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CORE 3 SUMMARY NOTES

1 Functions
· A function is a rule which generates exactly ONE OUTPUT for EVERY INPUT.
To be defined fully the function has
a RULE – tells you how to calculate the output from the input
a DOMAIN – the set of values which will be used as inputs

e.g.  f(x) =√x  domain x ≥ 0

(cannot find the square root of negative values)

· ALTERNATIVE NOTATION
f : x a x2 means function f such that x maps to x2
input x is converted to output x2

xÎR x can be any real number

· There are different types of functions

MANY-ONE ONE-ONE
y= y
y
10 10
9
9
8
8 7
7 6
6 5
5 4
4 3
3 2
1
2
1 – 3 – 2 – –1 1 1 2 3 x

– 3 – 2 – –1 1 1 2 3 x

y = x2 y = 2x + 3
2 different inputs give the same output for each output there is only one possible input

· The RANGE of a function is the complete set of all of the OUTPUTS

· An INVERSE function is denoted by f-1.

ONLY ONE-ONE FUNCTIONS HAVE INVERSES

The DOMAIN of an inverse function is the RANGE of the function

3
e.g. The function f is defined by f(x) = find f -1(x)
2x - 1

Step 1 : Write the rule in terms of x and y

3
y=
2x - 1
Step 2 : Rearrange to make x the subject
3+y
x=
2y
Step 3 : Replace the y’s with x’s
3+x
f-1(x) =
2x
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· Using the same scale on the x and y axis, the graphs of a function and it’s inverse
have reflection symmetry in the line y = x

COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
The function gf is called a composite function and tells you to’ do f first then gf(x)

e.g. f(x) = 2x + 3 g(x) = x2 + 2

gf(x) = (2x+3)2 + 2 fg(x) = 2(x2 + 2) + 3

gf(x) = 4x2 + 12x +11 fg(x) = 2x2 + 7

2 The Modulus function

· |x| is the ‘modulus of x’ or the ‘absolute value’
· The modulus of a real number can be thought of as its’ distance’ from 0 and it is
always positive.
|4| = 4 | -2| = 2

· The graph of y = |f(x)| is y = | x – 3 | translation

é3ù
y
8 ê0ú
8
ë û
6 6

4 4

2 2

– 4 – 2 2 4 x x
– 1 1 2 3 4 5 6

To sketch the graph of y = |(fx)| first sketch the graph of y = f(x) Take any
part of the graph that is below the x-axis and reflect it in the x-axis.

SOLVING EQUATIONS
Always sketch the graph before you start to determine the number of solutions

A function is defined by f(x) = |2x+1| - 3

Solve the inequality f(x) < x
y The graphs shows 2 solutions
4 (2x+1) - 3 = x - (2x + 1) -3 = x
2
2x – 2 = x -2x -4 = x

– 3 – 2 – 1 1 2 3 4 5 x 4
x=2 or x=-
– 2 3

– 4
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3 Transforming Graphs
éaù
· TRANSLATION - to find the equation of a graph after a translation of ê ú you
ëbû
replace x by (x-a) and y by (y - b)

é3 ù
e.g. The graph of y = x2 -1 is translated through ê ú . Write down the equation of
ë - 2û
the graph formed.
y - b = f(x-a) (y + 2) = (x-3)2 – 1 y y = x2 -1
y = x2 – 6x + 6 5

or 4
3
y = x2 – 6x + 6
2
y = f(x-a) +b
1

– 5– 4– 3– 2– 1 1 2 3 4 5 x
– 1
– 2
– 3
– 4

· REFLECTING – 5 y = -f(x)
Reflection in the x-axis, replace y with –y
Reflection in the y-axis, replace x with – x y = f(-x)

· STRETCHING
1 1
Stretch of factor k in the x direction replace x by x y = f( x )
k k
1
Stretch of factor k in the y direction replace y by y
k y = kf(x)

· COMBINING TRANSFORMATIONS
When applying 2 transformations the order does not matter if one involves
replacing x and the other replacing y. If both transformations involve replacing x
(or y) then the order could matter

é3ù
e.g. The graph of y = x2 is first translated by ê ú and then reflected in the y-axis
ë0û
Find the equation of the final image.
Translation y = (x - 3) 2
Reflection y = (- x – 3) 2
y = (x + 3) 2

