its own cultural heritage of the past. But, at the
same time, it has the tendency to change, modify and improve the existing
social heritage for future development. This unit is going to highlight the
nature of social change taking place in the society and the agencies through

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which the social change takes place. Besides, it will also help you to learn
how education plays as an important role for social change.

4.3 MEANING OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Change is the law of nature. Each society follows the principle of

change in its own way. For example, in a progressive society the speed of
changes is faster than than in a conservative society. There are many
factors and forces that are responsible for social change.
The term ‘Social Change’ means the changes that take place in
social interactions and inter-relations, social processes and value systems.
Social change also includes changes in social structures & organisations,
social functions and the lifestyles of people. Any kind of change in society
is accepted when the majority of people living in that society accept it in
their lifestyle, behaviour, thought and action. Social change means replacing
the old one with a new approach in multiple dimensions i.e. in thought
process, in personal and social relations, in work culture ,in value system ,
in social structures and so on. In “Basic Sociological Principle”, Harry M.
Johnson has explained the process of social change including its size,
speed, interpersonal relationship, structural change etc.
The term ‘social change’ has been defined by various sociologists
as follows -
According to Maclver and Page “Social change refers to ‘a
process’ responsive to many types of changes; to changes in the
manmade conditions of life; to changes in the attitudes and beliefs of
men, and to the changes that go beyond the human control to the biological
and the physical nature of things.”
According to M.E. Jones “Social change is a term used to describe
variations in, or modifications of, any aspect of social processes, social
patterns, social interaction or social organisation.”
According to Kingsley Davis “By social change is meant only such
alterations as occur in social organisation, that is, structure and functions
of society.”

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Unit 4 Education and Social Change

According to Gillin and Gillin “Social changes are variations from

the accepted modes of life where due to alterations in geographic conditions
and culture equipment, composition of policies or ideologies and whether
brought about by diffusion and inventions within the group.”
According to S.P. Ruhela, “The term social change might imply
changes in social attitudes, behaviour, customs, habits, manners, relations
and value of people, in social institutions and structures, in the ways or
styles of living.”
According to Harry Johnson, there are five kinds of changes that
under social change:
a. Changes in social values.
b. Institutional changes.
c. Change in distributes of possessions and rewards.
d. Change in personal outlook.
e. Change in abilities or attitudes of persons.
From the above definitions of social change, we may conclude as—
 Social change is a process.
 Social change is a universal phenomenon.
 Social change is a change in the attitudes and beliefs of men.
 Social change is a change in lifestyles of people living in a society.
 Social change is a change in social relationships.
 Social change is a change in structure and functions of society.
 Social change is a change in social patterns.
 Social change is a change in social values.

4.4 NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL

CHANGE

 Social change is a continuous process. Change of a society cannot

be stopped.
 Social change is a natural process. In some societies this process
of change may be fast, and in some others it may be slow, depending
upon the nature and character of that society.

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 Education and Social Change Unit 4

 Social change is a universal process. Each society has to follow

the principle of change.
 Social change is influenced by time factor. With the change of time,
existing social value systems, customs, traditions, faith and beliefs
change gradually which, as a whole, contribute to process of change.
 Social change may be planned as well as unplanned. Planned
change of a society comes through various schemes, projects and
short and long term programmes which can determine and control
the rate and direction of social change. Due to natural calamities
such as floods, earthquakes, tsunami, drought, volcanic eruptions
etc. changes come to a society without any planning.
 Social change is the changes in social interactions, personal and
social value systems.
 Social change may create chain reaction. Change in a single factor
directly or indirectly associated with other factors.
 Social change is a product of the interaction of many factors. These
factors are education, science and technology, cultural factor,
psychological factor, ideological factor, economic factor, political
factor etc.
 Social change may occurr either partially or completely in the existing
status or in practices. Changes come to society partially through
revolutionary or evolutionary approach.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1 : Define Social Change.

. ...................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
Q 2 : Mention two characteristics of social change.
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................

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Unit 4 Education and Social Change

4.5 CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change is a complex phenomenon. Many factors or causes

operate together to produce social change. All these causes of social
change have interconnections and overlap each other. These causes are –
 Culture : One of the important causes of social change is change
in culture. Culture is a complex whole that constantly loses and
gains components. There are three important components or
sources of cultural change—invention, discovery and diffusion.
Invention of new ideas, objects and social patterns bring social
change. Invention may be of two types—material and social. Each
invention has its long term possibilities of impact on change in
society. A discovery adds something new to the culture and thereby
helps in social change. Diffusion is a selective process of society
where only needed aspects of culture are borrowed from one society
to another society or within the society which trigger changes in
society. The rapid expansion of mass media and improved
transportation and communication has led to rapid diffusion of ideas
and help in social change.
 Conflict : Conflict and tension in a society help in social change.
No society is free from conflicts; of course, types, nature and causes
of conflicts vary from society to society. According to Karl Marx
conflict (class) is the engine that drives societies from one historical
era to another. Social division based on class, caste, gender,
ethnicity, estate, etc. are some of the major causes of social conflict.
 Social problems : There are so many social problems in a society.
These are poverty, juvenile delinquency, illiteracy, prejudices,
population explosion, superstition, prostitution, unemployment, etc.
Most of the problems are interrelated and create a social tension
and conflict. These conflicts lead to changes of various aspects in
society.
 Demographic Change : Demographic change of a society may
also be a cause of social change. Demographic change is caused

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by an increase in population (an increase in birth and decline in

death) and human migration within and among societies.
 Social movements : Social movement is considered as the
powerful cause of social change. Social movements are organised
efforts of groups of people joining together for a common cause to
bring about deliberate change in the culture and tradition,
relationships, social norms and ideas of the society.
 Environmental changes : Environmental change due to natural
calamities and degradation of the environment can bring changes
in the structure of societies, relationships of people, human
settlements and means of livelihood. Due to these environmental
changes, people migrate from one place to another, and try to adjust
with the new changing situations.
 New Ideology : Social change may also occur due to adaptation
of new ideology which includes new faith and beliefs, values, rights
and duties as well as a new approach in life. Beliefs on truth, non-
violence and non-cooperation are some of the major principles
advocated by Mahatma Gandhi which gave us freedom in 1947 and
resulted in multiple changes in Indian society.
 Economic & political advancement : Economic and political
advancement that have been going on across the country and
around the world after formation of the U.N has brought about many
social changes. Promotion of democracy worldwide and inception
of globalisation have made many changes in global economy,
political structure and dynamics, culture, poverty, gender
issues,environment etc.

4.6 AGENCIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change is the change in society. There are a number of

agencies involved in the process of social change. These agencies are—
1. Family
2. School

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3. Community
4. Science & Technology
5. Non-Government Organisation
6. Politics
7. Religion
8. Mass Media
Role of these agencies in the process of social change are
discussed below—
 Family: The family is the most important primary group in society. It
is the most important agency that brings about socialization. The
family moulds the character and personality of the individual. The
parents serve as the first socializing agents for their children. The
family sets the stage for the development of many important
personality characteristics, providing experiences both within and
outside the home. The customs, traditions, faith, belief and norms
of our society are first learnt within the family. Here, the child first
observes and then internalizes the values of the parents. Social,
political and religious beliefs and customs are transmitted from one
generation to next generation with desirable changes or modifications
via family. In this way family plays a major and responsible role in
the process of social change.
 School: School is considered as a miniature society and another
(next to family) important agent of socialization. School is a formal
agency of education. In school, education is provided to each student
in a systematic way according to their age, capacity and changing
trends of society. Main responsibility of the school is to develop the
total personality of each child: physically, mentally, morally, socially,
aesthetically and spiritually. Through its curricular and co-curricular
activities, through craft work, games, sports, Scout & Guide, N.C.C,
N.S.S. etc. they acquire requisite skills, scientific attitudes and
moral values which are necessary for realising the past and present
values of society and changing trends of society for welfare of
all.
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 Community : Community is one of the important informal agencies

of education which can mould the total changing trend of a society.
In our country, every community is interrelated with other
communities and work as a part of the large community. As an
informal agency of education, community influences people indirectly,
helping them to accept new knowledge, information and progressive
values with slight modification or total change of the previous ones.
 Science & Technology: Science and technology play a major role
in social change. With new inventions and discoveries, material
changes have taken place in all progressive societies. Of course,
speed of change varies from society to society. With scientific
approach in life, people living in community may fight against
prejudices, superstitions, phobias etc. The ICT plays a major role in
changing the society by spreading knowledge and information with
high speed and accuracy. Science and technology has transformed
the world as global village. Changes taking place in one society
affect the other society through the use of science and technology.
 Non-Government Organisation (NGO): A Non-Government
Organization is a voluntary organisation. The main motive behind
such organisations is self-less service to the community. All types
of activities cannot be performed merely by enforcing government
rules and laws, especially in the areas where human emotions,
attitudes, faith & belief, customs and traditions are involved. Today
NGOs are engaged in different fields, for example—health,
education, culture, social welfare, women empowerment, religious
activities, etc. to change the trend of unscientific thought and conduct
to scientific one. Both state and central government provide financial
assistance to NGOs to carry on their activities. Some NGOs receive
international funds also on the basis of their activities.
 Politics: Politics play an important role in social change. Each
political party has its own principles to motivate the people. With
increasing political awareness among the masses, people can judge
the political propaganda and are able to give their best judgement.
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With the passage of time, popularity increases toward democracy.

Today, democracy is considered as the way of life and not a mere
political arrangement. It is based on the principle of equal freedom
and equal rights for all its members, regardless of race, religion,
sex, occupation or economic status. In this way, democracy
introduced a new concept of politics where all people are taking
active role in government formation.
 Religion : Religion is a powerful agent of social change. Religion is
a special faith and worship of a God or Goddess. It helps to inculcate
some special values which encourage people to follow a disciplined
way of life. Each religion has its own basic principles and unique
style of worship for purification of heart and head. Through these
unique styles of worship, each religion restricted some activities of
their followers. With the change of time, spiritualism become more
popular among the new generation which can eradicate human
illusions towards other religions and help to become soul-
conscious and develop universal brotherhood among all sections
of people.
 Mass Media: Mass media plays a major role in social change. Print
and electronic media such as newspaper, radio, television, computer,
film, telephone, etc. have a great mobilizing power and capacity.
The media can instantly communicate new knowledge and
information and there by educating masses with updated changes
in society. Through mass media masses receive changing trends
of a society in culture, music, fashion technology, education, health,
beauty therapy etc. which affect the life style of other society.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 3 : List out two causes of social change.

....................................................................................................
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Q 4 : Explain religion as an agent of social change.

..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 4.1

Cite an example or an activity by your own which can

lead to bring social change in your society.
....................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................

4.7 EDUCATION AS A FACTOR OF SOCIAL CHANGE

Education is a very important factor which can bring changes in

society. Without education social change cannot take place. Type and speed
of social change also determined by education. Material and non-material
cultural changes also possible through education. Education is considered
as one of the most powerful means of economic, political, cultural, and
scientific and psycho- social changes in a society. As a factor of social
change, education performs the following tasks—
 Transmission of culture : Education helps to preserve the
worthwhile culture of a society, assimilation of the cultural values
and its transmission from one generation to the next generation.
Education helps to conserve, preserve and adopt desirable changes
in cultural elements.
 Value system : Education can help to mould the individual’s
character and personality, thought process, value system, outlook
and attitudes, living style of the people and in adopting desirable
social reforms.
 Imparting knowledge and information : Education can help in
imparting knowledge and information about the changing trends of
thought and work culture. It also helps to develop creative and

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constructive power along with skill development that can initiate

social change.
 Science and technology : Education is a powerful instrument of
imparting knowledge about science & technology which can help
individual to adopt scientific approach in life. Such scientific
approaches in life help to develop the capacity to judge and remove
to a great extent prevailing prejudices, misunderstanding, narrow
ideals and superstitions. Scientific inventions and technological
advancement have made life more comfortable by providing good
communications, transportations, standardized goods, improved
medicines, etc.
 Economic development : Education can help in the economic
change and improvement of a society. New teaching methods and
techniques, introduction of new policies and programmes for skill
development, self-empowerment, communication improvement,
new banking facilities for poor, new approach to work culture, etc.
help to increase social mobility and economic changes of a society.
Educational reforms, designed to raise educational standards
among low income people, financial assistance to poor intelligent
students are few steps for qualitative changing of a society.
 Political awareness : Education is a powerful instrument of creating
political awareness among the masses. Through education, people
can understand their own rights, duties and responsibilities and also
able to understand political propaganda. Education can help to
develop true patriotism and the sense of sacrifice among the
masses. Government policies and programmes are fully successful
when people are educated and take active participation for its
execution.
 Occupational facilities : Education is considered as a powerful
means of getting occupations. Types of occupations and
departmental promotions also depend upon education which is the
key determiner of social status. Thus, education has the capacity

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to transform the occupational structure and determine the economic

status of the people .
 Removal of obstacles : There are so many obstacles of social
change. These are specially superstition, conservative nature,
religion, class, castes, fear, regionalism etc. Education can help to
acquire scientific knowledge and information to judge the existing
customs, traditions, faith and belief, norms and standards of a society
and develop a new logical attitude towards change.

4.8 LET US SUM UP

 The term ‘Social Change’ means changes in social interactions,

social processes and value systems. Social change also includes
changes in social structures and organisations, social functions and
the lifestyles of people.
 There are many factors which are considered as responsible for
social changes like education, science and technology, cultural
factor, psychological factor, ideological factor, economic factor,
political factor,etc.
 The agencies of social change are—Family, School, Community,
Science & Technology, Non-Government Organisation, Politics,
Religion and Mass Media.
 Education is a very important factor which can bring changes in
society. Education fosters social change. Type and speed of social
change are also determined by education. Material and non-material
cultural changes are also possible through education. Education is
considered as one of the most powerful means of economic,
political, cultural, and scientific and psycho- social changes in a
society.

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4.9 FURTHER READING

1) Aggarwal, J.C. (2007). Theory and Principles of Education. Agra: Vinod

Pustak Mandir.
2) Bhatia, K.K. and Narang, C.L. (2006). Philosophical and Sociological
Bases of Education. Ludhiana: Tandon Publication.
3) Mathur, S.S. (2006). A Sociological Approach to Indian Education. Agra:
Vinod Pustak Mandir.
4) Shankar, Rao. C.N. (2012). Principles of Sociology with an Introduction
to Social Thought. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd.

4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1 : According to M.E. Jones - “Social change is a term used

to describe variations in, or modifications of, any aspect of social
processes, social patterns, social interaction or social
organisation.”
Ans to Q. No. 2 : The two characteristics of social change are-

 Social change is a continuous process. Change of a society

cannot be stopped.

 Social change is a natural process. In some societies this process

of change may be fast, but in others it may be slow, depending
upon nature and character of that society.
Ans to Q. No. 3 : The two causes of social changes are-

 Conflict : Conflict and tension in a society help in social change.

No society is free from conflicts; of course, types, nature and
causes of conflicts vary from society to society. According to
Karl Marx, conflict (class) is the engine that drives societies from
one historical era to another. Social division based on class, caste,
gender, ethnicity, estate etc. are some of the major causes of
social conflict.
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 Social problems : There are so many social problems in a

society. These are poverty, juvenile delinquency, illiteracy,
prejudices, population explosion, superstition, prostitution,
unemployment etc. Most of the problems are interrelated and
create a social tension and conflict. These conflicts lead to
changes of various aspects in society.
Ans to Q. No. 4 : Religion is a powerful agent of social change. Religion is
a special faith and worship of a God or Goddess. It helps to
inculcate some special values which encourage people to follow
a disciplined way of life. Each religion has its own basic principles
and unique style of worship for purification of heart and head.
Through these unique styles of worship each religion restricted
some activities of their followers. With the changes of time,
spiritualism become more popular among the new generation
which can eradicate human illusions towards other religions
and help to become soul- conscious and develop universal
brotherhood among all sections of people.

4.11 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q 1: What is social change?

Q 2: Write a definition of social change.

Q 3: Who is the writer of the book ‘Basic Sociological Principle’?

Q 4: In which year William. F. Ogburn wrote the book “Social Change”?

Q 5: Social change is a —— process.( Fill in the blank)

Q 6: Educational Institution is considered as one of the –—of social

change.( Fill in the blank)

Q 7. Write about the role of science and technology in social change.

B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

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Q 1 : “Social change is a natural process”—Explain

Q 2 : “Education plays a major role in social change”—Explain.

Q 3 : Mention about the four nature of social change.

Q 4 : “Social change is the result of social awareness”—Explain.

C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q 1 : What is social change? Mention its nature and characteristics.

Q 2 : What are the main factors of social change?

Q 3 : What are the main agencies of Social change?

Q 4 : What are the main causes of social change?

Q 5 : What is the role of Education as factor of social change?

