Soil Science

SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND BIOSCIENCES

(Declared as Deemed-to-be University under Sec.3 of the UGC Act, 1956)

18AG1001 FUDAMENTALS OF AGRONOMY 3:0:1

LABORATORY MANUAL

NAME OF THE FACULTIES SIGNATURE

PREPARED Dr. P.A.Joseph

BY

APPROVED
BY Dr.Jenita Thinakaran (HoD)
 SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE AND BIOSCIENCES

PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture

18AG1001-FUNDAMENTALS OF AGRONOMY 3:0:1

Certified that this is bonafide record of work done by

Mr./Ms.______________________________________I.D. No.____________________ of I B.Sc.

(Hons.) Agriculture for the course 18AG1001 Fundamentals of Agronomy 3:0:1 of 2020-21

academic year.

External examiner Course Teacher

 INDEX
18AG 1001 Fundamentals of Agronomy
Name of the student: I.D. No:

Ex. Date of
Date Title Remarks Sign
No. submission

1 Observing wetland, garden land and dry land farming

system and identification of crops

2 Study of Agro-climatic zones of India

3 Identification of seeds, manures, fertilizers,

green manures and green leaf manures

4 Identification of tools and implements

5 Acquiring skill in handling primary and secondary tillage

implements
6 Practicing different methods of seed treatments,
methods of sowing and seeding implements

7 Working out seed rate calculation

8 Working out manure and fertilizer requirements of crops

9 Practicing methods of application: manures and

fertilizers, green manures and green leaf manures

10 Identification of weeds, weeding practices and handling

of weeding tools and implements
11 Methods of weed management

12 Observing various irrigation methods

13 Study of yield contributing characters and yield

estimation
14 Practicing harvesting operations in major field crop

15 Participation in on-going field operations during on

campus /off campus visit
EX NO. 1. Observing wetland garden land and dry land farming system and identification of crops
Date:
______________________________________________________________________
Farm
A piece of land with specific boundaries devoted to agriculture and allied enterprises (livestock,
fishery, sericulture etc.) under a common management.
Classification of Agricultural farms
a) Based on source of irrigation
i) Rainfed ii) Irrigated
b) Based on water availability
i) Wetland ii) Dryland
c) Based on elevation
i) Upland ii) Lowland
Farming
It is the process of cultivating crops, rearing livestock, fish etc.
Rainfed farming
Crop production which purely depends on rainfall.
Irrigated farming
Crop production which depends on artificial application of water to meet the crop water
requirement.
Wet farming
It is the farming where crop production is successful when macro and micro pores of the soil are
filled with moisture. eg. Rice
Dry farming
It is the farming or crop production where soil moisture availability is limited.
Lowland farming
It is the farming where the fields are surrounded by bunds in order to retain water. eg. Rice
Upland farming
The fields are unbunded where the water is allowed to move freely. eg. Tea, coffee plantation in
the hills.
Cropping scheme
The plan according to which, crops are raised on individual plots of a farm with an objective of
getting maximum returns from each crop without impairing fertility of the soil.
Cropping pattern
Yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow on a given area. (Usually over a
larger area like district, delta region and state).
Cropping systems
The cropping pattern used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources, other farm
enterprises and available technology, which determine their make up.
Monoculture
The repetitive cultivation of a single crop on the same land in a year or over years.
Crop rotation
The cultivation of different crops on the same piece of land in a pre-planned succession.
Farming system
Farming system is decision making unit comprising the farm household, cropping and livestock
systems that transform land, capital (external inputs) and labour (including genetic resources and
knowledge into useful products that can be consumed or sold.
Wetlands
Irrigated lowland is called as wetland.
Characteristics of Wetlands
• Plenty / copious availability of water
• Soils are normally clay based
• Fields are usually leveled
• Low erosion hazards
• Moderate to high inherent soil fertility
• Poor physical properties
• Have drainage problem
Special operations in Wetlands
(1) Puddling
Ploughing the field under submerged (water stagnated) condition to create fine puddle is known
as puddling. By puddling, an impervious layer is formed which helps in stagnation of water.
(2) Digging
Opening the soil with tools like crowbar, spade etc. with a specific purpose like removal of
problematic weeds such as Cynodon or preparation of fields of small size, where ploughing is not
possible.
(3) Trimming
Trimming refers to sectioning and shaping of field bunds by using spade.
(4) Plastering
This refers to covering the bunds with mud paste in order to prevent weed growth and to plug
rodent holes. Plastering of field bunds indirectly helps to eliminate harbouring of pests and diseases
carrying organisms on the weed flora. This also prevents seepage of water through bunds.
(5) Leveling
Field should have even surface for uniform germination of seeds, efficient use of fertilizers and
irrigation water. Tools like leveling board, buck-scraper etc. and machinery like Laser land leveler are
used to achieve uniform leveling.
Rice based cropping systems
The cropping system adopted under lowland condition can be grouped into
1. All rice crop based cropping sequence
 1. Rice-Rice
2. Rice-Rice-Rice
2. Rice-Irrigated dryland crop sequence
1. Rice-Cotton
2. Maize / Pulse-Rice-Groundnut
3. Green manure-Rice-pulse
Possible Farming systems in Wetland ecosystem
• Crop + Fish + Poultry
• Crop + Fish + Duck
• Crop + Fish + Pigeon
• Crop + Fish + Poultry/pigeon + mushroom
• Crop + Fish + Mushroom
• Crop + Fish + Pig + Mushroom
• Crop + Fish + Goat
IDENTIFICATION OF CROPS
Field crops can be classified into
1. Cereals 7. Forage crops
2. Millets (major and minor) 8. Plantation crops
3. Pulses 9. Narcotics
4. Oilseeds 10. Spices and condiments
5. Fibre crops 11. Green manure crops
6. Sugar and tuber crops
Crops grown in Wetlands
Crops such as rice, sugarcane, jute, cotton, coconut, green gram, black gram, cowpea, green
manure crops (Daincha, Sunnhemp, Manila agathi) etc. can be grown.
I. CEREALS

I Common Name Botanical name

1. Rice : Oryza sativa
II. PULSES (Rice Fallow)

1 Black gram (Urd bean/ Ulundhu) : Vigna mungo

2 Green gram (Mung bean/ Pasipayaru) : Vigna radiata
III. OIL SEEDS (Rice fallow)

1 Sesame (Gingelly) / Til : Sesamum indicum

V. FIBRE CROPS

1 Cotton (Rice fallow) : G . hirsutum (American cotton)

2 Jute : Corchorous olitorious
3 Sunnhemp : Crotalaria juncea
VI. SUGAR CROPS

1 Sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum

VII. GREEN MANURES

1 Dhaincha : Sesbania aculeata

2 Manila agathi : Sesbania rostrata
3 Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea

Exercise
1. List out and write the identification characters of the crops observed in the wetland farm you have
visited
2. List out five rice based farming system
3. Briefly explain the field operations you have observed during the field visit.
4. Write down the important crops that are grown in wetlands of Tamil Nadu with their botanical
names
OBSERVING GARDEN LAND AND DRYLAND FARMING SYSTEMS
AND IDENTIFICATION OF CROPS
______________________________________________________________________
Garden Lands
Irrigated drylands are otherwise called as garden lands in Tamil Nadu.
Source of irrigation
There are five irrigation sources commonly used for raising crops under gardenland conditions.
They are:
1. Openwell 2. Borewell 3. Tank 4. Pond 5. Canal
Soil type
Main soil types in irrigated areas are Red soil, Black soil and Loamy soil.
Characteristics of garden lands
• Soils are mainly well drained
• Soils ranging from sandy loam to clay loam in texture
• Need based irrigation is practiced to crops
• Intensive cultivation is prevailed
• Choice of crops are wide
• Well developed soil physical properties
• Soil fertility is moderate
• Fields are leveled with desired slope
• Size of the field is small to medium
• Existence of well developed irrigation structures
• Moisture level in the micro pores is controlled
Field operations
Ploughing
Opening of soil with implements to create a favourable soil condition for germination of seeds
and growth of crops. It may be done under wet, dry and garden land conditions.
Beds and channels
This refers to a uniformly levelled seed bed of square or rectangular shape, provided with bunds
on all four sides with irrigation channels at convenient intervals. Mostly close spaced crops like
groundnut, finger millet, pulses etc. are raised in beds and channels.
Ridges and furrows
Formation of bunds parallel to each other in the field at appropriate intervals for sowing / planting
of wide spaced crops like cotton, sugarcane, etc. Bunds are referred as ridges and the depressions in
between bunds are referred as furrows.
Breaking clods
When the field is opened with heavy ploughs or when the soil is of heavy type, bigger size of soil
aggregates are formed. Bigger size of soil aggregates above the normal which may not suits for sowing
are called clods. Such clods are broken using spade, hand hoe, wooden tools, rotovator etc. to bring the
soil to fine tilth.
Crop components
Mixed cropping
Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land, without any definite row
arrangement.
Intercropping
Refers to growing of two or more crops, simultaneously on the same piece of land, with base
crop necessarily in distinct row arrangement. The recommended optimum base crop population is
suitably combined with appropriate additional plant density of the associated crop and there is crop
intensification in both time and space dimension.
Integrated Farming systems
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Sericulture
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Fishery
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Sylvipasture
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Homestead garden + Silviculture + Apiculture.
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Spawn production + Mushroom
• Crop + Dairy + Biogas + Spawn production + Mushroom + Silviculture
Drylands
Rainfed dry uplands or lowlands are broadly classified as drylands.
Characteristics of drylands
• Soils ranged from sandy to clay loam in texture
• Drainage is not a problem
• Fully depend on rainfall and moisture from soil pool
• Partly leveled to undulating terrains
• Soil fertility is low to medium
• Fields are larger in size
• Moisture level in the micropores is uncontrolled.
Field operations and Crop component are similar to Gardenland

Dry land based integrated farming system

• Crop + Goat
• Crop + Goat + Agroforestry
• Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture
• Crop + Goat + Agroforestry + Horticulture + Farm pond
• Crop + Goat + Buffalo + Agroforestry + Farm pond
• Crop + Goat + Pigeon + Buffalo + Agroforestry + Farm pond
• Crop + Goat + Rabbit
Crops grown under gardenland and drylands
I. CEREALS

