As per the Fifth Dean Committee Recommendations for the

B. Sc. (Hons.) Agri. Course Curriculum

Lecture note

Ag. Chem. 3.3

Problematic Soils and their
Management (2+1)

Contents
Chapter Title Page
No. No.
1. Soil Quality and Soil Health 1-4
2. Distribution of Waste Land and Problem soils in India 5-11
3. Salt affected Soils, Problems, Reclamation and Management of Saline and 12-31
Sodic Soils
4. Acid and Acid Sulphate Soils 32-42
5. Eroded Soil, Water logged Soil and Compacted Soils and Management 43-52
6. Polluted Soils, Problems and Management 53-56
7. Quality of Irrigation Water 57-67
8. Remote Sensing and GIS techniques 68-71
9. Land capability Soil Classification 72-74
10. Multipurpose Trees: Their selection and role in land-use systems 75-83

Suggested Reference Books:

1. Problematic soils and their management (2019), D.K. Das, Kalyani Publishers, Delhi
2. Textbook of Soil Science (2017) by R. K. Mehra, ICAR, New Delhi
3. Introductory Soil Science (2013) by D.K. Das, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi
4. Fundamentals of Soil (2000) by V.N. Sahai, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi
5. Soil science An introduction (2010) by ISSS, New Delhi
6. Concept of Soil Science (2012) by S.G. Rajput, , Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi
7. Alkali Soils their Reclamation and management (1990) by L.L. Somani, Divyajoyti
Prakashan, Jodhpur
8. The Nature and Properties of Soil (1990) by N.C. Brady, Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York (USA).
 Chapter 1
Soil Quality and Soil Health

It takes half a millennia to build two centimeters of living soil and only seconds to destroy it -
Anne Glover

"The multiple roles of soils often go unnoticed. Soils don’t have a voice, and few people
speak out for them. They are our silent ally in food production."
Jose Graziano da Silva, FAO Director-General
Soil is a natural finite resource base which sustains life on earth. It is a three phase
dynamic system that performs many functions and ecosystem services and highly
heterogeneous. Soil biota is the biological universe which helps the soil in carrying out its
functions. Often soil health is considered independently without referring to interlinked soil
functions and also based on soil test for few parameters. Physical condition of soil and
biological fertility are overlooked in soil health management which needs revisiting of soil
users. Recognizing the importance of soil health in all dimensions, 2015 has been declared as
the International Year of Soils by the 68th UN General Assembly. Food and Agriculture
organization of the United Nations has formed Global soil partnership with various countries to
promote healthy soils for a healthy life and world without hunger. India, the second most
populous country in the world faces severe problems in agriculture. It is estimated that out of
the 328.8 m ha of the total geographical area in India, 173.65 m ha are degraded, producing
less than 20% of its potential yield (Govt. of India, 1990).
Soil is the essence of life on earth. It serves as a natural medium for the growth of
plants that sustains human and animal life. Healthy soils provide us with a range of ecosystem
services such as resisting erosion, receiving and storing water, retaining nutrients and acting as
an environmental buffer in the landscapes. Soils have undergone unabated degradation at an
alarming rate by wind and water erosion, desertification and salinization resulting from misuse
and improper farming practices. Soil quality, antonym for soil degradation, has deteriorated
due to the natural and anthropogenic activities particularly with the advent of the intensive
management practices. Present day need is to understand the definition and concept of soil
quality and soil health and associated concepts, computation and assessment of soil quality and
finally the influence of management practices on the soil quality with an overall objective of
identifying the soil-quality-promoting practices. An attempt has been made in this chapter to
elucidate different facets associated with soil quality and soil health.
Soil Functions
Five soil functions as enunciated by Karlen et al. (1997) are:
 Sustaining biological activity, diversity and productivity
 Regulating and partitioning water and solute flow
 Filtering, buffering, degrading, immobilizing and detoxifying organic and inorganic
materials, including industrial and municipal by-products and atmospheric
decomposition
 Storing and cycling nutrients and other elements within the earth's biosphere
 Providing support to socio-economic structures and protection for archaeological
treasures associated with human habitation.
Thus, soil acts to supply nutrients and offer favorable physico-chemical conditions to
plant growth, promote and sustain crop production, provide habitat to soil organisms,
ameliorate environmental pollution, resist degradation and maintain or improve human and
animal health.
1
Soil Health and Soil Quality
Soil health Defined
Soil health is defined as the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital
living system, by recognizing that it contains biological elements that are key to
ecosystem function within land use boundaries. The functions are able to sustain
biological productivity of soil, maintain the quality of surrounding air and water
environments, as well as promote plant, animal and human health.
Soil Quality Defined
The term and concept of soil quality evokes various responses depending on our
scientific and social backgrounds. For some, soil quality evokes an ethical or emotional tie to
the land. To others, soil quality is an integration of soil processes and provides a measure of
change in soil condition as related to factors such as land use, climate patterns, cropping
sequences and farming systems. Most comprehensive and accepted definition of soil quality is
the one given by Soil Science Society of America (Karlen et al. 1997) which inter alia reads
'Soil quality is the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function within natural or managed
ecosystem boundaries to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and
air quality and support human health and habitation'.

Soil Quality Vs Soil Health

The term soil quality and soil health are often used interchangeably in the scientific
literature and popular articles, with agricultural and environmental scientists in general
preferring the term soil quality and farmers or producers preferring the term soil health. Some
others prefer the term soil health because it depicts soil as a living, dynamic organism that
functions holistically rather than as an inanimate or non-living mixture of sand, silt and clay.
Others prefer the term soil quality as descriptor of its innate quantifiable physical, chemical
and biological characteristics. Soil quality is the capacity of soils within landscapes to sustain
biological productivity, maintain environmental quality and promote plant and animal health.
On the other hand, soil health is the 'fitness' (or condition) of soil to support specific
uses (e.g. crop growth) in relation to its potential as determined by the inherent soil quality and
is more sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance and is severely limited in extreme
environments. Both of these terms relate soil to other concepts of health such as environmental
health, human health, plant health, and animal health. Soil health and soil quality are functional
concepts that describe how fit the soil is to support the multitude of roles that can be defined
for it. Therefore, soil quality can be regarded as soil health.

Characteristics of a healthy soil

1. Good soil tilth
2. Depth of the soil
3. Sufficient but not excess supply of nutrients
4. Small population of plant pathogens and insect pests
5. Good soil drainage
6. Large population of beneficial organism
7. Low weed pressure
8. Free of chemical and toxins that may harm the crop
9. Resistant to degradation
10. Resilience when unfavorable conditions occur

Soil Quality indicators

Soils have chemical, biological and physical properties that interact in a complex way
to give a soil its quality of capacity to function of performs. Thus, soil quality cannot be
2
measured directly, but must be inferred from measuring changes in its attributes or attributes of
the ecosystem, referred to as indicators.
A. Chemical
1) Soil organic carbon
2) Top soil pH
3) Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
4) Anion adsorption capacity
5) Base saturation
B. Biological
1) SOC (Soil organic carbon)
2) Microbial biomass carbon
3) Soil biomass
4) Microbial diversity index and enzyme assays
C. Physical
1) Integrated air capacity
2) Texture
3) Bulk density
4) Aggregation
5) Pore size distribution and continuity
6) Available water capacity
7) Non-limiting water range
8) Infiltration rate
9) Effective rooting depth
10) Soil temperature
D. Visual
1) Soil colour
2) Ephemeral gullies
3) Ponding
4) Runoff
5) Plant response
6) Weed species
Soil constraints
1. Soil compaction: It can happen from soil wetness/excessive moisture/heavy traffic, tillage
under wet soil conditions. Due to such compaction, it can cause reduced root growth, poor
infiltration, poor aeration, runoff and erosion, stagnation of water, drought sensitivity,
increased cost of tillage, low crop yields.
2. Poor aggregation and soil crusting: Arising from poor aggregate stability, very low/ no
application of organic matter, intensive tillage, limited use of soil building crops. All these
can result poor seedling emergence as well as poor establishment of crops, poor
infiltration causing soil erosion, poor aeration, reduced root growth, low microbial
activity.
3. Weed pressure: It happens from poor crop rotations, resistance to herbicides; poor weed
management practices etc. which can cause poor crop growth, reduced yield with poor
quality, increased pests and disease infestations, increased cost of weed control, aired,
cultural practices and harvest.
4. Soil borne pathogens and root diseases: Poor crop rotations, poor sanitary practices,
ineffective/poor timing of manage- physical quality, low organic matter, poor soil physical
quality, low microbial diversity etc, cause all these.

3
5. Low water and nutrient retention: Low organic matter, poor retention/recycling of
nutrients, poor structure, excess tillage, low water holding capacity are the contributing
factors. All these can result ground water pollution, reduced microbial activity, nutrient
deficiencies and poor plant growth, drought stress etc.

Strategies for improving soil quality

The properties of soil which represent the dynamic soil quality can be improved by
several management practices which are described as follows:
Enhancement of organic matter: Organic matter is considered as the main stay of good soil
quality. Regular additions of organic matter improve soil structure, enhance water and nutrient
holding capacity, protect soil from erosion, hard setting and compaction and support a healthy
community of soil organisms.
Reduction in the intensity of tillage: Reducing tillage minimizes the loss of organic matter
and protects the soil surface with plant residue. Tillage is used to loosen surface soil, prepare
the seedbed and control weeds and pests. But tillage can also break up soil structure, speed up
the decomposition and loss of organic matter, increase the threat of erosion, destroy the habitat
of helpful organisms and cause compaction.

Efficient management of pests and nutrients: Efficient pest and nutrient management means
testing and monitoring soil and pests; applying only the necessary chemicals, at the right time
and place to get the job done; and taking advantage of non-chemical approaches to pest and
nutrient management such as crop rotations, cover crops and manure management. The terms
integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated nutrient managements (INM) are very much
popular nowadays.
Prevention of soil compaction: Soil compaction reduces the amount of air, water and space
available to roots and soil organisms. Compaction is caused by repeated traffic, heavy traffic or
traveling on wet soil.
Maintenance of ground cover: Soil without adequate cover or bare soil is very much
susceptible to wind and water erosion and to drying and crusting. Ground cover protects soil;
provides habitats for larger soil organisms, such as insects and earthworms and can improve
water availability.
Diversification of cropping systems: Diversity is beneficial for several reasons. Each plant
contributes a unique root structure and type of residue to the soil. A diversity of soil organisms
can help control pest populations and a diversity of cultural practices can reduce weed and
disease pressures.

Factors affecting soil quality

The major causes of poor soil quality are:
1. Wider gap between nutrient demand and supply
2. Emerging deficiency of secondary and micronutrients
3. Decline in organic matter content in soil
4. Acidification and Al3+ toxicity
5. Development of salinity and alkalinity in soils
6. Development of adverse soil conditions such as heavy metal toxicity
7. Natural and man-made disaster

4
 Chapter 2
Distribution of Waste Land and Problem soils in India

Introduction
Wastelands include degraded forests, overgrazed pastures, drought-struck pastures,
eroded valleys, hilly slopes, waterlogged marshy lands, barren land etc. Wastelands are lands
which are economically unproductive, ecologically unsuitable and subject to environmental
deterioration. The official estimate of wasteland in India in 2004 was nearly 63.85 million ha
— more than 20% of the country's geographical area. According to the state wise break up, the
state with the greatest percentage of its area that is classified is Rajasthan with 45 per cent,
followed by the hill states Jammu and Kashmir, Tripura, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Sikkim,
Mizoram, Meghalaya and Nagaland. This predominance of the hill states at the top of the list is
because of the extent of snow-covered and glacial land in these states.
The extent of land degradation in the country is 120.4 M ha comprising of water and
wind erosion, and chemical and physical degradation. Most of the degraded lands need
immediate attention. However, health and quality of the salt-affected and acid soils needs to be
restored on priority basis as there are otherwise potentially productive soils. Total salt-affected
area in the country is 6.73 M ha; of which 3.70 M ha suffers from sodicity and 2.03 M ha is
afflicted with salinity problems. Nearly 25 M ha of cultivated lands less than 5.5 are critically
degraded. The productivity of these soils is very low (<1 t ha-1) due to deficiencies of P, Ca,
Mg, Mo B, and toxicities of Al and Fe. Since the deficiencies of micro- and secondary
nutrients are progressively emerging as the yield-limiting factors of acid soils, in addition to
the soil acidity-related constraints, soil tests need to be calibrated for recommending fertilizer
dose for a whole cropping sequence based on initial soil test values for these soils.

What is essentially a wasteland?