4 TRIGONOMETRY
INVERSE FUNCTIONS

y = sin -1 x arcsin x or asin x

domain  ­1 ≤ x ≤ 1
p p
– £ y £
range 2 2
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y = cos -1 x arccos x or acos x

domain  ­1 ≤ x ≤ 1

range 0 £ y £ p

y = tan -1 x arctan x or atan x

domain x Î R

p p
range – £ y £
2 2

1
sec x is defined as cos x
y = sec x has domain x Î
p 3p ± 5p
x ÎR x ¹ ± , ± ,
2 2 2
and range y ≤ ­1 and y ≥ 1

1
cosec c is defined as sin x
y = cosec x has domain
x Î R x ¹ 0 , ± p , ± 2 p , ± 3p

and range  y ≤ ­1 and y ≥ 1

5 Natural Logarithms and ex

· e is an irrational; its value is 2.718281828 correct to 9 decimal places
· Natural Logarithms use e as a base and we write loge x as ln x
x
e = y Þ x = ln y
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e.g. – 5x
Solve the equation e – 3 = 0
– 5x
e = 3
– 5x = ln 3
1 3
x = – ln
5
= – 0·2197

If the question asks for an exact answer do not change into decimals

· x
e = y Þ x = ln y so ex and ln x are inverse functions

y = ex
y
6
ex is positive for all x so
ln x is defined only for
4
positive values of x

2 y = ln x

– 2 2 4 6 x

– 2

e.g The function g is defined by g(x) = 2ex-5 + 3 for all real x. Find and expression for
g-1(x) and state it’s domain and range.

y = 2ex-5 + 3
y – 3 = 2ex-5
½(y - 3)= ex-5
ln(½(y - 3)) = x –5
ln(½(y - 3)) + 5 = x

g-1(x)= ln(½(x - 3)) + 5

The range of g is g(x) >3 so the domain of g-1(x) is x >3

The domain of g is all real values of x so the range g-1(x) is all real values

· Transformation of graphs
e.g. Describe the sequence of geometrical transformations needed to obtain
the graph of y = 2e-x from the graph of y= ex.

Reflection in the y-axis gives y = e-x

Stretch factor of 2 in the y direction gives y =2e-x
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6 Differentiation
Key points from C1 and C2
Ø The derivative of xn = nxn-1
Ø If f′ (a) > 0, f is increasing at x = a. If f′ (a) < 0, f is decreasing at x =a
Ø The points where f′ (a) = 0 are called stationary points
If  f′′ (a) > 0 then x = a is a local minimum
If  f′′ (a) < 0 then x = a is a local maximum

· The derivative of ex is ex
1
· The derivative of ln x is
x
e.g. If f(x) = ex + ln(2x3) find f′(x)
f(x) = ex + ln2 + 3lnx

3
f′(x)= ex +
x
· Product Rule
dy dv du
If y = uv then =u +v
dx dx dx

· Quotient Rule
du dv
v -u
u dy dx dx
If y = then = 2
v dx v

· Chain Rule dy
Find given that ln (1 + x2)
dy dy du dx
= ´ Let u = 1 + x2 so y = ln u
dx du dx
du dy 1
= 2x =
dx du u

dy 2x
=
dx 1 + x 2

· Differentiating sin x, cos x and tan x

The derivative of sin x is cos x.

The derivative of cos x is –sin x

The derivative of tan x is sec2 x

· The derivative of f(ax) is af′ (ax)

· The derivative of f(ax+b) is af′ (ax + b)

e.g. Find f ′(x) given that f(x) =sin3x cos2x

Let u=sin 3x and v=cos 2x

du dv dy
= 3cos3x = -2 sin 2x = (sin 3x)( -2 sin 2x) + (cos 2x)(3 cos 3x)
dx dx dx
dy
= 3 cos 2x cos 3x - 2 sin 2x sin 3x
dx
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7 Integration
Key points from C1 and C2
n+1
n x
x dx = + c
ò n+ 1

a
f(x) dx Gives the area under the graph of
ò b y=f(x) between x=a and x=b

Areas below the x-axis are negative

· Key integrals TO LEARN

1 ax 1 1 1
ax dx = ln çax + bç + c
ò e dx =
a
e + c
ò x
dx = ln çxç + c
ò ax + b a

1 1
cos ax dx = sin ax + c
ò sin ax dx = –
a
cos ax + c ò a

· Integration by SUBSTITUTION

e.g. Use the substitution u = 1-x2 to find x 1 – x

2

ò
First find du in terms of dx du
= – 2x so du = – 2x dx
dx

Rewrite the function in terms of u and du

2 1 2

ò x 1 – x dx = –
2 ò 1 – x ( – 2x)dx

1
1 1 –
= – u du = – u 2 du
2 ò 2 ò
Carry out the integration in terms of u
3 3
1 æ 2 2 ö 1
= – ç u ÷ + c = – u2 + c
2 è 3 ø 3
Rewrite the result in terms of x