Common Name Botanical name

1. Wheat : Triticum aestivum
2. Maize Zea mays
3 Barley : Hordeum vulgare
4 Rye : Secale cereale
5 Oats : Avena sativa

II . MILLETS
a. Major millets
1 Sorghum (Cholam/Jowar) : Sorghum bicolor
2 Pearl millet (Bajra/ Cumbu) : Pennisetum glaucum
3 Finger millet (Ragi) : Eleusine corocana
b. Minor millets
1 Foxtail millet (Tenai/Italian millet) : Setaria italica
2 Little millet (Samai) : Panicum miliare
3 Barnyard millet (Kudiraivali) : Echinochloa frumentacea
4 Kodo millet (Varagu) : Paspalum scrobiculatum
5 Proso (common) millet (Panivaragu) : Panicum miliaceum
III. PULSES
1 Redgram (Pigeon pea/Arhar/Thuvarai) : Cajanus cajan
2 Black gram (Urd bean/ Ulundhu) : Vigna mungo
3 Green gram (Mung bean/ Pasipayaru) : Vigna radiata
4 Bengal gram (Chick pea/Konda kadalai) : Cicer arietinum
5 Cowpea (Karamani/ Thattaipayaru) : Vigna unguiculata
6 Horse gram (Kollu) : Macrotyloma uniflorum
7 Soybean (Soyamochai) : Glycine max
8 Garden bean : Lablab purpureus
IV. OIL SEEDS
1 Groundnut (Peanut) : Arachis hypogaea
2 Sesame (Gingelly) / Til : Sesamum indicum
3 Sunflower : Helianthus annuus
4 Castor (Amanakku) : Ricinus communis
5 Indian mustard : Brassica juncea
6 Black mustard : Brassica niger
7 White mustard : Brassica alba
8 Indian rape : Brassica campestris
9 Linseed : Linum usitatisimum
10 Niger (Pey ellu) : Guizotia abyssinia
11 Safflower (Kusumba) : Carthamus tinctorious
V. FIBRE CROPS
1 Cotton : Gossipium arboreum (Karunganni)
: G. herbaceum (Upland cotton)
: G. barbadens (Sea-island cotton)
: G . hirsutum (American cotton)
2 Deccan hemp : Hibiscus cannabinus
Mesta : Hibiscus sabdariffa
3 Sunnhemp : Crotalaria juncea
4 Sisal / Agave : Agave sisalana
VI. SUGAR CROPS
1 Sugarcane : Saccharum officinarum

VII. FORAGE CROPS

A. Grasses
1 Para grass : Brachiaria mutica
2 Guinea grass : Panicum maximium
3 Rhodes grass : Chloris guyana
4 Bermuda grass : Cynodon dactylon
5 Sudan grass : Sorghum sudanensis
6 Australian grass : Panicum antidotale
7 Bajra (Cumbu) napier hybrid : Pennisetum typhoides
b. Legume fodder
1 Lucerne (Alfalfa/Kudhirai masal) : Medicago sativa
2 Desmanthus (Velimasal) : Desmanthus virgatus
3 Stylo (Muyal masal) : Stylosanthus hamata/ S.scabra
6 Siratro Macroptilium atropurpureum

VIII. NARCOTICS
1 Tobacco : Nicotiana tabacum
IX. GREEN MANURES
1 Dhaincha : Sesbania aculeata
2 Manila agathi : Sesbania rostrata
3 Sunnhemp Crotalaria juncea
4 Tephrosia / Kolinji : Tephrosia purpurea
5 Indigofera / Avuri : Indigofera tinctoria
6 Pillipesara : Phaseolus trilobus
Exercise
1. List out the crops observed in garden lands and drylands.
2. Suggest a suitable cropping system for the land you visited
3. Write the soil type of your area and cropping system followed.
4. Draw any one of the dry land based farming system model with brief description
5. Write briefly about the field operations you have observed during the class.
EX. NO. 2. Study of Agro-climatic zones of india
______________________________________________________________________

Agro-climatic zones
An agro-climatic zone is a land unit uniform in respect of climate and length of growing
period (LGP) which is climatically suitable for a certain range of crops and cultivars (FAO,
1983).
Classification by Planning Commission
Planning Commission of India (1989) made an attempt to delineate the country into
different agro climatic regions based on homogeneity in rainfall, temperature, topography,
cropping and farming systems and water resources. India is divided into 15 agro-climatic
regions.
1. Western Himalayan zone
This zone consists of three distinct sub-zones of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh hills. The region consists of skeletal soils of cold region, podsolic
mountain meadow soils and hilly brown soils. Lands of the region have steep slopes in
undulating terrain. Soils are generally silty loams and these are prone to erosion hazards.
2. Eastern Himalayan zone
Sikkim and Darjeeling hills, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura,
Mizoram, Assam and Jalpaiguri and Coochibihar districts of West Bengal fall under this region,
with high rainfall and high forest cover. Shifting cultivation is practiced in nearly one-third of the
cultivated area and this has caused denudation and degradation of soils with the resultant
heavy runoff, massive soil erosion and floods in lower reaches and basins.
3. Lower Gangetic Plains zone
This zone consists of West Bengal-lower Gangetic plain region. The soils are mostly
alluvial and are prone to floods.
4. Middle Gangetic Plains zone
This zone consists of 12 districts of eastern Uttar Pradesh and 27 districts of Bihar
plains. This zone has a geographical area of 16 million hectares and rainfall is high. About 39%
of gross cropped area is irrigated and the cropping intensity is 142%.
5. Upper Gangetic Plains zone
This zone consists of 32 districts of Uttar Pradesh. Irrigation is through canals and tube
wells. A good potential for exploitation of ground water exists.
6. Trans-Gangetic Plains zone
 This zone consists of Punjab, Haryana, Union territories of Delhi and Chandigarh and
Sriganganagar district of Rajasthan. The major characteristics of this area are: highest net sown
area, highest irrigated area, high cropping intensity and high groundwater utilization.
7. Eastern Plateau and Hills zone
This zone consists of eastern part of Madhya Pradesh, southern part of West Bengal and
most of inland Orissa. The soils are shallow and medium in depth and the topography is
undulating with a slope of 1-10%. Irrigation is through tanks and tube wells.
8. Central Plateau and Hills zone
This zone comprises of 46 district of Madhya Pradesh, part of Uttar Pradesh and
Rajasthan. The topography is highly variable nearly 1/3 rd of the land is not available for
cultivation. Irrigation and cropping intensity are low. 75% of the area is rainfed grown with low
value cereal crops. There is an intensive need for alternate high value crops including
horticultural crops.
9. Western Plateau and Hills zone
This zone comprises the major part of Maharastra, parts of Madhya Pradesh and one
district of Rajasthan. The average rainfall of the zone is 904 mm. The net sown area is 65% and
forests occupy 11%. The irrigated area is only 12.4% with canals being the main source.
10. Southern Plateau and Hills zone
This zone comprises 35 districts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu which
are typically semi-arid zones. Dryland farming is adopted in 81% of the area and the cropping
intensity is 111 percent.
11. East Coast Plains and Hills zone
This zone comprises of east coast of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. Soils are
mainly alluvial and coastal sands. Irrigation is through canals and tanks.
12. West Coast Plains and Ghats zone
This zone comprises west coast of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharastra and Goa
with a variety of crop patterns, rainfall and soil types.
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills zone
This zone consists of 19 districts of Gujarat. This zone is arid with low rainfall in most
parts and only 32.5% of the area is irrigated largely through wells and tube wells.
14. Western Dry zone
This zone comprises nine districts of Rajasthan and is characterized by hot sandy desert,
erratic rainfall, high evaporation, scanty vegetation. The ground water is deep and often
brackish. Famine and drought are common features of the region.
15. Islands zone
 This zone covers the island territories of Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadeep which
are typically equatorial with rainfall of 3000 mm spread over eight to nine months. It is largely a
forest zone with undulated lands.

1 Western Himalayan Region J&K, HP, UP, Utranchal

2 Eastern Himalayan Region Assam Sikkim, West Bengal & North-Eastern states
3 Lower Gangetic Plains Region West Bengal
4 Middle Gangetic Plains Region UP, Bihar
5 Upper Gangetic Plains Region UP
6 Trans-Gangetic Plains Region Punjab, Haryana, Delhi & Rajasthan
7 Eastern Plateau and Hills Region Maharastra, UP, Orissa & West Bengal
8 Central Plateau and Hills Region MP, Rajasthan, UP
9 Western Plateau and Hills Region Maharastra, MP & Rajasthan
10 Southern Plateau and Hills Region AP, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
11 East Coast Plains and Hills Region Orissa, AP, TN,& Pondichery
12 West Coast Plains and Ghat Region TN, Kerala, Goa, Karnataka, Maharastra
13 Gujarat Plains and Hills Region Gujarat
14 Western Dry Region Rajasthan
15 The Islands Region Andman & Nicaobar, Lakshya Deep
Second Agroclimatic classification by ICAR through NARP.
The State Agricultural Universities were advised to divide each state into sub-zones, under the National
Agricultural Research Project (NARP) under ICAR. Based on the rainfall pattern, cropping pattern and
administrative units, 127 agro-climatic zones are classified. The zones of each state are given below.

