MODULE – 5

PILE FOUNDATIONS
Factors Influencing Selection of Depth of Foundation (Df):
For economic consideration, the depth at which the foundation is located (i.e. D f) is kept as small as
possible. Typically it is in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 m below the ground surface for buildings that do not have a
basement. For those building having a basement, Df can be 3.5 m or more. In determining Df, the soil profile
is carefully studied and the influence of the following factors are accounted for.
• Presence of Loose Fill - Often one encounters pockets of loose fill of recently dumped soil or
construction waste at or near the ground surface. Foundations should be placed below such loose
fills.
• Depth of Water Table - Wherein possible, shallow foundations are not placed below the ground
water level to avoid expensive de-watering costs during foundation construction.
• Lateral Variability - Usually all foundations are placed at the same Df. There are soil profiles that
call for a different Df for different footings.
• Zones of Volume Change - In cold regions where temperature changes cause soil near the ground
surface to go through cycles of freezing and thawing with consequent changes in soil volume,
foundation are placed below the zone so affected. Similarly in swelling soils, there is a zone that
undergoes volume change due to wetting and drying cycles. D f is selected such that it is more than
the thickness of this zone.
• Scour - When shallow foundations are designed to be placed below the river bed for river crossing
structures, one must recognize that the elevation of the river bed changes on account of scour that
occurs when the water flows at high velocity such as during floods. The scour depth increases due
to construction that occurs when piers of river crossing structures are put in place. For such
foundations, Df must be greater than the deepest scour level anticipated.

Factors Influencing Selection of Choice of Foundation:

The selection of a particular type of foundation is often based on a number of factors, such as:
• Adequate Depth - The foundation must have an adequate depth to prevent frost damage. For such
foundations as bridge piers, the depth of the foundation must be sufficient to prevent undermining
by scour.
• Bearing Capacity Failure - The foundation must be safe against a bearing capacity failure.
• Settlement - The foundation must not settle to such an extent that it damages the structure.
• Quality - The foundation must be of adequate quality so that it is not subjected to deterioration,
such as from sulphate attack.
• Adequate Strength - The foundation must be designed with sufficient strength that it does not
fracture or break apart under the applied superstructure loads. The foundation must also be
properly constructed in conformance with the design specifications.
• Adverse Soil Changes - The foundation must be able to resist long-term adverse soil changes. An
example is expansive soil, which could expand or shrink causing movement of the foundation and
damage to the structure.
• Seismic Forces - The foundation must be able to support the structure during
an earthquake without excessive settlement or lateral movement.

Introduction to Pile Foundation:

When hard strata are not available at shallow depth, then foundations are provided at increased depth.
Such foundations are called deep foundations. Piles, Piers and wells are examples of deep foundations.
A pile is a relatively small diameter shaft, which is driven or installed into the ground by suitable means.
Piles are usually constructed in groups to provide foundations for superstructure. Piles may be subjected to
vertical loads, horizontal loads or a combination of both.

Suitability of Pile Foundation:

Pile foundations are used under the following conditions:
(i) When the soil near the ground surface or at a reasonable depth is too soft or loose or highly
compressible.
(ii) When structural loads are to be transmitted through deep water to a firm strata.
(iii) When large lateral loads act on the foundation.
(iv) Pile foundations are used when the structure is expected to carry large uplift loads in transmission
towers and underground structures below water table.
(v) Pile foundation is used when the foundation is subjected to inclined loads, eccentric loads and
moments.

Classification of Pile Foundation:

Piles may be classified in a number of ways based on different criteria:
(a) Function
(b) Material and Composition
(c) Installation

(a) Classification based on the function:

(i) End bearing piles - These piles are used to transfer load through water and soft soil to a suitable
bearing strata.
(ii) Friction piles - These piles do not rest on hard stratum but derives its carrying capacity from skin
friction along the pile surface.
(iii) Tension pile - Tension piles are also called uplift piles. These piles are used to anchor down the
structures subjected to uplift due to hydrostatic pressure.
(iv) Compaction piles - These piles are used to compact loose granular soil to increase its bearing
capacity. Compaction piles do not carry load and hence they can be of weaker material. Sand piles can be
used as compaction piles.
(v) Anchor piles - These piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling.
(vi) Fender piles and dolphins - Fender piles and dolphins are used to protect water front structure from
impact of any floating object or ship.