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 5 : SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA
UNIT STRUCTURE

5.1 Learning Objectives

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Meaning and difinition of Modernisation
5.3.1 Characteristics of Modernisation
5.3.2 Criteria of Modernity
5.3.3 Causes of Modernisation
5.4 Process of Modernisation in Indian Society
5.5 Role of Education in Modernisation
5.6 Concept of Westernisation
5.6.1 Westernisation in India
5.7 Meaning and Characteristics of Globalisation
5.7.1 Globalisation and Education
5.7.2 Causes of Globalisation
5.7.3 Impact of Globalisation in India
5.7.4 Critical Analysis of Globalisation
5.8 Let Us Sum Up
5.9 Further Reading
5.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.11 Model Questions

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 define the meaning of modernisation, westernisation and
globalisation
 describe the nature of modernisation, westernisation and
globalisation
 discuss about the process of modernisation in Indian Society
 explain the role of education in modernisation and globalisation

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5.2 INTRODUCTION

Extensive use of science and technology in the twentieth century

has brought about remarkable changes of human society in all directions.
Scientific and technological methods are being used to serve the increasing
needs of our modern life. Today, man has been able to conquer space,
control disease, economise labour and use nuclear power for peace and
progress. All these have been possible owing to progressive changes in
outlook, attitude and in the sense of values in human mind. This unit is a
reflection on these changes and progress of India with the impact of
modernisation, westernisation and globalisation as a whole.

5.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF

MODERNISATION

Modernisation is a process of change whereby less developed

societies acquire the characteristics of more developed societies including
their ways of life and values. Through this process, the developed societies
transmit their keys of change and improvement to traditional or less developed
societies. Through the transmission of modern scientific knowledge, the
traditional societies achieve better and more satisfactory changes in the
field of education, economy, politics, culture and traditions, administration,
religion etc. Modernisation does not mean merely discarding all the traditional
values, customs, cultural and political heritage, faith and belief. The term
‘modernisation’ was first introduced by Daniel Lerner in his study of the
Middle-Eastern societies. Daniel Lerner in his book, “The Passing of
Traditional Society” (1958) has mentioned about the importance of
modernisation over westernization.
Definitions of Modernisation:
According to Daniel Lerner, “Modernisation is the current term
for an old process of social change whereby less developed societies
acquire the characteristics common to more developed societies.”
According to Alatas, “Modernisation is a process by which modern
scientific knowledge is introduced in the society with the ultimate

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purpose of achieving a better and a more satisfactory life in the

broadest sense of the term as accepted by the society concerned.”
According to Smelser, “Modernisation refers to “a complex set of
changes that take place almost in every part of society as it
attempts to be industrialised. Modernisation involves ongoing
change in a society’s economy, politics, education, traditions and
religion.”
According to Rutow and Ward,“The basic process in
Modernisation is the application of modern science to human affairs.”

5.3.1 Characteristics of Modernisation

 One of the important characteristics of modernisation is the use

of scientific knowledge and technology in day to day life approach
for a better living. Using of modern science and technology help
to change and improve the traditional values and adopt new
progressive ones.
 Scientific and technological inventions brought remarkable
changes in the field of social organisation, culture, politics,
economy and education. This is another important characteristic
of modernisation.
 Adoption of science and technology in industry, agriculture, dairy
farming etc. to revolutionise the concept of productivity is also
considered as one of the important characteristics of
modernisation.
 Social mobilization is an important characteristic of
modernisation. Through the process of modernisation, a society
transforms her old social, psychological, economic and political
elements and adopts new values for better living.
 Urbanisation is an important characteristic of modernisation.
Through the process of urbanisation, people migrated
continuously from rural areas to urban areas for their
establishment.

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 Industrialisation is a common characteristic of modernisation.

Industrialisation means building up or establishing industries
which leads to several social changes, for example–establishing
banks and business centres, extension of roads and other civic
amenities, etc.
 Another important characteristic of modernisation is the growth
of a number of specialised organizations with new means of
production and development of new professions.
 Another important characteristic of modernisation is the
development of mass media. These include newspapers, radio,
television, movies etc. through which the citizens become
enlightened and well- informed about the changing trends in
society.
 Modernisation does not necessarily mean discarding all the
traditional values, norms and beliefs but accepting all these with
necessary modification.
The process of modernisation lays emphasis on rational and
secular thinking, ideology based on nationalism, education, mass
communication, scientific and positive attitudes towards work and
wealth, industrial development and development of knowledge,
urbanization etc.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1 : Define modernisation.

..........................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................

Q 2 : Who for the first time used the term “Modernisation”?

..........................................................................................................

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5.3.2 Criteria of Modernity

Modernisation is a process whereby less developed societies

acquire characteristics common to more developed societies. There
are some criteria of modernity—
1. Economic self- sufficiency
2. Political participation to make democracy fruitful
3. Secular and rational social norms
4. Social mobility
5. Spread of literacy
6. Independent and neutral command of mass media
7. Improved communication and transportation facility
8. Importance on urbanisation and industrialisation.

5.3.3 Causes of Modernisation

There are many causes which are responsible for

Modernisation. These are—
 Spread of Education : Education is a process which helps in
changing the traditional attitude and norms and accepting the
new rational attitude and values to adjust effectively with the
changing trends in society.
 Use of science and technology: Use of science and technology
in day to day life and the use of scientific attitude help to re-
evaluate the traditional norms, values and beliefs and help in
effective adjustment with the new changing trends in society.
 Industrialisation : Industrialisation is an important cause of
modernisation. Due to the establishment of new industries and
factories, job opportunities increase and standard of living
become high.
 Urbanisation : Urbanisation and modernisation are inter-linked.
Due to the establishment of industries, educational institutions
and important offices in cities, people migrate to cities from rural
areas for job prospect, better establishment and improvement
of standard of living.
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 Improved communication system : Improved communication

system, especially use of internet, mobile phones, cinema,
Radio, television etc., help in effective communication and
spreading of up-to-date information among the masses for
changing the irrelevant thoughts and practices from the society.
 Faith on Secularism and Democracy : Due to the faith and
respect towards secularism and democracy, people can enjoy
their religious thought without any disturbance and take active
part in government formation and thereby help in cultivation of
modern trends in society.
 Faith on change : Due to the faith on change for betterment,
the traditional norms, customs and beliefs are subject to re-
evaluation and the modified ones are accepted for effective
adjustment with the changing trends in society.

5.4 PROCESS OF MODERNISATION IN INDIAN

SOCIETY

The process of modernisation in India started mainly with the British

establishing their rule in India. The British defeated the French by 1763;
captured Bengal, Odisha and Bihar in 1764; defeated Tipu Sultan of Mysore
in 1799; defeated the Marathas in 1818 and the Sikhs in 1849, and thereby
gradually extended their journey of victory on the Indian soil. Through contact
with the British people, the traditional Indian society started to change her
culture, thoughts, beliefs, style of living, etc. The impact of modernisation
in Indian society during the British rule can be sub-divided into two parts –
micro level and macro level. At the micro level this led to changes in the
social atmosphere. People began practicing their age old customs and
traditions, faiths and beliefs, norms and standard, culture and religion with
slight modification or sometimes without any modification. But social change
occurred in the macro level as well which helped the Indian society in the
transformation towards modernisation, for example—expansion of western
form of education, increased popularity of the English language and literature

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over classical Indian languages, spread of urbanisation and industrialisation,

improvement in the field of communication and transportation system, etc.
After Independence, the speed of social change towards modernisation
has increased rapidly. Spread of basic education , adult education,
recommendations of Education Commissions and Policies, influence of
nationalism , establishment of new social value system, decreasing rigidity
of caste system, improving social mobility, scientific and positive attitude
towards work, faith on democracy, secularism and rationalism, representative
government ,equality, planning for systematic change and progress, adopting
the policy of liberalisation and international cooperation, etc are the key factors
of social change for modernisation in India.

5.5 ROLE OF EDUCATION IN MODERNISATION

Modernisation is the result of education and enlightenment of

individual and social life. It is in fact the cause and effect of education.
Education can build up a new generation of men and women who believe in
the activity and behaviour with the spirit of modernisation. It can change the
political, economic and cultural complexion of the society as a whole. It is
necessary to outline the following significant points in regard to modernisation
through education-
 Education can help to evolve an effective political ideology of the
state for modernisation.
 It can raise per capita income and national productivity of the country
for economic growth and development of the people.
 It can raise the percentage of literacy and develop functional literacy
of the people.
 It can raise the rate of scientific and technological development of
modern civilisation.
The above points make it clear that education is the pre-requisite
for modernisation of a society. The role of education for modernisation is
therefore, by nature, very comprehensive that comprise all aspects of our
development.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 3 : Mention one cause of modernisation.

..................................................................………………………
..................................................................………………………

5.6 CONCEPT OF WESTERNISATION

Westernization is a process of social change. M. N. Srinivas defines

westernisation as—”Westernisation to characterize the changes brought
about in Indian society and culture as a result of over 150 years of British
rule, and the term subsumes changes occurring at different levels –
technology, institutions, ideology, value.” He mentioned that westernisation
means incorporation of the norms, values and culture of the West in one’s
own culture.
Characteristics of Westernisation :
There are various characteristics of westernisation. These are as
follows—

 Westernisation is a process of social change.

 Westernisation means adoption of the norms, culture and values of

the West in one’s own culture.

 Westernisation is morally neutral. It has good as well as evil effect.

 Westernisation is the product of modern science and technology.

 Westernisation spreads modern education among the masses

through school, college and universities.

 Westernisation encourages modern values like humanism,

egalitarianism and secularism.

 Westernisation does not mean only the establishment of new

industries but it also includes the basic changes and improvement
of their ways and means of production.

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 Due to the influence of westernisation in India, many discriminating

religious practices were ended.

 Westernisation also influences caste system and joint family system.

 Westernisation is a spirit to fight against superstitions, prejudices
and social evils.

5.6.1 Westernisation in India

Due to the influence of western culture, various types of

important social changes have taken place in India, for example—
culture, traditions, style of living, structure of family and marriage,
personal relations, female education, adult education, social mobility,
etc. The value system, culture, tradition, ways of life of the
Westerners in general and the British in particular influenced the
traditional Indian society in various ways. Due to the influence of
westernization, the Indian people adopted western technology and
educational system, their manners and habits, style of living and
eating, dress-code, structure of family and marriage, personal
relations, female education, social mobility, etc.
In India, westernisation has played an important role in
bringing about social change. During the British rule, India came
under the influence of westernisation. Due to the influence of modern
science and knowledge, many religious reforms came into
existence in Hinduism. People like Maharishi Dayananda,
Ramakrishan Paramhansa, Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri
Aurobindo, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, etc., devoted themselves in re-
defining Hinduism. Practices like Sati, child marriage and
untouchability were put to an end, and the process of widow-
remarriage was encouraged in India. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, among
the Muslims, and Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, among the backward classes,
contributed a lot for the uplift of India people. Some other great Indians
who tried to re-evaluate traditional Indian values for a better future in
India were Mahatma Gandhi, Patel, Nehru and Radhakrishnan.

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5.7 MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

GLOBALISATION

Globalisation is a wider concept which plays a major role in economic

development. Globalisation means international integration, especially
integration of the culture and economies of the world with one another. Due
to integration, product and factors move freely among the different countries
of the world. Products include all the tradable goods, commodities and
services, and factors include all the factors that can move like capital,
technology, finance, labour etc. Within the umbrella of global economy, there
should be one currency as in a country, and currencies should be freely
convertible for all the transactions like those relating to exports, imports,
financial flows, etc. Due to international integration, interdependency
increases among the countries. Not only in the field of products and factors
but globalisation also influence in the field of politics, culture, laws and ideas.
The formation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
International Monetary Fund and free trade system has triggered
globalisation. Improved communication and transportation system also help
in the process of globalisation. Globalisation is helpful for overcoming the
stagnancy in the economic growth and starts a journey of economic
development. Improvement in production increases employment facilities
and thereby increases income of the people and indirectly helps in bringing
down the problem of poverty. Due to the advances in communication and
information technology, physical distances among the countries have almost
been eliminated and thereby free movement of product and factors is
possible. Again revolutionary improvements in transportation networks have
helped in reducing the cost of moving goods across the countries. In India,
in order to overcome a huge financial and economic crisis, Dr. Manmohan
Singh brought a new Economic Policy in 1991 which is known as
Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization Policy (LPG) policy.
According to Deepak Nayyar, “Globalisation is an expansion of
economic activities across political boundaries of nation states.” He also
mentioned that globalisation refers to a process of deepening economic

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integration, increasing economic openness and growing economic

interdependence among countries in the world economy. Globalisation gives
stress on three factors—trade in goods and services; movement of capital;
and flow of finance.
According to Professor Roland Robertson, “Globalisation is the
compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of
the world as a whole.”
According to social scientist Martin Albrow and Elizabeth King,
“Globalisation is all those processes by which the people of the world are
incorporated into a single world society.”
Characteristics of Globalisation:
 Globalisation means international integration, especially integration
of the economies of the world with one another.
 Due to Globalisation, product and factors move freely among the
different countries of the world. Products include all the tradable
goods, commodities and services, and factors include all the factors
that can move like capital, technology, finance, labour, etc.
 Use of science and technology in day to day life and its various
inventions which are used for the progress of human civilisation
help in the process of globalisation.
 Human mobility is another characteristic of globalisation. Due to
exchange of knowledge, job prospect and self settlement, human
mobility increases from one country to another for improving their
standard of living.
 Another important characteristic of globalisation is the improvement
of communication technology. Information in one part of the world
can be easily and quickly sent to another part of the world through
internet, mobile, e-mail, video-conferencing, etc.
 Globalisation gives stress on economic development and economic
self-sufficiency. Along with the economic development, globalisation
also helps in explosion of knowledge.

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 Globalisation helps in the formation of international understanding

and brotherhood as well as the feeling of global citizenship among
all sections of people.
 The concept of “Global Village” comes forward through the process
of globalisation. With the changes of time and improvement in
communication technology, physical and cultural barriers are
reduced with new concept of world citizenship and brotherhood
under the roof of one global village.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4 : Mention two characteristics of westernization.

…………………….………………………………..
.......…………………………...........…………………….……………..

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Unit 5

5.7.1 Globalisation and Education

The concept of Globalisation has been able to dominate the

world of education in the changing scenario. In order to apply every
aspect of development for human welfare, suitable education
becomes essential. Proper assessment of the impact of science
and technology, the ease of means of communication and publicity,
reforms in capital and investment system, the adoption of economic
liberalization and the like, is possible only when people are
appropriately educated. The government of India was caught in the
wave of globalisation even as it was going for economic reforms
and development.
The international trade services sector recognized by GATS
has included every nation’s public education sector. Higher
education, too, falls in this sector. This has influenced the
commercialization of higher education especially in the export –
import field of education service sector. Nations that are members
of WTO can send students and teachers to other member-nations.
In the same manner, member-nations can export education service
through internet, electronic media and print media and set up trade
centres in member-nations for supply or export of education service.
Right to equality and equal opportunity have been greatly challenged
by commercialization of education. In addition to that globalization
has invited to the education sector the concept of competitive
privatization. Even though international temperament has been given
prominence through globalization, a national identity based on its
tradition and culture must be protected through proper education
policy. As such a national education policy has the great
responsibility of shaping the personality of its citizen through
education that is based on national principles and ideals so that
they are endowed with a sense of value to make themselves suitable
for facing the challenges of the times. In a welfare state, the national
education policy should be framed in such a manner that, on the

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one hand, the citizens are given moral security in preserving national
ideals, and on the other, they are bestowed with the qualities that
can inspire them to respect universal brotherhood.
Curriculum and Teachers’ training
Curriculum must be prepared with a view to building up
confidence among the students so that they can face the challenges
thrown by globalization in the education sector. The educationists
have started their deliberations in this regard. The time has arrived
when it has become necessary to evaluate once again the aims
and objectives of education, curriculum, teachers’ training, etc so
that these can be suitably changed with time. There have been
discussions as regards preparing new curriculum that allows
adjustment of teachers and students to new sense of value besides
fulfilling the private and public need. In this connection, the
International Education Commission constituted by the UNESCO
in 1993 under the chairmanship of Mr. Jacques Delors, submitted
its report in 1996 which mentions four significant aspects or stages
of education. They are: learning to know; learning to do; learning to
live together; and learning to be.
According to this commission, in future, instead of calling a
person who cannot read or write an illiterate, one who does not
know how to learn or acquire a subject suitable for learning, will be
called an illiterate. Preference will be given to functional literacy. As
soon as education was recognized as a lifelong process, distance
education became as popular as formal education; the flexibility of
Distance or Open education has increased its popularity manifold.
The curricula must be based on practical need so that the pupils
can achieve success in future. However, it is equally necessary to
impart them knowledge about national tradition, heritage, literature,
culture and sense of value. As such a reformed education system
will demand trained teachers. In this age of globalization, every
teacher should be acquainted with knowledge-explosion,
advancement in communication and publicity, the invention and
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innovation made by science and technology. That is why introduction

to new subjects related to education like computer application,
psychology, sociology, economics, science, political science,
mathematics and statistics should be incorporated in the curriculum
for teachers’ training. They should also be trained in recent methods
and strategies of teaching besides the traditional ones. Education
has a limitless role to play in the era of globalization. Teachers’ training
programme should be well emphasised to cope with the changing
situations. So, in order to make teaching and learning more
successful in the changing situation, there will be need of suitable
curricula, proper educational environment, and improvement of
physical, technical and academic infrastructure besides disciplined
and sincere students.