State No. of zones State No. of zones

Andhra Pradesh 7 Madhya Pradesh 12

Assam 6 Rajasthan 9

Bihar 6 Maharashtra 9

Gujarat 8 North Eastern Hill region 6

Haryana 2 Orissa 9

Himachal Pradesh 4 Punjab 5

Jammu and Kashmir 4 Tamil Nadu 7

Karnataka 10 Uttar Pradesh 10

Kerala 8 West Bengal 6

Exercise:

List out the agroclimatic zones of Tamil Nadu and plot it in the map TN. Describe the important features
of these zones also.
EX. NO. 3. IDENTIFICATION OF SEEDS, MANURES, FERTILIZERS, GREEN
Date: MANURES AND GREEN LEAF MANURES
______________________________________________________________________

A. SEED
The ripened ovule with all essential parts namely embryo, endosperm and seed coat, which
produce normal plant.
A seed is an embryo plant consisting of a rudimentary stem and root together with a supply of
food sufficient to establish a plant, all encased in a protective coat.
Sexual or vegetative propagated planting materials which are used for seeding and planting and
are as such should be free from pests and diseases and should give a good crop stand by good
seeding.
a. Cereals and millets
Rice, wheat, maize, barley, oats, sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, samai, varagu, panivaragu,
kudiraivali, Tenai.
b. Pulses
Redgram, black gram, greengram, cowpea, horse gram, bengal gram, lab lab, soybean
c. Oil seeds
Groundnut, sesame, castor, sunflower, safflower.
d. Fibre
Cotton, jute, agave
e. Narcotics
Tobacco
B. IDENTIFICATION OF MANURES
Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients. The manures
are grouped into bulky organic manures and concentrated organic manures based on concentration of
the nutrients.
a) Bulky organic manure
FYM, compost, night soil, vermicompost, sheep/goat manure, poultry manure.
b) Concentrated organic manure
Concentrated organic manures have higher nutrient content than bulky organic manure. They are
oil cakes, blood meal, fish manure etc.
C. FERTILIZERS
The term fertilizer refers to commercially manufactured inorganic materials either dry or liquid,
which are added to the soil to supply essential plant nutrients. There are different types of fertilizers
available.
1. Nitrogenous 2. Phosphatic 3. Potassic fertilizers
Nitrogenous fertilizers
Urea, Ammonium sulphate, Ammonium chloride, Ammonium nitrate, Mono-Ammonium
Phosphate (MAP), Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), CAN (Calcium ammonium nitrate), Calcium nitrate,
Potassium nitrate, Sodium nitrate
Phosphatic fertilizers
Single super phosphate, rock phosphate, Mono-Ammonium Phosphate (MAP), Di-Ammonium
Phosphate (DAP),
Potassic fertilizers
Muriate of potash, Sulphate of potash
D. GREEN MANURING AND GREEN LEAF MANURING
Green, un-decomposed plant material used as manure is called green manuring. It is obtained in
two ways;
(1) Growing green manure crops in the field itself and incorporated into the soil of the same field
is called green manuring.
(2) Collecting green leaves from different sources and are applied to the field as manure is
known as green leaf manuring.
Some of the prominent green manures are sunnhemp, manila agathi, daincha, pillipesara, kolinji.
Few of plant materials such as glyricidia, pungam, neem, gulmohar, vadanarayanan, subabul,
peltophorum from which leaf materials are collected are termed as green leaf manures.
Exercise

1. Observe the seeds and write their distinguishing characters you have seen.
2. List out the manures and fertilizers you have observed in the class and write their prominent
characters.
3. List out some of the complex fertilizers.
4. Specify the differentiating features of various green manure and green leaf manures you have
observed.
EX. NO.4. Identification of tools and implements Acquiring skill in handling primary and
secondary tillage implements
Date:
______________________________________________________________________

Tools
Tools are those used manually for farm operations which are small and handy.
Eg. Hand hoe, Spade and Sickle.
Implements
Those equipments comparatively bigger in size, used for various farm operations requiring either
animal power or machine (tractor) power. Eg. Country plough, Disc plough etc.
Machinery

Larger and heavy implements that require mechanical power with several parts each having a
definite function. Eg. Paddy harvester, Thresher, etc.
Tools, implements and machinery

S. No Name Use
Tools
1. Spade Digging, trimming bunds, guiding irrigation water
2. Hand hoe Hoeing and weeding in dry and garden lands
3. Sickle Harvesting, Trimming or weeding bunds
4. Digging fork Digging soil, harvesting underground tubers
5. Star type weeder
Weeding in row crop in dry and garden lands
6. Peg type weeder
7. Japanese rotary weeder
Weeding in line planted paddy
8. Cono weeder
Implements : Bullock drawn – Tillage implements
1. Wooden plough or country Ploughing, inter-cultivation
plough
2. Melur plough Ploughing in wetlands
3. Mould board or Iron plough Ploughing in dry and garden lands
4. Levelling board Levelling paddy fields
5. Bund former Forming beds and channels
6. Ridge plough Forming ridges and furrows
7. Puddler Puddling in wetlands
8. Green manure tramplers Incorporation of green manures
9. Guntaka (Peg / Blade type) Inter-cultivation
Implements - Power tillers operated
1. Plough Ploughing
2. Ridger Forming ridges and furrows
3. Cage wheel Puddling
Implements : Bullock drawn - Sowing implements
1. Gorru Sowing
2. Kovai seed drill Sowing
Machinery
1. Mould board plough Ploughing
2. Disc plough Ploughing
3. Cultivator Ploughing and breaking clods
4. Disc harrow -do-
5. Rotavator Incorporation of stubbles and breaking clods
6. Cage wheel Puddling
7. Ridge plough Forming ridges and furrows
8. Bund former Forming beds and channels
9. Bed-furrow former Forming beds and furrows
10. Seed drill Sowing
Plant protection implements
1. Hand operated duster Dusting solid chemicals
2. Hand operated sprayer
i) Knapsack
Spraying liquid chemicals like, pesticides, fungicides,
ii) Backpack
herbicides, liquid fertilizers, growth regulators
iii) Rocker type
3. Power sprayer
Harvest, post harvest implements and machineries
1. Paddy harvester Harvesting paddy
2. Threshers Threshing grains
3. Winnowers Cleaning grains
4. Seed processing Unit Cleaning and grading seeds
5. Sugarcane harvesters Crushing cane for extraction of juice for jaggery
manufacture
Exercise
1. List out and draw the tools, implements and machineries you have observed with distinguish
characters.
EX. No.5: ACQUIRING SKILL IN HANDLING PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS

Date:
______________________________________________________________________

Till
To plough or cultivate soil for seeding.
Tillage
Mechanical manipulation of the soil with tools and implements to prepare seed bed conducive for
crop production.
Tilth
The physical condition of the soil with respect to its fitness for the planting or growth of a crop.
Plough
Implement or machinery used to invert the soil to form a tilth, in addition to other functions such
as incorporation of plant residues and manures, breaking hard pan etc.
Draught
The power applied to overcome the resistance offered by the soil for the implements to pass
through is called draught.
Primary tillage
First cutting and inverting of the soil that is done after the harvest of the crop or untilled fallow, is
known as primary tillage.
Secondary tillage
Shallow tillage operations carried out after primary tillage to bring a good tilth.
PRIMARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Some of the important primary tillage implements are,
1. Country plough
2. Improved iron plough
3. Bose/ Melur plough
4. Mould board plough
5. Disc plough

Country plough or Desi plough

The indigenous plough consists of a wooden body to which a handle and shaft pole are attached.
The body is made with a bent piece of hard wood, like babul or Neem, with arms making an obtuse
angle (135o). It gives a wedge shape. A small piece of flat iron (share) serves as the piercing point of the
plough and it is fixed over the plough body with one or two clamps (staples). The one end of the shaft
pole is fixed to the body and the other end is free, to be secured with the yoke during working.
Working principle
 The nature of the ploughing or breaking up of the soil performed by this type of plough consists
of opening ‘V’shaped furrow. The depth of the furrow and its width may vary according to the size and
set of the working part of plough bottom.
Uses

• Opening soil and preparing seed bed

• Removing weeds
• Covering the manure spread on the land
• Inter-cultivating in wide spaced crops like cotton, sugarcane, redgram etc.
• Thinning certain crops like pearl millet under dryland by giving a light ploughing
• It is also used occasionally for opening ridges and furrows by wedging the wooden block
between the body and shaft pole.
Ploughing with country plough
It is generally done by covering the field taking into strips till the field is completed. To start with,
the ploughing is started from the right side of the field as the animals are turned towards their left side.
First furrow is opened parallel to the end of the field and taken in the head land and turned at distance of
about 20 feet which is convenient for the animals to turn. The plough is taken along the head lands and
the second furrow is opened, close to the previous furrow. The plough is worked round and round
concentrically turning to the left always still nearly half the area of the strip taken for ploughing is
completed leaving half the un-ploughed area in the middle. At this stage, a new strip of similar width is
taken and preceded with ploughing to cover the entire area in such manner.
When the field is ploughed for the first time, the ploughing is done along the length of the field.
This reduces the number of turns at the headlands. The field is later ploughed across to first ploughing in
order to having thorough coverage of the field.
2. Improved iron plough:
The bullock drawn improved iron plough is made of mild steel except the poleshaft and hence it
has longer life. As and when the share wears off, it can be pushed forward. Poleshaft angle and height of
the handle can be adjusted according to field requirements. The plough is provided with a mould board as
optional attachment for soil inversion. This plough is suitable for dry ploughing in all types of soil with a
pair of bullocks. It covers 0.5 ha per day,
3. Bose plough ( Melur plough ): It is wooden plough with a mould board and is considered as a
hybrid version of the mouldboard plough andthe country plough suited to Indian conditions.It is used for
the primary tillage operations in wetlands. Nowadays this plough is made up of iron angles instead of
woods to make it sturdy.
4.Mould–board plough
The mould-board plough is a modern tillage implement which has got many advantages over
country plough. Different types of mould-board plough have been designed to suit to different kinds of
work and for different soil conditions. Yet, its behaviour depends in a great degree on the operator’s
skills and on the choice and adjustments of its parts.
Advantages

• It ploughs deep and pulverizes the soil

• It inverts the soil
• It is more durable
• If well made and adjusted properly, it requires less guidance
• It requires less pull
• Heavier mould-board ploughs can work even in very hard soils.
Parts
The main parts of the mould-board plough are the body, handle, clevis or bridle, share, mould-
board, land-side, wheel and coulter.