The non technical definition of wasteland from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's
Dictionary is 'An empty area of land, especially in or near a city, which is not used to grow
crops or built on, or used in any way and/or a place, time or situation containing nothing
positive or productive, or completely without a particular quality or activity'.
ICAR proposed that wastelands are lands which due to neglect or due to degradation
are not being utilized to their full potential. These can result from inherent or imposed
disabilities or both, such as location, environment chemical and physical properties, and even
suffer from management conditions.
Wasteland

Cultivable waste Area not suitable for cultivation

Wasteland Old fallow

5
Categories of wasteland for identification
Table 2.1: Category-Wise Wastelands of India (2004)
Sr. Total Total Geographical
Category
No. Wastelands Area covered (%)
1. Guilled and/or Ravinous land 20553.35 0.65
2. Land with or without scrub 194014.29 6.13
3. Waterlogged and Marshy land 16568.45 0.52
4. Land affected by salinity/alkalinity-coastal/ 20477.38 0.65
Inland
5. Shifting Cultivation Area 35142.20 1.11
6. Underutilized/degraded notified forest land 140652.31 4.44
7. Degraded pastures/grazing land 25978.91 0.82
8. Degraded land under plantation crop 5828.09 0.18
9. Sands-Inland/Coastal 50021.65 1.58
10. Mining/industrial wastelands 1252.13 0.04
11. Barren rocky/stony waste/sheet rock area 64584.77 2.04
12. Steep sloping area 7656.29 0.24
13. Snow covered and/or glacial area 55788.49 1.76
Total Wasteland Area 638518.31 20.17
Culturable Wasteland: The land which has potential for the development of vegetative cover
and is not being used due to different constraints of varying degrees, such as erosion, water
logging, salinity etc.
Unculturable Wasteland: The land that cannot be developed for vegetative cover, for instance
the barren rocky areas and snow covered glacier areas.
Wasteland status in India
Table 2.2: Estimated Area under the Wasteland provided by different organization
Sr. Area
Source
No. (m. ha.)
1. Ministry of Agriculture and the JNU, Deptt. of Geography (1986) 175
2. National Land Use and Wasteland Development Council (1986) 123
3. Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development (1982) 145
4. Ministry of Rural Development & NRSA (2000) 64

Table 2.3: State wise wastelands of India-NRSA

Sr. No. State Wasteland (Area: In square km)
1. Andra Pradesh & Telangana 45267.15
2. Arunachal Pradesh 18175.95
3. Assam 14034.08
4. Bihar 5443.68
5. Chhattisgarh 7584.15
6. Goa 531.29
7. Gujarat 20377.74
8. Haryana 3266.45
9. Himachal Pradesh 28336.80
10. J&K 70201.99

6
 11. Jharkhand 11165.26
12. Karnataka 1788.80
13. Kerala 57134.03
14. Madhya Pradesh 49275.41
15. Maharashtra 13174.74
16. Manipur 3411.41
17. Meghalaya 4469.88
18. Mizoram 3709.40
19. Nagaland 18952.74
20. Odisha 1172.84
21. Punjab 101453.86
22. Rajasthan 3808.21
23. Sikkim 1322.97
24. Tripura 17303.29
25. Tamil Nadu 16097.46
26. Uttarakhand 16097.46
27. Uttar Pradesh 16984.16
28. West Bengal 4397.56
29. Union Territory 314.38
Total 555253.14

Formation of wasteland
Wasteland is formed either by natural ways or by man-made activities. The undulating
upland, sandy area, snow covered area, coastal saline area etc., are natural formation while
gullied or Ravinous land, Jhum or Forest blank, Barren Hill-Ridges etc., are formed by man-
made activities.
There are four major anthropogenic activities that lead to the formation of wasteland
areas viz., deforestation, overgrazing, over cultivation and unskilled irrigation. The first three
activities strip the land of its protective vegetation cover, accelerating the process of soil
erosion and land degradation, while unskilled irrigation causes special problems of water
logging and salinity.
In addition, both cultivated and uncultivated lands suffer from soil erosion and
degradation. Mining is another important activity that causes deforestation and land
degradation too.
India has only 2.4% of the world's geographical area and 0.5% grazing area but
supports over 16% of the world's population and over 18% of world's cattle population. The
degradation of environment in the fragile Indian sub-tropical, eco-system is basically attributed
to increasing biotic and abiotic pressure; absence of adequate investment and appropriate
management practices; high rate of population growth and high incidence of poverty in rural
areas; over exploitation of natural resources; the break-down of traditional institutions for
managing common property resources and failure of new institutions to fill the vacuum and.
faulty land use practices. All these have resulted into soil and wind erosion; depletion of
natural resources; lower productivity; groundwater depletion; shortage of drinking water;
reduction in species diversity and increase in the extent of wastelands.

7
Assessment
As early as mid sixties scientists working on wasteland management realized the need
to categorize the wasteland in accordance with their intrinsic characteristic and causative
factors. They stated that among various characteristics, data on soil texture, soil depth, pH
values, slope, erosion status and other inhibiting factors like salts, water-logging, flooding
rockiness, stoniness, etc. are essential. They presented a complete inventory of the reasons
responsible for lands lying Waste by collecting information from various sources. They serve
as points for assessment of any wasteland.
1. Poor fertility of the soil due to rocky gravely, sandy, saline, alkali, water logged
shallowness and eroded nature of the soil
2. Steep and undulated slopes
3. Shifting cultivation
4. Frequent droughts
5. Lack of irrigation facilities
6. Frequent submergence and flooding hazards
7. Lack of resources
8. Poor economic conditions of Ryat
9. Lack of labour during peak periods
10. Uneconomical return under cultivation
11. Certain domestic and legal difficulties
12. Absentee landlord’s holdings.

Reclamation of Wasteland
With the gradual rise of land resource demand, reclamation of wasteland appears to of
the major tasks of the country.
The reclamation and development of wasteland has four objectives:
1. To improve the physical structure and the quality of the soil,
2. To improve the availability and quality of water,
3. To prevent the shifting of soil, landslides and flooding,
4. To conserve the biological resources of the land for sustainable use.
The capacity of the land to produce food, fodder, fuel and industrial raw materials is
determined both by biological factors the Climate, soil, hydrological system_ etc.—and by
social and economic factors such as land management practices and inputs like irrigation,
fertilizers and seeds.
What is the potential productivity of wastelands and how can this be measured? This
depends on what is meant by productivity, which like many other ecological terms is often
confused in common usage. One definition of the productivity of an ecosystem is the amount
of biomass "fixed" in a given time. This is a continuous process, but is measured as the amount
of food manufactured per unit of time.
Land degradation
Degradation (or “desertification”) is the broad sense to mean impoverishment of the
land by human activities and by natural causes. We will focus on human activities as causal
agents. Land is considered “degraded” when its productivity is diminished.
Land degradation caused by agriculture takes many forms and has many causes. Some
of the most important types of land degradation include
8
 1. Degradation related to overgrazing by livestock
2. Degradation related to soil erosion
3. Degradation attributable to soil salinization
4. Degradation attributable to waterlogging

Causes of Land Degradation

The causes of land degradation due to various factors with area and components of
water shed are depicted in table given below:
Table 2.4: Causes of land degradation
Sr. No. Causes of Degradation Area (million hectares) Percentage of total area
1. Water erosion 107.12 61.7
2. Wind erosion 17.79 10.24
3. Ravines 3.97 2.28
4. Salt affected 7.61 4.38
5. Waterlogging 8.52 4.90
6. Degraded land due to 4.19 2.82
shifting cultivation
7. Degraded forest lands 19.49 11.22
8. Special problems 2.73 1.57
9. Coastal sandy areas 1.46 0.84
Total 173.64 100.0
Range lands, degradation and management
Rangelands are grasslands, shrublands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts that are gazed
by domestic livestock or wild animals. Types of rangelands include tallgrass and shortgrass
prairies, desert grasslands and shrublands, woodlands, savannas, chaparrals, steppes, and
tundras. Rangelands do not include forests lacking grazable understory vegetation, barren
desert, fland, or land covered by solid rock, concrete and/or glaciers.

Types of rangeland
The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines rangeland as "land on
which the native vegetation (climax or natural potential plant community) is predominantly
grasses, grasses like plants, forbs, or shrubs suitable for grazing or browsing use”. The EPA
classifies; natural grassland and savannas as rangeland and in some cases includes wetlands,
desert, tundra and certain forb and shrub communities." The primary difference between
rangeland and pasture is management; rangelands tend to have natural vegetation along with a
few introduced plant species, but all managed by grazing, while pastures have forage that is
adapted for livestock and managed, by seeding, mowing, fertilization and irrigation.

Prairie: - Prairies are considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands
biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and grasses, herbs,
and shrubs, rather than trees, as the dominant vegetation type. Temperate grassland regions
include the Pampas of Argentina, and the steppes of Eurasia.

Grasslands: - Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae)
and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants (forbs). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush

9
(Juncaceae) families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except
Antarctica.

Steppe: - Steppe in physical geography refers to a biome region characterized by grassland

plan without trees a part from those near lacks and rivers. The term is also used to denote the
climate encountered in regions too dry to support a forest, but not dry enough to be a desert.
Pampas:- Pampas are the fertile South American lowlands that include that Argentine
provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, Entre Rios and Cordoba, most Uruguay and
the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in the southernmost end of Brazil covering more than, 750,000
km2. This area is also one of the distinct physiography provinces of the larger Parana-Paraguay
Plain division. These plains contain unique wildlife because of the different terrains around it.

Shrubland: - Shrubland is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by

shrubs, often including grasses, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally or
be the result of human activity. It may be the mature vegetation type in a particular region and
remain stable over time, or a transitional community that occurs temporarily as the results of a
disturbance, such as fire. A stable state may be maintained by regular natural disturbance such
as fire or browsing.

Woodland: - Woodland is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight
and limited shade. Woodlands may Support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plant
including grasses. Woodland may form a transition to shrublands under drier conditions or
during early succession. Higher densities and areas of trees, with largely closed canopy,
provide extensive and nearly continuous shade is referred to as forest.

Savanna: - Savanna is a grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees being sufficiently

small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient
light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of C4
grasses.

Desert: - Desert is a landscape or region that receives an extremely low amount of

precipitation, defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 mm per
year, or as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation. In
the Koppen climate classification system, deserts are classed as BWh (hot desert) or BWk
(temperate desert). In the Thornthwaite climate classification system, deserts would be
classified as arid megathermal climates.

Tundra: - Tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short
growing seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian TyHpa from the Kildin Sami word
tundar "uplands," "treeless mountain tract." There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra,
alpine tundra, and Antarctic tundra. In tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs,
sedges and grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundra. The ecotone (or
ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or
timberline.

10
Management of Range Lands
Management for yield improvement: Success of a program is, largely dependent on the
soundness of research technology advanced. This is all the more of vital importance in
rangeland management where limitations are of good land, adequate rainfall, favorable climatic
conditions etc. Research work done earlier at this Institute has revealed that adoption of
suitable range management technology can go a long way in improving land and vegetation
types in both arid and semi-arid areas of western Rajasthan.
(1) Fencing: - For protection against biotic factors, angle iron posts with barbed wire (four to
five strands) fencing have proved to be most durable and economical in the long run
although the initial cost is high. The fact to be reckoned with is that fencing is a must
before any management program is launched at least in and regions of western Rajasthan
where pressure on land is maximum both from human and animal as compared to
elsewhere in the desert areas of the world. Moreover, larger the area, cheaper it is to go for
fencing and as such, initial coverage of area between 100 to 1000 ha is desirable for range
management program.
(2) Adoption of soil and water conservation measures: - Rangeland management area
generally comprise of land falling in class IV to class VIII which are mostly highly eroded
their by exposing rocky surface, stones and boulders.
(3) Reseeding in rangelands: - Natural succession of the high yields perennial grasses in the
arid regions is rather a time consuming process.
(4) Genetically improved strains of grasses: - Improved strains of grasses have the genetic
production potential of even higher than 40q/ha and therefore, should be used for
reseeding program.
(5) Fertilization: - The nutrient content and production- potential of forage species on the
rangelands in western Rajasthan is quite low and, therefore, for optimum production, it is
essential to provide adequate nutrients to the soils as these are often subjected to erosion
hazards and are highly u depleted.
(6) Role of legumes: - The key role of legumes in soil enrichment in the absence of the
manuring needs no emphasis. However, their importance is twofold; firstly, they
constitute a high protein component in Indian dietary and secondary, they provide
nutritious forage for livestock.
(7) Silvi-pastoral management: - Since livestock husbandry occupies the most important
place in the economy of the arid region and that frequent droughts results in loss of
livestock’s owing to the shortage of fodder resources, it is necessary that range
improvement program is also complemented by raising fodder tree and shrub species.

11
 Chapter 3
Salt affected Soils, Problems, Reclamation and Management of Saline and
Sodic Soils

The soils which possess characteristics that make them uneconomical for the cultivation
of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known as problem soils. Often we
resort to chemical means of reclamation that leads to impairment of ecosystem functions.
Resorting to natural means and integrated methods will resolve the issue and prevent causing
irreparable damage.

DEFINITION
(1) Saline (Solonchak, Russian term) soil: Saline soil is defined as a soil having a
conductivity of the saturation extract greater than 4 dSm-1 (0.4 dSm-1 or 4 mm hos cm-1)
and an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) less than 15. The pH is usually less than
8.5. Formerly these soils were called white alkali soils because of surface crust of white
salts.
(2) Alkali (Non-saline alkali (sodic) or sodic or solonetz, a Russian term) soil : Alkali or
sodic soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the saturation extract less than 4
dSm-1 (0.4 Sm-1 or 4 mmhos cm-1) and an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) greater
than 15. Their pH is usually between 8.5-10.0. Formerly these soils were called black
alkali soils and soil so formed is called solod, soloth or degraded alkali or sodic soil.
Black alkali soil: Sodic or alkali soils were formerly called black alkali soils. Due to
high pH and the dominance of sodium (Na+) ions in alkali or sodic soils, part of the soil
organic matter dissolves and comes into the soil solution. Extracts of such soils have a
characteristic dark brown or black colour. The dissolved organic matter in the soil solution
becomes deposited as a thin film on the soil surface. The prevalence of such black stains
in such soils are called “Black alkali” soils.

Chemical reactions resulting high pH in alkali or sodic soils:

Since alkali or sodic soils contain adequate amount of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), so
the hydrolysis of Na2CO3 results in high pH.

2Na+ + CO32- + 2H2O == 2Na+ + 2OH- + H2CO3

(Causes high pH)
Hydrolysis of Na-clay (in absence of free CaCO3)
Na [ clay + H2O == H [ clay + NaOH
2NaOH + CO2 == Na2CO3 + H2O
(free soil) (Soils more alkali)
Hydrolysis of Na-clay (in presence of free CaCO3)
Na [ clay + H2O == H [ clay + NaOH

H clay + 2 NaOH + CaCO3 == Ca [ clay + Na2CO3 + 2 H2O

H (causes high pH)

12
(3) Saline – alkali soils: Saline-alkali soil is defined as a soil having a conductivity of the
saturation extract greater 4 dSm-1 (0.4 Sm-1 or 4 mm hos cm-1) and an exchangeable
sodium percentage (ESP) greater 15. The pH is variable and usually above 8.5 depending
on the relative amounts of exchangeable sodium and soluble salts. When soils dominated
by exchangeable sodium, the pH will be more than 8.5 and when soils dominated by
soluble salts, the pH will be less than 8.5.
(4) Degraded alkali or sodic soils: If the extensive leaching of a saline-sodic soil occurs in
the absence of any source of calcium or magnesium, part of the exchangeable sodium is
gradually replaced by hydrogen. The resulting soil may be slightly acid with unstable
structure. Such a soil is degraded alkali or sodic soil.
clay ] Na + H2O === H [ clay + NaOH |
(Acid soil on ↓ leaching
the surface horizon)
NaOH + CO2 = Na2CO3 + H2O
(from soil) (alkali soil in the sub-surface horizon)
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) dissolves humus and is deposited in the lower layer. The
lower layer thus acquires a black colour. At the same time H-clay formed in this way does not
remain stable. The process of break-down of H-clay under alkaline condition is known as
solodisation.