5.7.2 Causes of Globalization

There have been diverse views on the origin of globalization.

Some of them are given below:
 Rapid progress in Science and Technology : This has
been identified as the driving force behind globalization. This
progress has eliminated geographical distance and new
inventions and discoveries have helped people to reassess
life with new sense of value.
 Economic Reform : Economic reforms have also led to
globalization. Socio-economic changes were sought to be
brought about all over the world. As per Dunkel’s proposal
the World Trade Organization was born with supreme power
in the field of trade and commerce; every member-nation
was bound to act as per its direction.
 Secret Agenda of the Capitalist Countries : The USA and
a few very developed European countries suddenly suffered
so many setbacks that the concept of globalization was put
in circulation for their rescue. In the name of freeing the goods
and capital markets, they have spread their market all over
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the world and thus attempted to save their countries from

severe economic crisis.
 Development of Transport and Travel: Rapid progress
in the travel sector all over the world has facilitated trade
and commerce, migration and movement of people. As a
result there has been tremendous increase in exchange of
goods among nations, and passport and visa seekers.
 Fast Means of Communication: Inexpensive and easily
available fast means of communication and transportation
have made it possible to send and receive goods, etc to and
from various parts of the world. As a result, instead of a few
privileged nations, the whole world has reaped benefits of
development.
 Rapid Progress in Information Technology: This has
made it possible to send information to or receive information
from any part of the world instantly at a very low cost.
Computers and mobile phones have made email, video
conferencing, etc affordable for everyone. Thus, the world
has come to be treated as a single place instead of different
nations.
 Respect for Universal Brotherhood: The elimination of
geographical boundaries by superfast means of
communication gifted by science and technology has brought
the nations to think on a common platform for the common
good of humanity by solving the problems that threaten the
planet Earth. This feeling of universal brotherhood has led
to the idea of world citizenship.

5.7.3 Impact of Globalisation in India

Any issue has its positive and negative aspects. This is

applicable to globalization too. Globalization has left its impact on
India both positively and negatively .But the impact has been more
visible in towns and cities. The villages are still lagging far behind
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the cities and towns as far as infrastructure in health, education,

transportation, habitation and agriculture are concerned. The
benefits of the progress in Science and Technology in the fields of
information technology, communication, transportation etc. are yet
to reach a large number of villages.
 Rise in the Standard of Living : The government of India
implemented Economic Liberalization Policy; in
consequence, many economic reforms and developments
followed. The increase in the rate of economic development
has resulted in better infrastructure, health facilities,
employment opportunities, development in the Information
Technology sector, increase in per capita income and gross
domestic product. On the whole, the rate of development
has been moving upward. All these together have helped in
raising the standard of living in the Indian people.
 Establishment of Specific Industries and Opportunities
for employment : Globalization has opened the door for
setting up new industries in India. Production has been
emphasized as per demand. Industries in various sectors
like information technology, drug and health, and cosmetics
have multiplied manifold in India. In order to maintain quality
in these sectors, highly skilled and experienced workers are
needed. Opportunities for employment have mitigated the
problem of educated unemployed in India. These industries
have opened up employment avenues for unskilled workers
too.
 Government efforts for development : In order to carry
on the economic development that has been ushered in by
globalization, the government has taken up various plans
and strategies. Some of the schemes that have been started
in India are: Prime Minister’s Rojgar Yojana; Chief Minister’s
Rojgar Yojana; Indira Awas Yojana; Pradhan Mantri Gram
Sadak Yojana and the like. Efforts have been made through
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such schemes to do away with the discrimination in the

development of towns and villages.
 Economic factor : Globalization has greatly influenced
Indian economy. The government of India initiated economic
reforms which was a result of the growing influence of
globalization. Such reforms opened the gate for investment
in India by the MNCs (Multi National Companies). So, many
MNCs opened their offices in India. In the free market
economy, various steps have been taken by companies in
India to increase production to meet the demand in a global
market. It is because of globalization that India’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) has increased from 5.6 in 1990-
1991 to 7.78 in 1996-1997. Indian economy has been making
efforts to maintain the GDP between 5 to 6 percent in spite
of various natural calamities and other problems. It is
expected that India’s economic growth will be from 6 to 7
percent.
 On Education : The impact of globalization on education
has been immense. New teaching skills and equipments
have been introduced. For example: E-learning; Flexible
learning; On-line examination; E-library; E-journal etc. The
reforms in the infrastructure based on technology; reforms
in the curricula; reforms in examination and evaluation;
emphasis on teachers’ training: all these have been as a
result of globalization. Globalization has brought tremendous
challenges to the teaching profession. Life-long teaching is
transforming into contractual teaching and efficiency-based
teaching. Pupils’ feedback and views have started having
influence on the decision of making a teacher’s employment
permanent. In today’s education system, information
technology has come to be widely applied; the productivity
of education has been emphasized and research has been
given priority. As a result, Indian students have been able to
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prove their intellectual prowess in the global arena. For

example; the IITs and the IIMs (The Indian Institutes of
Technology and The Indian Institutes of Management,
respectively) have been able to produce students who can
compete internationally. Many private-sector schools have
laid stress on imparting education of international quality by
providing students with state-of-the-art facilities.
 On Agriculture : Globalization has deeply influenced both
agriculture and industries. Employment in both these sectors
has greatly increased. The contribution of Industries to GDP
is 29% while that of agriculture is 17%. The demand for tea,
cotton, jute, sugarcane, wheat, fine rice etc. is greatly
increasing in the international market. There has been a great
demand for organic products today in the world market. As
such India is devoting, in certain areas, to exclusive organic
cultivation.
 On Service Sector : The positive impact of globalization
on the Service Sector in India has been huge. This sector
contributes almost 54% to the GDP. It has opened up vast
employment opportunities and thus helped in the socio-
economic development of the nation. Globalisation has
brought about discernible changes in the Indian health
system; the Postal Service system; the Financial Service
Sector and Telecommunication. Revolutionary changes have
been brought about in the health sector with the introduction
of the latest medical equipments, mobile medical service,
improved ambulance service and telemedicine. Telemedicine
has made it possible for a patient to consult medical-expert
in any part of the world. Gene therapy has paved the way for
correcting defective genes. Because of low cost medical
treatment in India, a large number of people from various
parts of the world come to India for treatment. The postal
service has improved immeasurably and facilitated the
dispatch of money and matter quickly and inexpensively all
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over the world. The banking sector has seen the introduction
of ATMs, Net Banking, Tele banking, E-banking, global
banking, paperless transaction and the like. Similarly, in the
field of communication, mobile phone, teleconferencing,
video conferencing are widely used in the communication
sector. These are ramifications of globalization.
 On Society and Culture : Globalization has been able to
penetrate the Indian society as well as Indian Culture.
Changes are perceptible in many traditional practices in
relation to rituals and customs, faith and beliefs, dresses,
festivals, marriage and other ceremonies, family structure
and relation. So far as culture is concerned, the traditional
taste as regards music, dance, performance and acting has
undergone tremendous changes because of globalization.
At the same time blind imitation of the West in the name of
globalization has created a lot of problems in preserving the
tradition of Indian culture.

5.7.4 Critical Analysis of Globalisation

Favour of Globalisation
Thomas Freidman, According to him and many others,
globalization has brought people of the world closer and paved the
way for international cooperation and integration. It has also brought
economic prosperity to them by improving the economic condition
without making any compromise with their culture.
They are also of the view that globalization has been able to
lessen the threat of wars in the world as wars can create havoc in
the world markets.
Another view expressed by them is that globalization helps
the poorer countries economically. According to a World Bank report,
globalization has brought down the poverty level India and Indonesia.
It also says that the standard of living in the poorer countries have
gone up following globalization.

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Against Globalization
Noam Chomsky and a few others have spoken against
globalization. According to them, globalization has made the rich,
richer and the poor, poorer. Globalization has been described as
colonialism.
As commercialization has been given more importance in
India, the development here has been artificial. Unemployment
problem, the increasing gap between the rich and the poor, defective
distribution system, unequal development in the towns and villages
have made development in India as stunted as it was before
globalization.
As a result of globalization, international brands have been
able to earn more profit and reputation than local brands. In this
connection cold drinks like Coca Cola and Pepsi Cola may be
mentioned.
Globalization helps spread western sense of value, taste,
manners and behaviour and relegates local culture, tradition, custom
and ideal. Blind imitation of the west has even led to conflict between
old and new values.
Many, who have failed to compete professionally and
otherwise in the post-globalization world, have even taken their own
lives. For example, in Andhra Pradesh, under the Chandrababu Naidu
government, 221 peasants committed suicide as they could not
face the disaster caused by globalization.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 5 : Mention two important causes of globalisation.

.....................…………...............................…………………………….
................................................………………………………………….

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5.8 LET US SUM UP

 Modernisation is a process of change whereby less developed societies

acquire the characteristics of more developed societies including their
ways of life and values. Through this process, the developed societies
transmit their keys of change and improvement to traditional or less
developed societies.
 Some criteria of modernity are economic self- sufficiency, political
participation to make democracy fruitful, secular and rational social
norms, social mobility and spread of literacy.
 Some of the causes of modernization are- spread of education, use of
science and technology, industrialisation, urbanization, improved
communication system, faith on secularism and democracy, faith on
change.
 The process of modernisation in India mainly started when the British
established their rule in India. The British defeated the French by 1763;
captured Bengal, Odisha and Bihar in 1764; defeated Tipu Sultan of
Mysore in 1799; defeated the Marathas in 1818 and the Sikhs in 1849
and, thereby, gradually extended their journey of victory on the Indian
Soil.
 Modernisation is the result of education and enlightenment of individual
and social life. It is in fact the cause and effect of education. Education
can build up a new generation of men and women who believe in the
activity and behaviour with the spirit of modernisation. It can change
the political, economic and cultural complexion of the society as a whole.
 Globalisation means international integration, especially integration of
the culture and economies of the world with one another. Due to
integration, product and factors move freely among the different
countries of the world.
 Some of the causes of globalisation are- rapid progress in science and
technology, economic reform, secret agenda of the capitalist countries,
development of transport and travel, fast means of communication,
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rapid progress in information technology, respect for universal

brotherhood, etc.
 Globalization has left its impact on India both positively and negatively.
But the impact has been more visible in towns and cities. The villages
are still lagging far behind the cities and towns as far as infrastructure
in health, education, transportation, habitation and agriculture is
concerned. The benefits of the progress in Science and Technology in
the fields of information technology, communication, transportation, etc.
are yet to reach a very large number of villages.

5.9 FURTHER READING

1) Bhatia, K.K. and Narang, C.L. (2006). Philosophical and Sociological

Bases of Education. Ludhiana: Tandon Publication.
2) Mathur, S.S. (2006). A Sociological Approach to Indian Education. Agra:
Vinod Pustak Mandir.
3) Aggarwal, J.C. (2007). Theory and Principles of Education. Agra: Vinod
Pustak Mandir.
4) Shankar, Rao. C.N. (2012). Principles of Sociology with an Introduction
to Social Thought. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd.

5.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1 : According to Rutow and Ward, “the basic process in

Modernisation is the application of modern science to human
affairs.”
Ans to Q. No. 2 : The term ‘modernisation’ has been introduced for the
first time by Daniel Lerner through his study of the Middle-Eastern
societies.
Ans to Q. No. 3 : Industrialisation is an important cause of modernisation.
Due to the establishment of new industries and factories, job
opportunities increase and standard of living become high.
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Ans to Q. No. 4 : The two characteristics of westernization are:

 Westernisation is a process of social change.
 Westernisation means adoption of the norms, culture and
values of the west in one’s own culture.
Ans to Q. No. 5 : The two important causes of modernisation are:
 Rapid progress in Science and Technology : This has
been identified as the driving force behind globalization.
This progress has eliminated geographical distance and
new inventions and discoveries have helped people to
reassess life with new sense of value.
 Economic Reform : Economic reforms have also led to
globalization. Socio-economic changes were sought to
be brought about all over the world. As per Dunkel’s
proposal the World Trade Organization was born with
supreme power in the field of trade and commerce; every
member-nation was bound to act as per its direction.
Bottom of Form

5.11 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q 1 : What is modernization?
Q 2 : What is meant by westernization?
Q 3 : What is globalization?
B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)
Q 1 : What are the criteria of measuring modernization?
Q 2 : What are the main factors of modernization?
Q 3 : Write about the process of Modernization in India.
Q 4 : Write about the process of westernization in India.
C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1 : What are the main causes of Modernization?
Q 2 : Mention about the characteristics of a modern society.

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Q 3 : Mention about the impact of modernization on Indian Society.

Q 4 : Elaborate the role of Education in the process of Modernization.
Q 5 : Discuss the impact of westernization in India.
Q 6 : Write about the impact of westernization on Indian Education
system.
Q 7 : “Modernisation is a process whereby less developed societies
acquire characteristics common to more developed societies”—
Explain.
Q 8 : What are the impacts of globalization in India?

*** ***** ***

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 UNIT 6 : SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND
DISORGANIZATION
UNIT STRUCTURE

6.1 Learning Objectives

6.2 Introduction
6.3 Meaning and Definition of Social Organization
6.4 Characteristics of Social Organization
6.5 Factors influencing Social Organization
6.6 Meaning and Definition of Folkways
6.6.1 Characteristics of Folkways
6.7 Meaning and Definition of Mores
6.7.1 Characteristics of Mores
6.8 Difference between Folkways and Mores
6.9 Educational Implications of Folkways and Mores
6.10 Meaning and Definition of Social Disorganization
6.10.1 Types of Social Disorganization
6.10.2 Reasons of Social Disorganization
6.10.3 Measures to remove Social Disorganization
6.11 Role of Education in prevention and control of Social
Disorganization
6.12 Let Us Sum Up
6.13 Further Reading
6.14 Answers to Check Your Progress
6.15 Model Questions

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 define the meaning of Social Organization and Disorganization
 explain the characteristics of Social Organization
 analyse the factors influencing Social Organization and
Disorganisation
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 identify folkways and mores and their need in society

 differentiate between folkways and mores

 understand the educational implications of folkways and mores

 illustrate the role of education in prevention and control of Social

Disorganization.

6.2 INTRODUCTION

Social Organizations are formed by a group of people having

common ideas, values, aims and ideals to be fulfilled. They help people to
satisfy most of their own desires and aspirations. They have some common
characteristics which are discussed below in detail. Many factors influence
Social Organizations and the most common factors are –folkways and
mores.
A society is by nature organized. We all know that when all the
members of a society faithfully obey and follow the accepted rules and
norms for the welfare and well-being of the people then that society is marked
as an organized society. But it does not seem possible all the time for a
society to maintain those rules and norms. This creates a problem of social
disorder in the society. What happens when this problem of social disorder
raise in the society? It leads to social disorganization in the society. In this
unit, we are going to make you familiar with the concept of social organization
and disorganization, its types, its impact in the society and how education
can play an active role in prevention of social disorganization. Let us now
go into a detail discussion of it.

6.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SOCIAL

ORGANIZATION

In early days, the term Social Organization was used in a very

comprehensive way by sociologists. Auguste Comte defined social
organization as ‘general social agreement’ or “Social Consensus” without
which people became powerless.

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In the words of Ogburn and Nimkoff, “An organization is an

expression of different parts which perform various functions. It is an active
group mechanism for getting a task accomplished.”

Elliot and Merrill says, “Organization is a state of being, a condition

in which the various institutions in a society are functioning in accordance
with their recognized or implied purposes.”

According to H.M Johnson, “Organization refers to an aspect of

interaction systems.”

In the words of Duncan Mitchell, “Social Organization means

interdependence of parts, this is an essential characteristic of all enduring
collective entities: groups, communities and societies.”

At present the term social organization is used to refer to the

interdependence of parts in groups.

These groups may vary in size and nature from workers to the
factories. Many sociologists prefer to use the term social system to refer to
the society as such rather than social organization.

The term is used in sociological studies and researches today to

stress the importance of arrangement of parts in which the parts of society
are related to each other and how each is related to the whole society.
Organization makes possible the complex activities in which the members
of a complex society participate. A small body of organized police can control
a very large crowd. A small number of men constituting themselves as a
government can rule a country.