5. Disc plough
In the disc plough, the share, the mould board and coulter of the mould board plough are
replaced by an inclined concave steel disc of 60-90 cm in diameter set at an angle to the direction of
travel. Each disc revolves on stub axle and the angle to the disc to the vertical position and to the furrow
wall is adjustable.
The discs are mounted on a frame, which is supported by wheels. Lever arrangements are
provided for lifting the disc, clear-off the ground and for changing the angle for adjusting the depth of
penetration of the discs into the soil. The discs are made of hard high carbon steel and while working the
discs rotate, scoop out furrows invert the furrow slice, pulverize them thoroughly better than the mould
board plough.
A disc plough is especially useful in the following soil conditions:
• Sticky soils and soils with hard plough pans
• Dry and hard ground in which a mould board plough will not penetrate
• Ploughing weedy lands and hard stubbles like those of maize and sorghum and also for
incorporating green manures especially in garden lands.
• Peaty and leafy-mould soils in which a mould board plough fails to turn a furrow slice.
• Deep ploughing
The depth to which the discs will penetrate is increased as they are set more upright. In hard
soils, weight is added to the plough to aid penetration. The draught of the disc plough is somewhat
lighter than mould-board ploughs turning the volume of soil (mainly due to bearing provision in disc
ploughs).
Special purpose plough
1. Sub-soil plough / Chisel plough
 It has a stout shank ending in a projection without any share or mould-board. It makes a simple
vertical out in the subsoil, upto a depth of 45cm and facilitates the downward movement of water and
subsoil drainage. Sub-soling becomes necessary in certain soils in the temperate regions, where the soil
layer below the plough depth gets hardened and becomes impermeable. This is called a plough pan and
it restricts the development of roots. Plough pans are not common in heavy soils. Such soil crack during
summer in the tropics and plough-pans are not capable of inducing or forming an impermeable layer.
SECONDARY TILLAGE IMPLEMENTS
Cultivators and Harrows
These are implements which are used after ploughs for (1) breaking up the furrow slices and
working the soil to the required tilth (2) destruction of weeds (3) stirring the soil and forming mulch (4)
mixing of manures and fertilizers with the soil and (5) covering the seeds.
There is no essential difference between cultivators and harrows but generally speaking
cultivators are used to deal heavy work and large clods; and harrows are later employed to continue the
work of preparing a fine seed bed.
Junior hoe
Junior hoe is a cultivator which is generally used in South India. This implement is not only used
as a cultivator but also as an inter-cultivator for wide spaced crops like sugarcane, cotton, redgram etc. It
is a light cultivating implement primarily designed for loosening the soils and uprooting weeds between
the rows of crops.
The junior hoe has a light steel frame which is approximately triangular in shape in which the
tynes are attached. A wheel attached in the front will regulate the depth of penetration and a double
handle is provided for guiding the implement. There is a lever arrangement by which the frame can be
broadened or narrowed to adjust cultivation width between the rows of crops. The frame is a collapsible
one which could be adjusted to the required width.
Harrows
Harrows are the implements which are used to prepare the seed-beds for sowing crops. For
initial opening of the soil, breaking the clods, covering the seeds etc. either cultivators or harrows are
used. Certain harrows and cultivators are found very useful for inter-cultivation of line sown crops.
Guntakas
Guntakas are indigenous blade harrow mainly intended for stirring the soil and to cover seeds
(without blades). They are, Bara guntaka, Meesalu Guntaka, Rekkala Guntaka, Metla Guntaka and R.E.
Guntaka.

Disc harrows
Disc harrows have number of saucer shaped discs mounted on one or two axles which may be
set at a variable angle to the line of draught according to the depth desired. The discs are generally from
30 to 50 cm in diameter and space about 15 cm apart. The two sets of discs are set in a manner to
throw the soil in opposite direction from the other. Each set will consist of 3 to 6 or more discs. If it is
bullock drawn, the number is often limited to three or four.
If the disc sets are set up perpendicular to the line of draught, penetration is shallow. When
maximum penetration is desired, the sets should be set with forward edges and the discs should be
parallel to the direction of travel. These adjustments are achieved by means of the lever provided.
Generally the best penetration is obtained when the discs are at 200 angle to the line of drought. Trays
are also provided over the frame for placing stones or weights and increasing the weight of the
implement, which in turn will help in deep penetration of the disc.
Rotovator
Also called rotary plough or rotary cultivator. This is a tractor or power tiller mounted. This
performs primary and secondary tillage operations simultaneously. This pulverizes the soil and cut all
the waste materials and incorporate into the field.

SPECIAL PURPOSE IMPLEMENTS

A. Implement used for puddling
Paddy lands are usually prepared by ploughing either with mould board ploughs or wooden
ploughs or with both. Considerable human labour is also engaged before the field is finally ready for
sowing or transplanting. This operation involves a great amount of human, animal labour and time. To
lesson these, the wetland puddler is preferred.
Wetland puddler
The wetland puddler is a very useful, economic and labour saving implement for producing fine
puddle in wetland for paddy cultivation. This implement consists of three angular bladed cast iron hubs
rigidly fixed to a hollow horizontal pipe and is rotated when dragged by a pair of bullocks. This is an
effective dual purpose implement useful for trampling green manure in the field. The blades work in to
the puddle, break up and leave the field in a fine condition. When used for trampling, the vegetative
matter is cut and buried into the soil. For a satisfactory working, a preliminary ploughing is given. The
puddler is always operated with 5-10cm of standing water in the field otherwise the wet soil clog the
blades and form a lumpy mass.
This implement can also be worked as an efficient clod crusher in dry and garden lands covering
four to five acres in a day. An area of two acres can be worked in a day of eight hours for wetland
puddling.
Five numbers of helical blades made of mild steel are fixed in skewed shape and mounted on a
wooden frame having a bearing, so that the blades can rotate freely. A handle and shaft pole are
provided. After ploughing the land with country plough, this implement can be used to puddle the soil,
which operates at a depth of 8 to 10 cm. The helical geometry facilitates better churning and slicing of
the soil as required for puddling.
Disc trampler or green manure trampler
This implement is used for trampling green manure in paddy fields under puddled condition. It is
a labour saving implement. It consists of 3.0 or 4.25 cm diameter steel discs with cast iron hubs, rigidly
mounted on a pipe shaft, 22.5 cm apart, rotating in wooden block bearings. There are steel blades fixed
across these discs. This implement cuts and spread out the green manure and enables it to be buried
into the puddle to a depth of 5.0 to 7.5 cm. Green manure trampler covers about 2 acres in a day of 8
hours, with a pair of bullocks.
Burmese set turn
This implement is used for trampling the green manure and for puddling. It consists of three or
four hubs fixed to a horizontal axle at 22.5 cm interval. The blades 7.5 cm wide and 67.5 to 90 cm long
are fixed parallel to an axis. When the implement is dragged, the blades turn the puddle and the green
manure is also pressed into a depth of about 7.5 cm. There is also a handle provided on the wooden
frame so that there is effective turning of puddle and burial of green manure. The coverage is about one
hectare.
Cage wheel (Power tiller operated / Tractor driven)
The cage wheels are available for attachments to power tillers and tractors for puddling the
medium and heavy soils for paddy cultivation. The cage wheels are attachments in place of pneumatic
wheels in power tillers and tractors. They are particularly suitable for puddling medium and heavy soils
for paddy cultivation. The cage wheels provide a good traction and floatation of puddle. The cage wheels
work well in all fields except on a few occasions where the clay plus silt content of the soil is more than
56%.
In addition to savings in cost and time more uniformity, thoroughness in the puddle is obtained
with the cage wheels than by the country plough. The average depth of puddle obtained is 23 cm.
B. Levelling implements
Wooden levelling board
Animal drawn implement used in rice filed after puddling. This consists of wooden plank of about
2.0 m long and 0.30 m wide with a handle. This is also used under garden land condition after replacing
wooden plank with iron levelers.
Buck scraper
Animal drawn implement, like a rectangular box with one end (front) open. Coverage is 0.20 to
0.40 ha / day of 8 hours.
‘A’ Frame ridger
Used for land levelling and forming ridges.
‘V’ Ditcher
Used for levelling and forming field channels. The operation is much similar to that of using an
over sized mould board plough.
Wooden float
The implement is used for land smoothening with animal power.
C. Implements used for soil compaction and breaking clods
Rollers made up of wood, stone or iron are used to consolidate the soil, crush the clods and
smoothen the surface. They are Iron roller and Wooden or stone roller.
D. Land Shaping implements / implements for special purpose
• Bund former
• Ridge plough
• Bed furrow former
1.Bund former
Used for forming bunds, irrigation channels and also for soil conservation. Different sized bunds
can be formed.
2.Ridge plough
It is double mould board plough with adjustable wings. An area of about 0.8-1.0 ha can be
covered. Both animal drawn and tractor drawn implements are available.

Bed-furrow former
Tractor drawn implement, forming alternate beds and channels simultaneously. It covers an area
of 3 ha per day of 8 hours.