Distribution:
In India estimated that about 7 million hectares of land are salt affected i.e. saline and
alkaline soils. State wise distribution of salt affected soils in India is given in table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Extent (ha) of salt affected soils in India
States Saline Sodic Total
Andhra Pradesh 77598 196609 274207
Andaman & Nicobar Island 77000 0 77000
Bihar 47301 105852 153153
Gujarat 1680570 541430 2222000
Haryana 49157 183399 232556
Karnataka 1893 148136 150029
Kerala 20000 0 20000
Madhya Pradesh 0 139720 139720
Maharashtra 184089 422670 606759
Orissa 147138 0 147138
Punjab 0 151717 151717
Rajasthan 195571 179371 374942
Tamil Nadu 13231 354784 368015
Uttar Pradesh 21989 1346971 1368960
West Bengal 441272 0 441272
Total 2956809 3770659 6727468

In Gujarat out of 196 lakh ha of geographical area of the state, about 109 lakh ha
(55.6%) is gross cultivated. Irrigated area constitutes only 26 percent of this while remaining
74 per cent is left as rainfed. Even after full of commissioning of the giant Sardar Sarovar
Project, more than 50 percent of the cultivated area will still have to depend upon the mercy of
13
weather’s vagaries. At present, contribution of ground water towards irrigated area is 70 per
cent while that of canal water is only 30 per cent. In spite of the fact that about 26 lakh ha of
cultivated land is under irrigation, the expected level of crop productivity has not been
achieved. On the other hand, deterioration has been observed in the soil health under canal as
well as ground water commands. Some such soil related constraints are enumerated in table
3.2.
Table 3.2: Agroclimatic zone wise soil related water management constraints
Agro
Sr. Physiographic
climatic Constraints
No. Location
Zone
I. South Piedmont slope and Shallow Depth, highly erosive, low to moderate
Gujarat valley plains WHC, highly permiable.
Heavy Mid alluvial plains High WHC, severe cracking, low to very low
Rainfall permeability, poor internal drainage, secondary
salinazation, water logging in parts.
Coastal Alluvial plains Salt affected, highly dispersive, poor drainage, low
permeability, mild cracking.
II. South Piedmont slope and Highly erosive, low to medium WHC, highly
Gujarat valley plains permeable.
Alluvial plains Prone to erosion, moderate to poor drainage,
medium to low permeability, secondary salinazation
and water logging in parts.
Coastal alluvial plains Same as those of coastal alluvial plains of zone I.
III. Middle Eastern hilly belt Prone to erosion, low to WHC, shallow depth.
Gujarat Mid alluvial plains Erosion adjoining river beds, secondary salinization
and water logging in canal command areas.
Coastal plains Salt affected, poor to medium drainage.
IV. North Border high lands Highly erodible, deep with low WHC, excessively
Gujarat drained.
Mid plains Low WHC, salinity excessive permeability, very
low AMC.
Western paints Salt affected, low permeability, poor drainage in s
ome pockets.
V. North Eastern plain Excessive permeability poorly drained and salt
West affected in pockets, low WHC and AMC.
Poorly drained and hydromorphic in pockets, salt
affected, low to medium WHC.
VI. North Southern plains Highly calcareous, salt affected soil in patches,
Saurashtra erodible in hilly areas.
Northern plains Salt affected
(including hilly areas)
Coastal belt
VII. South Inland areas (including Highly calcareous, poor permeability, poor WHC in
Saurashtra hilly areas) hilly areas.
Coastal areas Salt affected, highly dispressive and water logged in
(including Ghed) Ghed.
VIII. Bhal and Whole zone Salt affected, poor drainage, water logging in
Coastal monsoon.
Area

14
Sources of soluble salts:
There are various sources from which soluble salts are accumulated in the soil.
(i) Primary minerals: It is the original and important source of all the salt constituents.
During the process of chemical weathering, which involves hydrolysis, hydration,
solution, oxidation and carbonation, various constituents like Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+ are
gradually released and made soluble.
(ii) Arid and semi-arid climate: Salt affected soils are mostly formed in arid and semi-
arid regions where low rainfall and high evaporation prevails. The low rain fall or
precipitation in these regions is not sufficient to leach out the soluble weathered
products and hence the salts accumulate in the soil. During rain, the salts dissolve in
rainwater and migrate downward. However, due to limited rainfall, the downward
movement is restricted to a short distance only. In dry weather, the salts move up with
the water and are brought up to the surface where they are deposited as the water
evaporates.
(iii) Ground water: Ground water contains large amounts of water soluble salts which
depend upon the nature and properties of the Geological material with which water
remains in contact where water table and evapotranspiration rate is high, salts along
with water move upward through capillary activity and the salts accumulate on the soil
surface in the form of crystallization.
(iv) Ocean or sea water: Sea water enters into the land by inundation a deposited on the
soil surface as salts.
(v) Irrigation water: The application of irrigation water without proper management (i.e.
lack of drainage and leaching facilities) increases the water table and surface salt
content in the soil.
(vi) Salt blown by wind: In arid regions near the sea, appreciable amount of salts are
blown by wind year after year and get deposited on the surface soil. Due to low rainfall
the deposited salts are not washed back to the sea or leached to the lower soil horizon
and thereby develop salinity in the soil. The salinity of Rajasthan are mostly developed
through this source.
(vii) Excessive use of back fertilizers: Use of basic fertilizers like sodium nitrate (NaNO3),
basic slag etc. may develop soil alkalinity.
Nature of soluble salts in saline soils
Soluble salts, as referred to in soil science, are those inorganic chemicals that are more
soluble than gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O), which has a solubility of 0.241 gm per 10 ml of water at
00C. Common table salt (NaCl) has solubility nearly 150 times greater than gypsum (35.7 gm
per 100 ml). Most of soluble salts in saline soils are composed of the cations sodium (Na+),
calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) and the anions chloride (Cl-), sulphate (SO42-), and
bicarbonate (HCO3-). Usually smaller quantities of potassium (K+), ammonium (NH42-), nitrate
(NO3-), and carbonate (CO32-) also occur, as do many other ions.
Among all these salts, the dominant anions are chloride (Cl-) and sulphate (SO42-) and
cations are Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. Boron may also be present in saline soils which in small
concentrations is also toxic to plant.

15
CHARACTERISTICS OF SALT AFFECTED SOILS
The most important characteristics of salt affected soils like saline, non-saline-alkali,
saline-alkali and degraded alkali soils are given in table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Important characteristics of salt affected soils
Characteristics Saline soil Non-saline alkali soil Saline-alkali Degraded
soil alkali soil
Content of soil Excess soluble salts Absent of soluble salt Thee soils Hydrogen
of sodium and presence of excess are both (H+) ions in
exchangeable sodium saline and the upper
on the soil complex. non-saline layer and
alkali soil. sodium
(Na+) in the
lower layer
Exchangeable Exchangeable Exchangeable sodium -- --
calcium/sodium calcium
Colour White Black -- Black in
lower layer
Dominant salts Sulphate (SO42-) Sodium carbonate -- Sodium
-
chloride (Cl ) and (Na2CO3) carbonate
nitrate (NO3-) of (Na2CO3)
sodium lower layer
Sodium Less than 13 More than 13 More than 13 < 13 in the
adsorption ratio surface and
(SAR) > 13 in the
lower
horizon
Exchangeable Less than 15 of More than 15 of total More than 15 Usually
sodium percent- total CEC CEC of total CEC more than 15
tage (ESP) of total CEC

Soil pH Less than 8.5 8.5-10.0 More than pH about 6.0

8.5 in the
surface soil
and pH 8.5
in the lower
layer
constituting
the main soil
body
Physical Flocculated Deflocculated Flocculated Compact
condition of the condition, condition, deflocculated low
soil permeable to water permeability to water depending infiltration
and air. Soil and air is poor. Very upon the &
structure optimum poor soil structure presence of permeability.
sodium salts It develops
and Na-clay columnar
structure
Morphological White crust on the Due to presence of high -- --
character soil surface amount of exch. Na+
and high pH clay
16
 colloids get dispersed
& migrated downward
through the soil profile.
Organic matter Slightly less than Very low due to the Variable Low
normal soils presence of sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3)
Total soluble More than 0.1 Less than 0.1 percent More than Less than
salt content percent. 0.1 percent 0.1 percent
EC of the >4 dSm-1 or >4 >4 dSm or >4 mmhos >4 dSm-1 or
-1
>4 dSm-1 or
saturation mmhos cm-1 cm-1 >4 mmhos >4 mmhos
extract cm-1 cm-1

FORMATION OF SALT AFFECTED SOILS

Saline Soils
The process by which the saline soil formed is called "Salinization", Saline soils occur
mostly in arid or semi-arid regions. Under humid conditions soluble salts originally present in
soil materials and those formed by weathering of minerals generally are carried downward into
the ground water and are transported ultimately by streams or oceans. Saline soils are,
therefore, practically non-existent in humid regions, except when the soil has been subjected to
sea water in river deltas and low lying lands near the sea. In arid regions saline soils occur not
only because there is less rainfall available to leach and transport the salt but also because of
high evaporation rates, which tend further to concentrate the salts in soils and in surface waters.
Restricted drainage is another factor that usually contributes to the salinization of soils and
may involve the presence of a high ground water table or low permeability of the soil. Low
permeability of the soil causes poor drainage by impeding the downward movement of waters.
Low permeability may be the result of an unfavorable soil texture or structure or the presence
rated layers may consist of a clay pan or a caliche layer of a silica hardpan.

Alkali or Sodic Soil

It is evident that soil colloids adsorb and retain cations on their surfaces. Cation
adsorption occurs as a consequence of the electrical charges at the surface of the soil colloids.
While adsorbed cations are combined chemically with the soil colloids, they may be replaced
by other cations that occur in the soil solution. The reaction whereby a cation in solution
replaces an adsorbed cation is called cation exchange and is expressed as milliequivalent per
100 g soil. Calcium and magnesium are the principal cations found in the soil solution and on
the exchange complex of normal soils in arid regions. When excess soluble salts accumulate in
these soils, sodium frequently becomes the dominant cation in the soil solution. In arid regions
as the soil solution becomes concentrated through evaporation or water absorption by plants,
the solubility limits of calcium sulphate (CaSO4), calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium
carbonate (MgCO3) are often exceeded, in which case they are precipitated with a
corresponding increase in sodium concentration. Under such conditions, a part of the original
exchangeable calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) is replaced by sodium (Na+) resulting
alkali or sodic soils.
Ca [Clay + 2Na+ ↔ Na+ ∑Clay + Ca2+
Na+

17
Saline-Alkali or Saline-Sodic Soil
These soils form as a result of the combined processes of salinization and alkalization.
If the excess soluble salts of these soils are leached downward, the properties of these soils
may change markedly and become similar to those of sodic soil. As the concentration of these
salts in the soil solution is lowered, some of the exchangeable sodium hydrolyzes and form
sodium hydroxide (NaOH). This may change to sodium carbonate upon reaction with carbon
dioxide (CO2) absorbed from the atmosphere.
Na [Clay + H2O ↔Na+ [Clay + NaOH
Na+ ↓+ CO2
NaHCO3→ Na2CO3
(forming alkali soil)
On extensive leaching, the soil may become strongly alkaline, the particles disperse and
the soil becomes unfavorable for the entry and movement of water and for tillage operation. At
the same time sodium toxicity to plants is increased. These soils sometimes contain gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O) and when it is subjected to intense leaching, calcium dissolves and the
placement of exchangeable sodium by calcium takes place concurrently with the removal of
excess salts.
APPRAISAL OF SALINE AND SODIC SOILS
Saline Soil
Different criteria are employed for characterizing soil salinity and those are given
below:
(i) Soluble salt concentration in the soil solution: - In saline soil the soluble salt
concentration in the soil solution is very high and as a result the osmotic pressure of the soil
solution is also very high. As a result of which the plant growth is affected due to wilting
and nutrient deficiency. Salt content more than 0.1 per cent is injurious to plant growth.
(ii) Osmotic Pressure: Osmotic pressure of the soil solution is closely related to the rate of
water uptake and the growth of plants in saline soils. The osmotic pressure of soil solutions
is usually calculated from the freezing point depressions as follows:
Osmotic Pressure (O.P.) = 12.06 ΔT — 0.021 ΔT2
Where, ΔT = depression of freezing point in soil solution
It should be assessed of field capacity soil moisture regimes. Besides the relation
between OP and electrical conductivity (EC) for salt mixtures found in saline soils, is given
below:
OP (in atmospheres or bars) = 0.36 x EC
Where, EC expressed as dSm-1.
(iii) Electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil saturation extract:- Measurement of EC of the
soil saturation extract is also essential for the assessment of the saline soil for the plant
growth and is expressed as dSm-1 (formerly mmhos cm-1).
EC values (dSm-1)
<2 ― Salinity effects mostly negligible
2- 4 ― Yields of very sensitive crops may be restricted
4-8 ― Yields of many crops restricted
8-16 ― only tolerant crops yields satisfactorily
> 16 ― only a few very tolerant crops yield satisfactorily
18
(iv) Concentration of water soluble boron: - The determination of water soluble boron
concentration is also another criterion for characterization of saline soils. The critical limits
of boron concentration for the plant growth is given below:
Boron concentration (ppm)
< 0.7 ― Crops can grow (safe)
0.7-1.5 ― Marginal
> 1.5 ― Unsafe
(v) Soil texture: - A sandy soil with 0.1 per cent salt would be saline enough to injure the
growth of common crops, while a clayey soil with the same amount of salt may be just a
normal soil in wh. fields of even sensitive crops would not be affected. The U.S. Salinity
Laboratory (USDA, Hand book, 60) has developed the concept of saturation percentage
(SP), as a characteristic property of each soil, which depends on the texture of the soil and
the' electrical conductivity of saturation extract (EC) as a means of salinity appraisal. The
recent technique developed by the U.S. Salinity Laboratory is to use pressure membrane
apparatus for extracting soil solution at any desired level in the entire field moisture range.