3
1 2
– (1 – x ) 2 + c
3
· Integration by parts
dv du
u dx = uv – v dx + c
ò dx ò dx
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5x
x e dx
e.g. Find ò
dv
Let u = x and = e 5x
dx
du 1 5x
=1 v= e
dx 5

5x x 5x 1 5x
xe = e – e dx
ò 5 ò 5

x 5x 1 5x
= e – e + c
5 25

f' ( x )
· Integrating (the numerator is a multiple of the derivative of the denominator)
f( x )

f '(x)
= ln çf(x)ç + c
f (x) ò
3
. . x
e g Find dx
4
x + 1 ò
The derivative of the denominator, x4+1 is 4x3, so think of the numerator as
¼ (4x3)
3 3
x 1 4x 1 4
dx = dx = lnçx + 1ç + c
ò 4
x + 1 4 ò 4
x + 1 4

1 1 –1 æ x ö
dx = tan + c
· ò 2
a + x
2
a
ç ÷
è a ø
STANDARD INTEGRALS TO
1 –1 æ x ö LEARN
dx = sin + c
· ò 2
a – x
2 ç ÷
è a ø

8 Solids of Revolution
· Revolution about the x-axis
The volume of a solid of revolution about the x-axis between x = a and x = b is
b 2
p y dx
given by a ò
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· Revolution about the y-axis

The volume of a solid of revolution about the y-axis between y = a and y = b is
b 2
p x dy
given by a ò
e.g. The region shown is rotated through 2 p radians about the y axis.
Find the volume of the solid generated.

y
1 3
y = x
First express x2 in terms of y 8
1 2
1 3 3 2 1
y = x Þ 8 y = x Þ 2 y3 = x Þ x = 4 y 3
8

x
When x = 0 y = 0 when x = 2 y = 1 1 2

1 1 2 5
2 4 3 é 3 ù 12
p x dy = y dy = 4p ê 3 ú = p
Volume =
ò 0 ò 0 ë 5y û 5

9 Numerical Methods
· Change of sign
For an equation f(x) =0, if f(x1) and f(x2) have opposite signs and f(x) is continuous
between x1 and x2, then a root (solution) of the equation lies between x1 and x2

· Staircase and Cobweb Diagrams

If an iterative formula (recurrence relation) of the form x n+1= f(xn) converges to a
limit, the value of the limit is the x-coordinate of the point of intersection of the
graphs y=f(x) and y = x

The limit is therefore the solution of the equation f(x) = x

A staircase or cobweb diagram based on the graphs of y = f(x) and y = x illustrates

the convergence
y
e.g Solve the equation x3 – 12x + 12 =0 2

1.8
First we will write it in the form x = f(x) 1.6
3
3 x 1.4
x + 12 = 12x Þ + 1 = x
1.2
12
3 1
x
Plotting the graphs y = + 1 and y = x 0.8
12 0.6
the solution is the point of intersection of the 0.4
two graphs. 0.2

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 x

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We can confirm that there is a point of intersection

between x = 1 and x = 2 by a change of sign the values are substituted.
3
x
Substituting x = 2 into y = + 1 gives y = 1.66… (shown on the diagram)
12
Substituting x = 1.66…. y = 1.38…
Repeating this the values converge to 1.1157

The solution of x 3 – 12x + 12 =0 is x = 1.1157

· The mid-ordinate Rule (Numerical Integration)

Gives and approximation to the area under a graph.
The area is divided into strips of equal width.
The value of the function halfway across each strip (the mid-ordinate) is calculated

Total area = width of strip x sum of mid-ordinates y

3

x Y
2.5 ln 2.5 2
y=ln x
3.5 ln 3.5
4.5 ln 4.5
5.5 ln 5.5 1

Area = 1 x (ln 2.5 +ln 3.5 + ln 3.5 + ln 5.5)

= ln (2.5 x3.5 x 4.5 x 5.5)
1 2 3 4 5 6 x
= ln 216.5625
= 5.38

· Simpson’s Rule
Gives a more accurate approximation to the area under a graph.
An even number of strips of equal width are used.
The ordinates y0, y1, y2,…. are the values of the function on the vertical edges of the
strips. The area is given by

1
h( sum of end ordinates + 4 x sum of odd ordinates +
3
2 x sum of remaining even ordinates)