E. Weeders
Star wheel and Peg tooth type weeders are used for weeding in dry lands. Rotary weeder and
cono-weeders are used in rice field.
F. Low cost labour saving implements
1. Multipurpose tool carrier
Used for primary and secondary tillage and inter cultural operations, forming bunds,
raised beds and transport.
2. ‘Kovai’ planter
Used for line sowing and planting especially in drylands.
3. Paddy harvester (Power tiller operated)
Reaps and winnows paddy crop.
4. Paddy thresher
For threshing different varieties of paddy.
5. Chaff cutter (Power operated)
Cutting green and dry fodder into bits for easy assimilation by animals.
G. INTERCULTURAL IMPLEMENTS
1. Japanese rotary weeder
2. Cono weeder
3. Long handled weeder
• Peg tooth type
 • Star wheel type
1. Japanese rotary weeder: It consists of two small toothed rollers or drums mounted on a frame
provided with handle. Each roller consists of 5 toothed blades. It is used in paddy crop. It buries the
weeds into the soil.
2. Cono weeder: Similar to rotary weeder. Instead of two toothed roller, two toothed cones are mounted
on a frame provided with handle. It is used in line sown / planted paddy cultivation for weeding in the
interspace.
3. Long handled weeder: Used for weeding in row crops for removing shallow rooted weeds.
a. Peg tooth type: It consists of two long handle of 2.5 cm diameter, 120 cm long pipes with 52 cm long
handle. In the bottom of the vertical pipe, two arms with 25 x 2.5 x 0.3 cm MS plates are fitted. At the
extreme end of the arm, peg wheel is placed.
b. Star wheel type: Instead of peg type, star type rollers are used.
Exercise:
1. Describe the procedure of ploughing with country plough and its adjustments.
2. Draw mould board plough and disc plough with neat sketch.
3. Practice the use of implements.
4. Mention in which of the soils the peg and star type weeders are used.
EX NO.6. PRACTICING DIFFERENT METHODS OF SEED TREATMENTS,
Date: METHODS OF SOWING AND SEEDING IMPLEMENTS
______________________________________________________________________
Seed treatment
It is the process of treating the seeds with inorganic chemicals, growth regulators, etc., to
augment the germination, to make it free from pest and diseases; to harden the seeds to withstand
drought.
Objectives of seed treatment

• To protect the seeds from the pest and diseases

• To facilitate easy handling of seeds
• To repel birds and rodents
• To supply plant nutrients
• To inoculate micro-organisms
• To supply growth regulators
• To supply selective herbicide
• To break the seed dormancy
• To induce drought tolerance
• To augment germination
Methods of seed treatment
i) Dry seed treatment
Mixing of seeds with powder form of pesticides (or) nutrients especially during storage. eg:
Seeds treated with Thiram @ 4g/kg of seed, Vasambu, turmeric powder (1:100) and mixing red earth
with red gram.
ii) Wet treatment
Soaking of seeds in nutrient or chemical or pesticidal solution.
iii) Slurry treatment
Dipping of seedling or mixing of seeds in slurry.
iv) Pelleting
It is the coating of solid materials in sufficient quantities to make the seeds larger, heavier and to
appear uniform in size for sowing with seed drills. Pelleting with pesticides as a protectant against soil
organisms, soil pests and as a repellant against birds and rodents.
v) Scarification
The process of making the seed coat permeable for the developing embryo.
vi) Hot water treatment
Soaking in water of 75 to 80C. The volume should be 4 to 5 times that of seed and allowed to
cool in the same water.
vii) Acid treatment
With 1kg of cotton seeds, 100 ml of H2SO4 is added. It is stirred well for about three minutes and
repeatedly washed. Seeds are dried and sown.
viii) Leaching
Germination inhibitors are removed by soaking seeds in running water or frequently changing the
water. Soaking upto 12-24 hours is generally made.
ix) Hormonal treatment
To break the dormancy GA3 @ 500 ppm solution is used for soaking the seeds for 12 hours.
Cytokinins and ethylene can also be used.
SOWING
It is the process of placing the seed material in the rooting medium (soil).
Crops are sown in various ways. They are, 1. Broadcasting 2. Dibbling
3. Sowing behind the plough 4. Drill sowing or drilling.
SOWING METHODS
1. Broadcasting
It is random sowing, literally, scattering the seeds. Broadcasting is done for many crops.
Broadcasting is mostly followed for small to medium sized crops. This is the most widely followed
method of sowing followed in India, since, it is the easiest and cheapest and requires minimum
labourers. To have optimum plant population in unit area, certain rules should be followed.
• Only a skilled person should broadcast the seeds for uniform scattering
• The ploughed field should be in a perfect condition to trigger germination
The seeds are broadcasted in a narrow strip and the sowing is completed strip by strip. To
ensure a good and uniform population, it is better to broadcast on either direction. This is called criss-
cross sowing. If the seeds are too small, it is mixed with sand to make a bulky one and for easy
handling. In certain cases, the person sowing will be beating the seeds against the basket for uniform
scattering. After broadcasting, the seeds are covered gently either using a country plough with a very
shallow ploughing or some wooden planks (boards / levelers are used to cover the surface). In some
cases, tree twigs or shrub branches are used. If the seeds are large, levelers collect the seeds and
leave in the other side. Comb harrow is the best used one.
Disadvantages

• All the seeds broadcasted do not have contact with the soil. 100% germination is not possible
• Seed rate is high
• Seeds can not be placed in desired depth. Desired depth ensures perfect anchorage
• Lodging
• (falling down) is common in broadcasting.
2. Dibbling
Here, line sowing is possible. Inserting a seed through a hole at a desired depth and covering
the hole. Dibbling on plain surface or ridges and furrows or beds and channels. These types of sowing
are practiced only under suitable soil condition. The seeds are dibbled at 2/3rd from top or 1/3rd at
bottom. Before sowing, furrows are opened and fertilizers are applied above which seeds are sown.
The seeds do not have contact with the fertilizers. This is done for wider spaced crops and medium to
large sized seeds, eg., sorghum, maize, sunflower, cotton are dibbled on ridges and furrows. Both beds
and channels; and ridges and furrows come under line sowing. While earthing up the plant occupies
middle of the ridge. Earthing up is essential for proper anchorage of the root system.
Advantages

• Uniform population
• Better germination
• Reduced seed rate.
3. Sowing behind the plough
Sowing behind the plough (line sowing) done by manual or mechanical means. Seeds are
dropped in the furrows opened by the plough and the same is closed or covered when the next furrow is
opened. The seeds are sown at uniform distance. Manual method is a laborious and time consuming
process. Seeds like redgram, cowpea and groundnut are sown behind the country plough. Major sown
crop is groundnut.
Seeds are sown by mechanical means by ‘Gorru’- seed drill. A seed drill has a plough share and
hopper. Seeds are placed on hopper.
Advantages
• The seeds are placed at desired depth covered by iron planks
• Except very small and very large seeds, most of the seeds can be sown, eg. maize, sorghum,
millets, sunflower, etc.
Line sowing Vs Random sowing

No. Line sowing Random sowing

1. Costlier Cheaper
2. Takes considerable time Quickest and time saving
3. Fixed seed rate Higher seed rate
4. Mechanization is possible, eg. weeding, harvesting Not possible
5. Uniform utilization of resources (land, water, light, nutrient, Resource utilization is un-
etc.) uniform

4. Drill sowing (or) Drilling

Drilling is the practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth covered with soil and compacted. In
this method, sowing implements are used for placing the seeds into the soil. Both animal drawn Gorrus
and power operated (seed drills) implements are available. Seeds are drilled continuously or at regular
intervals in rows. In this method, depth of sowing can be maintained and fertilizer can also be applied
simultaneously. It is possible to take up sowing of intercrops also. It requires more time, energy and
cost, but maintains uniform population per unit area. Seeds are placed at uniform depth, covered and
compacted.
PLANTING
Planting refers to putting of plant propagules (may be seedlings, cutting, tubers, etc.) into the
ground to grow as crop plants.
 a. Nursery raising and transplanting- paddy
b. Direct planting of plant propagules, cuttings, tubers etc.
SOWING / PLANTING IMPLEMENTS
1. Seed drills
2. Transplanter
a. Seed drills
They are also called as Gorru. Gorru is operated using animal power.
b. Transplanter
b.1. Seed planter
Used for large sized seeds. Row to row and intra row spacing are fixed. Tractor drawn seed
planters cover an area of about 4 ha/day.
b.2. Seedling transplanter- paddy
Exercise
1. Practice different methods of seed treatment.
2. List out the bio-fertilizers available for seed treatment.
3. Practice different sowing techniques and offer your comments.
 EX NO.7. WORKING OUT SEED RATE AND PRACTICING THINNING, GAP FILLING FOR
OPTIMUM CROP STAND AND INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS
Date:
_______________________________________________________________________

Seed rate
The required number of plants per unit area is decided by calculating the seed rate. The seed
rate depends on spacing or plant population, test weight, germination percentage. The formula is as
follows.
Plant population (per ha) x no. of seeds/hill x 1000 grain (test) weight (g)x 100 x100
Seed rate (kg/ha) = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1000 x 1000 x germination % x purity %

Thinning and gap filling

The objective is to maintain optimum plant population. Thinning is the removal of excess plants
leaving healthy seedlings. Gap filling is done to fill the gaps by sowing of seeds or transplanting of
seedlings in gap where early sown seed had not germinated. It is a simultaneous process. Normally,
thinning and gap filling are practiced a week after sowing to a maximum of 15 days.
In dryland agriculture, gap filling is done first. Seeds are dibbled after 7 days of sowing. Thinning
is done after gap filling in order to avoid drought. It is a management strategy to remove a portion of
plant population to mitigate stress – referred to as mid season correction.
Plant population or plant density
Number of plants/unit area in the cropped field is the plant population
Optimum plant population
1. Optimum plant population – It is the number of plants required to produce maximum output or
biomass/unit area.
2. Any increase beyond this stage, results in either no increase or reduction in biomass.
Crop geometry
The arrangement of the plants in different rows and columns in an area to utilize the natural
resources efficiently is called crop geometry. It is otherwise area occupied by a single plant eg. rice - 20
cm x 15 cm. This is very essential to utilize the resources like light, water, nutrient and space. Different
geometries are available for crop production
Foraging area or soil cover
• should cover the soil as early as possible so as to intercept maximum sunlight
• Higher the intercepted radiation more will be the dry matter produced
• Close spaced crops intercept more Solar radiation than wide spaced crops
Different crop geometries are available for crop production
1. Random square geometry: Broadcasting results in random geometry and no equal space is
maintained; resources are either under exploited or over exploited.
2. Square method or square geometry: The plants are sown at equal distances on either side. Mostly
perennial crops, tree crops follow square method of cultivation. Under System of Rice intensification
methodology in rice proved that square geometry could also be successful in field crops. This concept is
now popular in annual field crops such as pulses, cotton, vegetables etc.
Advantages
• Light is available uniformly
• Movement of wind is not blocked
• Mechanization can be possible.
3. Rectangular method of sowing: There are rows and columns, the row spacing are wider than the
spacing between plants. The different types exist in rectangular method
a. Solid row: Each row has definite inter row and no proper spacing between the plants. This is
followed only for annual crops which have tillering pattern. eg. Wheat.
b. Paired row arrangement: It is also a rectangular arrangement. If a crop requires 60 x 30 cm spacing
and if paired row is to be adopted the spacing is altered to 90 cm instead of 60 cm in order to
accommodate an intercrop. The base population is kept constant.
c. Skip row: A row of planting is skipped and hence, there is a reduction in population. This reduction is
compensated by planting an intercrop. This is practiced in rainfed or dryland agriculture.
d. Triangular method of planting: In triangular system of planting, the trees are planted in the corners
of equilateral triangles. It is recommended for wide spaced crops like coconut, mango, etc. The number
of plants per unit area is more in this system.