Alkali Soil
There are various methods employed for its approval that are as follows:
(i) Development of a quick and accurate method for determining exchangeable sodium in
saline—sodic and sodic soils, to serve as a guide for reliable appraisal of the alkali
conditions, has always been a problem. A direct determination of exchangeable sodium
in saline-alkali soils is best with many difficulties because of the presence of sodium
salts in equilibrium with exchangeable sodium in the soil-water system.
Exchangeable sodium = Total sodium — Soluble sodium
Approximately (exchangeable soluble)

(ii) Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR):- The U.S. Salinity Laboratory developed the
concept of Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) to define the equilibrium between soluble
and exchangeable cations as follows:
Na+
SAR = Ca + Mg++
++

(Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ are concentrations in saturation extract in mel-1)

The value of SAR can be used for the determination of Exchangeable Sodium
Percentage (ESP) of the saturation extract by using the following formula:
ESP = 100 (- 0.0126 + 0.01475 SAR)
1 + (- 0.0126 + 0.01475 SAR)
Sometimes the following regression equation is used for the appraisal of alkali soil by
determining the value of ESP from the value of SAR.
Y = 0.0673 + 0.035 X
Where, Y indicates ESP and X indicates SAR
Soils having SAR value greater than 13 are considered as alkali or sodic soil.

19
Calcareous Soils
In the context of agricultural problem soils, calcareous soils are soils in which a high
amount of calcium carbonate dominates the problems related to agricultural land use. They are
characterized by the presence of calcium carbonate in the parent material and by a calcic
horizon, a layer of secondary accumulation of carbonates (usually Ca or Mg) in excess of 15%
calcium carbonate equivalent and at least 5% more carbonate than an underlying layer.
Calcareous soils cover more than 30% of the earth surface, and their CaCO3 content
varies from a few percent to 95%. Hagin and Tucker (1982) defined calcareous soil as a soil
that its extractable Ca and Mg levels exceed the cation exchange capacity.

Origin of Calcareous Soils

1. Calcareous soils occur naturally in arid and semi-arid regions because of relatively little
leaching
2. They also occur in humid and semiarid zones if their parent material is rich in CaCO3,
such as limestone, shells or calcareous glacial tills, and the parent material is relatively
young and has undergone little weathering.
3. Some soils that develop from calcareous parent materials can be calcareous throughout
their profile. This will generally occur in the arid regions where precipitation is scarce. In
other soils, CaCO3 has been leached from the upper horizons, and accumulated in B or C
horizons. These lower CaCO3 layers can be brought to the surface after deep soil
cultivation.
4. In some soils, the CaCO3 deposits are concentrated into layers that may be very hard and
impermeable to water. These caliche layers are formed by rainfall leaching the salts to a
particular depth in the soil at which water content is so low that carbonates precipitate.
5. Soils can also become calcareous through long period of irrigation with water containing
dissolved CaCO3
Main production constraints
1. Calcareous soils develop in regions of low rainfall and must be irrigated to be
productive. Therefore one of the main production constraints is the availability of water
for irrigation.
2. The quality of the irrigation water is of crucial importance for sustainable agricultural
production on calcareous soils. Frequently, the irrigation water is the cause of many
management problems. Almost all waters used for irrigation contain inorganic salts in
solution. These salts may accumulate within the soil profile to such concentrations that
they modify the soil structure, decrease the soil permeability to water, and seriously injure
plant growth.
3. Crusting of the surface may affect not only infiltration and soil aeration but also the
emergence of seedlings.
4. Cemented conditions of the subsoil layers may hamper root development and water
movement characteristics.
5. Calcareous soils tend to be low in organic matter and available nitrogen.
6. The high pH level results in unavailability of phosphate (formation of unavailable calcium
phosphates as apatite) and sometimes reduced micronutrient availability e.g. zinc and iron
(lime induced chlorosis). There may be also problems of potassium and magnesium
nutrition as a result of the nutritional imbalance between these elements and calcium.
20
Role of CaCO3 in plant nutrition
The carbonates are characterized by a relatively high solubility, reactivity and alkaline
nature; their dissolution resulting in a high solution HCO3- concentration which buffers the soil
in the pH range of 7.5 to 8.5:
CaCO3 + H2O Ca2+ + HCO3- + OH-
Symptoms of impaired nutrition in calcareous soils are chlorosis and stunted growth.
This is attributed to the high pH and reduced nutrient availability, as direct toxicity of
bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) to physiological and biochemical systems are much less likely. The
availability of P and Mo is reduced by the high levels of Ca and Mg that are associated with
carbonates. In addition, Fe, B, Zn, and Mn deficiencies are common in soils that have a high
CaCO3 due to reduced solubility at alkaline pH values.

PROBLEMS OF SALT AFFECTED SOILS

Saline Soils
There are various problems of saline soils that interfere with the plant growth.
(i) Soils are usually barren but potentially productive
(ii) Wilting coefficient of saline soil is very high
(iii) Amount of available soil moisture is low
(iv) Absorption of water and nutrients
(v) Excessive salts in the soil solution increase the osmotic pressure of soil solution in
comparison to cell sap. This osmotic effect increases the potential forces that hold
water in the soil and makes it more difficult for plant roots to extract moisture. During a
drying period, salt in soil solutions may be so concentrated as to kill plants by pulling
water from them (exoosmosis).
(vi) Due to high salt concentration plants have to spent more energy to absorb water and to
exclude salt from metabolically active sites. At the same time various nutrient elements
become unavailable to plants.
(vii) Salt toxicity: - When the concentration of soluble salts increases to a high level then it
produces toxic effect directly to plants such as root injury, inhibition of seed
germination etc.

Alkali or Sodic Soils

Excess exchangeable sodium in alkali soils affects both the physical, and chemical
properties of soils.
i. Dispersion of soil colloids. Under alkali conditions, the damage is not due to salt
concentration. The influence of exchangeable sodium on the over-all physical
properties of soils is associated mainly with the behavior of the clay and organic
matter, in which most of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) is concentrated. The
sodium (Na+) ion adsorbed by clay colloids causes deflocculation or dispersion of
clay which result in a loss of desirable soil structure and helps for the development of
compact soil.
ii. Other physical properties: - Due to dispersion and compactness of soil, aeration,
hydraulic conductivity, drainage and microbial activity are reduced.

21
 iii. Caustic influence: - It results high sodicity caused by the sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) and bicarbonate (NaHCO3).
iv. Concentration of hydroxyl (OH-) ion: - High hydroxyl (OH-) ion concentration no
doubt has direct detrimental effect on plants. Damage from hydroxyl ions occurs at
pH 10.5 or higher.
v. Specific ion effect: - The presence of excess sodium in sodic soils may induce
deficiencies of other cation like calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+). The action of
sodium in inducing deficiencies of Ca2+ and Mg2+ appears to be three fold:
a. because sodium is comparatively loosely held in exchangeable form, the ions released
to the soil solution in a fractional exchange are mostly sodium ions if the soil has a
high exchangeable sodium percentage,
b. at the high pH values (sodic soil) usually associated with excess exchangeable sodium
in the absence of excess salts, the soil solution contains bicarbonate and carbonate
ions that tend to form insoluble precipitates of calcium and magnesium carbonates as
follows : Ca2+ + CO32- = CaCO3
Soil solution Soil solution (Insoluble precipitation)
c. Exclusion of calcium and magnesium from absorption on competitive basis.
d. Availability of Plant nutrients. The high pH in alkali or sodic soils decreases the
availability of many plant nutrients like P, Ca, N, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn.

RECLAMATION OR AMELIORATION OF SALINE AND ALKALI OR SODIC SOILS

Before reclamation of saline and alkali or sodic soils, the following important points are
to be considered:
a. Quality of irrigation water i.e. total soluble salt, SAR or sometimes boron
determination is essential.
b. Quality of the soil i.e. saline or alkaline and the degree of salinity or alkalinity.
c. Nature and distribution of salts in the root zone.
d. Level of sub-soil water
e. Drainage conditions

Besides these the following technical requirements are necessary for the reclamation of
saline and alkali soil.
i. Adequate drainage
ii. Availability of sufficient water to meet the demand of crop and also leach the salt
below1he root zone in the soil.
iii. Perfect land levelling, good bonding for irrigation and advanced agronomic
practices.
iv. Good quality of irrigation water.
Methods
There are three general ways by which saline and alkali soils can be ameliorated in
order to avoid injurious effect to plants.
Eradication: The most common methods generally used to free the excess salts of saline soils
are: (i) under drainage and (ii) Leaching or flushing.
A combination of the two, flooding after tile drain is the most effective. Leaching
method is very much effective in ameliorating saline soil whose soluble salts are largely
neutral and high in Ca2+ and Mg2+ and very little exchangeable Na+. Leaching saline-alkali or
sodic soils with water high in soluble but low in exchangeable Na+ may be effective.

22
Physical method
This is not actually removes sodium from exchange complex but inprove physical
condition of soil through improvement in infiltration and aeration. The vcommonly followed
physical methods include:
 Construction of embankment to prevent tidal see water
 Land leveling and contour bunding
 Establishment of drainage network
 Breaking of hardpan in the subsurface layer through boring auger hole
 Scrapping of salt crust
 Deep tillage, sub soiling, profile inversion
 Use of soil conditioners e.g. sand, tanch, ash, manures and synthetic polymers like
PVAC, PAM, and PVPC
Cultural method
 Providing proper drainage if the soil is not free draining artificial drains are opened or
tile drains laid underground to help wash out the salts.
 Little of salt free irrigation water good quality of irrigation should be given.
 Proper use of irrigation water, it is known that as the amount of water in the soil
decrease the concentration of the salts in the soil solution of the salts in the soil solution
is increases thus moisture should be kept at optimum field capacity.
 Planting or sowing of sees in furrow: The salt concentration even in smaller amounts is
a most harmful to the germinating seeds. Water generally evaporates from the highest
surface by capillary and hence these points have maximum concentration. If the seeds
or seedling are planted inside the furrow they escape the zone of maximum salt
concentrations and thus can germinate and develop properly during their early growth
stage
 Use of acidic fertilizes: In saline soil acid fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate should
be used
 Use of organic manures: When sufficient amount of manures are added the water
holding capacity of soil increased and as a result the conductivity of the soil solution
decreases.
 Ploughing and leveling of the land: Ploughing increasing the infiltration and percolation
rate. Therefore salts leached down to the lower levels.
 Returning of water evaporation: Mulching with crop residues or plastic sheet helps in
decrease evaporation.

 Growing of the salt tolerance crops:

a. High salt tolerance crop: Barley, Sugar beet, Para grass etc
b. Moderately salt tolerant crops: Wheat, rice, maize, sorghum
c. Low salt tolerance crops: Beans, radish, white clover etc
d. Sensitive crops: Tomato, potato, onion, carrot etc.
LEACHING REQUIREMENT (LR)
The leaching requirement may be defined as the fraction of the irrigation water that
must be leached through the root zone to control soil salinity at any specified level.
23
 The leaching requirement (LR) is simply the ratio of the equivalent depth of the
drainage water to the depth of irrigation water and may be expressed as a fraction or as per
cent. Under the assumed conditions (uniform aerial application of irrigation water, no rainfall,
and no removal of salt in the harvested crop and no precipitation of soluble constituents in the
soil), this ratio is equal to the inverse ratio of the corresponding electrical conductivities as
follows:
Ddw x 100 ECiw x 100
LR = ----------------- = ---------------------
Diw ECdw
Where LR = Leaching requirement expressed in percentage
Ddw = Depth of drainage water in inches
Diw = Depth of irrigation water in inches
Diw = Electrical conductivity of the irrigation water in dSm-1
Ddw = Electrical conductivity of the drainage water in dSm-1
In applying this equation, a value is usually assumed in ECdw (8 dSm-1 for most of the
field crops) to represent the maximum soil salinity that can be tolerated, for irrigation water
with conductivities of 1, 2 and 3 dSm-1, respectively, the leaching requirement will be 13, 25
and 38 per cent (taking the value ECdw as 8 dSm-1).
Chemical method
In case of saline sodic and sodic soils, the exchange complex is saturated to varying
degree with Na. The reclamation procedure in such cases also involves the use of amendments
for replacing exchangeable Na.
Different types of chemical amendments:
A. Soluble calcium salts e.g.
1. Calcium chloride (CaCl2.2H2O)
2. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
3. Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
B. Acid or acid formers e.g.
1. Sulphur (S)
2. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
3. Iron sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O)
4. Aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O)
5. Lime sulphur (calcium poly sulphide (CaS5)
6. Pyrites FeS2)
Chemical reactions involving reclamation of salt affected soils
(i) Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
When gypsum is applied to ameliorate salt affected soils, the following reaction will
take place and loss of exchangeable sodium (Na+) occurs and calcium will take the place of
sodium on the exchange complex.
Gypsum reacts with both Na2CO3 and the adsorbed sodium as follows:
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 === CaCO3 + Na2SO4 ↓
leachable
Clay ] Na + CaSO4 === Ca [ clay + Na2SO4 ↓
Na
leachable

24
(ii) Sulphur
When sulphur is applied to salt affected soils (alkali and salin alkali) the following reaction
take place.
2 S + 3O2 = 2SO3 (By the action of sulphur oxiding
bacteria in soil)
SO3 + H2O = H2SO4
H2SO4 + Na2 CO3 = CO2 + H2O + Na2SO4↓
leachable
On calcareous alkali soil
The production of H2SO4 is common for all soils as mentioned above.
(a) H2SO4 + CaCO3 === CO2 + H2O = CaSO4
Na
CaSO4 + [ clay === Ca [ clay + Na2SO4 ↓
Na
leachable
(b) H2SO4 + 2CaCO3 === CaSO4 + Ca (HCO3)2
CaSO4 + Na [ clay === Ca [ clay + Na2SO4 ↓
Na
leachable
Ca (HCO3)2 + Na [ clay === Ca [ clay + 2 NaHCO3
Na

On non-calcareous alkali soil

H2SO4 + Na [ clay === [ clay + Na2SO4 ↓
H
Na H
leachable
(iii) Iron pyrite (FeS2). When iron pyrite is applied to sodic soils, the following reaction
takes place.
Fe S2 + 3½ O2 + H2O === FeSO4 + H2SO4
FeSO4 + 2H2O === H2SO4 + Fe (OH)2
H2SO4 + CaCO3 === CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