(b) Classification based on materials and composition:

(i) Steel piles - Steel piles are generally either in the form of thick pipes or rolled steel joist H-section is
used. They may carry load up to 1000kN or more.
(ii) Concrete piles – Cement Concrete piles are either precast or cast in situ. Precast piles are cast in the
factory or casting yard and cured at the casting site and then transported to the site for installation. These
piles are adequately reinforced to resist handling and working stresses. Precast piles are normally suitable
for short lengths. Cast-in-situ piles are constructed by drilling hole in the ground and then filling the hole by
concrete after placing the reinforcement.
(iii) Timber piles - Timber piles are made from tree trunks and are well seasoned, straight and free from
all defects. Timber piles are used where good bearing stratum is available at a relatively shallow depth.
(iv) Composite piles - A pile which is made up of two materials like concrete and timber or concrete and
steel is called composite pile. Composite piles are used in situations where a part of the pile is permanently
under water.

(c) Classification based on method of installation:

(i) Driven piles - Driven piles may be of concrete, steel or timber. These piles are driven into the soil by the
impact of hammer.
(ii) Cast in-situ piles – Only concrete piles can be cast-in-situ. Holes are drilled and these are filled with
concrete. Reinforcements may be used according to the requirements.
(iii) Driven and cast in-situ piles - It is a type of driven pile. They are constructed by driving a steel casing
in to the ground. The hole is then filled with concrete by placing the reinforcement and the casing is
gradually lifted.

Load Carry Capacity of Piles

Load carrying capacity of a pile can be determined by the following methods:
i) Dynamic formulae ii) Static formulae
iii) Pile load test iv) Penetration test

Load carrying capacity by Static Formulae

The safe load capacity of a single pile Q a may be calculated from the equation.
1
Qa = 𝐹 (Qp + Qf)

1
= [qpu. Ap + Fs. As]
𝐹

Where, F = factor of safety,

Qp = ultimate point load
Qf = ultimate skin friction resistance
qpu = unit point resistance
Ap = C/S area of pile at bearing
Fs = unit skin resistance
As = surface area of the pile in contact with soil
1) Piles in Sand
Qu = qpu . Ap + Fs As
= σ.Nq. Ap + σav . K. tanδ. As
Where, K = Co efficient of lateral earth pressure
δ = angle of friction between the pile and the soil.
σ = Effective overburden pressure at the tip of the pile
σav = average effective overburden pressure over the entire length of pile.
In equation 1, it appears to suggest that the unit point resistance and unit frictional resistance increase in
direct proportion to the embedded length of pile. However, several field observations indicate that these
values increases only up to a depth of about 1.5 times the pile diameter beyond this values remains
constant. This depth is called critical depth of pile.

2) Piles in Clay
The ultimate load capacity of pile is estimated from equation
Qu = Qp + Qf
= qpu. Ap + Fs. As
= C. Nc. Ap + α. Cu. As
Where, Cu = undrained cohesion
Nc = bearing capacity faction for circular and square pile = 9
α = adhesion factor, its value depends on the undrained strength.
Smaller the undrained strength, softer the consistency of soil and greater tendency for the soil to adhere to
pile, for clay α tends to 1, for very stiff clay α can be taken as 0.3.

Problems
1) A 12m long 300mm diameter pile is driven in a uniform deposit of sand (ø = 40˚). The water table
is at greater depth is not likely to rise. The average dry unit weight of soil is 18kN/m³. Taking N q =
135 and K = 2.0. Calculate the safe load capacity with a factor of safety of 2.5.

Solution:
Given: L = 12m Nq = 135
D = 300mm = 0.3m K = 2.0
C=0 F = 2.5
γ = 18kN/m3
3 3
For concrete pile, δ = 4 (ø) = 4 (40) = 30°
𝐿
For 𝐷 = 15, the critical depth of pile
= 15 x 0.3
= 4.5m

Limiting value of effective stress, σ @ 4.5m,

σ = γ x Critical depth
= 18 x 4.5
= 81kN/m2

From 4.5m to 12m, the unit point resistance and skin friction resistance remains constant at 81kN/m2.

Ultimate pile load capacity,

Qu = qpa. Ap + fs. As
= σ . Nq . Ap + σav . tanδ . As
𝜎1
Here, σav = = 40.5kN/m2 ― corresponding to critical depth
2

Qf for critical depth,

= 40.5 x 2 tan30° x ∏ x 0.3 x 4.5
= 198KN
Qf for the remaining length 7.5m
Here σav = 81KN/m2
Qf = 81 x 2 tan30 x ∏ x 0.3 x 7.5 = 661KN
Therefore, Qf = 198 + 661
∏
Qp = 81 x 135 x (0.3)2
4
= 772KN

Qu = 772 + 198 + 661

= 1631KN
𝑄𝑢
Qa = 𝐹

1631
= 2.5

= 652KN

2) A 450mm wide square in cross section concrete pile 15m long is driven in a deep deposit of
uniform clay. Laboratory unconfined compression test on undisturbed samples indicate on average
value of 75KN/m2. Calculate the ultimate load capacity of pile by taking α = 0.8.