Exercise:
1. Practice thinning and gap filling.
2. Workout plant population per hectare
a. if the spacing of the crop is 10 m x 10 m
b. if spacing of the crop is 2 x 2 m
c. If spacing of the crop is 20 x 10 cm
d. If spacing of the crop is 60 x 30 cm.
3. Work out the seed rate requirement for rice with the following data.
Sl. Crop No. of Test weight (g) Germination (%) Purity %
No. geometry seeds/hill
1. 20 x 15 cm 3 20.0 80 98
2. 20 x 10 cm 3 20.0 80 98
3. 15 x 10 cm 3 20.0 80 98
4. 25 x 25 cm 1 20.0 75 98
5. 25 x 25 cm 2 20.0 75 98
EX NO8. WORKING OUT MANURE AND FERTILIZER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
Date:
______________________________________________________________________
MANURES
Manures are plant and or animal wastes that are used as source of plant nutrients. They release
nutrients after their decomposition. Organic manures are made up of dead plants and animal residues,
oil cakes, fish manures, dried blood from slaughter houses etc. The manures are grouped into bulky
organic manures and concentrated organic manures based on concentration of the nutrients.
I. Organic manures
a) Bulky organic manure
• Applied in large quantities
• Contains small percentage of nutrients.
eg: FYM, compost, green manure, green leaf manure.
Advantages
• Supply plant nutrients including micronutrients
• Improve soil physical properties
• Increase the nutrient use efficiency
• Increase water holding capacity of soil
• Increase the microbiological activity
FYM
• Mixture of dung and urine of animals along with litter and left over materials
• Contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P2O5, 0.5% K2O
• General recommendation for field crops is 12.5 t/ha
Compost
• A mass of rotten organic matter made from waste is called compost.
• The compost made from farm waste like sugarcane trash, paddy straw, weeds, coir pith and
other waste are called farm compost.
• The nutrient content is 0.5: 0.15: 0.5% N, P2O5 and K2O.
• The compost made from town refuse like night soil, street sweeping and dustbin refuse is called
town compost. It contains 1.4: 1.0: 1.4% N, P2O5 and K2O.
Night soil
• It is human excreta both of solid and liquid. It is richer in N, P and K than FYM.
• It contains 5.5: 4.0: 2.0 per cent N, P2O5 and K2O.
Sewage and sludge
 In the modern system of sanitation in cities and towns, human excreta are flushed out with water,
which is called sewage. The solid portion is called sludge and liquid portion is called as sewage water.
Vermicompost
Compost that is prepared with the help of earthworm is called vermicompost. The earthworm
consumes large quantities of organic matter and excretes soil as casts. The casts of earthworm have
several enzymes and are rich in nutrients. It contains 3.0:1.0:1.5% N, P2O5 and K2O.
Sheep and Goat manure
The droppings of sheep and goat contain higher nutrients than FYM and compost. The nutrient
content is 3.0:1.0:2.0% N, P2O5 and K2O. This is either stored in pit for decomposition and applied or
directly applied in the field by penning. In the second method, both dropping and urine are added to soil.
Poultry manure
The excreta of poultry birds are decomposed and used. The average nutrient content is
3.0:2.6:1.4 % N, P2O5 and K2O.
b) Concentrated organic manure
Concentrated organic manures have higher nutrient content than bulky organic manure. They are
oil cakes, blood meal, fish manure etc. They are also knows as organic nitrogen fertilizer.
Oil cakes
This is solid remains after oil extraction. They are of two types.
(1) Edible – Groundnut cake, coconut cake, etc.
(2) Non-edible – Castor, Neem, Mahua cake, etc
Though both oil cakes can be used as manure, edible oil cakes are used for feeding livestock.
Nutrients present in the oil cakes are made available to plants in 7-10 days of application through
mineralization.
Blood meal, bone meal and meat of dead animals are dried, powdered and then used as
manures.
II. Green manuring and Green leaf manuring
Green, un-decomposed plant material used as manure is called green manuring. It is obtained in
two ways;
• Growing green manure crops in the field itself and incorporated into the soil of the same field is
called green manuring.
• Collecting green leaves from different sources and are applied to the field as manure is known as
green leaf manuring.
The green manure crops used will mostly of legume groups for biological nitrogen fixation. They are
grown up to flowering and are incorporated.
Advantages
• Add organic matter to soil.
• Deep-rooted green manure crop brings the nutrients from deeper layer to surface.
 • Organic matter added improves the soil structure, increases the water holding capacity and
prevent erosion.
• During off-season, growing a green manure crop reduces the weed growth and conserves the
nutrients.
• Green manure crops help to reclaim the problem soil.

FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers
The term fertilizer refers to commercially manufactured inorganic materials either dry or liquid,
which are added to the soil to supply essential plant nutrients. There are different types of fertilizers
available.
1.Nitrogenous 2. Phosphatic 3. Potassic 4. Complex 5. Mixed fertilizers.
Simple fertilizers or straight fertilizers
Fertilizers containing only one primary plant nutrient are called straight fertilizers. Nitrogenous
fertilizers – contain ‘N’ alone (eg.) urea. Phosphatic fertilizers – contain phosphorus alone (eg.) super
phosphate. Potassic fertilizers – contain potassium alone (eg.) Muriate of potash.
Complex fertilizers
Fertilizers containing two or more plant nutrients (of which two are major nutrients) in chemical
combination are called complex fertilizers. eg. 17:17:17 complex fertilizer.
Incomplete complex fertilizers
Fertilizers containing only two of the primary nutrients are called incomplete complex fertilizers.
Mixed fertilizers
Individual straight fertilizer materials are mechanically mixed together to permit application in the
field in one operation. They supply two or three major plant nutrients. The percentage of nutrients
present in the mixture is expressed as fertilizer grade like 10-5-5 NPK.
Nitrogenous fertilizer materials and their nutrient content (%)
1. Urea (46%)
2. Ammonium sulphate (21%)
3. CAN (Calcium ammonium nitrate) (25%)
4. Ammonium nitrate (34%)
Phosphatic fertilizers
Water soluble phosphate (Mono calcium phosphate)
1. Single super phosphate (SSP) - 16%
2. Double super phosphate (DSP) - 32%
3. Triple super phosphate (TSP) - 48%
4. Ammonium phosphate
Citric acid soluble phosphate (Di-calcium phosphate)
1. Basic slag -14-18%
2. Di calcium phosphate - 34-39%
Insoluble phosphate (Tri calcium phosphate)
1. Rock phosphate - 20-40%
2. Raw bone meal - 20-25%
3. Steamed bone meal - 22-30%
Potassic fertilizers
1. Muriate of potash (KCl) - 60%
2. Sulphate of potash (K2SO4) - 48-52%
3. Potassium nitrate (KNO3) - 48%
Complex fertilizers: Complex fertilizers contain two or three primary plant nutrients of which two
primary nutrients are in chemical combination. These fertilizers are usually produced in granular form. eg
Mono ammonium phosphate (11-48-0)
Diammonium phosphate( 18-46-0)
Ammonium phosphate.sulphate ( 20-20-0)
NPK complex fertilizer (17-17-17, 15-15-15, 19-19-19
Mixed fertilizers:
Mixed fertilizers are physical mixtures of straight fertilisers. They contain two or three primary plant
nutrients. Mixed fertilisers are made by thoroughly mixing the ingredients either mechanically or
manually.
Ex. 8-8-16, 10-5-20. They are prepared for one specific crop or group of crops.
Micronutrients
Plant nutrients required in minute quantities but considered essential are called micronutrients or
trace elements or minor elements (eg.) Zinc sulphate.

WORKING OUT OF FERTILIZER SCHEDULE

Fertilizer requirement
The nutrient requirement of crops varies and is made available to the plant by application of
fertilizers. The nutrient(s) content of fertilizer material also varies. It is calculated by the formula.

Quantity of fertilizer to be 100

applied (kg/ha) = -------------------------------------- x Recommended dose of
Nutrient content in the nutrient(kg/ha)
fertilizer material

Conversion factors to workout quantity of fertilizer from nutrient

Nutrient Multiplication factor Fertilizer
Nitrogen 4.9 Ammonium sulphate
Nitrogen 2.17 Urea
Nitrogen 4.0 Ammonium chloride
Nitrogen 3.0 Ammonium nitrate
 Phosphoric acid (P2O5) 6.25 Super phosphate
Potash (K2O) 1.67 Muriate of potash
Potash (K2O) 2.0 Sulphate of potash

Example 1:
Fertilizer recommended for rice is 150-50-50 kg N, P2O5 & K2O per hectare. Calculate the
requirement of urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash.

100
Urea requirement = x 150 = 325.5 kg/ha
46
100
Super phosphate = x 50 = 312.5 kg/ha
16

100
Muriate of potash = x 50 = 83.3 kg/ha
60

Exercise:
1. Work out fertilizer requirement of DAP, urea and MOP for rice in one hectare @ (150:50:50 NPK/ha)
(Diammonium phosphate( 18-46-0 ).

2. Work out fertilizer requirement of DAP, urea and MOP for rice in 50 cents at the recommended rate
of (150:50:50 NPK/ha). 1.0 ha = 247.1 cents. Approximately 1.0 ha is considered as 250 cents.