CaSO4 + Na [ clay === Ca [ clay + Na2SO4 ↓

Na
leachable
(iv) Iron sulphate (FeSO4). When iron sulphate is applied to the soil, the following chemical
reaction will occur.
FeSO4 + H2O === H2SO4 + FeO (Ferrous oxide)
In calcareous soil
H2SO4 + CaCO3 === CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
Na
CaSO4 + [ clay === Ca [ clay + Na2SO4 ↓
Na
leachable
In non-calcareous soil
H2SO4 + Na [ clay === H [ clay + Na2SO4 ↓
Na H
leachable
(v) Lime sulphur (CaS5). When lime sulphur is applied to soils, the following reaction takes
place.
CaS5 + 8O2 + 4 H2O === CaSO4 + 4H2SO4
If the soil is calcareous then the production of gypsum will take place from H 2SO4 as
follows :
H2SO4 + CaCO3 === CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
CaSO4 + Na
[ clay === Ca [ clay + Na2SO4 ↓
Na
leachable
If the soil is non-calcareous then the following reaction will take place.
10 Na-clay + 4 H2SO4 + CaSO4 === 8H-clay + Ca – clay + 5Na2SO4↓
leachable

25
Other Methods (Salt Precipitation Theory)
Besides these, recently salt precipitation theory is employed satisfactorily for the
reclamation of sodic soils. The elimination of salts and exchangeable sodium from soils by
leaching is presently practising, but the leached salts have been washed into groundwaters or
streams, making those waters more salty and again that too much salty water is used for
irrigation purpose. Due to such use the soils are further subjected to salt problems. With this
view, a new concept in managing salty soils has been developed and that is known as
precipitation of salts.
This idea suggests that instead of leaching salts completely away, they can be leached
to only 0.9-1.8 m deep (3-6 ft) where much of the salt would form slightly soluble gypsum
(CaSO4. 2H2O) or carbonates (CaCO3, MgCO3) during dry periods and not react any longer as
soluble salts.
The amount of salt precipitating out will vary with the cation and anion composition of
those salts. The ions precipitating will be mostly those of calcium, magnesium, carbonate,
bicarbonate and sulphate. Estimates are that 30 per cent of the total salts may eventually
precipitate. The rest two-third of salts cause very little effect on the yields of corn and
tomatoes.
The management technique is simply to apply less water, but to do it more carefully to
ensure uniform depth of wetting.
GYPSUM REQUIREMENT (GR)
The main principle for the reclamation of sodic or alkali soils is to replace
exchangeable Na by another cation calcium (Ca2+). Of all calcium compounds, gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O) is considered the best and cheapest for the reclamation purpose. Calcium (Ca2+)
solubilized from gypsum replaces sodium (Na+), leaving soluble sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) in
the water, which is then leached out. Gypsum requirement (GR) is expressed as me of Ca2+ per
100 gm soil.
The gypsum requirement (GR) is the calculated amount of gypsum necessary to add to
reclaim the soil. For calculating the dosage of gypsum needed to reclaim a particular alkali soil,
advantage is taken of the assumption that through the use of calcareous amendment, the desired
level of quantitative replacement of exchangeable sodium from the soil by calcium is possible.
Since an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of 10 and below is considered safe for
tolerable physical condition of the soil, replacement by calcium to this level (ESP, 10) is all
that is attempted in practice, through for certain tolerant crops like paddy, wheat and barley the
replacement may be attained to higher ESP level than 10. Gypsum requirement is determined
from the formula
Gypsum requirement (GR) i.e. me of Ca2+/100 g soil
[ESP (initial) – ESP (final)] x CEC
= ---------------------------------------------
100
ESP (initial) is obtained from the analysis of soil before reclamation or application of gypsum;
ESP (final) is usually kept at 10 and CEC is the cation exchange capacity in me / 100g or C
mol (P+) kg-1 of the soil.

26
 For example, the gypsum requirement of a soil having initial ESP 60, final ESP 10 and
CEC 30 C mol (P+) kg-1 will be:
[60 – 10] x 30 50 x 30
2+
me of Ca /100g soil = -------------------------- = ------------ = 15
100 100
Since one hectare of soil to a depth of 15 cm (6 inches) weighs approximately 2 x 106
kg and 1 me of replaceable gypsum as CaSO4.2H2O equals 860 ppm of amendment, the
theoretical amount of gypsum required per hectare will be:
860
-1
Theoretical amount of gypsum (kg) ha = -------- x 2 x 106 x 15
106
= 1720 x 15
= 25800 kg
= 25.80 tons
Quantity of amendments to be added: These are evidences to show that even 50 % of the
theoretical gypsum requirement for replacement of exchangeable Na in alkali soils has
improved their physical properties and assisted response to management practices. Generally,
50 to 75 % of GR (as determined by Schoonover’s method) has been found most satisfactory
in many types of soils. The equivalent proportion of different amendments in relation to 1 ton
of gypsum is as follows:
Amendment Weight in tones equivalent to 1 tone gypsum
Gypsum 1.000
Sulphuric acid 0.570
Sulphur 0.186
FeSO4.7H2O 1.620
Aluminium sulphate 1.290
Limestone (CaCO3) 0.580
The amount of gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) and sulphur (S) required to ameliorate the sodic
soil on the basis of exchangeable sodium is given in table 3.5.

Table 3.5: Amount of amendments required to reclaim sodic soils on the basis of
exchangeable sodium
Exchangeable Sodium Gypsum Sulphur
(mg/100g soil) (t/ha) (t/ha)
1 2.12 0.40
2 4.25 0.80
3 6.50 1.20
4 8.62 1.60
5 10.75 2.00
6 12.87 2.40
7 15.00 2.80
8 17.12 3.20
9 19.37 3.60
10 21.50 4.00

27
SOLVED EXAMPLES:
Example 1: A soil contains 12 me Na/100 g soil. The CEC of the soil is 20. Exchangeable
Na percentage is to be reduced to 10. Workout the gypsum requirement.

ESP = Exch. Na / CEC x 100 = 12 / 20 x 100 = 60 %

Initial ESP – Final ESP = 60 – 10 = 50 % ESP to be reduced
Exch. Na = 12 x 50/60 = 10 me exch. Na/100 g to be replaced
GR = 1 me exch. Na/100 g = 86 mg gypsum/100 g soil
= 860 mg gypsum/1000 g soil = 860 ppm gypsum
= 860 x 2.24 = 1926.4 kg/ha
10 me exch. Na = 10 x 1926.4 = 19264 kg/ha = 19.2 t/ha
If purity is 80 % then,
GR = 19.2 x 100/80 = 24 t/ha

The GR in this example is 19.2 tones/ha. To get the net value of weight of
gypsum, the value has to be multiplied by purity percentage i.e. if the purity of the commercial
gypsum is 80 %, then the exact weight in the above example would be 24 tones/ha.
Example 2: Calculate GR of alkali soils containing CEC 20 me/100 g[cmol(p+)kg-1] and 10
me exch. Na/100 g soil, ESP is reduced to 10.
CEC = 20 me/100 g
Exch. Na = 10 me/100 g
ESP reduced to = 10 %
ESP = [Exch. Na/CEC] x 100
= [10/20] x 100
= 50
Initial ESP – Final ESP = 50 – 10 = 40 ESP to be reduced
ESP 50 = Exch. Na 10
So ESP 40=10 x 40/50 = 8 Exch. Na me/100 g to be reduced
1 me Exch. Na/100 g = 86 mg Gypsum/100 g
= 860 mg Gypsum/1000 g
= 860 ppm Gypsum
= 860 x 2.24 = 1926 kg/ha Gypsum
= 1.926 t/ha Gypsum
So 8 me Exch. Na/100 g = 8 x 1.926 = 15.41 t/ha
Example 3: Soil having CEC 20 me/100 g soil. It has Ca 10 me/100 g, Mg 5 me/100 g, K 2
me/100 g, Na 1 me/100 g. Calculate Ca, Mg, K, Na kg/ha.
(1) 1 me Ca/100 g = 20 mg/100 g [Eq. wt. of Ca =40/2=20]
= 200 mg/1000 g
= 200 ppm
= 200 x 2.24 kg/ha
10 me Ca/100 g = 10 x 200 x 2.24 = 4480 kg/ha
(2) 1 me Mg/100 g = 12 mg/100 g [Eq. wt. of Mg =24/2=12]
= 120 mg/1000 g
= 120 ppm
= 120 x 2.24 kg/ha
5 me Mg/100 g = 5 x 120 x 2.24 = 1344 kg/ha
(3) 1 me K/100 g = 39 mg/100 g [Eq. wt. of K =39/1=39]
= 390 mg/1000 g
= 390 ppm
= 390 x 2.24 kg/ha
28
 2 me K/100 g = 2 x 390 x 2.24 = 1747 kg/ha
(4) 1 me Na/100 g = 23 mg/100 g [Eq. wt. of Na =23/1=23]
= 230 mg/1000 g
= 230 ppm
= 230 x 2.24 kg/ha = 515 kg/ha

Example 4: Soil having CEC 40 me/100 g. It has Na 20 me/100 g in exch. form. Bring down
exch. Na percentage to 10 %. Calculate % Na. How much Na to be replaced as to bring its
saturation to 10 % and calculate GR in kg/ha. Gypsum purity is 80 %.

(1) ESP = (Exch. Na/CEC) x 100 = (20/40) x 100 = 50 ESP

Initial ESP – Final ESP = 50 – 10 = 40 ESP to be reduced
(2) Exch. Na = (ESP x CEC)/100 = (40 x 40)/100 = 16 me Na/100 g to be replaced
(3) GR = 1 me Na/100 g = 86 mg gypsum/100 g
= 860 ppm
= 860 x 2.24 kg/ha
16 me Na/100 g = 16 x 860 x 2.24 = 30822 kg/ha
(4) 80 % purity = 30822 x 100/80 = 38528 kg/ha

Example 5: Soil containing 12 me exch. Na/100 g soil and CEC 40. It is desire to reduce the
ESP to 10 %. Calculate the GR to amending the plough layer (CaSO4.2H2O = 86 eq. wt.)
(1) ESP = (Exch. Na/CEC) x 100 = (12/40) x 100 = 30 %
Initial ESP – Final ESP = 30 – 10 = 20 % ESP to be reduced
Exch. Na = (12 x 20)/30 = 8 me exch. Na/100 g to be replaced
(2) GR = 1 me exch. Na/100 g = 86 mg gypsum/100 g soil
= 860 mg/1000 g
= 860 ppm
= 860 x 2.24 kg/ha
8 me exch. Na/100 g = 8 x 860 x 2.24 = 15411 kg/ha = 15.411 t/ha

Example 6: A soil have CEC = 25 me/100 g soil which possesses 5, 8 and 3 me/100 g of Ca,
Mg and K, respectively. Calculate quantity of Na in me/100g and kg/ha and K2O kg/ha.
(1) Na me/100 g = CEC – (Ca + Mg + K)
= 25 – (5 + 8 + 3) = 9 me/100 g
= 9 x 23 mg/100 g = 207 mg/100 g
= 2070 mg/1000 g = 2070 ppm
(2) Na (kg/ha) = 2070 x 2.24 = 4636.8 kg/ha
K = 3 me/100 g
= 3 x 39 mg/100 g = 117 mg/100 g
= 1170 mg/1000 g = 1170 ppm
= 1170 x 2.24 = 2620.8 kg/ha
(3) K2O (kg/ha) = 2620.8 x 1.20 = 3144.96 kg/ha
Example 7: Workout the GR from following observations
(1) Weight of alkali soil =5g
(2) Sat. gypsum soln. = 100 ml
(3) Aliquate taken = 5 ml
(4) Difference of 0.02 N EDTA reading between blank and sample = 0.4

GR t/ha = Z x (1.72/1000) x (100/5) x (100/5) x 10,000 x 2.24/1000

= 0.4 x 15.411 = 6.16 t/ha

29
Example 8: Workout GR from following observations
(1) Weight of alkali soil =5g
(2) Sat. gypsum soln. = 100 ml
(3) Aliquate taken = 10 ml
(4) Difference of 0.02 N EDTA reading between blank and sample = 0.8
GR t/ha = Z x (1.72/1000) x (100/5) x (100/10) x 10,000 x 2.24/1000
= 0.8 x 7.7056 = 6.16448 t/ha

Example 9: If a sandy soil having cation exchange capacity (CEC) 20 cmol(p+)kg-1 and 30 per
cent base saturation at pH 4.5. Calculate the theoretical amount of lime (CaCO3) required per
hectare of land (0-15 cm depth) for raising base saturation to 60 per cent [weight of soil per
hectare furrow slice (0-15 cm depth) = (2.24 x 106 kg).
me of basic cations (S)
Per cent base saturation (BS) = x 100
Total exchangeable cations (CEC)

Base saturation of the soil before lime application (initial) = 30 %

Base saturation to be raised through liming (final) = 60 %
T x BS (percentage)
me of base cations initially present in the soil (S) =
100
= 20 x 30/100 = 6
T x BS
Again, me of basic cations at 60 % base saturation (S) =
100

= 20 x 60/100 = 12
Some of basic cations will be required to raise the base saturation at 60 %
= (12 – 6) = 6
1 me H/100 g = 50 mg/100 g lime [1 me CaCO3/100g
= 500 mg/1000 g lime =50 mg lime/100 g]
= 500 ppm
= 500 x 2.24 kg/ha
= 1120 kg/ha
6 me H = 1120 x 6 kg/ha
= 6720 kg/ha = 67 quintals of lime will be required.

Example 10: A soil having CEC 25 me/100 g soil and various cations are present in following
proportion :
Ca : 10 me/100 g K : 1 me/100 g
Mg : 5 me/100 g Na :3 me/100 g
by using these data calculate the following values :
i) % base saturation, ii) % base unsaturation, iii) Ca, Mg, Na and K kg/ha, iv) Workout lime
requirement to neutralize the soil acidity.
% base saturation = me of basic cations/CEC x 100
= 10 + 1 + 5 + 3/25 x 100 = 19/25 x 100 = 76 %
% base unsaturation = 100 - % base saturation = 100 – 76 = 24 %
Ca = 10 me/100 g = 10 x 20 mg/100 g = 200 mg/100 g
= 2000 mg/1000g = 2000 ppm
= 2000 x 2.24 = 4480 kg/ha
Mg = 5 me/100 g = 5 x 12 = 60 mg/100 g
= 600 mg/1000 g = 600 ppm
= 600 x 2.24 = 1344 kg/ha
30
 Na = 3 me/100 g = 3 x 23 = 69 mg/100 g
= 690 mg/1000 g = 690 ppm
= 690 x 2.24 = 1545.6 kg/ha
K = 1 me/100 g = 1 x 39 = 39 mg/100 g
= 390 mg/1000 g = 390 ppm
= 390 x 2.24 = 873.6 kg/ha
H = CEC – total cations = 25 – 19 = 6 me H/100 g
1 me H/100 g = 50 mg lime/100 g
= 500 mg/1000 g = 500 ppm
= 500 x 2.24 = 1120 kg/ha
6 me H/100g = 6 x 1120 = 6720 kg/ha lime

Problem 11
Calculate the leaching requirement (LR) of irrigation water having electrical
conductivity of 3.0 dSm-1. When electrical conductivity of drainage water is 8.0 dSm-1.