Sometimes the word organization is used to refer to the associational

groups. It includes corporations, armies, schools, banks and prisons. The
society consists of many such organizations. A state is frequently called a
political organization. A school may represent an educational organization
and so on. They are all social organizations. According to Ogburn and
Nimkoff, entire society represents a wider organization; a social organization.
But society is also quite generally an organized group of interacting
individuals.
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6.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

The main characteristics of social organization are as follows:

 The existence of unanimity among the members of the society is a
feature of social organization. In its absence, conflict will arise
between them and social disorganization will set in. For example, in
ancient India, the difference between the status of the Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras was very great.
 The activities of these groups also differed and the ones undertaken
by the Shudras were worse than those of the other castes. But this
system was unanimously accepted by all and sundry, and hence
the social organization remained impregnable. Later on when the
Brahmins abused their privileged position it got deteriorated further,
the unanimity of opinion in favour of this system was destroyed and
this resulted in the introduction of a note of chaos and disorder into
Hindu community.
 Unanimity among members of a society can be maintained only so
long as people are prompt and ready to accept their status and
respective roles within his social organization. In society, it is not
possible to apportion roles to all individuals in such a way that
everyone gets same and equal work. Just as even, load and part
has its own position and function in a machine, so are the functions
of people in society divided.
 A body can function only as long as all its various organs perform
their respective functions, much the same can be said of society. In
society one comes across differences in the social status of different
individuals who differ in respect of their sex, age, status, physical
capability, skill and roles. The roles of individuals are determined on
the basis of this social status. The promptness of people in
accepting their own status and role is a feature of social organization.
 The members of society will be prompt in accepting their status
and role only when society has control over them. Society exercises
this control through the media of habits, customs, traditions, mores,
rituals and institutions. It is this which creates unanimity in society.

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Social disorganization starts the moment this control of society is

lifted from upon the members.
 Every social organization has a definite purpose. Individuals come
together with a common goal and have a common aim. For example,
an educational institution has a common aim of promoting education
and vice-versa.

6.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

There are some essential factors which influence social organization. They
are discussed below-
 Individual motives are potent factors which influence a social
organization a lot. The individuals join an organization only when
they can derive benefits from it. The motive may be in the form of
social and economic recognition, meeting or getting connected to
men of letters or men of prestige.
 Identifying oneself with an organization is another great factor
that influences social organization. People belonging to an
organization always have some common motives through which
they can identify themselves with the organization .There are various
reasons for the individuals’ identifying with the organizations. Some
of the reasons are like—(i) most of the needs of individual are
satisfied by the organization; (ii) the goals and objectives of the
members are the same; (iii) the organization holds greater position
than individual; (iv) competition among members is very less; and
(v) interaction takes place in a large scale in the organization.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1 : What do you mean by ‘Social Organization’?

...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
Q 2 : Mention at least four characteristics of Social Organization.
...................................................................................................
...................................................................................................
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6.6 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF FOLKWAYS

The concept of folkways is associated with the name of William

Sumner who made one of the clarifying analyses of culture and its
implications. In his sociological classic Folkways, he has made a notable
contribution to the understanding of individual behaviour. Sumner conceived
of culture in terms of folkways and mores and used the terms “folkways” in
a very comprehensive sense. According to him, they are like products of
natural forces which men unconsciously set in operation or they are like
the instinctive ways of animals which are developed out of experience which
reach a final form of maximum adaptation to an interest which are handed
down by tradition and admit of no exception or variation yet change to meet
new conditions still within the same limited methods and without rational
reflection or purpose. From this it results that all the life of human beings in
all ages and stages of culture is primarily controlled by a vast mass of
folkways handed down from the earliest existence of the race having the
nature of the ways of other animals, only the top-most layers of which are
subject to change and control and have been somewhat modified by human
philosophy, ethics and religion or by other acts of intelligent reflection.

Folkways are recognized ways of behaviour in a society which arise

automatically within a group to meet the problems of social living. Social
life is full of problems and man seems to have tried every possible way of
dealing with such problems. Different societies have found different
workable patterns. A group through trial and error, sheer accident or some
unknown influence may arrive at one of the possibilities, repeats it and
accepts it as the normal way of behaviour. It is passed on the succeeding
generations and becomes one of the ways of the group of the folk, hence a
folkway. According to Sumner, men inherited from their beast ancestor’s
psycho-physical traits, instincts and dexterities or at least predispositions
which give them aid in solving the problem of food supply, sex, commerce
and vanity. The result is mass phenomena: currents of similarity,
concurrence and mutual contribution and these produce folkways.

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Definitions
According to Maclver, “The folkways then are recognized or accepted ways
of behaving in society. They include conventions, forms of etiquette, and
the myriad modes of behavior men have evolved and continue to evolve
with which to go about the business of social living.”
According to Gillin and Gillin, “Folkways are behavior patterns of everyday
life which generally arise unconsciously in a group.”
A.W. Green says, “Those ways of acting that are common to society or a
group and that are handed down from one generation to the next are known
as folkways.”

6.6.1 Characteristics of Folkways

The following are the most common characteristics of folkways—

 Spontaneous Origin: Folkways arise spontaneously. They are
not deliberately planned or designed. They are developed out of
experience. They are unplanned and uncharted.
 Approved behavior: Folkways are the recognized ways of
behaviour. The group accords recognition to certain ways while
rejecting others. Only such ways of behaviour are folkways as
have been approved by the group to which they relate.
 Distinctiveness: There are numerous folkways in different
societies. The folkways become related to a particular group.
There is considerable variation in the folkways between groups.
 Hereditary : Folkways are passed on from one generation to
another. An individual receives folkways from his ancestors.

6.7 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF MORES

The term “mores” is derived from the Latin word ‘mos’ which stands
for customs and just as customs cannot be violated by any individual so
mores also cannot be violated without incurring severe punishment. The
mores relate to the fundamental needs of society more directly than do the
folkways. They express the group sense of what is fitting, right and conducive
to social welfare. Sumner has written the Latin word mores seems to be on
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the whole more practically convenient and available than any other for our
purpose as a name for the folkways with the connotations of right and truth
in respect to welfare embodied in them.
Sumner applied the term ‘mores’ to those folkways which are
considered by the group to be of great significance and, therefore, rather
indispensible to its welfare.
Definitions :
Sumner says, “I mean by mores the popular usages and traditions when
they include a judgment that they are conducive to social welfare and when
they exert coercion on the individual to conform to them although they are
not coordinated by any authority.”
In the words of Gillin and Gillin, “Mores are those customs and group
routines which are thought by members of the society to be necessary for
the group’s continued existence.”
Maclver opines, “When the folkways have added to them conceptions of
group welfare, standards of right and wrong, they are converted into mores.”

6.7.1 Characteristics of Mores

Mores are not deliberately invented or thought of or worked

out by some people in the society. They emerge gradually out of the
customary practices of the people, largely without conscious choice
or intention. In the long run, the origin of such group ways or
customary practices is forgotten and the conviction arises that they
are useful and necessary to the welfare of the group and contrary
ways of acting are inimical to the welfare.
Like folkways, mores are also learned either consciously or
unconsciously. They are taught to the young as a set of sacred
things or verse (mantra). They are nearly synonymous with morals.
Wherever the mores are firmly established, obedience is automatic.
Violations of mores inspire intense reactions, and some type of
punishment inevitably follows.
The punishment may involve expulsion from the group, harsh
imprisonment, or in some cases even death. In Hindus, marriage
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within one’s caste (endogamy) is a rule. It has become a ‘mos’ for the
people (Hindus) of India. Any person who transgresses this rule and contracts
inter-caste marriage is either expelled from the caste or fined heavily.

LET US KNOW

Endogamy : It refers to the marriage within one’s own

caste and this rule prevails in Hindu people in India.

6.8 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FOLKWAYS AND

MORES

Folkways and mores can be distinguished in the following manner :-

 Mores are relatively wider and more general in character than the
folkways.
 Mores imply a value judgement about the folkways.
 Out of the mores comes our profound conviction of right and wrong
and not out of the folkways.
 An individual may disobey the ordinary folkways without incurring
any severe punishment. But violation of the mores brings him strong
disapproval and severe punishment.
 Mores are more compulsive, regulative and rigid than the folkways.
Hence, mores are more effective and influential in moulding our
character and restricting our tendencies.
 As Sumner has suggested when the folkways take on a philosophy
of right living and a life policy of welfare, folkways become mores.
Hence, the mores always contain a welfare element in them.
 Folkways are less deeply rooted in society and change more rapidly.
On the other hand, mores are deeply rooted in society and change
less frequently. Folkways may change with one’s social status and
occupational position. But mores do not change in that manner for
they are permanent standards of right conduct.

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From the above description, we may feel that the line dividing the
folkways from mores is clear and definite. But it is not so always.
Differentiating one from the other becomes extremely difficult especially in
the marginal cases. For example, drinking liquor is regarded by some as
simply bad and must be avoided. But some others may condemn it as a
highly immoral practice.
As Sumner has remarked our conceptions of right and wrong, proper
and improper are mostly determined by the folkways and mores. They can
make anything right and anything wrong. Of the two, mores are more
dominant than the folkways. Even the laws are often called the ‘codified
mores’.

6.9 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF FOLKWAYS

AND MORES
Folkways and mores have their own educational implications.
Folkways and mores are the basis of culture which is an essential and
potent force of educational society. They give us better understanding about
a particular culture. They are regulative and exert pressure upon the
individual and the group to conform to the norms. They are most powerful
and control the behaviour of individuals in society even more than the state
action. Folkways are as indispensable to social life as language, and they
serve much the same purpose. Mores determine much of our individual
behaviour. Mores always bring direct pressure on our behaviour. They mould
our character and restrain our tendencies. They act as powerful instruments
of social control. Mores are indoctrinated into the personalities of the
individuals from the beginning and hence they help them to exercise
constraints over their own behaviour. Mores identify the individual with the
group. Mores are the means by which the individual gains identification with
his fellows. As a result of that, he maintains social relations with others that
are clearly essential for satisfactory living. Mores are the guardians of social
solidarity. Mores bring the people together and weld them into one strong
cohesive group. Those who share common mores also share many other
patterns of behaviour. Every group or society has its own mores. There
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are mores for each sex, for all ages, for all classes, for all groups from the
family to the nation. The mores of each of these groups help to maintain the
solidarity of the group. With the evolution of society, the mores have become
more ‘specialized’. Their Control on the civilized and the advanced people
is also diminishing. Hence, they are supplemented with laws and
legislations.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 3 : Define Folkways and Mores. Mention the

factors of social organization.
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
Q 4 : Mention two characteristics of Folkways and Mores.
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
Q 5 : What are the differences between Folkways and Mores? Mention
at least three points.
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
Q 6 : Discuss the educational implications of Folkways and Mores.
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................

6.10 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SOCIAL

DISORGANISATION

We know that a well organized society is marked by sincerity,

obedience and loyalty of every member towards its accepted rules and
norms. Although there are circumstances in which people develop tendency
in their mind to disobey or disregard such accepted rules or norms. The
concept of ‘disorganization’ occupies a prominent place in modern
sociological literature. It was developed by Thomas and Znaniecki in their
famous book “The Polish Peasant in Europe and America”. According

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to them, the term ‘Social Disorganization’ refers to the decrease in the

influence of the existing social rules of behaviour upon individual members.
As a result of this, there develops individuation and lack of cohesion in
society. It was explained by them as a process which will automatically and
inevitably create social problems. Thus, in short we can say that, social
disorganization is the process by which relationship between members of
a group is broken down. There is social disequilibrium when the equilibrium
of the social forces is disrupted due to changes taking place in society. It is
due to changing nature of the society that a breakdown of social structure
or pattern occurs. A dynamic nature of society involves a constant
reorganization and rearrangement of the existing social rules and norms.
Due to such changes equilibrium or social balance between different
sections of people cannot be maintained. As a result social breakdown or
disorganization takes place.
Different sociologists have defined the concept of Social
Disorganization in different ways. Among them, some of the important
definitions of Social Disorganization are discussed below:
Emile Durkheim considers social disorganization as “a state of
disequilibrium and a lack of social solidarity or consensus among the
members of the society”.
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Social Disorganization implies
some breakdown in cultural contact, some disturbance in the equilibrium
among the various aspects of the cultural pattern”.
According to Elliot and Francis, “Social Disorganization is the
process by which the relationships between the members of a group are
broken or dissolved”.
Social disorganization, therefore, indicates social abnormality or
breakdown in the social customs, rules and laws and thereby losing
equilibrium of the social forces. It does not mean absence of harmonized
relationship in society, but indicates serious breakdown of such relationship.
Thus, social disorganization may be described as a product or a result of
the clash of interest among different groups in a society.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 7 : W ho first developed the concept of

‘Organization’?
……………………………….............................……….………
…………………………………………………….........………..
Q8: What is meant by Social Disorganization?
……………………………….............................……….………
…………………………………………………….........………..

6.10.1 Types of Social Disorganisation

Different Sociologists have given different classifications on

disorganization. Here we can take the example of Elliot and Merrill.
They have spoken of three types of disorganization, which are
interrelated. These are as follows:
 Personal or Individual disorganization which includes crime,
insanity or mental derangement, prostitution, juvenile delinquency,
alcoholism, drug addiction, gambling and suicide.
 Family disorganization which consists of divorce, desertion,
separation, broken home, unmarried mothers, illegitimate births and
venereal disease.
 Community disorganization which comprises of poverty, beggary,
unemployment, overpopulation, lawlessness, political corruption,
crime and so on.
Analyzing the various types of disorganization given by different
sociologists, we can classify social disorganization under the
following heads which are discussed as follows:
 Individual Disorganization
A disorganized society is composed of disorganized individuals.
The individuals’ personality develops by learning the approved
patterns and roles from other members of the group. When these
patterns are confused, he cannot know exactly what is expected

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from him. Under such conditions, his chances for developing a

completely integrated personality are thin. As a result it develops
disorganized personalities.
 Family Disorganization
Family disorganization is the social disorganization because it
leads to breakdown of the family group. It is the weakening and
disruption of the role patterns of the family members. It may
thus comprise of not only tensions between husband and wife
but also between parents and children or between siblings.
 Community Disorganization
Community organization is dependent upon cooperation and
consensus. Every community has some tensions and conflicts.
The disorganization of the community has been measured by
indexes to various aspects of formal group like population, health,
social welfare, education, housing, recreation and combination
of these. In this sense, community disorganization is a function
of the efficiency of the groups that express orderless social
interaction.
 International Disorganization
International disorganization means disorganization among the
countries. The co-ordination among the countries are not well
fitted in this regard, as a result international disorganization takes
place.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 9 : What are the different types of Social

Disorganization?
……………………………….............................……….………
…………………………………………………….........………..
Q 10 : List out the various forms of personal or individual
disorganization.
……………………………….............................……….………
…………………………………………………….........………..

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ACTIVITY 6.1

What type of disorganization you often see in your

surroundings. Illustrate with the help of an example.
…………………………………………
. ………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………….………………………………………………………………………

6.10.2 Reasons for Social Disorganization

A complex phenomenon such as social disorganization is caused

by a number of factors. These factors can be discussed as follows:
 Psychological Factors: Sometimes the cause of social
disorganization is f ound in human psychology itself.
Psychological factors contribute to social disorganization in two
ways:
 Failure to maintain proper communication among fellow
beings.
 Failure to modify or change one’s attitude with the demands
of time.
 Cultural Lag : It refers to the imbalance in the rate and speed
of change between the material culture and non-material culture.
Objects of material culture such as mode of housing, means of
transport and communication, types of dresses, patterns of
ornaments etc. change very rapidly. But ideas, beliefs, attitudes,
tastes, habits etc are aspects of non-material culture and change
slowly and gradually. Thus, a gap arises between material and
non-material culture, known as cultural lag. This invites the
process of Social Disorganization.
 Physical or Geographical factors : The maladjustment of
man and his culture to certain extra-ordinary physical or
geographic conditions or situations may cause disorganization
in society. This is especially true in the case of natural calamities
such as storms, cyclones, hurricanes, famines, earthquakes
etc.