3. Work out the fertilizer requirement of urea, single super phosphate and MOP for rice grown in one
hectare at the recommended rate of (150:50:50 NPK/ha). The time and split doses of application of
NPK fertilizers are
a. Apply N and K in four equal splits viz., basal, tillering, panicle initiation and heading stages.
b. Entire phosphorus in single as basal.
Calculate the quantities of fertilizers (urea, single super phosphate and MOP) to be applied at each of
these stages in an area of one hectare of paddy field.

4. Work out the manures (FYM, vermi-compost, goat manure) required to supply N requirement to maize
hybrid (150 kg/ha).
 EX NO.9. PRACTICING METHODS OF APPLICATION: MANURES AND FERTILIZERS AND
INCORPORATION OF GREEN MANURE AND GREEN LEAF MANURE
Date:
_______________________________________________________________________

The fertilizer should be applied in the soil in such a way that it serves the plant to the best
advantage. Fertilizers are applied by different methods mainly for three purposes.
• To make the nutrients easily available to crops.
• To reduce fertilizer losses
• For ease of application.
Methods of fertilizer application
I. Soil application
Broadcasting
Application of fertilizer uniformly on the soil surface is known as broadcasting of fertilizers. This
is done either before sowing of the crop (basal application) or in the standing crop (top dressing). This is
the most widely practiced method in India due to ease in application.
Band placement
Application of fertilizers in narrow bands beneath and by the side of the crop rows is known as
band placement of fertilizers. Band placement is done under the following situations:
• When crop needs initial good start.
• When soil fertility is low.
• When fertilizer material react with soil constituent leading to unavailability
• Where volatalisation losses are high.
Point placement
Placement of fertilizers near the plant either in a hole or in a depression followed by closing or
covering with soil is known as point placement of fertilizers. It is adopted for top dressing of nitrogenous
fertilizers in widely spaced crops.
II. Sub soil placement
It refers to the placement of fertilizers in the sub-soil with the help of high power machinery.
Fertigation
Application of fertilizers with irrigation water is known as fertigation. It is generally followed with
drip irrigation.

Application to plant
Root dipping
The roots of the seedlings are dipped in nutrient solution before transplanting. In soils deficient
in phosphorus, roots of rice seedlings are dipped in phosphorus slurry before planting.
Root feeding
This method is popularly followed in coconut plantation. Active roots are selected and are dipped
into nutrient solution in a poly bag, which is tied to the root. In a day or two, the nutrient solution is
absorbed by the root system.
Foliar spray
Application of fertilizers to foliage of the crop as spray solution is known as foliar application of
fertilizers. This method is not a substitute for soil application but only a supplement to it. This method is
most suited for application of micronutrients, required in small quantities. When deficiency symptoms are
visible, nutrients can be sprayed as mid-term correction.
GREEN MANURING AND GREEN LEAF MANURING
Green, un-decomposed plant material used as manure is called green manuring. It is obtained in
two ways;
(3) Growing green manure crops in the field itself and incorporated into the soil of the same field
is called green manuring.
(4) Collecting green leaves from different sources and are applied to the field as manure is
known as green leaf manuring.
Some of the prominent green manures are sunnhemp, manila agathi, daincha, pillipesara, kolinji.
Few of plant materials such as glyricidia, pungam, neem, gulmohar, vadanarayanan, subabul,
peltophorum from which leaf materials are collected are termed as green leaf manures.
Implements used for trampling green manure and green leaf manures
Wetland puddler
The wetland puddler is a very useful, economic and labour saving implement for producing fine
puddle in wetland for paddy cultivation. This is an effective dual purpose implement useful for trampling
green manure in the field. The blades work in to the puddle, break up and leave the field in a fine
condition. When used for trampling, the vegetative matter is cut and buried into the soil. For a
satisfactory working, a preliminary ploughing is given. The puddler is always operated with 5-10cm of
standing water in the field otherwise the wet soil clog the blades and form a lumpy mass.
An area of two acres can be worked in a day of eight hours for wetland puddling.
Disc trampler or green manure trampler
This implement is used for trampling green manure in paddy fields under puddled condition. It is
a labour saving implement. It consists of 3.0 or 4.25 cm diameter steel discs with cast iron hubs, rigidly
mounted on a pipe shaft, 22.5 cm apart, rotating in wooden block bearings. There are steel blades fixed
across these discs. This implement cuts and spread out the green manure and enables it to be buried
into the puddle to a depth of 5.0 to 7.5 cm. Green manure trampler covers about 2 acres in a day of 8
hours, with a pair of bullocks.
Rotovator
It is also called as rotary plough or rotary cultivator. This is a tractor or power tiller mounted. This
performs primary and secondary tillage operations simultaneously. This pulverizes the soil and cut all
the waste materials and green manures and incorporate into the field.
Exercise
1. Practice different fertilizer application methods.
2. Write the procedure of application and incorporation of manures
3. Briefly explain about the incorporation of green manures in to the soil
4. Mention the methods of collection, application and incorporation of green leaf manures in the fields
EX.NO.10. IDENTIFICATION OF WEEDS, WEEDING PRACTICES AND HANDLING Date:
OF WEEDING TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS
Date:
______________________________________________________________________

Plants are considered as weeds when they interfere with human activity in his endeavor of
cultivating crops of economic nature. In order to manage them effectively one should know their identity,
character and behaviour in the crop environment.
Weeds may be identified as per their ecological affinities as wetland, irrigated dryland and
dryland weeds. They are as follows:

A. WETLAND WEEDS
The weeds that are common in a rice eco-system are normally considered as wetland weeds.
Some of the common characters of wetland weeds are:

a. Adapted to waterlogged condition

b. Anaerobic condition favours most of the wetland weeds
c. Weeds are lustrous having lower requirement for light and oxygen than dryland weeds
d. Mostly annuals under crop situation and perennials are on the channels and bunds
e. Most of the weeds are heavy seed producers
f. Some weeds posses floating mechanism in stem or leaves
g. Most weeds bound to occur seasonally

Weeds commonly observed under wetland conditions

Grasses:
Echinochloa colona
Echinochloa crusgalli
Cynodon dactylon

Broad-leaved weeds
Ammania baccifera
Monochoria vaginalis
Marselia quadrifoliata

Sedges
Cyperus difformis
Cyperus iria

B. GARDENLAND / IRRIGATED DRYLAND WEEDS

The weeds that are common in an upland irrigated condition are normally considered as garden
land weeds. Some of the common characters of garden land weeds are:
 a. Weeds neither require high moisture nor dry condition for their survival
b. Weeds are having lower requirement for light and oxygen than dryland weeds.
c. Annuals, biennial and perennials can be found under crop situation as well as on the channels
and bunds.
d. Weeds have adaptation to complete their lifecycle when they are subject to dry conditions
e. As wide variety of crops are grown under garden land situation weed shift may occur depending
upon the crop grown
Weeds commonly observed under irrigated dryland conditions
Grasses
Dactyloctenium aegyptium
Dinebra retroflexa
Cynodon dactylon
Chloris barbata
Panicum spp
Broad-leaved weeds
Trianthema portulacastrum
Acalypha indica
Amaranthus viridis
Cleome gynandra
Digera arvensis
Partheium hysterophorus
Portulaca oleraceae
Sedges
Cyperus rotundus
C. DRYLAND WEEDS
The weeds that are common in rainfed condition are normally considered as dryland weeds.
Dryland weeds are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are adapted to withstand drought
on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and their hairiness. They also found to posses under
ground storage organs through which also it can propagate. Dryland weeds do not mean that such
plants do not flourish in places with plenty of moisture and food.
Almost all weeds, which occur under garden land condition, will also occur under dryland
situations. The following are some of the morphological adaptations of dryland weeds.
• Posses deep root system
• Has reduced number of leaves
• Thickened and hairy leaf
• Waxy coating
• Reduced leaf area
Weeds commonly observed under dryland conditions
Grasses
Cynodon dactylon
Chloris barbata
 Dactyloctenium aegyptium
Broad-leaved weeds
Aristolochia bracteata
Abutilon indicum
Leucas aspera
Celosia argentea
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis
Tridax procumbens
Sedges
Cyperus rotundus

Exercise:
1. Observe the common weeds present in arable lands by listing their characters.
2. How will you differentiate the rice plant with that of Echinochloa sp. at young stage?
3. List out the weeds you have observed in the fields, channels and bunds.
4. Have you noticed any difference in weed composition of rice field and that of other crop planted
in the wetland? List the same.
EX.NO.11: METHODS OF WEED MANAGEMENT

Date:
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A. Physical methods of weed control
Mechanical or physical methods of weed control are being employed ever since man began to
grow crops. The mechanical methods include tillage, hoeing, hand weeding, digging, chiseling, sickling,
mowing, burning, flooding, mulching etc.
1. Tillage
2. Hoeing
3. Hand weeding
4. Digging
5. Chiseling
6. Sickling and mowing
7. Mowing
8. Burning
9. Flooding
Merits of physical methods

• Oldest, effective and economical method

• Large area can be covered in shorter time
• Safe method for environment
• Does not involve any skill
• Weeding is possible in between plants
• Deep rooted weeds can be controlled effectively
Demerits of physical methods