Solution: ECiw 3
LR = ------------ x 100 = ---- x 100 = 37.5 Per cent
ECdw 8

Problem 12
Assume irrigation water has a conductivity of 1.08 dSm-1. The field crop planted has a
50 per cent yield reduction at a soil saturation extract conductivity of 7 dSm -1 (drainage
water). Calculate the additional amount of water required to apply if the water needed
to wet the profile is 6.35 cm (2.5 inches).
Solution: ECiw 1.08 dSm-1
LR = ------------ = ---------------- = 0.154
ECdw 7 dSm-1
So this fraction of water will be required additionally to wet the soil i.e. 0.154 x 6.35 =
0.98 cm.
So the total amount of water will be required
= 6.35 cm + 0.98 cm
= 7.33 cm (2.92 inches)

31
 Chapter 4
Acid and Acid Sulphate Soils

Introduction
India acid soils occur in the high rainfall areas covering about 25 million hectares of
land with a pH below 5.5 and 23 million hectares of land with a pH between 5.6 and 6.5. In
India, acid soils occur in Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland, NEFA,
Manipur, Tripura, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir,
MP, Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan and Gujarat are the only states in India where acid soils do not occur.
Soil acidity is a limiting factor affecting the growth and yield of many crops all over the
world. The basic problems concerning chemical properties of more acid soils are, besides
acidity itself, the presence of toxic compounds and elements, such as soluble forms of Al, Fe
and Mn, nitrites and various toxic organic acids. Aluminium (Al) toxicity is one of the major
constraints on crop productivity on acid soils, which occur on up to 40% of the arable lands of
the world. Al is the third most abundant element in the earth's crust and is toxic to plants when
solubilised into soil solution at acidic pH values.
Very few plants can grow well in strong acid soils. Soil acidity below pH value 5.5 is
generally injurious to plants. Plant roots are badly affected if the pH value exceeds limits of
tolerance for particular crops. High degree of soil acidity (pH 5.0 to 6.5) decreases the
availability of plant nutrients particularly phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum, iron,
manganese, potassium sulphur nitrogen, boron, copper and zinc. It also affects adversely the
important microbiological processes, such as nitrogen fixation by Azotobacter, Clostridium and
nodule inhabiting bacteria (Rhizobia) of leguminous plants.

Definition of Soil Acidity

An acid is a substance that tends to give up protons (hydrogen ions) to some other
substance. Conversely, a base in any substance that tends to accept protons (hydrogen ions).
Soil acidity may be defined as the soil system's proton (H+ ions) donating capacity
during its transition from a given state to a reference state.
Soil acidity involves intensity and quantity aspects. The intensity aspect is universally
characterized by the measurements of ion activity, expressed as pH. The quantity aspect is
characterized, directly or indirectly, by the quantity of alkali required to titrate soil to some
arbitrarily established endpoint. Soil acidity is a major problem in relation to plant growth and
therefore, acid soils are called a problem soil.
Characteristics of Acid Soils
1. Acid soils have low pH and high proportion of exchangeable H+ and Al3+.
2. Kaolinite and illite types of clay minerals are dominant in these soils.
3. These soils have low CEC and low base saturation.
4. These soils have high toxic concentration of Al, Fe and Mn and deficiency of Ca and Mg.
5. These soils have nutrients and microbial imbalances.
6. These soils are generally low in available phosphorus and high P2O5 fixation capacity.
7. Soil acidity inhibits biological N-fixation.

32
Source of Soil Acidity
Several factors are responsible for the acid soils. Generally climate, hydrologic cycle
vegetation, parent rocks, human interference and other factors play important roles in the origin
and development of acid soils. Acid soils occur generally in humid regions where the rainfall is
regular and very heavy. Dry regions are devoid of acid soils. The following factors are
responsible for the development of acid soils. Acid soils is a base unsaturated soil which has
got enough of adsorbed exchangeable H+ ions so that to give soils a pH of lower than 7.0
1. Excessive rainfall: In soils of dry region, a large supply of bases is usually present because
little water passes through the soil. With an increase in rainfall, the content of soluble salts is
reduced to a low level and gypsum and CaCO3 are removed in the order named. With further
increase in rainfall, a point is reached at which the rate of removal of bases exceeds the rate of
liberation from non-exchangeable forms. The considerable loss of bases due to intensive
rainfall and leaching reduces the pH of the soil as well as increase the concentration of H + on
exchange complex.
2. Ionization of water: The water may ionize and contribute H+ on exchange complex as
follows:
H2O →HOH → H+ OH- → H+[X] + Bases + OH-
3. Contact exchange: The contact exchange between exchangeable H on root surface and the
bases in exchangeable form on soil particle may take as follows:

4. Soluble acid production: The decomposition of organic matter in the soil produces many
organic as well as inorganic acids. These acids may contribute H on exchange complex.
5. Use of nitrogenous fertilizers: Continuous use of nitrogenous fertilizers containing NH4-N
or giving NH4-N on hydrolysis (i.e. urea) produce various acids in soils e.g. 1 mole of NH4 in
NH4NO3 gives 2 moles of HNO3; 1 mole of (NH4)2SO4 gives 2 moles of HNO3 + 1 mole of
H2SO4; 1 mole of NH4OH gives 1 mole of HNO3.Thus, continuous use of such fertilizers will
produce acidity in soil.
6. Oxidation of FeS: FeS or iron poly sulphide accumulates under anaerobic conditions as a
result of reduction of Fe3+ and SO4. Under aerobic conditions, they will be oxidized and will
produce H2SO4 as follows:
4FeS2 + 15O2 + 2H2O → 2Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2SO4
Under such conditions, soil pH values of 2 to 4 are frequently observed.
7. Hydrolysis of Fe3+ and Al3+: The Fe3+ and Al3+ ions may combine with water and release
H+ as follows:
Al + H2O → Al(OH)2+ + H+
Al(OH) 2+ + H2O → Al(OH)2+ + H+
Al(OH)2+ + H2O → Al(OH)3+ + H+
The hydrogen produced may enter on exchange complex.
8. Acidic parent material: Some soils have developed from parent materials which are acid,
such as granite and that may contribute to some extent soil acidity.
9. Acidification from the air : Industrial exhausts, if contain appreciable amount of SO2 may
cause acidity in soil in course of time due to dissolution of SO2 in water (rain) as follows :
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
(Rain water) (Sulphuric acid)
33
The phenomenon gives acid rain. In soil, the reaction may be as follows:
2H2SO3 + O2 → 2H2SO4
KINDS OF SOIL ACIDITY
Broadly soil acidity may be of two kind’s viz., (i) Active acidity (ii) Potential
reserve/exchange acidity. The nature of soil can be illustrated as follows:
Adsorbed H (and Al) ions on soil colloids ↔ Soil solution H (and Al) ions
(Potential/exchange/reserve) (active acidity)

(i) Active acidity: Active acidity may be defined as the acidity develops due to hydrogen
(H+) and aluminium (Al3+) ions concentrations of the soil solution. The magnitude of
this acidity is limited. The acidity in soil solution is known as active acidity and is
measured by pH meter.
(ii) Exchange acidity: Exchange acidity may be defined as the acidity develops due to
adsorbed hydrogen (H+) and aluminium (Al3+) ions on the soil colloids. The magnitude
of this acidity is very high.
However, residual acidity may be included to the total acidity. Residual acidity may be
defined as the acidity which remains in the after active and exchange acidity has been
neutralized. It is associated with aluminium hydroxyl ions and with H and Al atoms that are
bound in non exchangeable forms by organic matter and silicate clay.
Passive Acidity or Reserve Acidity and is measured by determining the exchangeable H
by BaCl2 + Triethanol amine reagents. The total acidity or the titratable acidity is summation of
H ion concentration present in solution as well as on exchange complex which can be
measured by titration. All the forms of acidity are in equilibrium.

Total acidity: The total acidity is summation of active, exchange and residual acidity. It can be
written as,
Total acidity = Active acidity + Exchange acidity + Residual acidity
Therefore, total soil acidity depends on the active, exchange and residual acidity of the soil.
Active acidity − soluble acidity, in the solution
Reserve acidity – adsorbed acidity, on the surface of particles

34
DISTRIBUTION
Out of 157 million hectares of cultivable land in India, 49 m ha of land are acidic, of
which 26 m ha of land having soil pH value less than 5.6 and the rest 23 m ha of land having
soil pH range 5.6 to 6.5.
Soil groups pH range Area States
(m ha)
Laterites soils 4.8-7.0 12.65 Mysore, MP, Eastern ghat region of Orissa,
WB, South Maharashtra, Kerala, Malabar
Coast, Assam, parts of Santhal Parganas and
Singhbhum in Bihar
Laterite and 5.0-7.0 11.80 Kerala, Orissa, WB and Assam, parts of
lateritic red soils Santhal Parganas and Singhbhum in Bihar,
Mysore, Bihar, MP, UP
Mixed red and 5.5-6.5 23.66 Mysore, Bihar, MP, UP
black/yellow soils

The soils having low pH values have been observed in Assam and parts of UP, HP,
WB, Bihar, Orissa and TN states. In Gujarat, part of Dangs arises due to one or more reasons
as follows:

Classification of acid soils based on magnitude of acidity

According the intensity of acidity, the acid soils are of the following five steps
1. Slight acidic (pH range 6.6 to 6.1)
2. Medium acidic (pH range 6.0 to 5.5)
3. Strong acidic (pH range 5.5 to 5.1)
4. Very strong acidic (pH range 5.0 to 4.6)
5. Extremely strong acidic (pH range 4.5 or lower)
According to the amount of organic matter, acid organic soils can be classified in to the
following two types:
i. Peat soils: Peat soils are characterized by presence of poorly degraded organic matter in
India, peaty soils occur in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Asam and other hill states.
ii. Muck soils: Such soils contain highly degraded organic matter. They have relatively
higher pH values then the peaty soils. Thus they are less acidic. Muck soils are also
found in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Asam and other hill states
PROBLEMS OF SOIL ACIDITY
Problems of soil acidity may be divided into three groups which are as follows:
1. Toxic effects
(a) Acid toxicity
(b) Toxicity of different nutrient elements
2. Nutrient availability
a) Non-specific effects
b) Specific effects
i. Exchangeable bases
ii. Nutrient imbalances
3. Microbial activity

35
Toxic effects
Acid toxicity
The higher hydrogen ion concentration is toxic to plant under strong acid conditions of
soil. The acid toxicity includes possible toxicities of acid anions as well as H+ ions.

Toxicity of Different Nutrient Elements

Iron and Manganese: The concentration of these two ions (Fe2+ and Mn2+) in soil
solution depends upon the soil reaction or pH, organic matter and intensity of soil reduction.
Due to increase in organic matter content in the soil the population of soil microbes increases
and very rapidly used up the soil oxygen and results reduction of soil. As a result of soil
reduction, the nutrient elements like Mn4+ and Fe3+ reduce to Mn2+ (manganous manganese)
and Fe2+ (ferrous iron) respectively and increases their concentration to a very high and
toxicity of those elements develops. Due to such toxic effects, a physiological disease of rice is
found in submerged soils which are popularly known as browning disease.

Toxicity of Aluminium (Al)

The toxicity of Al may be greatly influenced by the accompanying cations. The toxicity
of Al tends to decrease with increases in the concentration of other cations such as calcium. Al
toxicity is a problem in both upland and lowlands soils. Aluminium toxicity in soils affects
plant growth in various ways:
1. It restricts the root growth.
2. It affects various plant physiological processes like division orecils, formation of DNA
and respiration etc.
3. It restricts the absorption and translocation of some important nutrient elements from soil
to the plant like phosphorus, calcium, iron, manganese etc.
4. It causes wilting of plants.
5. It also inhibits the microbial activity in the soil.

Nutrient Availability
Non-specific effects
It is associated with the inhibition effect of root growth and thereby affects the nutrient
availability.
Specific Effects
Exchangeable bases
There are two aspects of availability of exchangeable bases i.e. ion uptake process and
the release of bases from the exchangeable form may be adversely affected due to soil acidity.
Due to complementary ion effects exchangeable bases are released preferentially in a fractional
exchange. Deficiency of bases like Ca2+ and Mg2+ are found in acid soils.

Nutrient imbalances
It is evident that soluble iron, aluminium and manganese are usually present in their
higher concentrations under moderate to strong acid soils. Phosphorus reacts with these ions
and produces insoluble phosphatic compounds rendering phosphorus unavailable to plants.
Besids these, fixation of phosphorus by hydrous oxides of iron and aluminium or by
adsorption, the availability of phosphorus is decreased. In acid soils, iron, manganese, copper
and zinc are abundant, but molybdenum is very limited and unavailable to plants. In acid soils

36
having very low pH, the availability of boron may also be decreased due to adsorption on
sesquioxides, iron and aluminium hydroxy compounds. Nitrogen, potassium and sulphur
become less available in an acid soil having pH less than 5.5.