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 Biological factors: Population explosion or extreme scarcity

of population, the instances of racial intermixture, defective
hereditary traits and such other biological factors may also create
disorganizing effects upon society.
 Ecological factors: Social disorganization is related to
environment in terms of regions and neighbourhoods. In this
context, we can give the example of Professor Shaw and his
associates who found that delinquency in Chicago city was
concentrated mainly in the areas of poor housing, overcrowding
and in areas in which cinema halls, hotels, night clubs etc were
found in a large number.
 Degeneration of values: Social values are often regarded as
the sustaining forces of society. They contribute to the strength
and stability of social order. But due to rapid social change, new
values come up and old values decline. At the same time, people
are not in a position to reject old completely and accept the new
altogether. Here conflict between the old and the new is the
inevitable result which leads to the social disorganization.
Besides the above mentioned factors, there are some other
factors too which many times lead to social disorganization.
They are as follows:
 Conflict and goals of means: Most of the individuals share the
dominant goals of the society and act accordingly. But lacking
the means for achieving the goals by legitimate means, some
may resort to illegitimate and illegal means resulting in vice, crime
and other expression of social disorganization.
 Decline of social control: The declining control of religions,
morals, customs, traditions and other institutions on the
behaviour of men has also enhanced the process of
disorganization.
 Extreme division of labour: According to Emile Durkheim,
social disorganization is often brought about by extreme division
of labour. In normal course, according to him, division of labour
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leads to social solidarity, but when it becomes extreme and very

complex, solidarity may become disturbed.
 Disruptive social change: Society undergoes change mainly
due to operation of physical, biological, technological and cultural
factors. Sudden and radical social changes may sometimes
disrupt the stability and the organization of the society. The result
is social disorganization.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 11 : Mention the factors that lead to Social

Disorganization.
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

6.10.3 Measures to remove Social Disorganization

The modern society is faced with the serious problem of

social disorganization among different sections of people. It throws
a challenge to the educational sociologists and the organizers in
meeting with the problem of disorganization. In regard to their
solution, our attention may be drawn to the following points:

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 Removing economic disparity

Economic disparity in a modern society is a major cause of concern
to society as a whole. Keeping this fact in view, the government
should make effective economic planning and utilization of manpower
resources of the country for removing such disparity between the
rich and the poor. Standard of living of the different sections of people
in society should be raised by extensive use of modern scientific
and technological means of improving productivity. There should
be equitable distribution of the national wealth and uniform wage
policy based on the principle of democracy and equality.

 Making social norm flexible and dynamic

Disorganization in society takes place due to the rigid nature of the
social norm maintained by the conservative section of people. A
progressive society must change, modify and improve the existing
social norms from time to time in order to adjust themselves with
the changing needs of time. The old order should be changed,
keeping in view the needs, hopes and wishes of the new generation.
In such a change, the unprivileged, uneducated and the poorer
sections of people should also be convinced that their socio-
economic situation may be improved and developed by adopting
the progressive changes in society.

 Training in social heritage

Curriculum in school should not only satisfy the scientific and
technological needs of the future but should also reflect the desirable
elements of our social heritage. It should keep a balance between
cultural conservatism and social progressivism of the people in
society. Young generation must be given to understand and
appreciate them and assimilate the appropriate elements in the
formation of new culture and civilization. Curriculum should adopt a
wider outlook in harmonizing the past and present and in reflecting
the hopes and needs for the future.

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Unit 6 Social organization and disorganiztion

 Universalisation of education
Illiteracy and ignorance are the major causes of concern to a
developing society. Such conditions are mainly responsible for
creating the problem of social disorganization. So, it is very urgent
to remove illiteracy and ignorance of the masses by making
education easily available to every citizen. Education should be
considered as the birthright of every individual and the state should
be responsible in ensuring this right to every individual.
Universalisation of education and extensive use of non-formal
education system in the country may be the effective means of
solution to the problem of social disorganization.

ACTIVITY 6.2

Prepare a list of factors that lead to disorganization in

your society.

6.11 ROLE OF EDUCATION IN PREVENTION AND

CONTROL OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION

To face the challenges of social disorganization, it is necessary,

first of all, to study the nature and gravity of social disorganization. Depending
on its nature and types, the role of education in prevention and control of
social disorganization are discussed as follows:
 To remove the social problem like delinquency a favourable situation
of emotional understanding and trust should created in the school
environment. Moreover, teachers should be sympathetic towards
the children to control such social problems.
 In order to remove individual disorganization among the people, sex
education should be provided to them. It tries to develop healthy,
scientific and reasonable attitude towards life and sex.
 Education can help in population control which is one of the causes
of family disorganization by making the programme of family planning

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a good success especially in rural and backward regions of the

country.

 With the help of education, problems like family tension can be

prevented. For this, family counseling agencies with trained social
workers in family matters can be of great help in mitigating these
difficulties and helping the spouses to develop mutual understanding.

 To prevent family disorganization, adult education is very necessary.

Our adult illiterate people are very conservative and they stick to old
values. Through adult education such conservative nature can be
removed.

 Moreover, to solve the problem like unemployment, remedy lies in

stepping up industrial efficiency. For this a country should reconstruct
and overhaul the education system according to the changing
environment of the country.

 Education can also help in preventing international disorganization

by organizing peace conferences. Through these conferences one
must be able to face the current problem of one’s country.

 If the coordination among the countries is workable, then

international disorganization is not going to take place. Education
can help in creating a sense of international brotherhood among the
countries.

 International conferences should be organized by each and every

country’s government. With the help of these conferences one may
see the current problem and also be able to solve their worries.

Thus, we may say that these are the various roles of

education on prevention of social disorganization. Social
disorganization is, in a sense, the reverse of social organization.
Education can act as an effective instrument in controlling social
disorganization to a great extent.

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6.12 LET US SUM UP

 Social Organization refers to a system or pattern which has its

specific purposes. Social Organizations are required for the survival
and effective functioning of the groups and societies.
 Social Organization has various characteristics. The characteristics
are—
1. Unanimity among members
2. Social Control
3. Desire to accept status
4. Definite Purpose
 There are various factors that influence social organization. They
are—
1. Individual motives 2. Identifying oneself with an organization
 Folkways are the recognized ways of behaviour prevalent in society,
which are unconscious, spontaneous and uncoordinated
adjustments of the individual to his environment. Customs and
Usages passing from generation to generation can be termed as
folkways.
 Mores can be termed as those folkways which are considered to
be of great significance by the group. Like folkways, mores are also
learned either consciously or unconsciously.
 The concept of ‘disorganization’ occupies a prominent place in
modern sociological literature. It was developed by Thomas and
Znaniecki in their famous book “The Polish Peasant in Europe
and America”.
 Social disorganization indicates social abnormality or breakdown in
the social customs, rules and laws and thereby losing equilibrium
of the social forces. It does not mean absence of harmonized
relationship in society, but indicates serious breakdown of such
relationships. Thus, social disorganization may be described as a

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Social organization and disorganiztion Unit 6

product or a result of the clash of interest among different groups in

a society.
 Elliot and Merrill have spoken of three types of disorganization, which
are interrelated. These are as follows:
 Personal or Individual disorganization which includes
crime, insanity or mental derangement, prostitution, juvenile
delinquency, alcoholism, drug addiction, gambling and
suicide.
 Family disorganization which consists of divorce,
desertion, separation, broken home, unmarried mothers,
illegitimate births and venereal diseases.
 Community disorganization which comprises of poverty,
beggary, unemployment, overpopulation, lawlessness,
political corruption, crime and so on.
 On the basis of classification made by Elliot and Merrill we can
classify disorganization under the four categories. They are-
individual disorganization, family disorganization, community
disorganization and international disorganization.
 The individuals’ personality develops by learning the approved
patterns and roles from other members of the group. When these
patterns are confused, he cannot know exactly what is expected
from him. Under such conditions, his chances for developing a
completely integrated personality are thin. As a result it develops
disorganized personalities. This is known as individual
disorganization.
 Family disorganization is the social disorganization because it leads
to breakdown of the family group. It is the weakening and disruption
of the role patterns of the family members. It may thus comprise of
not only tensions between husband and wife but also between
parents and children or between siblings.

 Community organization is dependent upon cooperation and

consensus. Every community has some tensions and conflicts. The
disorganization of the community has been measured by indexes
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Unit 6 Social organization and disorganiztion

to various aspects of formal group like population, health, social

welfare, education, housing, recreation and combination of these.
In this sense, community disorganization is a function of the
efficiency of the groups that express order less social interaction.
 International disorganization means disorganization among the
countries. The co-ordination among the countries are not well fitted
in this regard, as a result international disorganization takes place.
 Some of the factors which lead to social disorganization are
Psychological factors, physical or geographical factors, biological
factors, ecological factors, degeneration of values etc.
 There are various ways of removing social disorganization. They
are as removing economic disparity, making social norm flexible
and dynamic, training in social heritage, universalisation of education.
 Education can play a very significant role in preventing social
disorganization by organizing effective plans and programmes such
as providing sex education, knowledge of controlling population,
providing peace education, organizing international workshops and
conferences etc.

6.13FURTHER READING

1) Shankar Rao, C.N, (2012). Sociology : Principles of Sociology with

an Introduction to Social Thought. New Delhi: S.Chand &Company
PVT LTD
2) Mathur S.S (2008). “A Sociological Approach to Indian Education”.
Vinod Pustak Mandir, Dr.Rangeya Raghava Marg, Agra-2
3) Bhattacharya, Srinibas. (2006): Sociological Foundation of
Education. Atlantic Publishers
4) Singh, Y.K. (2007). Sociological Foundation of Education. APH
Publishing
5) Aggarwal, J.C. (2002). The Philosophical and Sociological
Perspectives on Education. Shipra Publication

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Social organization and disorganiztion Unit 6

6. Bhatia, Kamala. (1992). The Philosophical and Sociological

Foundations of Education. Doaba House.

6.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1 : According to Elliot and Merrill, Social Organization is a

state or a condition in which various institutions of a society are
functioning to recognize their purposes.
Ans to Q. No. 2 : The characteristics are- Unanimity among the members,
definite purpose, desire to accept Status and Social control.
Ans to Q. No. 3 : According to Maclver, “The folkways then are recognized
or accepted ways of behaving in society. They include
conventions, forms of etiquette, and the myriad modes of
behaviour men have evolved and continue to evolve with which
to go about the business of social living.”
In the words of Gillin and Gillin, “Mores are those customs and
group routines which are thought by members of the society to
be necessary for the group’s continued existence.”
The factors that influence social organization are—
1. Individual motives 2. Identifying oneself with an organization.
Ans to Q. No. 4 : Characteristics of Folkways are
1. They are Spontaneous
2. They are the basis of our recognised social behaviour
Characteristics of Mores are—
1. They arise out of folkways
2. Determine individual’s behaviour
Ans to Q. No. 5: The three most important differences between folkways
and mores are –
1. An individual may disobey the ordinary folkways without incurring
any severe punish­ment. But violation of the mores brings him
strong disapproval and severe punishment.

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2. Mores are more compulsive, regulative and rigid than the folkways.
Hence, mores are more effective and influential in moulding our
character and restricting our tendencies.
3. As Sumner has suggested when the folkways take on a
philosophy of right living and a life policy of welfare, folkways
become mores. Hence, the mores always contain a welfare
element in them.
Ans to Q. No. 6 : Folkways and mores have their own educational
implications. Folkways and mores are the basis of culture which
is an essential and potent force of educational society. They give
us better understanding about a particular culture. They are
regulative and exert pressure upon the individual and the group
to conform to the norms. They are most powerful and control the
behaviour of individuals in society even more than the state action.
Ans to Q. No. 7 : The concept of ‘disorganization was developed by Thomas
and Znaniecki in their famous book “The Polish Peasant in
Europe and America”.
Ans to Q. No. 8 : Social disorganization indicates social abnormality or
breakdown in the social customs, rules and laws and thereby
losing equilibrium of the social forces. It does not mean absence
of harmonized relationship in society, but indicates serious
breakdown of such relationship. Thus, in brief we may say that
social disorganization is a product or a result of the clash of
interest among different groups in a society.
Ans to Q. No. 9: The different types of social disorganization are personal
or individual disorganization, family disorganization, community
disorganization and international disorganization.
Ans to Q. No. 10 : The various forms of Personal or individual
disorganization are-delinquency, the Adult offenders or Criminals,
Sex offenders, Child labour, Alcoholic and drug addicts etc.
Ans to Q. No. 11 : The factors which lead to social disorganization are
Psychological factors, physical or geographical factors, biological

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factors, ecological factors, degeneration of values etc. Besides these

there are some other factors also which lead to social disorganization
such as conflict of goals and means, decline of social control, extreme
division of labour, and disruptive social changes.

6.15 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q 1 : What is meant by social disorganization?
Q 2 : What are the different types of social disorganization?
Q 3 : What is cultural lag?
B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)
Q 1 : What is meant by “Social Organization”? Give two definitions of
social organization.
Q 2 : What are “Folkways” and “Mores.”. Explain briefly.
Q 3 : Mention at least three characteristics of social organization.
Q 4 : What are the factors that influence social organization? Discuss
briefly.
Q 5 : Discuss the nature of social disorganization?
Q 6 : Explain briefly the various forms of individual disorganization.
Q 7 : “Unemployment is an important factor of Community
Disorganization”- Justify the statement.
C) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1 : Discuss in detail the various types of social disorganization.
Q 2 : Discuss in detail the various factors which lead to social
disorganization.
Q 3 : Explain the various ways of removing social disorganization.
Q 4 : “Education is a vital instrument for preventing and controlling social
disorganization”- Discuss.
Q 5 : Discuss the characteristics of folkways and mores.
Q 6 : Write a detailed note on the differences between folkways and
mores.
Q 7 : Write briefly about the educational implication of folkways and
mores.
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 UNIT 7 : SOCIAL GROUP

UNIT STRUCTURE

7.1 Learning Objectives

7.2 Introduction
7.3 Meaning of Social Group
7.3.1 Definition of social group
7.3.2 Characteristics of social group
7.3.3 Classification of social group
7.4 Meaning of Social Interaction
7.4.1 Characteristics of social interaction
7.4.2 Factors of social interaction
7.4.3 Types of social interaction
7.4.4 Educational implications of social interaction
7.5 Concept and definition of Group Dynamics
7.6 Educational significance of Group Dynamics
7.7 Concept of Leadership
7.7.1 Meaning and definition of Leadership
7.7.2 Objectives of Leadership
7.7.3 Types of Leadership
7.7.4 Role of Education in Leadership training
7.8 Let us sum up
7.9 Further Reading
7.10 Answer to check your progress
7.11 Model Questions

7.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 define the meaning and characteristics of social group
 explain the types of social group
 define the meaning, nature and factors of social interaction
 define the concept of group dynamics and leadership

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 explain the role of education in leadership training

 identify the educational significance of group dynamics

7.2 INTRODUCTION

When a baby takes birth, he/she becomes the member of a family

and takes identity from the family. But the baby is not confined to the family
throughout its life. He/she goes out of the family and shares the experiences
of the people in the world outside. Man is a social animal; he is not only a
member of the family. The Greek philosopher Aristotle said that Man is a
social animal. He who does not live in society is either a beast or an angel.
Man live in the society by maintaining and following some social relationships.
Society starts with and for the people. The members of the society interact
and establish relationship with the other member of the society to keep the
society alive. These relationships and interactions in the society between
and among the members take place through some forms. These forms
are named as social group.
Every individual belongs to one or the other group. His behaviour
pattern is influenced by the functioning of the group to a great extent. The
study of group has, hence, achieved great significance these days. Group
Dynamics is considered as a field of inquiry dedicated to advancing
knowledge about the nature of group, the laws of group development, and
group interrelations with individuals, other groups and larger institutions.
As a field of study, group dynamics has roots in both psychology
and sociology. Wihelm Wundt (founder of experimental psychology), Emile
Durkheim (sociologist), McDougall (psychologist), and theorists like Gustave
Le Bon have conducted studies on group behaviour. Ultimately, it was social
psychologist Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) who coined the term group
dynamics to describe the positive and negative forces within groups of
people. In 1945, he established ‘The Group Dynamics Research Centre’ at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first institute devoted explicitly
to the study of group dynamics. He borrowed basic concepts from Physics
and Geometry. Dynamics means changing. Group dynamics means the

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change of behaviour through interaction in the group. It refers to the forces

which operate in group situations.
This unit is a complete refection about groups. It will focus on the
types of groups, group dynamics and about leadership.

7.3 MEANING OF SOCIAL GROUP

Groups are the salient feature of the complex social set up. We
know that society is composed of people. When the members of the society
make “contact” and “communicate” directly or indirectly with the other
members of the society, it takes the form of Social Group. These groups of
the society are considered as the social group when the members stimulate
and respond to one another in a meaningful way. Men everywhere live in
group. The life of man is to an enormous extent a group life. Social groups
are the essential part of our social arrangement. Social group is the
collection of people who interact with one another directly or indirectly. We
should remember that mere congregation of people in physical area does
not form social group unless the member contact and communicate with
others. Social relationship in the form of social contact and communication
are the essential feature of social groups. Social groups are established to
realize some common interest of the group. With the classification of social
groups, we will be able to know the nature of such groups. This will be
discussed in the following sections.