• Labour consuming
• Possibility of damaging crop
• Requires ideal and optimum specific condition
B. CULTURAL WEED CONTROL
Several cultural practices are employed for creating favourable condition for the crop. These
practices if used properly help in controlling weeds. Cultural methods, alone cannot control weeds, but,
help in reducing weed population. They should, therefore, be used in combination with other methods. In
cultural methods, tillage, fertilizer application and irrigation are important. In addition, aspects like
selection of variety, time of sowing, cropping system, cleanliness of the farm etc., are also useful in
controlling weeds.
1. Field preparation
2. Summer tillage
3. Mulching
4. Solarisation
5. Stale seedbed
6. Blind tillage
Merits of cultural method
1. Low cost for weed control 2. Easy to adopt
3. No residual problem 4. Technical skill is not involved
5. No damage to crops 6. Effective weed control
7. Crop-weed ecosystem is maintained
Demerits of cultural method
1. Immediate and quick weed control is not possible
2. Weeds are kept under suppressed condition
3. Perennial and problematic weeds can not be controlled
4. Practical difficulty in adoption
C. BIOLOGICAL WEED CONTROL
• Use of living organisms viz., insects, disease organisms, herbivorous fish, snails or even
competitive plants for the control of weeds is called biological control
• In biological control method, it is not possible to eradicate weeds, but weed population can be
reduced
• This method is not useful to control all types of weeds. Introduced weeds are best targets for
biological control.
Examples
• Water hyacinth is controlled by Hyacinth moth
• Opuntia is controlled by scale insects
• Parthenium is controlled by Zygogramma beetle
• Strangler vine (Morrenia odorata) controlled by fungus- Phytophthora palmivora (Devine -
bioherbicide) in citrus gardens.
D. CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL
Using chemicals, generally referred as herbicides, for the control of weeds is called chemical
weed control. In 1944, discovery of 2,4-D Na salt became land mark in herbicide usage. Commonly
used herbicides are Pendimethalin, Fluchloralin, Atrazine and Butachlor.
Merits of chemical weed control
• Herbicides can be recommended for adverse soil and climatic conditions, as manual weeding is
highly impossible during monsoon season
• Herbicides can control weeds even before they emerge from the soil so that crops can germinate
and grow in completely weed-free environment at early stages. It is usually not possible with
physical weed control
• Weeds, which resemble like crop in vegetative phase, may escape in manual weeding. However,
these weeds are controlled by herbicides
• Herbicides are highly suitable for broadcasted and closely spaced crops
 • Control the weeds without any injury to the root system of the associated standing crop especially
in plantation crops like Tea and Coffee
• Reduces the need for pre planting tillage
• Controls many perennial weed species
• Herbicides control the weeds in the field itself or in-situ controlling, whereas, mechanical method
may lead to dispersal of weed species through seed
• It is profitable where labour is scarce and expensive
• Suited for minimum tillage concept and highly economical
Demerits
• Pollutes the environment
• Affects the soil microbes if the dose exceeds
• Herbicide causes drift effect to the adjoining field. eg. 2,4-D to cotton crop.
• It requires certain amount of minimum technical knowledge for calibration and spraying
• Leaves residual effects
• Some herbicides are highly costly
• Suitable herbicides are not available for mixed and inter-cropping system.
Integrated weed management
It is a method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable methods are
employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic damage, keeping in the
foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors (FAO definition)
• Uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to produce
optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking into consideration ecological and socio-economic
constraints under a given agro-ecosystem.
• A system in which two or more methods are used to control weeds. These methods may include
cultural practices, natural enemies and selective herbicides.

Exercise
5. Practice the different weed management practices.
EX NO.12. OBSERVATION OF DIFFERENT METHODS OF IRRIGATION

Date:
______________________________________________________________________

Irrigation
The artificial application of water to soil at the right time, right quantity and right place to assist in
the production of crops.
Irrigation methods
1. Surface
2. Sub surface Sprinkler (overhead)
3. Pressurized Irrigation
Drip irrigation
I. Surface irrigation
Water is applied on the surface of the soil depending upon the topography of land, soil type,
crops to be grown, quantity and quality of irrigations water available, source and availability of water,
energy and labour required in conveyance. The surface irrigation practices are,
Uncontrolled flooding
Primitive and wasteful method. Practiced where water is plenty and vast area to be irrigated as in
pastures. Great loss of water, soil erosion, un-uniform wetting and deep percolation of water are the
disadvantages.
Controlled flooding
The fields are divided into several plots and water is guided from the stream through main and
sub-channels in a controlled manner. Different methods of controlled flooding.
a. Border irrigation
The lands are divided into strips of various dimensions depending on the slope and type of soil.
The strip may be of 3-15m width and 50 to 300 m length and are parallel to each other.
i. Level border
Advantages
• Uniform distribution of water
• Avoid erosion
Disadvantages
• Require fine grading
• Needs large stream of water

ii. Graded & semi graded

• Permit mild slope
• Light irrigation is possible
b. Check basin irrigation
• Known as bed method, suitable under small stream (well irrigated)
• Beds and channels occupy fairly a large area
 • Irrigation through main and branch channel.

c. Furrow method
• Field is made into ridges and furrows.
• The length may be 30 to 300m.
• The width based on the crops to be grown. Short furrows of 5-6 m length are formed for
vegetable crops.

II. Subsurface irrigation

In this method, underground porous tile tubes are imbedded in the sub-surface region where root
spread is expected. Water ooze-out through porous pipe and this is used for drainage also. Open
trenches are also used for providing water at sub-surface layer.

III. Pressurized irrigation

a. Drip irrigation
Known as drip or trickle irrigation. Water is delivered at root zone of the crop equal or lower than
that of infiltration rate.
Advantages

• Suitable under scarce water condition

• Water saving up to 30-50%
• Reduce weed growth
• Saves labour
• Fertilizers can also be applied
• Suitable even under problem water condition
Disadvantages

• High initial cost

• Clogging of equipments
• No uniform wetting throughout the field
• Most suitable for perennial crops
Components
1. Pump to lift water 2. Head unit, a tank to maintain required pressure for water circulation 3.
Central distribution system to regulate water pressure and quantity 4. Fertilizer tank 5. Filter 6.
Mains (PVC pipe) 7. Sub-mains and laterals 8. Drippers.
b. Sprinkler irrigation
Known as overhead method of irrigation. Water is applied as a spray or as raindrops over the
crop. Conveyance loss is eliminated. Ensures uniform wetting and distribution of water throughout the
field. Water saving upto 25-50%. Reduce surface run off and suitable for sandy soils also.
Not suitable under heavy windy area. Not suitable when the irrigation water contain large
quantities of soluble salts. Initial cost is high.
Components
1. Pumping unit 2. Main, sub-mains and laterals 3. An aspirator or a container for fertilizer
application 4. Raisers 5. Spray head or boom
Exercise
1. List out the different methods of irrigation you have observed in the class.
2. Draw the diagram of important irrigation methods
EX NO.13. Study of yield contributing character and yield estimation

Date:
____________________________________________________________________

Importance
Maximum yield is determined by the potential of variety and the environment. A computation of
yield components would be meaningful for designing a blue print of the target yield and examining the
defects of a given crop if a comparison is made with a crop that has already achieved a good yield, under
a similar environment. Understanding the inter-relation-ships of yield components is a trey to
improvement in yield.
Yield components
a. Number of panicles per unit area
b. Number of spikelets per panicle.
c. Filled spikelets (%)
d. 1000 – grain weight (g)
a). Number of panicles per square meter
No of panicles or productive tillers are recorded at harvest stage and expressed as Nos. per hill or
Nos/m2.
b). Number of spikelets per square meter
No of grains per panicles will be counted at harvest stage and expressed as Nos. per panicle.
c. The percentage of filled spikelets
It is the ratio between filled and ill filled grains and expressed as percentage Unfavourable
weather conditions (low or high temperature) during ripening may hamper continued growth of some
spikelets, resulting in unfilled spikelets.
d. Thousand grain weight
Weight of 1000 grain is weighed and recorded in 10 samples from each plot. The thousand-grain
weight is a stable varietal character because the grain size is rigidly controlled by the size of the hull.

Example:

Varieties Plant No. of No. of No. of 1000 Length Grain Straw

height Tillers Productive grains grain of yield yield
(cm) per hill tillers per per weight panicle g/hill g/ha
hill panicle (g) (g)
yield estimation of cotton seed
(i) Plant spacing -90 cm x 60 cm
(ii) Average no. of sympodial branches/plant -5
(iii) Average no. of bolls/branch -4
(iv) No. of locules/boll -4
(v) Average no. of seeds/locule -8
(vi) Seed to lint ratio -2.5 : 1
(vii) Test weight of cotton seed -140 g.
(viii) Area under crop -one
hectare Solution
Yield of cotton seed (q/ha)=
Area x test wt(g) x No.of sympodial branches x No. of boll/branch x locules/boll x seeds/locule
___________________________________________________________________________
Spacing x 1000 x1000 x100

10000x 140 x 5 x4 x 4 x 8
=_______________________=16.6 q/ha
0.9 x 0.6 x 1000 x 1000 x 100

Yield of lint in q/ha

Yield of cotton seed in q/ha
=_______________________
Seed to lint ratio
= 16.6 x1 / 2.5 = 6.64 q/ha
Yield of seed cotton = Yield of cotton seed + yield of lint = 16.6 + 6.64 = 23.24 q/ha.
EX NO. 14. PRACTICING HARVESTING OPERATIONS IN MAJOR FIELD CROPS
Date:
______________________________________________________________________
Harvesting
The operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a combination of all these
for removing the useful and economic part from the plants.
The time of harvest is more important. Early harvest will have more moisture, ill
filled and immature grains, which reduce yield. Late harvest results in shattering of
grains and germination even before harvest.
Tools used for harvesting
a. Sickle: Plain edged and serrated sickle
b. Reaper harvest: Facilitate quicker coverage and timely harvest for crops like wheat,
rice, soybean and finger millet
c. Combine (combine harvester): It does both the operations of harvesting and
threshing.
Post harvest technologies/operations
Threshing
The processes of separating the grain from either the entire crop or from the ear
heads. The ears are spread out on a hard floor and the grain is separated by beating or
striking with sticks. The ears are also at times trodden by cattle. Threshing machines are
also used to handle large quantities of harvest.
Winnowing
It is the processes of separating the grain from the chaff and other inert material.
Seed cleaning and grading
It is very essential to clean and grade the seeds to ensure good crop stand after
sowing.
Drying
Drying or dehydration is the process wherein moisture is removed from a food
product to enhance its storability, transportability, flavour or texture. By reduction of
moisture content of grains to very low levels, the opportunity for microbial deterioration is
eliminated.
Method of drying can be broadly divided into 1. Sun drying or solar drying and 2.
Mechanical drying.
Exercise:
1. Practice harvesting of crops and write in brief about harvesting
EX NO. 15. PARTICIPATION IN ON-GOING FIELD OPERATIONS DURING
ON- CAMPUS / OFF-CAMPUS VISIT
Date:
______________________________________________________________________