Microbial Activity
It is well-known that soil organisms are influenced by fluctuations in the soil reaction.
Bacteria and actinomycetes function better in soils having moderate to high pH values. They
cannot show their activity when the soil pH drops below 5.5. Nitrogen fixation in acid soils is
greatly affected by lowering the activity of Azotobacter sp. Besides these, soil acidity also
inhibits the symbiotic nitrogen fixation by affecting the activity of Rhozobium sp. Fungi can
grow well under very acid soils and caused various diseases various like root rot of tobacco,
blights of potato etc.
AMELIORATION OF SOIL ACIDITY
In general the fertility status of acid soils is very poor and under strongly to moderately
acidic soils the plant growth and development affect to a great extent. The crops grown on such
problematic soil do not give remunerative return rather it lowers down the yield to a great
extent. Because of the limited land resource it needs judicious management practices so that
the yield of different crops can be increased. So, one of the most important and practically
feasible management practices are the use of lime and liming materials to ameliorate the soil
acidity. The addition of lime raises the soil pH, thereby eliminating most major problems of
acids soils which has mentioned earlier.
Lime requirement of an acid soil may be defined as the amount of liming material that must be
added to raise the pH to some prescribed value. This value is usually in the range of pH 6.0 to
7.0. Since this is an easily attainable value within the optimum range of most crop plants.

Principles of Liming Reactions

The reclamation of acidic soils is done by addition of liming material which may be
calcitic limestone (CaCO3) or dolomitic limestone [CaMg(CO3)2]. The rate of lime requirement
is determined in the laboratory by method of Shoemaker (1961). The particle size of liming
material affects the rate of neutralization reaction. Both these limestones are sparingly soluble
in pure water but do become soluble in water containing CO2. The greater the partial pressure
of CO2 in the system, the more soluble the limestone becomes. Dolomite is somewhat less
soluble than calcite. The reaction of limestone (CaCO3) can be written as:
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
Ca(HCO3)2 → Ca2+ ↓ + 2HCO3-
(Takes part in cation exchange reactions)
H +
+ CO3 -
→ H2CO3 ↔ H2O + CO2
(From soil (from lime) solution)
+
In this way hydrogen ions (H ) in the soil solution react to form weakly dissociated
water, and the calcium (Ca2+) ion from limestones is left to undergo cation exchange reactions.
The acidity of the soil is, therefore, neutralized and the per cent base saturation of the colloidal
material is increased.
The process of changing pH by the addition of lime [Ca(OH)2] is illustrated in
the following Fig.

37
Liming Materials
Liming material may be defined as materials that are necessary for the neutralization of
soil liming hydrogen (H+) ions. The materials commonly used for the liming of soils are the
oxides, hydroxides, carbonates and silicates of calcium or calcium and magnesium. The
presence of only these elements does not consider a material as a liming compound. In addition
to these compounds, the accompanying anion must be one that will reduce the activity of
hydrogen (H+) ions and hence aluminium in the soil solution. These are called "Agricultural
Liming Material”.

Why Gypsum is not considered as a Liming Material?

Gypsum is not considered as liming materials because on its application to an acid it
dissociates into (Ca2+) and sulphate (SO42-) ions:
CaSO4 → Ca2+ + SO42-
The accompanying anion is sulphate and it reacts with soil moisture produces mineral
acid (H2SO4) which also increases soil acidity instead of reducing soil acidity.
SO42- + H2O → H2SO4
(Strong mineral acid)
Besides this, calcium (Ca2+) in the gypsum after dissociation will result in replacement of
adsorbed aluminium (A13+) in a localized soil zone (when gypsum applied as band placement)
with a significant lowering of soi1 pH. Therefore, gypsum does not qualify as liming materials.
Kinds of Liming Materials
There are various kinds of liming materials that are used for the correction of soil acidity.
(i) Oxides of lime: It is normally called burned lime or quick lime. Oxide of lime is more
caustic than limestone. Burned lime is produced by heating limestone and dolomite as
follow:
CaCO3 + Heat → CaO + CO2
(Limestone)
CaMg (CO3)2 + Heat → CaO + MgO + 2CO2
(ii) Hydroxides of lime: It can be produced by adding water to burned lime and is called
slaked lime.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
(Burned lime) (Slaked lime)
It is more caustic than burned lime (CaO). If it is kept open in the moist air, then
combination of calcium hydroxide occurs as follows:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
In case of Mg(OH)2
Mg(OH)2 + CO2 → MgCO3 + H2O

38
 (iii) Carbonates of lime: These are by products of certain industries and so the content of
calcium and magnesium varies. The two important minerals are found in this group
Calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2].
(iv) Slags: These are generally three types of slags that are found important:
a. Blast furnace slag. It is a by-product of the manufacture of pig iron. As a liming
material, this slag behaves essentially as calcium silicate. The neutralizing value
of blast furnace slags ranges from shout 75-90%.
b. Basic slag. It is a by-product of the basic open-hearth method of making steel
from pig iron, which in turn is produced from high phosphorus iron ores. The
impurities in the iron, including silica and phosphorus are fluxed with lime and
the basic slags are produced. Its neutralizing value ranges from 60 to70%.
c. Electric furnace slag. This is produced from the electric furnace reduction of
phosphate rock during preparation of elemental phosphorus. This product is
largely calcium silicate and is used as a liming material.
(v) Other liming materials: Coral shell, chalk, wood ash, press mud, byproduct material
of paper mills, sugar factories, fly ash sludge etc. are considered as liming materials
and also used for the amelioration of soil acidity.
Others factors
(1) Growing acid tolerant crops: In acid soils tolerant crops should be grown. Choice of crops
may be done according to soil pH.
a) High acid tolerant crops: Rice, potato, sweet potato, oat, castor, etc.
b) Moderate acid tolerant crops: Barley, wheat, maize, turnip, brinjal, etc.
c) Slightly acid tolerant crops: Tomato, carrot, red clover.
(2) Use of basic fertilizers: NaNO3 and basic slag, etc.
(3) Soil and water management: Proper soil and water management checks leaching of bases
and enhances decomposition of organic matter.
(4) Crop choice: Selection of crops tolerant to acidity is an effective tool to counter this soil
problem and breeding of such varieties is of specific importance for attaining higher
productivity, particularly in areas where liming is not an economic proposition. The crops
can be grouped on the basis of their performance in different soil pH range.
Relative tolerance of crops to soil acidity Crops Optimum pH range
Cereals
Maize, sorghum, wheat, barley 6.0-7.5
Millets 5.0-6.5
Rice 4.0-6.0
Oats 5.0-7.7
Legumes
Field beans, soybean, pea, lentil etc. 5.5-7.0
Groundnut 5.3-6.6
Others
Sugarcane 6.0-7.5
Cotton 5.0-6.5
Potato 5.0-5.5
Tea 4.0-6.0

39
Lime Requirement of Acid Soils
For reasonable crop production on acid soils, pH range from 6.0 to 7.0 is considered
good. The amount of lime required to be added to acidic soil to raise the pH to a desired value
is known as lime requirement.
The lime requirement of the soil is not only related to the soil pH but also to its buffer
or CEC. Some soils are highly buffered than others and therefore, the lime requirement of soils
having the same pH may differ considerably. The buffering capacity or CEC depends upon the
amount and type of clay and organic matter present in the soil. The larger these amounts, the
greater will be the buffering capacity. Therefore, soils containing clay, peat, muck will be
highly buffered and need less lime requirement than that required by coarse textured soils
which have low clay and organic matter content.
Beneficial effect of lime
1. Lime makes P2O5 more available.
2. Lime increase availability of N, increase nitrification and nitrogen fixation.
3. Organic matter decomposition is increased.
4. Lime makes K more available.
5. Bacterial growth more beneficial.
6. Harmful Al, Fe and Mn are rendered insoluble.
7. Ca and Mg make available.
8. Improve physical condition of soils.
9. Checks soil erosion.
10. Fertilizers effectiveness increase.

ACID SULPHATE SOIL

During the submerged period sulphate (SO4-) in the water are reduced to sulphides in
which form they are stabilized generally as Ironsulphide (FeS).When these areas are drained
the sulphides or elemental S are oxidized forming sulphuric acid .The soil pH of these may
drop to level as low as 1or 2. Obviously plant growth cannot occur under this condition. Areas
of these kinds of soils called “cat clays “are found in South East Asia.
Most soil will retain sulphate (this is the form taken up by plants). The mechanism of
adsorbing sulphate is simple. sulphate or acid sulphate ions replace hydroxyl (OH) held by
Aluminium (Al).

Characteristics of acid sulphate soil:-

 Acid sulphate soil is usually clay.
 The organic carbon content varies from 1.5 to 18%.
 The cation exchange capacity is 10 -25 meq/100g.
 Available N and P are low.
 There are many toxic elements like Iron, Aluminium. H2S.
 These soils when submerged are nearly neutral in reaction but when drained out
become extremely acidic and lethal to crop plants.
Acid sulphate soils are extremely acid soils. They have a pH less than H in some layer
of the profile .The acidity is due to presence of sulphuric acid and Iron and aluminium

40
sulphate. They are derived from marine sediments high in pyrites and poor in bases. Sulphur
oxidation is an acidifying process. The reactions are:-
2S + 3O2 + 2H2O oxidation H2SO4
Elemental sulphur

H2S + 2O2 oxidation H2SO4

Hydrogen sulphide

Types of acid sulphate soils

Potential acid sulphate soils
Potential acid sulphate soils which have not been oxidised by exposure to air are known
as potential acid sulfate soils (PASS). They are neutral in pH (6.5–7.5) , contain unoxidised
iron sulfides, are usually soft, sticky and saturated with water and are usually gel-like muds
but, can include wet sands and gravels have the potential to produce acid if exposed to oxygen.

Actual acid sulphate soils

When PASS is exposed to oxygen, the iron sulfides are oxidised to produce sulfuric
acid and the soil becomes strongly acidic (usually below pH 4). These soils are then called
actual acid sulfate soils (AASS). They have a pH of less than 4, contain oxidised iron sulfides,
vary in texture and often contain jarosite (a yellow mottle produced as a by-product of the
oxidation process).

Occurrence in India
Soil with sufficient sulphides (FeS2 and others) to become strongly acidic when drained
are termed acid sulphate soils or as the Dutch refer to those soils cat clays. When allowed to
develop acidity, these soils are usually more acidic than pH 4.0. Before drainage, such soils
may have normal soil pH and are only potential acid sulphate soils. Generally acid sulphate
soils are found in coastal areas where the land is inundated by salt water. In India, acid sulphate
soil is, mostly found in Kerala, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.

Formation of Acid Sulphate Soils

Land inundated with waters that contain sulphates, particularly salt waters, accumulate
sulphur compounds, which in poorly aerated soils are bacterially reduced to sulphates. Such
soils are not usually very acidic when first drained in water.
When the soil is drained and then aerated, the sulphide (S2-) is oxidized to sulphate (SO2-4) by
a combination of chemical and bacterial actions, forming sulphuric acid (H2SO4). The
magnitude of acid development depends on the amount of sulphide present in the soil and the
conditions and time of oxidation. If iron pyrite (FeS2) is present, the oxidized iron accentuates
the acidity but not as much as aluminium in normal acid soils because the iron oxides are less
soluble than aluminium oxides and so hydrolyze less.

Management of Acid Sulphate Soils

Management techniques are extremely variable and depend on many specific factors
viz, the extent of acid formation, the thickness of the sulphide layer, possibilities of leaching or
draining the land etc. The general approaches for reclamation are suggested bellow:

41
 Keeping the area flooded. Maintaining the reduced (anaerobic). Soil inhibits acid
development, the use of the area to rice growing. Unfortunately, droughts occur and can in
short time periods cause acidification of these soils. The water used to flood the potential acid
sulphate soils often develop acidity and injure crops. If a non-acidifying layer covers the
sulphuric horizon, drainage to keep only the sulphuric layer under water (anaerobic) is
possible. Liming and leaching. Liming is the primary way to reclaim any type of acid soil. If
these soils are leached during early years of acidification, lime requirements are lowered.
Leaching, however, is difficult because of the high water table commonly found in this type of
soil and low permeability of the clay. Sea water is sometimes available for preliminary
leaching.

42
 Chapter 5
Eroded Soil, Water logged Soil and Compacted Soils and Management

Soil erosion generally refers to detachment and transport of soil and soil material by
water, wind, ice or gravity water and wind being the major factors. Large flood plains and
coastal plains are formed due to wearing of mountains. However, this steady and slow process
of nature is non-destructive, and is, therefore, known as 'natural erosion" or 'geological
erosion'. Geological erosion is not detrimental to man's well being and is wholly beyond his
control.
Soil erosion is defined as the detachment and transportation of soil mass from one place to
another through the action of wind, water in motion or by the beating action of rain drops. Erosion
extensively occurs in poorly aggregated soils (low humus) and in a higher percentage of silt and
very fine sand. Erosion increases when soil remains bare or without vegetation. In India about
86.9% soil erosion is caused by water and 17.7% soil erosion is caused by wind. Out of the total
173.6 Mha of total degraded land in India, soil erosion by wind and water accounts for 144.1 Mha
(Govt. of India, 1990). The surface soil is taken away by the runoff causing loss of valuable topsoil
along with nutrients, both native and applied. In India about 5334 million tones (16.35
tonnes/ha/year) of soil is being eroded annually due to agriculture and associated activities and
29% of the eroded materials are permanently lost into the sea.

The process of soil erosion is made up of three parts:

(i) Detachment: This is when the topsoil is actually “detached” from the rest of the
ground.
(ii) Movement: This is when the topsoil is relocated to another area.
(iii) Deposition: Where the topsoil ends up after this process.

Type of Soil Erosion

1. Natural or geologic erosion:

Such erosion is said to be in equilibrium with the soil forming process, It occurs under
protective cover of natural vegetation, completely undisturbed by biotic interference, This long
time, slow eroding process has developed the present topographic features like stream
43
channels, valleys, canyons, through tile effect of water, wind, temperature changes and living
organisms-
This is a normal feature of any landscape, Geologic erosion takes place steadily but so
slowly that ages are required for it to make any marked alteration in the major features of the
earth's surface. There is always equilibrium between the removal and formation of soil, so that
unless the equilibrium is disturbed by some outside agency, the mature soil preserves more or
less, a constant depth and character indefinitely,
2. Accelerated soil erosion:
When there is a disturbance in the existing equilibrium condition in nature then
accelerated erosion takes place. The agencies responsible for such disturbance are man or
animals, Man or animals interfere with natural equilibrium through activities like wrong land
management, over exploitation of forests and natural vegetation, over grazing etc. The removal
of the surface soil from areas denuded (uncover, bare, remove) of their natural protective cover
as a result of human and animal interference takes place at a much faster rate than that at which
it is built up by the soil forming process. This accelerated detachment rapidly ravages (damage,
destruction, ruin, depredation) the land and it is with this type of soil erosion that vie are so
seriously concerned, Nature requires, on an average, about 1000 years to build up 2.5 cm of top
soil, but wrong farming methods may take only a few years to erode it from lands of average
slope. Erosion consists of: {i) detachment of soil particles from the surface; and (ii) their
transportation, that requires a source to carry the detached particles away.