Solution:
Given B = 450mm = 0.45m L = 15m
Qu = 75 KN/m2 α = 0.8

𝑄𝑢
We have Cu = 2

= 37.5KN/m2

Qu = Cu. Nc. Ap + α. Cu. As

= 37.5 x 9 x 0.45 x 0.45 + 0.8 x 37.5 x (4x0.45x15)
= 878KN

3) Using static formula, estimate the pile length required to carry a load of 220KN in layered soil
system. Take pile dia as 300mm. Assume a factory of safety of 2.5
Depth (m) Unit Weight of soil (KN/m3) Unit cohesion (KN/m2) Adhesion factor (α)
0 to 8 17.00 40 0.8
8 to 12 17.50 60 0.7

Solution:
Qu = qu Ap + Fs As

𝑄𝑢
𝑄𝑎
=F ―> Qu = Qa. F
But, Qa = 220 kN
F = 2.5

Qa = qu. Ap + Fs. As
𝜋𝑑2
= C. Nc. + [α1C1∏dL1 + α2C2∏dL2]
4
0.32
220x2.5 = 60x9x∏x 4 + [0.8x40x∏x0.3x8 + 0.7x60x∏x0.3 L2]
L2 = 6.84m
Therefore, L = 8+6.84 = 14.84m
4) A fraction pile 300mm diameter is proposed to driven in a uniform cohesive soil. The pile tip is
assumed to carry 20% of the load. The skin friction between the pile surface and the solid is
assumed to be 50KN/m2. Determine the length of piling required to carry a safe load of 200KN with
factor of safety 4.

Solution:
Given d = 300mm = 0.3m F=4
Qp = 20% Qu = 0.2 Qu Qa = 200KN

But Qu = QaF = 200 x 4 = 800KN

Q = Qp + Qf
Qu = 0.2Qu + Fs As
800 = 0.2 x 800 + 50 x ∏ x L x 0.3
Therefore, L = 13.58, say 13.6m

5) A concrete pile 30cm diameter is driven into a medium dense sand with ø= 35°, γ = 21KN/m3, K =
1, tan δ = 0.7 for a depth of 8m. Estimate the safe load taking factor of safety as 2.5.

Solution:
Given: ø = 35° γ = 21 kN/m3
K=1 tanδ = 0.7
F = 2.5 D = 8m
Dia (ø) = 30cm = 0.3m

Qu = σ. Nq. Ap + K. σav . tanδ. As

But Lc = 12D = 12 x 0.3 = 3.6m

Maximum value of σ = 3.6 x 21 = 75.6 kN/m2

Also, Nq = 60

Therefore,
Qu = σ. Nq. Ap + K. σav . tanδ. As
𝜋 75.6
= [75.6 x 60 x 4 (0.3)2] + [1 x { x 3.6 + 75.6 x 4.4} x 0.7 x ∏ x 0.3]
2
= 320.76 + 309.36
= 630.12 kN
𝑄𝑢 630.12
Qa = = = 252.05 kN
𝐹 2.5

Efficiency of Pile Group

The efficiency of pile group depends on the following factors:
1. Spacing of piles
2. Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and
3. Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)

The reduction in total bearing value of group of piles is more in case of friction piles, particularly in clayey
soils. No reduction in grouping occurs in end bearing piles. The pile groups which are resisting the load by
combined action of friction and end bearing, only the load carrying capacity of friction is reduced. The

efficiency of the pile group can be calculated by using the following formula:
Thus, the pile group efficiency is equal to the ratio of the average load per pile in the group at which the
failure occurs to the ultimate load of a comparable single pile.

Efficiency of a pile group can also be obtained by using Converse – Lebarre formula:

Where m = number of rows

n = number of piles in a row

in degrees

d = diameter of pile end

s = spacing of piles.

Generally center to center spacing between piles in a group is kept between 2.5d and 3.5d, where d is the
diameter of the pile.

Group Capacity of Piles

Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is influenced by the spacing
between the piles.

Piles are driven generally in groups in regular pattern to support the structural loads. The structural load is
applied to the pile cap that distributes the load to individual piles. If piles are spaced sufficient distance
apart, then the capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles. However, if the spacing
between piles is too close, the zones of stress around the pile will overlap and the ultimate load of the
group is less than the sum of the individual pile capacities specially in the case of friction piles, where the
efficiency of pile group is much less.