7.3.1 Definition of Social Group

To be clear about the concept of Social Group, we can go

through the various definitions given by some eminent sociologists—
Ogburn and Nimkoff, “Whenever two or more individuals
come together and influence one another, they may be said to
constitute a social group.”
Sheriff and sheriff, “A group is social unit which consists
of number of individuals who stand in (more or less) definite status
and role relationship to one another which possess a set of values
or norms of its own regulating the behavior of individual members
at least in matters of consequence to the group.”

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Harry M Johnson, “A social group is a system of social

interaction.”
William: “A social group is a given aggregate of people playing
inter-related roles and recognized by themselves or others as a unit
of inter-action.”
R. M .MacIver and Page, “Social group is any collection of human
beings who are brought into human relationships with one another.”
Fielder, “By group, we, generally mean a set of individuals who
share a common fate that is who are interdependent in the sense
that an event which affects one member is likely to affect all.”
The above definitions help us to get a clear concept of social
group.

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7.3.2 Characteristics of Social Group

The following features are reflected in the Social Groups. Without

these, the groups lack the social significance.
 Collection of individual: Social groups are the collection of
individuals; without individual, there can be no group. Thus,
collection of people is the most significant feature of social group.
 Inter-relation of members: Without interaction and inter-
relation, mere collection of members cannot be considered as
social group. To be a social group, members must interact among
themselves.
 Feeling of unity: Another essential characteristic of social group
is the feeling of unity. This feeling develops a sense of sympathy
and co-operation among the members.
 Mutual awareness: In social group, members are aware of the
other members’ interest, need and expectation.
 Common purpose: The most significant feature of social group
is common purpose. Each social group is established with a
common objective in view and the members work for its
realization.
 Common behaviour: The members of the group behave in a
more or less similar way. Collective behaviour is the feature of
social group.
 Organization: A social group is always organized. It cannot
remain unorganized.
 Group norms/ standards: As the social groups are organized
groups, they are determined by some norms which the
members have to observe.
 Control over members: The groups have control over the
members so that the norms of the group are not unobserved
and destroyed.
 Size of the group: Variation in size is another feature of social
group. Every group involves an idea of size. A group may be

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small, consisting of two people or large, consisting of lakhs of

members.
 Duration: The stability or duration of the social groups varies
from each other. Some groups are temporary /unstable but some
groups are stable like family.
 Changeability: The social groups are dynamic in nature,
adaptable to changes. Old members die, new members are
born. They are subject to change.

7.3.3 Classification of Social Group

If we want to have a clearer concept of social groups, we must

know its types, because all the groups are not same. They are
diverse in nature. Classification of the social groups is not an easy
process. Sociologists have classified the social groups on various
factors like-racial feature, religious belief, territory, size, caste, blood
relationship, nature of social interaction, interest etc. Therefore, we
get variation in the classification of social groups according to various
sociologists. The major types of social groups are-
 Primary and secondary groups: Such groups where the
members interact with the members in face-to-face
situations are called Primary Groups. In the primary group,
the relationship and bonding among the members of the group
is direct and very close. Family is the most common example
of primary group. Sociologist C.H.Cooley introduced the
term “primary Group”. Primary group is small in size.
Secondary Group: Secondary groups are those groups
where there is a lack of face-to-face interaction and
relationship among the group members. The interaction in
this group is indirect. The secondary groups are considered
as “residual” category. In such groups, members cannot
come into close contacts with each other.

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 Voluntary and Involuntary Groups : Those social groups

are called voluntary group where the members have the right
and freedom to join or leave the membership of the group at
their own discretion. Examples of voluntary groups- political
party, trade union, religious association, cultural association
etc.

 Involuntary group : Involuntary groups are those social

groups where the members are bounded with some
restriction in matter of joining and leaving the group. In such
a group, there is no option for the member but to join a group.
Family, city, the state, caste are some examples of
involuntary groups.

 Horizontal group and Vertical group : It was sociologist

P.A. Sorokin who introduced this classification of social
group. The social groups which are large and inclusive in
nature are termed as horizontal group. The number of
members included in this group is very large which makes it
large and inclusive. Examples of such groups are nation,
state, community etc.
 Vertical group : The small division groups are called as
vertical group. The economic class is an example of vertical
group which give status in the society. The political party or
organization is also an example of Vertical group.

 In group and Out group: This classification of group was

identified by W. G. Sumner. The In-group is also known as
“We-group”. The groups where members assemble with a
common object and interest. The members of this group
indentify themselves with a particular group in a particular
situation for a particular reason. Example of in-group – for
the Hindus, the other Hindus constitute their “In-group”.
Out-group: Those groups where there exists no common

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goal or interest among the members are called Out-group.

These groups are also termed as “They-group”. For the
Muslims, the Hindus constitute the “out-group”.

 Genetic group and Congregate group : The classification

of group into- Genetic and Congregate group was identified
by F.Q. Gidding. The genetic group is one in which a person
is born and required to join. The genetic groups are
involuntary in nature. Examples of genetic group are- family,
race, ethnic group etc.
Congregate group: The groups where the members can
move voluntarily and join the group is called congregate
group. These groups are voluntary in nature. Here the
membership is not by birth. Examples of such group are-
political party, trade union etc.

 Social and anti-social group : Another significant

classification of social groups is social and anti-social group.
The social groups are those which combine and mix with
other groups and in social progress.
Anti-social group: Anti-social groups are those which are
against the social group norms. These groups act against
the collective interest of society and try to slow down social
progress.

 Institutional and non-institutional group : Those social

groups which are mostly permanent in nature are known as
institutional group. These groups have long stability. Examples
of such group: state, school etc.
Non-institutional group: The groups which have short-term
stability are known as non-institutional group. These groups
are temporary in nature. Examples of such group: crowd,
mobs, public audience etc.
The different types of group are again represented in a
tabulated form according to different sociologists—

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Group

Cooley’s classification Sumner’s Miller’s Ward’s

primary Secondary In out vertical horizontal voluntary Involuntary

Group group Group Group Group Group Group Group

Likewise, there as many types of group as the number of sociologists.

Different sociologists put different views regarding the types of social groups
as per their opinion. Some other classifications of social groups are-
a. Territorial and non-territorial group
b. Small group and large group
c. Open group and close group
d. Independent group and Dependent group
e. Formal group and informal group
f. Organized group and Unorganized group
g. Disjunctive group and Overlapping group, etc.

Among all these groups, the common, popular and most significant social
groups are-Primary and Secondary group.
Primary group : The American social psychologist Charles Horton Cooley
has introduced the term Primary group in his book Social Organization. The
primary groups are characterized by dominance by primary relations. These
groups are small groups in which a few members come into direct contact
with each other. Their interaction is face-to-face. These are the nucleus of
all social organization. Primary groups are very much essential for the process
of socialization. These groups are not only for the individual but also for the
society. Family is the most common example of primary group. After birth,
the baby enters into the family environment. Each member of the family
influences the behaviour, thoughts, and other habit formation of the child. These
primary groups play a great role in formation of norms and culture in the minds
of the children. Therefore, the role of primary group is most significant in the
personality development of the child. The development of “SELF” is
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essential for development of the personality. And this ‘self’ is moulded

and developed by the primary group relations. It is the primary group
where the members can judge between good and bad, just through
the interaction among the members. This helps them to modify their
behavior and thereby form a new society.
Definition
According to Cooley, “By primary groups, I mean those
characterized by intimate face-to-face association and co-operation.
They are primary in several senses, but chiefly in that they are
fundamental in forming the social nature and ideas of the individual…”
Secondary group : According to Kingsley Davis, on the basis of
the formation structure, the secondary groups are the opposite of
the primary group. The social groups other than those of primary
groups may be termed as “Secondary Group”. These groups are
also considered as “special interest group”. These groups are not
dominated by the face-to-face interaction; in fact, the interaction
among the secondary group is indirect. The relationship is limited.
The membership to this group depends on the ability or need of the
members. The secondary groups lack stability. It should be noted
that primary groups are the source of secondary group. The
secondary groups are characterized by large size.
Definitions:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The groups which
provide experience lacking in intimacy can be called secondary
group”.
In the words of MacIver and Page, “The secondary groups
are great association.”
Frank D. Watson, “The secondary group is larger and more
formal, is specialized and direct in its contacts and relies more for
unity and continuance upon the stability of its social organization
than does the primary group.”
Differences between the Primary and Secondary Group :
On the basis of the nature, structure and definitions put
forward by different sociologists, we can find out so many points of
differences between primary and secondary groups.

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Primary Group Secondary Group

1. The relationship among the 1. The relationship among the

members of the primary members of the secondary group
group is direct. is indirect.
2. The primary groups are 2. The secondary groups are large in
small in size. size
3. The Primary groups are 3. The secondary groups are goal
relation oriented oriented.
4. The control of primary group 4. The control of this group is flexible.
is rigid.
5. The primary groups are base 5. The primary groups are the source
of society. of the secondary group.
6. Physical proximity is 6. No physical proximity is essential.
essential in primary group
7. Primary group does not 7. To reach its goal, secondary group
involve other group. some -time involves other group.
8. Group interest is general, not 8. Group interest is specific in nature.
specific.
9. Primary groups are relatively 9. These groups are not durable.
durable.
10. The influence of primary 10. The secondary groups have limited
group on the members is Influence on the members
long-lasting.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 2 : What is the classification of social group as

advocated by Sumner?
......................................................................…………………………
......................................................................…………………………
Q 3 : Mention two differences between primary and secondary group
.......................................................................…………………………
......................................................................…………………………

ACTIVITY 7.2

Observe one primary and one secondary group around

you and list the differences between them.
.............................................………..………………….
......................................................................………………………….
........................................................................…………………………

7.4 MEANING OF SOCIAL INTERACTION

In the earlier discussion, we have discussed in detail about the social

group. Man is a social animal. Man cannot live in isolation. Being in the
social group, the individual leads social life by following the society’s norms
and standards. But the question arises, how individuals form social group?
And how do they live in the social group? To answer these questions, we
must say that the process of forming social group and staying in the group
is a social process. The only way to form a society, form social group and
to make people united through some bindings is through social interaction.
Every aspect of social life is expressed by the social interaction. Social
interaction is the most elemental social phenomenon from which springs
all other social phenomenon. Society is rooted in social interaction. It is the
expressive way of the conditioned behavior of persons and groups. But
what is social interaction?

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In social group, people contact with each other directly or indirectly.

The members of the group stimulate and respond to one another in some
meaningful way. This mutual stimulation and responses of the people in
group is termed as social interaction. For example; if we greet a person,
we are greeted back. The result which comes out as the repetition of this
action is social interaction. This social interaction is considered as the
foundation of the society. Without social interaction, it is not possible to live
in society, and there would be no group life or group activity. Social interaction
is the most important aspect of social life. The action element and functional
element of the society represent social interaction. It is the essence of life.
Through social interaction, people interpenetrate the minds of each other.
This social interaction modifies the human social behaviour. It has been
said that social interaction is stimulation of social behaviour and conduct.
In the social group, people are striving, competing, cooperating, appeasing,
reconciling and then challenging again. This action element or functional
element presents social interaction. It is the dynamic element or aspect of
social life.
Different definitions have been put forward by different social
scientists-
Gillin and Gillin, “By social interaction we refer to social relations.
whether such relations exist between individual and individual, between
group and group and group and individual as they came may be”.
Green, “Social interaction is the influences that individual and group
have on one another in their attempt to solve problems and in their striving
towards the goal.”
Dawson and Gettys, “Social interaction is the process whereby
men interpenetrate the minds of each other.”
Gish, “Social interaction is the reciprocal influence which human
being exert on each other through inter-stimulation and response.”
On the basis of the above definitions, it is very clear that social
interaction is one kind of means of developing social relationship.

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7.4.1 Characteristics of Social interaction

On the basis of the concept and definitions forwarded by different

sociologists, the following nature of social interaction can be derived-
 Social interaction is the means of establishing meaningful contact
between people and people.
 Social interaction and social relationship go hand in hand.
 Social interaction is characterized by its two conditions—social
contact and communication.
 It is the means of expressing social behaviour of people.
 It is basic condition of social existence.
 Cooperation, conflict, competition, assimilation and
accommodation are the primary types of social interaction
between people and people and between group and group.
 Social interaction is the basic step of studying the society.
 Social interaction represents the social dynamics.
 It discloses the concrete results of striving behavior upon roles,
statuses and moral norms.
 It is the base of all social phenomena in the society.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4 : What is meant by Social interaction?

.............................................................................…
.......................................................................…………………………

7.4.2 Factors of Social Interaction

We have discussed about social interaction as a basic social

process. Without the social process, society cannot move or run. It
is the essence of social life. But, there are some conditions /factors
which affect this process or without which social process is not
possible. The two essential factors (according to Park and Burgess)
through which social interaction can be established are-

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 Social Contacts.
 Communication.
 Social contact: This is the first stage or condition of Social
interaction. It refers to the togetherness of independent social
units. Social contacts denote such contacts which are socially
established. Social contact involves a mutual response and inner
adjustment of behavior. There are various ways of establishing
social contacts-telephones, radio, etc. Physical contact may not
be essential for social contact. Contacts may be positive or
negative, temporary or permanent, primary or secondary.
 Communication: It is the second essential condition as well as
medium of social interaction. Social contacts can also be
established through communication i.e. radio, telephones,
television, language, newspaper and even with the help of letter
writing. In communication, one person infers from the behavior
of another the idea or feeling of the other person. In general,
communication takes place at three levels- a. through the senses
( seeing, hearing, smelling and touching) b. through the
emotion,(facial expression, blushing, laughing) c. through the
sentiments and ideas( speech and language).
7.4.3 Types of Social Interaction
There exists variation regarding the types of social interaction
among the sociologists. According to some sociologists, there are
two types of social interaction, for some it has four forms, some
other argued about eight types of social interaction. The primary
types of social interaction are-
 Cooperation: When two or more people work closely and
together for achieving a particular end, it is termed as
cooperation. It is the very basis of social existence.
Cooperation requires sympathy and identification. It is the
essence of social progress.
 Conflict: It is another type of social interaction which denotes
the struggle between individuals or groups. Conflict is usually
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anti-thesis of cooperation and sometimes cooperation and

conflict cannot go hand in hand. “Conflict is the social
process in which individual or group seek their ends by
directly challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of
violence” Gillin and Gillin.

 Competition: It is also a form of social interaction.

Competition is a less violent form of opposition in which two
or more persons or groups struggle for some ends. It is a
natural result of the universal struggle for existence. This
form of interaction takes place wherever there is an
insufficient supply of things as per the desire of people
towards that thing. It makes individual move towards
progress.

 Accommodation: It is that form of social interaction through

which social order arises. It is a means of inventing social
arrangements which help people to work together whether
they like it or not. It is a process of developing temporary
working agreement between conflicting individuals or group.

 Assimilation: Another type of social interaction is

assimilation. It is the outcome of coming into contact with
other outsider cultures. It is a form of social adjustment. It is
concerned with the absorption and incorporation of culture
by another.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 5 : What are the different types of social

interaction?
..............................................................…………………………
......................................................................…………………………
......................................................................…………………………

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7.4.4 Educational implications of social interaction

Social interaction, which is the basic condition of social existence,

has many educational implications.
 It is a context in which the personality of the individual grows.
The teachers can create many platforms of social interaction
so that the aim of education to develop the personality of the
children can be fulfilled.
 Social interaction in the educational situation helps a lot in
modifying the behaviour of the students.
 Social interaction like cooperation, accommodation,
assimilations are helpful in inculcating social values in the
children.
 For leading a perfect life, an individual must have personal as
well as social adjustment. Social interaction is basis of developing
social relationship, which enhance their social adjustment not
only in home, but also in school and other situations.
 Any educational activity inside the school or any educational
institutional premises can be discharged properly through the
interaction established among the students.
 School is a miniature society; social interactions held among
the school members maintain this society.
 Teaching – Learning process, which is the basic element of
education, is possible only through communication, which is
again another condition of social interaction.