Group action of piles is evaluated by considering the piles to fail as a unit around the perimeter of the
group. Both end bearing and friction piles are considered in evaluating the group capacity. End bearing pile
is evaluated by considering the area enclosed by the perimeter of piles as the area of footing located at a
depth corresponding to the elevation of pile tips. The friction component of pile support is evaluated by
considering the friction that can be mobilized around the perimeter of the pile group over the length of the
piles as shown in figure below:
Pile group capacity, Q = [q0 x B2 ] + [4 x B x L x f²]
where, Q = ultimate capacity of pile group
q0 = ultimate bearing pressure of footing of area B 2 (B = size of pile group)
L = Length of pile
f = shear resistance

Negative Skin Friction (Fd)

When a weak, compressible soil layer is sandwiched between hard layers, a pile passing through such a
stratum may be subjected to an additional load due to compression of the weak layer. This compression
may be caused by consolidation, fill placing, remolding during driving, or lowering of the water table. The
portion of the pile within this layer is subjected to draw down force in addition to the structural loads. This
force should be taken into account when designing the pile foundation.

Force due to negative skin friction, Fd is given by :

1) For Clay, Fd = [Perimeter x Soil depth x Cu]

2) For Sand, Fd = [Perimeter x (Soil depth)2 x γ. K. tanø]

where, Cu = Undrained shear strength
γ = Unit weight of soil
K = Co-efficient of earth pressure
ø = Angle of internal friction

Pile Load Test

A pile load test can be performed either on working pile or on a test pile. The test load is applied with the
help of calibrated jack placed over a rigid circular or square plate. The load is applied in equal increments
of about 1/5th of the estimated allowable load. The settlements are recorded with the help of three dial
gauges arranged over the test plate. Each load increment is kept for sufficient time till the rate of settlement
becomes less than 0.02mm per hour. The test load is increased to a value 2½ times the estimated allowable
load or to a load which causes a settlement equal to one-tenth of the pile diameter, whichever occurs
earlier. The results are plotted in the form of load-settlement curve. The ultimate load is clearly indicated
by load settlement curve approaching vertical. If Q u cannot be obtained from the load-settlement curve,
then Qa is taken as:
1 rd
1) of the final load causes settlement equal to 10% diameter of pile.
3
 2 rd
2) of the load causes 12mm total settlement.
3

2 rd
3) of the load causes 6mm net settlement (residual settlement).
3

Cyclic load test is useful in separating load carried by skin friction and point bearing.

Settlement of Piles
Pile Settlement can be estimated as follows :
1) Compute the average pile axial force in each segment of length l, average cross-section and Aav
and shaft modulus of elasticity Ep from the pile butt to point,
Pav × l
i.e., Hs, s = ; and sum the several values to obtain the axial total compression.
𝐴𝑎𝑣 × 𝐸𝑝

2) Compute the point settlement using the equation below :

1− 𝜇 2
Hpt = q x D ( )x m x IS x IF x F1
𝐸𝑠

where, m x IS = 1
IF = For embedment factor, with values as follows :
𝐿
IF = 0.55, if 𝐷 ≤ 5
𝐿
IF = 0.50, if >5
𝐷
D = Diameter of the pile
µ = Poisson’s ratio
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
q = bearing pressure at point = 𝐴𝑝
Es = Young’s modulus
F1 = Reduction Factor ; 0.25 if the axial skin resistance reduces the point load Pp ≤0
0.5 if the point load Pp >0
0.75 if the point bearing

Under-Reamed Piles
These are bored, cast in-situ, concrete piles with one or more bulbs formed by enlarging the pile stem. They
are suitable for loose and filled up sites, or where soils are weak or expansive like black cotton soil. The
bulbs are located at depths where good bearing strata are available but they should not be placed too near
the ground level. Bulb size is usually 2 to 3 times the pile stem diameter. The bulb provides a large bearing
area, increasing the pile load capacity. They are also effective in resisting the downward drag due to the
negative skin friction that arises in loose or expansive soils. Bulb spacing should not exceed 1.5 times the
bulb diameter.

Procedure for Construction of Under-Reamed Piles

The hole is drilled to the full required depth using augers. The under reaming tool consists of a link
mechanism attached to a vertical rod with a handle at the top and connected to a bucket at the bottom. The
link mechanism incorporates cutting blades. The under reaming tool is inserted into the hole. When the
central rod is pressed by the handle the mechanism actuates the cutting blades to open out. The mechanism
is now made to rotate keeping the handle under pressure. The blades now scrap the soil from the sides of
the hole which falls into the bucket below. The rotation under pressure is continued until the full amount of
soil forming the bulb is removed which is identified by the free rotation of the mechanism. The volume of
the bucket is such that it gets filled when the bulb is fully formed. The handle is now tightened which makes
the link mechanism to collapse back into the position. The under reamed tool is now withdrawn, the
reinforcement cage inserted and the hole concreted.