7.5 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF GROUP

DYNAMICS

Etymologically, ‘dynamics’ is derived from the Greek word

‘Dynamis’ which means ‘Force’. In Physics, dynamics is the study of bodies
in motion and changes in that motion and that idea can be applied to
other areas as well. Hence, ‘group dynamics’ stands for the forces
operating in a group. Group Dynamics is a system of behaviours and
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psychological processes occurring within a social group (intra-group

dynamics) or between social groups (intergroup dynamics). The study of
group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour,
tracking the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy
techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new ideas and
technologies. Group dynamics are at the core of understanding racism,
sexism and other forms of social prejudice and discrimination.
Various attempts have been made to define the term “Group Dynamics”.
The attempt made by Cartwright and Zander seems to be more appealing.
In their words, “Group dynamics should be defined as a field of inquiry
dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of groups, the laws of
their development, and their inter relations with individuals, other groups
and larger institutions.” From Cartwright and Zander’s definition the following
characteristics can be stated:-
a. An emphasis on theoretically empirical research;
b. An interest in dynamics and interdependence among phenomena;
c. A broad relevance to all the social sciences, and
d. The potential applicability of its findings in efforts to improve the
functioning of groups and their consequences on individuals and
society.
According to Kretch and Crutchfield, “Group dynamics implies changes
that take place within groups.”
Otto Klineberg opines about Group Dynamics, “It is not easy to
define or delimit the important area of group dynamics. From one point of
view it represents a field of inquiry, a series of interrelated problems; from
another it includes a set of techniques; from a third, a theory of the nature
of groups and of interaction within groups.”
According to Good’s dictionary, “Group dynamics implies an
interactive psychological relationship in which members of a group develop
a common perception based on feeling and emotions. This inter stimulative
relationship may be described by the term group dynamics.”
In education psychology, group dynamics is the study of the forces
exerted by the individual on the group or by the group on the individual. The
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aspirations, attitudes, beliefs, character, emotions, personality and values

of an individual are influenced by the group and vice versa.
The group helps a person to satisfy his fundamental needs and achieves
the sense of accomplishment. It helps to transform the original nature of
person to human nature. Expression of instincts and emotions, formulation
of ambitions, attitudes, character, habits and sentiments, values and the
development of personality of the individual is influenced by the interactions
of an individual group.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 6 : Give the etymological meaning of the word

‘Dynamics’.
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………
Q 7 : Why is group dynamics useful?
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

7.6 EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF GROUP

DYNAMICS

The knowledge of group dynamics has acquired tremendous

importance in recent years in developing countries. The family is not able
to provide sense of security, cooperation and affection in the present era of
breakdown of the joint family system. Adolescent boys and girls seek shelter,
love, recreation and motivation from their group. The teacher must know
how adolescents form groups and what the structure of groups is in general
and other mechanisms operating in group situation.
In school, a class is a collection of pupils coming from different
socio-economic backgrounds. The teacher must have the knowledge of
the process of interaction among the students. If the teacher is well-equipped
with the basic knowledge of group dynamics, he can provide better guidance
for adjustment. He would be able to improve the emotional and social climate
of the class.

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According to A.I. Gates, group dynamics offers the best means

available for the development of social skills essential for democratic living,
better social understanding, and preparing the individual members of the
group for democratic citizenship.
In the words of D. Segel, the process by which one must consider
other individuals in a group, and a problem at the same time, not only tends
to increase the understanding to the problem, but also creates a solution
which the individual has practiced in bringing about emotional balance.
The techniques used in group dynamics are such in which there is
little mutual conflict. Conflict hinders in the proper working of group because
it does not allow defining and having independent thinking for solving the
problems.
When the members of a group develop familiarity and come closer,
the feeling of enmity decreases and may even come to an end. Not only
this, their place is taken up by new feeling of respect for each other. In this
way group dynamics teaches one to solve the problems the group may
encounter with the help of one another. More work is accomplished in a
group than is done individually. This is the aim of group dynamics.
The study of group dynamics by the teachers and the counsellors
can make proper advantage of specific abilities of the students. In school,
most learning takes place in social situation. Mental health of the group is
an important factor in the learning process. If there are conflicts, rivalry,
fear or anxiety in the group, learning will be disturbed. The teacher with the
knowledge of group dynamics can improve the social and emotional climate
of the group. He/she can find out the causes and can use remedial measures
to maintain conducive environment in the class. The teacher can improve
intra-group relations to maintain the mental health of the individual members.

7.7 CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership has played an important role in the human history since
earliest times. The historians have glorified heroes in battle and valued the
importance of their deeds for the future generations. The role of politicians,
statesmen and emperors in the development of empires, territories and

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nations has received considerable attention in the imperial history. In the

modern society too, there is a great emphasis on leadership. Every group
whether formal or informal, spontaneous or organised, has a leader. He is
the person who manages the group activities and is responsible for
intensifying feeling of belongingness and interdependence among the
members of the group. The family, the class, playing group, hobby club and
many other such groups can progress or fail in their objectives as a result
of the leadership they avail. Therefore, it is essential to know more about
leadership and the characteristics of a good leader so that we can train
children for effective leadership.

7.7.1 Meaning and Definition of Leadership

In any type of herd or social grouping of men or animals,

there is always an individual, who is outstanding, who possesses
exceptional physique, beauty and leads the herd. The leaders of the
groups among human beings are usually the socially better adjusted
individuals. They are those individuals who know how to get along
with their fellows.
Bernard has rightly put it, “Indeed, I have never observed
any leader who was able to state adequately or intelligently why he
was able to be a leader, nor any statement of followers that
acceptably expressed why they followed.” Leadership is often
regarded as the important modifier of organisational behaviour. It is
regarded as primarily personal in character as being founded upon
individual’s pre-eminence or accomplishment in a particular field of
behaviour. Thus, superior strength, superior tact, superior
intelligence, superior knowledge and superior will-power, any or all
of these, may be the means to attainment of leadership. The
dictionary meaning of the verb ‘to lead’ shows that the term is used
in two different senses: a) “to excel, to be in advance, to be
prominent,” and b) “to guide others, to be head of an organisation,
to hold command.”

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La Pierre and Farnsworth mentions that “leadership is a

behaviour that affects the behaviour of other people more than their
behaviour affects that of the leader.” This definition clearly points
out that the leader is one who leads the behaviour of the other
individuals. The others follow him and whatever he does affects
others. He is affected a lesser degree by others’ behaviour.
Pigor says, “Leadership is a concept applied to the
personality environment relation to describe the situation when a
personality is so placed in the environment that it directs the feeling
and insight and controls others in pursuit of common cause.”
According to H.T. Mazumdar, “The leader is one who has
power and authority.”
According to Allen, “Leadership is the activity of persuading
people to co-operate in the achievement of a common objective.”
In the words of Seckler-Hudson, “Leadership in large
organisations may be defined as influencing and energizing of people
to work together in a common effort to achieve the purposes of the
enterprise.” According to him, leadership depends on three things:
(i) the individual, (ii) the followers and (iii) the conditions.
The leadership is such an affair in which two parties are
involved. One is that which leads, make such suggestions which
are acceptable to others, acts as a model and gives command etc.,
and the other is that which is led, accepts suggestions of the first
party, and follows the commands. The co-operation of these two
parities is essential for the proper functioning of leadership. It is
therefore, necessary that the leader should always be prepared to
adjust to the wishes and desires of the followers.

7.7.2 Objectives of Leadership

Hilda Taba has discussed the problem of leadership from the

point of view of intergroup education. It has been pointed out by her
that in training leaders the following objectives should be kept in
view:
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 Mastering fundamental concepts that would serve as a

framework for understanding and interpreting group behaviour,
social learning and cultural differences.
 Method of identifying and analysing problems and the ability to
see problems in perspective.
 Acquire technical skills necessary to carry out a job. These skills
include diagnosing situations, learning how to approach
problems, planning appropriate educational procedures, learning
skills in handling appropriate diagnostic techniques, conducting
open discussions, learning team work with other leaders, etc.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 8 : Why is leadership important?

...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………
Q 9 : What are the three things on which leadership depends?
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

7.7.3 Types of Leadership

Many investigators in the field of sociology and psychology

have made attempts to classify the leaders on one basis or another.
We are describing here a very popular classification of leadership.
Writers like Prem Pasricha and Kuppuswamy assert to classify
them into the following four different types:-
 Institutional leaders: Institutional leaders like head of the
school, district collector, president of the country, manager of a
factory etc. Their orders are obeyed through the hierarchies of
ranks and the decisions are based on the established
precedents.
 Dominant Leaders: Dominant leaders like Napoleon, Stalin,
Nasser etc. They lead the group due to an urge to dominate.
They are autocrats and dictators.
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 Persuasive Leaders: Persuasive leaders like Gandhi, Lincoln,
Nehru etc. They do not aim to dominate and dictate the group
but to persuade the members to help them and follow them.
 Experts: They lead the group on account of their acquired
proficiency and skill in science, art or any other sphere. They
are recognised as the authorities in their respective fields and
have a line of followers among the people who are interested in
that type of work.
The categories mentioned above are not commonly limited and
Kuppuswamy admits that, “such a classification cannot be said to
be a sound classification.” Therefore, a more appropriate ground is
needed to classify the leaders. In the opinion of Kuppuswamy, the
opinion and the personality characteristics of the leaders or the way
how they lead their groups should be made a criterion of classifying
the leaders. Kretch and Crutchfield in their text “Theory and
problems of Social Psychology” has classified leaders as (a)
Authoritarian Leadership and (b) Democratic Leadership
(a) Authoritarian leadership : Authoritarian leadership is such a
leadership where the dominance is at its maximum. An authoritarian
leader is extrovert, aggressive and dominant. The followers obey
him. They are just like servants to him. The autocratic leader
demonstrates his power and on the basis of his dominant attitude
keeps his leadership.
In such a type of leadership, every follower has direct relation
with the leader. The followers do not have any direct contact among
themselves. Whatever social intercourse takes place, only takes
place through the medium of the leader. The whole of the group
remains dependent upon him. The authoritarian leader uses the
group for his selfish ends.
(b) Democratic Leadership: In democratic leadership, the method
of work of the leader is different from that which is followed in an
authoritarian type of leadership. The democratic leader creates
amiability among the various members of the group. He reduces
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tensions and conflicts among them. In this way, the members in a

democratic society have direct relationship among themselves and
also with the leader.
Kretch and Crutchfield have distinguished between the
authoritarian leadership and democratic leadership in the following
ways:

Authoritarian leadership Democratic Leadership

1. All the policies are determined 1. All the policies are determined
by the leader. by the group.

2. The leader usually dictates the 2. The members are free to work
particular work-task and work with whomsoever they like.
companions of each member. Their task is determined by the
group.
3. The leader on the basis of his
own opinion evaluates the work 3. The leader is usually active and
of his followers. He praises or fact-minded. He praises or
criticizes the work of each criticises the group members
member without making an on the basis of his objective
objective analysis. He does not analysis.
participate in group activities.

7.7.4 Role of Education in Leadership Training

Both heredity and environment coupled with adequate training

or education is essential for helping children to become successful
leaders. In this way, the initial step, in any programme of imparting
training for leadership to children, consists in the location of the
would-be-leaders. Children, who exhibit the basic traits of leadership
in the class-room as well as in other extra-curricular group situations,
should be well attended by the teachers and school authorities. The
following few suggestions may work well in helping these potential
leaders:
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 These children should be given opportunities for playing the role

of leaders in curricular or extra-curricular group situation. They
can be made monitor of the class or assigned leadership role in
the hobbies groups, games or other extra-curricular group
situations.
 The biographies and autobiographies of national heroes, political,
social and religious leaders and other great men educate and
inspire the youngsters. Thus, they should be encouraged and
provided opportunities of reading stimulating and inspiring
literature.
 Example is better than precept. Therefore, the teachers and
headmaster should produce a living example of successful
leadership.
 Religious and moral education and the organisation of social
services may also help in the cultivation of proper social and
moral traits as well as group tendencies among these children.
 Cooperation of the parents and other social agencies should
also be secured in the proper cultivation of desirable leadership
traits among these children.
In this way school can play a big role in training the potential
leaders by formal as well as informal techniques. In an advanced
training programme, the potential leaders may be given an adequate
knowledge of group psychology and the vicarious experiences for
role playing can also be arranged. Teacher as well as other
responsible elders can take a lead by putting self-examples and
regulating the behaviour of these trainees for acquiring the necessary
skill, knowledge and other personality traits.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 10 : Mention the types of leaders as classified

by Kretch and Crutchfield.
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

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7.8 LET US SUM UP

 We have understood the meaning and nature of social group.

 We are able to identify the different social groups.
 Moreover, we are able to distinguish between primary and secondary
group.
 We are also acquainted with the meaning and characteristics of
social interaction.
 We have learned that social contact and communication are the
factors of social interaction.
 Besides, we are able to know the educational implications of social
interaction.
 Group Dynamics is considered as a field of inquiry dedicated to
advancing knowledge about the nature of group, the laws of group
development, and group interrelations with individuals, other groups
and larger institutions.
 It was social psychologist Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) who coined
the term group dynamics to describe the positive and negative forces
within groups of people.
 In 1945, he established ‘The Group Dynamics Research Centre’ at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first institute devoted
explicitly to the study of group dynamics.
 Etymologically ‘Dynamics’ is derived from the Greek word
‘Dynamis’ which means “force power”.
 Group Dynamics is a system of behaviours and psychological
processes occurring within a social group (intragroup dynamics) or
between social groups (intergroup dynamics).
 The study of group dynamics by the teachers and the counsellors
can make proper advantage of specific abilities of the students.
 Leadership is often regarded as the important modifier of
organisational behaviour. It is regarded as primarily personal in
character as being founded upon individual pre-eminence or

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accomplishment in a particular field of behaviour. Thus, superior

strength, superior tact, superior intelligence, superior knowledge and
superior will-power, any or all of these, may be the means to
attainment of leadership.
 Kretch and Crutchfield in their text “Theory and problems of Social
Psychology” has classified leaders as (a) Authoritarian Leadership
and (b) Democratic Leadership

7.9 FURTHER READING

1) H. R. Mukhi (1991) : A Simple book of sociology

2) C.N. Shankar Rao (2008) : Sociology-Principles of sociology with an
introduction to social thought
3) Kuppu Swamy.B (2006) : Social change in India.

7.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1 : A social group is a social unit which constitute numbers

of individual to realize a common goal.
Ans to Q No. 2 : According to Sumner the classification of social group is-
In-group and Out- group.
Ans to Q. No.3 : The two differences between primary and secondary
group are-
 Primary groups are small in size but; secondary groups are
large in size.
 Primary groups are relatively durable whereas, secondary groups
are not durable.
Ans to Q. No. 4 : Social interaction is a process whereby the individuals
interpenetrate the mind of each other. It is a process of modifying
human social behaviour.
Ans To Q. No. 5 : The different types of social interactions are- Cooperation,
conflict, competition, assimilation and accommodation.
Ans to Q. No. 6 : Etymologically ‘Dynamics’ is derived from the Greek
word ‘Dynamis’ which means “force power”.

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Ans to Q. No. 7 : The study of group dynamics can be useful in

understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of
diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following
the emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies.
Ans to Q. No. 8 : Leadership is often regarded important as it is the modifier
of organisational behaviour. It is regarded as primarily personal in
character as being founded upon individual pre-eminence or
accomplishment in a particular field of behaviour.
Ans to Q. No. 9 : Leadership depends on three things: (i) the individual, (ii)
the followers and (iii) the conditions.
Ans to Q. No. 10 : Kretch and Crutchfield in their text “Theory and problems
of Social Psychology” has classified leaders as (a) Authoritarian
Leadership and (b) Democratic Leadership.

7.11 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Very Short Questions (Answer each question in about 50 words)

Q 1 : Who first coined the term Group Dynamics?
Q 2 : What is group dynamics?
Q 3 : List out the characteristics of Group Dynamics.
Q 4 : Define Leadership.
B) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)
Q 1 : What do you mean by Social group?
Q 2 : Discuss the various characteristics of social group.
Q 3 : What are the different types of social groups?
Q 4 : Differentiate between primary and secondary group.
Q 5 : Elaborate the factors of social interaction.
Q 6 : What are the educational implications of social interaction?
B) Long Questions: (Answer each questions in about 300-500words)
Q 1 : What are the different types of social interaction?
Q2 : Discuss the need of social interaction for society’s existence.

*** ***** ***

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UNIT 8 : SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
UNIT STRUCTURE

8.1 Learning Objectives

8.2 Introduction
8.3 Meaning of Social Stratification
8.3.1 Definitions of Social Stratification
8.3.2 Nature of Social Stratification
8.3.3 Functions of Social Stratification
8.4 Origin of Stratification
8.5 Theories of Social Stratification
8.6 Types or Forms of Social Stratification
8.7 Education and Social Stratification
8.8 Let Us Sum Up
8.9 Further Reading
8.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
8.11 Model Questions

8.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 identify the meaning, nature and function of social stratification
 describe the origin of social stratification
 discuss the theories of social stratification
 classify the forms of social stratification
 explain the relation of education with social stratification

8.2 INTRODUCTION

The society around us is heterogeneous in nature. In this society

there are mixed people like rich people, poor people, industrialists, peasantry,
rulers, sweepers, etc. Everywhere society is divided into various classes:
economic, social, political and religious. All societies exhibit some system
of hierarchy whereby its members are placed in positions that are higher or

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lower, superior or inferior, in relation to each other. The concept of ‘social

stratification’ is made use of to refer to such classification or gradation and
placement of people in society. Through this process of stratification people
are fixed in the social structure of the society. Stratification assumes three
main forms: caste, estates and class. In this unit, you will get a reflection of
the different strata of people existing in the society.

8.3 MEANING OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more

or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification. In the words
of Young and Mack, “In most societies people classify one another into
categories, and rank these categories from the higher to lower. The process
of defining such categories is called social stratification, and the resulting
set of ranked categories is called the stratification structure.”The categories
themselves are called strata, popularly they are known as classes.
All societies arrange their members in terms of superior and inferior
Status and power. The vertical scale of evaluation or the placing of people
in strata, or layers is called stratification. Those in top stratums have more
power, privilege and prestige than those below.
All societies differentiate members in terms of roles and all societies
evaluate roles differently. Some roles are regarded as more important or
socially more valuable than others. The persons who perform the more
highly esteemed roles are rewarded more highly. Thus stratification is simply
a process of interaction of differentiation whereby some people come to
rank higher than others.
In modern Indian Society, there are mainly three main classes: upper,
middle and lower. The upper class includes very rich businessmen,
industrialists, politicians and very highly placed professionals and
bureaucrats. They enjoy not only very high economic status but also high
social status and political influence. The upper middle class people are
usually managers, lawyers, doctors, engineers, etc. They have lesser socio-
economic status than the upper class people, but their style of living
approximates to that of the latter.
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The middle class people are workers who have limited resources
but high aspirations to live luxuriously and comfortably. The lower middle
class people are teachers, technicians, clerks and a number of other wage
earners who have very tight financial condition but they strive to live, eat,
dress and behave like the middle class people.
The lower class people constitute mainly of agricultural and industrial
labourers, low paid employees and daily wage earners etc. There has been
an emergence of the new rich upper middle class recently which includes
farmers owing large plots of land and small scale industrialists and traders,
and that of the new working class, which is generally middle class in industrial
and urban areas.
We can also say in simple terms that social stratification is a
particular form of social inequality. Modern stratification fundamentally differs
from stratification of primitive societies. Social stratification involves two
phenomena- (i) differentiation of individuals or groups on the basis of
possession of certain characteristics whereby some individuals or groups
come to rank higher than others; and (ii) the ranking of individuals according
to some basis of evaluation.
Social stratification is based on four basic principles; they are – 
(1) Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of
individual differences; 
(2) Social stratification carries over from generation to generation;
(3) Social stratification is universal but variable; 
(4) Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well.

8.3.1 Definitions of Social Stratification

Different sociologists and educationists have defined social

stratification differently. Some of the definitions are as follows:
According to Ogburn and Nimkoff defined social stratification as,
“the process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a more
or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification.”
According to Gisbert, “Social stratification is the division of society
into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the
relationship of superiority and sub-ordination.”
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Raymond. W.Murray opined that, “Social stratification is a horizontal

division of society into ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ social units.”
According to Melvin.M.Tumin social stratification refers to,
“arrangement of any social group or society into a hierarchy of
positions that are unequal with regards to power, property, social
evaluation, and/or psychic gratification.”
H.P.Fairchild defined social stratification as, “the arrangement of
societal elements into groups on different horizontal levels- (and)
the establishment of status on terms of varying superiority and
inferiority.”
Lundberg defined social stratification as, “A stratified society is one
marked by inequality, by differences among people that are evaluated
by them as ‘lower’ and ‘higher’”.
Sorokin pointed out that, “Unstratified society with real equality of
its members, is a myth which has never been realised in the history
of mankind”.
According to John F. Cuber and William F. Kenkel, social
stratification is “a pattern of superimposed status of a person or a
group of persons in society with the result that there comes to exist
people, high or low, superior or inferior”.
According to Kurt B. Mayer, social stratification is “a system of
differentiation which includes a hierarchy of social positions whose
occupants are treated as superior, equal, or inferior relative to one
another in socially important respects”.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1 : What is stratification?
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

8.3.2 Nature of Social Stratification

According to M.M.Tumin, the main characteristics of stratification

are as follows:

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 It is social: Stratification is social in the sense that it does not

represent biologically caused inequalities. Factors like strength,
intelligence, age and sex often contribute as the basis on which
statuses are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power,
experience, character, personality, etc are found to be more
important than biological qualities. Hence, stratification is social
by nature.
 Social stratification is universal: There is no society in this
world which is free from stratification. Modern stratification differs
from stratification of primitive societies. It is a worldwide
phenomenon. According to Sorokin, “all permanently organised
groups are stratified.”
 It is ancient: Stratification system is very old. It was present
even in the small wandering bands. In almost all the ancient
civilisations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble
and powerful existed. Even during the period of Plato and
Kautilya, emphasis was given to political, social and economic
inequalities.
 It is in diverse forms: The form of stratification is not uniform
in all the societies. In the modern world, class, caste and estate
are the general forms of stratification. In India a special type of
stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient Aryans
were divided into four varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas and Sudras. The ancient Greeks were divided into
freemen and slaves, and the ancient Romans were divided into
the patricians and plebeians. So every society, past or present,
big or small, is characterised by diverse forms of social
stratification.
 Social stratification is consequential: Social stratification has
two important consequences; one is “life chances” and the other
one is “lifestyle”. A class system not only affects the “life chances”
of the individuals but also their “life style”.

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The members of a class have similar social chances but

the social chances vary in every society. It includes chances
of survival and of good physical and mental health,
opportunities for education, chances of obtaining justice,
martial conflict, separation and divorce etc.
Lifestyle denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a
particular social status. Lifestyles include such matters like
the residential areas in every community which have
gradations of prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of
recreation, the kinds of dress, the kinds of books; TV shows
to which one is exposed and so on. Lifestyle may be viewed
as a sub-culture in which one stratum differs from another
within the frame work of a commonly shared overall culture.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q2: Mention one specific characteristic of

social stratification.
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

8.3.3 Functions of Social Stratification

A glimpse of the cultures of the world reveals that no society is

‘classless’, that is, unstratified. All known established societies of
the world are stratified in one way or the other. According to Wilbert
Moore and Kingsley Davis, stratification system came to be evolved
in all the societies due to the functional necessity. The following are
the important functions of social stratification:
 Encourages hard work: One of the main functions of the class
stratification is to induce people to work hard to live up to values.
Those who best fulfil the values of a particular society are
normally rewarded with greater prestige and social acceptance
by others. It is known that occupations are ranked high if their

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functions are highly important and the required personnel are

very scarce. Hard work, prolonged training and heavy burden of
responsibility are associated with such occupational positions.
 Ensure circulation of elites: To some extent class stratification
helps to ensure what is often called “the circulation of the elites”.
When a high degree of prestige, comfort and other rewards are
offered for certain positions, there will be some competition for
them. This process of competition helps to ensure that the more
efficient people are able to rise to the top, where their ability can
best be used.
 Serves an economic function: The competitive aspect has a
kind of economic function in that it helps to ensure the rational
use of available talent. It is also functionally necessary to offer
differential reward if the positions at the top are largely ascribed
as it is in the case of caste system. Even in caste system the
people at the top can lose their prestige if they fail to maintain
certain standards.
 Prevent waste of resources: The stratification system
prevents the waste of scarce resources. The men in the elite
class actually possess scarce and socially valued abilities and
qualities, whether these are inherited or acquired. Because of
their possession of these qualities their enjoyment of some
privileges such as extra comfort and immunity from doing menual
work, are functionally justified. It becomes functionally beneficial
for the society to make use of their talents without being wasted.
 Stabilises and reinforces the attitudes and skills: Members
of a class normally try to limit their relations to their own class.
More intimate relationships are mostly found between fellow
class-members. Even this tendency has its own function. It tends
to stabilise and reinforce the attitudes and skills that may be the
basis of upper-class position. Those who have similar values
and interests tend to associate comfortably with one another.

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Their frequent association itself confirms their common values

and interests.
 Helps to pursue different professions or jobs: The values,
attitudes and qualities of different classes do differ. This difference
is also functional for society to some extent. Because society
needs manual as well as non-manual workers, many jobs are
not attractive to highly trained or ‘refined’ people for they are
socialised to aspire for certain other jobs. Because of the early
influence of the family and socialisation, the individuals imbibe
in them certain values, attitudes and qualities relevant to the
social class to which they belong.
 Social Control: Further, to the extent that ‘lower class’ cultural
characteristics are essential to society, the classes are, of
course, functional. In fact, a certain amount of mutual antagonism
between social classes is also functional. To some extent, upper-
class and lower-class groups can act as negative reference
groups for each other. Thus they act as a means of social control
also.

8.4 ORIGIN OF STRATIFICATION

Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given:
 According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to
the functional necessity of the social system.
 Professor Sorokin, attributed social stratification mainly to inherited
differencess in environmental conditions.
 According to Karl Marx, social factors are responsible for the
emergence of different social strata, i.e. social stratification.
 Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification
is to be found in the conquest of one group by another.
 According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity
which is created whenever society differentiates positive in terms of
functions and powers.
 Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also lead to
stratification.
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8.5 THEORIES OF SOCIAL STARTIFICATION

There are two theories of social stratification; They are as below :

 Marxist Theory: In Marx’s view, social stratification is created by
people’s differing relationship to the means of production: either they
own productive property or they labour for others. According to this
theory, social classes are defined by their relation to the means of
production. These classes depend upon the mode of production.
Marx divides the society into two classes, namely, proletariat and
bourgeoisie. The proletariat class represents labourers or common
peoples, the bourgeoisie represents the capitalists. According to this
theory, the relation of individual to the means of production is a crucial
determinant of class affiliation. For Marx, social stratification comes
down to the basic concept of economics. Marx believes that
stratification in capitalist society is predicated upon the idea of those
who have wealth controlling or subjugating those who lack it.  Marx’s
conception of dialectical materialism suggests that historical
development has passed through the same fundamental idea where
those in the position of social, economic, and political power, and
those who control the means of production, possess overall control. 
These individuals create a stratification system where they remain in
power and all others seek to emulate their own patterns of power
recognition.  Marx believes that this will change under a socialist
system, where the means of production will be owned in a public
setting and not a privatized one. 
 Functionalist theory: This theory is based on the general concept
of functionalism. There is no society which is not stratified. Different
persons in society are entrusted with functions of different types. This
results in class divisions and social stratification. Stratification arises
basically out of the needs of societies not out of the needs or desires
of individuals. The systems of stratification arise in response to two
specific needs common to every human society. First there is the
need to instil in the abler members the motivation to occupy important
and difficult
Sociological positions
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society must motivate such men once they are in these positions to
perform the duties attached to them. Hence it must provide them with
greater rewards. The two factors which are major determinants of
the magnitude of the rewards attached to positions are their functional
importance for the society and the relative scarcity of qualified
personnel. The system of stratification in any society is essentially an
expression of the value system of that society.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q3: Mention the two classes of society divided

by Marx.
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

8.6 TYPES OR FORMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

Sociologists have suggested the following forms of social stratification:

 Slavery: The term slave is used to denote “a man whom law and
custom regard as the property of another. In extreme case he is wholly
or without rights. In other cases he may be protected in certain
respects.” This is the observation of Hobhouse. Many sociologists
prefer to treat slavery as an industrial system rather than a system of
social stratification. But this view is not entirely convincing. It may be
argued that in feudal society, there is a fundamental distinction between
serfs and the free people together with a system of ranks. Hence if
we examine social stratification in terms of social inequalities we can
legitimately regard slavery as a system of stratification.
 Estate: The feudal estates of medieval period have also been the
basis of social stratification. The feudal estates were legally defined.
They represented a broad division of labour having definite functions
to perform.

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 Caste: The Indian caste system is also a unique system of social

stratification. In the first place, caste is connected with economic
differentiation. It is more apparent when we consider the four traditional
varnas where there is clear specification of occupation. In the
traditional village economy, caste is an occupational group.
 Social Class and status: A social class system is based on economic
consideration. The industrial society is divided into various classes
such as upper class, middle class and lower class. The organisation
of these classes is hierarchical. Status is given according to social
class.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4 : List out the different forms of social

stratification.
...............................................................…………………………
...............................................................…………………………

8.7 EDUCATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

In Indian society, stratification may be mentioned along three lines:

a) Stratification on caste basis,
b) Stratification on religion basis,
c) Stratification on economic basis.
All the three aspects of stratification are more or less due to ascribed
social positions. The religion and caste stratification is purely due to a person
being born in a particular religious or caste group. The economic class
distinctions are also based on positions at birth: however, changes are
rapidly taking place in these types of ascribed positions. In Indian society
the occupations were distributed on caste basis. Even now the scheduled
castes by and large take up the same occupations as their forefathers. The
Vaishya take up business and commerce and the Brahmins the learned
professions. Since Independence an inter-caste mobility is visible. With
government incentives, the members of the lower castes are taking up the

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vocations of the higher castes. But total impact of such movement is not
very high and the society’s occupations are still very much caste-ridden.
The lower castes are economically backward and fall in lower class category.
Among the occupations of Kshatriya, Vaishya and Brahmins, there is now
more inter-group mobility. These three castes are undertaking various
professions and competing with one another in changing their social
positions. Thus, an elite class is being created with the sprinkling of members
of all these three ‘Varna’ groups. The economic class is thus cutting across
the barriers of caste. However, this cutting to a large extent is confined to
only three upper castes inspite of all the incentives being given to the lower
castes.
Education enters into the picture as stratification in this country as it
is acting more as a divisive force than the cohesive one. In the beginning of
the set-up of Hindu social structure the stratification might have acted as
cohesive force but now such stratification is leading to various ills in the
social order. It is through education that the problem of stratification is now
being sought to be solved.
At present Indian society presents a model of closed system in
which the range of possible positions available to an individual are fixed by
a set of status transmission and marriage rules. In such a system the
individual’s position is determined by the position of his family. Individual
himself has only limited opportunity to either rise or fall in the hierarchy.
This model has to be changed through education into a model of the ‘open
system’ in which the only restrictions upon movement in and out of positions
are determined by the abilities of the individual himself. But for achieving
this model, equality in educational opportunities must be provided.
The restrictions upon the open model are those which limit the
operation of equality of opportunity. These restrictions are due to the
tendency of those persons who after gaining the most highly rewarded
positions attempt to maintain them in future also and wish to transmit them
to their offspring. Positions which the talented might have received as highest
rewards through an open competition are attempted by these very people
to be maintained by them and their offspring. This can only be done only at
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the expense of equality of opportunity. In the Indian situation this is happening

in the form of public-schools. An intellectual elite which has gained higher
positions during the British regimes wishes to transfer their statuses and
positions to their children by providing them education in public schools
where predominantly an education on English pattern through English
medium is given. Ordinary citizens fail to send their children to these schools
which are very expensive and thus are deprived of quality education through
English medium. Still, the official language of the land is English and it is
also the language of big business. Thus a typical situation exists in the
Indian society. On the one hand, efforts are being made to cut barriers of
stratification along the caste lines. On the other, more stratification on class
lines is being inculcated through a class conscious educational system.

8.8 LET US SUM UP

 The concept of ‘social stratification’ is made use of to refer to

the classification or gradation and placement of people in society.
Through this process of stratification people are fixed in the social
structure of the society.
 The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in a
more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as
stratification.
 Some of the functions of social stratification are- it encourages
hard work, ensure circulation of elites, serves an economic
function, prevent waste of resources, stabilizes and reinforces
the attitudes and skills, helps to pursue different professions or
jobs and social control.
 The two theories of social stratification are Marxist Theory and
Functionalist Theory.
 The various forms of social stratification are- slavery, estate,
caste, social class and social status.

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 In Indian society, stratification may be mentioned along three

lines: stratification on caste basis, stratification on religion basis
and stratification on economic basis.

8.9 FURTHER READING

1) Chaube & Chaube (2003) : Philosophical and sociological foundations

of education.
2) F. J. Brown (2008) : Educational Sociology
3) Chanda and Sharma (2002) : Sociology of Education
4) C. N. Shankar Rao (2008) : Principles of Sociology

8.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q. No. 1 : The process by which individuals and groups are ranked
in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification.
Ans to Q. No. 2 : One specific characteristic of Social stratification is that
it is universal. There is no society in this world which is free from
stratification. Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive
societies. It is a worldwide phenomenon.
Ans to Q. No. 3 : Marx divides the society into two classes, namely,
proletariat and bourgeoisie. The proletariat class represents cookers,
the bourgeoisie represents the capitalists.
Ans to Q. No. 4 : The various forms of Social Stratification are- slavery,
estate, caste, social class and social status.

8.11 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q 1 : Define Social Stratification? List its basic principles.
Q 2 : State the origin of Stratification.

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Q 3 : State the two theories of Social Stratification.

B) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q 1 : Discuss the nature and functions of Social Stratification.
Q 2 : Discuss the different forms of Social Stratification.
Q 3 : Discuss the role of Education in Social Stratification.

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