Wind erosion
Wind erosion is the erosion of soil by the action of wind which dislodges the soil
particles, transports from one place to another and deposits them there.
Erosion by wind, although most common in arid and semi-arid regions. It occurs to
some extent in humid regions also. It is essentially a dry weather phenomenon and is
accelerated wherever: (1) the soil is loose, dry and reasonably finely divided; (2) the soil
surface is relatively smooth and vegetative cover is either absent or sparse; (3) the field is
sufficiently large; and (4) the wind is sufficiently strong to initiate soil movement. Wind takes
up soil from one place and deposits at another. If unprotected, the wind would slowly remove
organic matter, fine silt and clay tractions leaving sand and gravel behind. This sorting action
leads to more erodible and less productive soil. Based on movement of soil particles wind
erosion are three types: - (i) saltation (ii) suspension (iii) surface creep.
i. Saltation: - This is activated by bouncing or jumping of the particles over the surface. The
wind force lifts up the particles almost vertically into air, rotating several hundred
revolutions per second and travels 10 to 15 times their height of rise. When the velocity is
retarded, they fallout at an angle of 6-12° on the surface. The size of particles for saltation
range from 0.1 to 0.5 mm. Saltation is the main process which is responsible for continued
movement of soil particles into the air till it is finally deposited. Therefore saltation not only
initiates movement but also breaks clods to erodible size. The larger the area, the greater is
the number of times individual particle strike the surface. Consequently more number of
particles is set in motion. This process is known as saltation-(sudden large amount).
ii. Suspension: Particles smaller than 0.1 mm may be moved by suspension. The movement of
such particles is also initiated by saltation and once they enter the turbulent air, they may be
lifted high into the air and may be carried many miles away from where the movement is
initiated.
iii. Surface creep: - It is rolling or sliding of the soil particles along the surface. They are too
heavy to be lifted by the wind and are therefore, rolled by the impact of smaller particles in.
saltation. The particle size limit in this process varies from 0.5 to 2.0 mm. The rate of soil
movement in surface creep in saltation is proportional to the cube of wind velocity.
44
Water erosion
Removal of soil from land surface by water including runoff from melted snow and ice
is termed as water erosion. Water erosion occurs in stages which have been identified as
1. Rain drop erosion or splash erosion,
2. Sheet erosion,
3. Rill erosion,
4. Gully erosion
5. Stream bank erosion

1. Splash erosion
When raindrops strike the ground surface, the soil particles become loose and splashed
due to its impact force. Momentary build up of the pressure gradients towards the edges of the
drop disintegrates the soil and shoot some particles out. The falling raindrop at an average
speed of 75 cm/sec is capable of creating a force of almost 14 times its own weight.
To produce significant erosion, the splashing must throw soil particles into a place
where there is a water stream for transportation. The forces that influence splashing are: (i) the
rain drop mass and velocity; and (ii) the soil characteristics (such as roughness, surface slope
and aspect), hydraulic conductivity, moisture content, particle size, elasticity, and associated
mass of the surface.
In cohesive soils, smaller particles are difficult to detach. On the other hand, to throw
out large aggregates, more energy must be transferred from the rain drop. Coarse grained, dry
soil will reduce the momentary build up of pressure in the rain drop because of surface
roughness and faster energy dissipation caused by flow into the soil. The saturation of soil will
weaken the cohesive forces, reduce seepage and enable stronger splashing. However, a thick
enough water layer will protect the soil. Raindrop action can be cumulative, initially breaking
aggregates and later throwing them out. We know from the laws of kinetic energy that a falling
body has Kinetic energy = 1/2 x mass x velocity2:: 1/2 mv2. The mass of rain drop depends on
its size.
It is now established that collision of rain drops on bare soil and resulting splash is the
major cause of soil erosion by water. About 95% of soil is splashed by falling rain drops and
runoff water erodes less than 5% of the soil.

2. Sheet Erosion
It is the uniform removal of soil in thin layers from sloping land caused by sheet or
overland flow of water. The breaking action of rain drop combined with surface flow is the
major cause of sheet erosion. Areas where loose, shallow top soil overlies compact soil are
most susceptible to sheet erosion. The eroding and transporting power of sheet flow are
functions of depth and velocity of runoff for a given size, shape and quantity of soil particles or
aggregates. In the initial stages of soil erosion, rain drops churn (mix, roil, agitate, shake, stir,
toss) the top soil and along with runoff (excess, overflow) the muddy water moves away from
the field. It is uniform removal of top soil in thin layer from the field. It is least conspicuous
(apparent, obvious, noticeable, evident) and is the first stage of erosion.
Sheet erosion is a most serious problem in red soils covering 72 million ha in India. The
depths of soils vary from 20 to 100 cm and rainfall intensity is very high though the total
annual rainfall may not be high. Similarly, the laterite soils, suffer from severe rill erosion
because of fairly high rainfall. The black soils, occupying nearly 88 million ha, when fallow
during the monsoon, are subject to severe sheet erosion hazards. The annual loss of top soil
may range from 11 to 43 tonnes/ha along with 10 to 30% of runoff loss.
3. Rill erosion
Rill erosion is the removal of soil by runoff water with the formation of shallow

45
channels that can be smoothed out completely by normal cultivation. Rills develop as a result
of concentration of runoff water where the silt laden runoff water starts flowing along the
slopes through small finger-like channels. The soil eroded from upland areas comes from these
small channels, called rills, and from inter-rill areas between them. The primary mechanism for
soil detachment and transport from inter-rill areas is the energy resulting from raindrop impact
while the primary mechanism for soil detachment and transport for rill erosion is the
distributed shear force on the rill channel boundary due to concentrated flow of runoff water.
During a rainfall event flow is quickly concentrated in micro-rills, which in turn flows
into larger rills and eventually discharge to an existing channel sys- tem. The concentration of
flow in rills increases the erosive power of the flow resulting in increased soil detachment from
the rill channel boundary. In general, rill erosion is incipient gully erosion. If rill erosion
continues only for a short while, tillage operations may smoothen out the surface completely,
so that the resulting soil profile is identical to one that is damaged by sheet erosion.

4. Gully erosion
As the volume of concentrated water increases and attains more velocity on slopes, it
enlarges the rills into gullies. Here rills become so deep that the ground cannot be smoothed
out by ordinary tillage tools. Gully can also originate from any depression such as cart tracks
and cattle trails and indicates neglect of land over a long period of time. An advanced stage of
gully results into ravine which is sometimes more than 16 to 33 m deep.
The rate of gully erosion depends primarily on the runoff producing characteristics of
the watershed, soil characteristics, alignment, size and shape of the gully and the slope in the
channel. Loose, open, well drained sloping soils gully rather easily when water is concentrated
on them. A heavy or compacted soil often checks the rate at which gullying takes place.
Gullies are sometimes as deep as 6 to 12 m. Gully erosion is most spectacular in 4 m ha land in
India.
Four stages of gully development are recognised.
a. Stage 1: Formation stage -In this stage, the rill erosion Scour of the top soil in the
direction of general slope as the runoff water concentrates. This stage normally
proceeds slowly where the top soil is fairly resistant to erosion.
b. Stage 2: Development stage -In this stage, there occurs up stream movement of the
gully head and enlargement of the gully in width and depth. The gully cuts to the C-
horizon and the parent material is also removed rapidly as water flows.
c. Stage 3: Healing stage -In this stage, vegetation starts growing in the gully.
d. Stage 4: Stabilisation stage -In this stage, gully reaches a stable gradient, gully walls
attain a stable slope, sufficient vegetation cover develops over the gully surface to
anchor the soil and permit development of new top soil.

5. Stream erosion
Stream erosion is the scouring of soil material from the stream bed and cutting of the
stream banks by the force of running water. Stream bank erosion is often increased by the
removal of vegetation, overgrazing or tillage near the banks. Scouring is influenced by the
velocity and direction of the flow, depth and width of the stream, soil texture and alignment of
the stream. Rivers and streams often meander and change their course by cutting one bank and
depositing sand and silt loads on the other. The damage is manifolds during flash floods.

46
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION
Some of the greatest effects of soil erosion include
 Loss of top fertile soil. The surface soil lost as runoff consists of fertile soils and fresh
or active organic matter.
 Accumulation of sand or other unproductive coarse soil materials on other
productive lands. In the plains, fertile lands have been made unproductive by the
deposition or accumulation of soil material brought down from the hills by streams and
rivers.
 Silting of lakes and reservoirs. Soil erosion from the catchment areas of reservoirs
results in the deposition of soil, thus reducing their storage capacity
 Silting of drainage and water channels. Deposition of silt in drainage ditches in
natural streams and rivers reduces their depth and capacity and overflows and flooding
of downstream areas increase with damage to agricultural crops and also man-made
structures.
 Decreases water table. With the increase in runoff, the amount of water available for
entering the soil is decreased. This reduces the supply of water to replenish the ground
water in wells, the yield of well is reduced.
 Fragmentation of land. Water erosion especially gully erosion may divide the land
into several valleys and ridges and thus fields become smaller and more numerous.
Crop rows are shortened, movement from field to field is obstructed and a result the
value of land is decreased.

SOLUTIONS FOR SOIL EROSION

Best management practices are used to control erosion factors of both wind and water
are
1) Crop rotation- improves the overall efficiency of nitrogen uptake and utilization in the
soil. If certain cover crops are planted in the winter, erosion and runoff is prevented
when the ground thaws, and nutrients are trapped in the soil and released to the spring
crops.
2) Contour cultivation- On gently sloping land, a special tillage practice carried out on the
contour of the field can reduce the velocity of overland flow. Contour cultivation should
not be carried out on steep slopes because it will merely make the erosion situation
worse.
3) Strip cropping- It is a technique in which alternate strips of different crops are planted
in the same field. There are three main types: contour strip cropping, field strip
cropping, and buffer strip cropping. If the strips are planted along the contour, water
damage can be minimized; in dry regions, if the strips are planted crosswise to the
contour, wind damage is also minimized.
4) Terraces- Constructing bench-like channels is otherwise known as terraces, enables
water to be stored temporarily on slopes to allow sediment deposition and water
infiltration. There are three types of terraces: bench terraces, contour terraces and
parallel terraces. It will control erosion in wetter areas by reducing the length of the
slope.
5) Grassed Waterways - They force storm runoff water to flow down the center of an
established grass strip and can carry very large quantities of storm water across a field
without erosion. Grass waterways are also used as filters to remove sediment, but may
sometimes lose their effectiveness when too much sediment builds up in the waterways.
To prevent this, it is important that crop residues, buffer strips, and other erosion control
practices and structures be used along with grass waterways for maximum effectiveness.

47
 6) Diversion structures- These are channels that are constructed across slopes that cause
water to flow to a desired outlet. They are similar to grass waterways and are used most
often for gully control.
7) Drop structures - Are small dams used to stabilize steep waterways and other channels.
They can handle large amounts of runoff water and are effective where falls are less than
2.5 meters
8) Riparian strips - These are merely buffer strips of grass, shrubbery, plants, and other
vegetation that grow on the banks of rivers and streams and areas with water
conservation problems. The strips slow runoff and catch sediment. In shallow water
flow, they can reduce sediment and the nutrients and herbicides attached to it by 30% to
50%.
9) No-till planting- This planting system prepares a seedbed 2 inches wide or less, leaving
most of the surface undisturbed and still covered with crop residues. The result is a
wetter, colder environment that protects the seed and soil with its insulating effect of the
surface residue.
10) Strip Rotary- Tillage a strip four to eight inches wide and two to four inches deep is
prepared by a rotary tiller, while the rest of the soil is left undisturbed. The soil is
conserved because of the crop residues between the tillage strips
11) Till Planting -This plowing technique sweeps the crop residues into the area between
the rows of crops. Soil density between these rows remains relatively high because of
the absence of tillage. This soil is difficult for raindrops to detach and runoff to move.
12) Annual Ridges - Also known as permanent ridges or ridge tillage, the annual ridges are
formed by using a rolling disk bedder, and planting is done after only minor spring
seedbed preparation. The extent of soil conservation depends on the amount of residue
left and the row direction. Planting on the contour plus increased surface residues greatly
reduce soil loss.
13) Chiseling- This system does not turn the soil over, but rather leaves it rough and cloddy
with plenty of crop residue remaining. The soil density and amount of covering depends
on the depth, size, shape, spacing, and so on of the chisel blades. The residue and rough,
cloddy surface of the soil reduces raindrops impact and reduces runoff velocities thus
reducing erosion.
14) Disking- This system pulverizes the soil and gives great soil density The effect is similar
to that of chiseling with results also depending on the depth, size, spacing, and so on of
the disk blades. The deeper the disking, the fewer the residues that remain on the
surface.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL EROSION

The major variables affecting soil erosion, viz., climate, soil properties, topography,
vegetation and other related factors, are briefly described below.

1. Climate
Climatic variables affecting erosion are precipitation, wind velocity, temperature,
humidity and radiation receipts. The effect of climate on natural vegetation and on soil
development shows that soil and vegetation boundaries coincide in a general way with climatic
boundaries. Consequently, climate affects the erosion conditions of an area directly as well as
through the vegetation that occurs. In arid climates, wind erosion is mote severe than in humid
ones. Lack of organic matter in soils of arid and semi-arid regions makes them more
susceptible to erosion by water as well as by wind.

48
2. Soil Properties
Soil erodibility is largely dependent upon texture, structure, organic matter, nature of
clay and the amounts and kinds of salts present. Generally, fine textured and alkali soils are
more erodible. On the other hand, soils with low silica/sesquioxide ratio, common in humid
tropics, e.g., latosals and other lateritic soils, are reported to be less erodible. Soils with greater
absorptive and retentive capacities reduce runoff and are, therefore, less erodible.
Coarser textured soils containing a greater proportion of sand are more susceptible to
wind erosion. This applies to all sand fractions less than about 1 mm in diameter. In addition,
low silt, clay and organic matter content in such soils deters clod formation, and even if some
clods are formed they are far less stable. In general, any process which reduces consolidation
usually increases erodibility.

3. Topography
Slope accelerates erosion as it increases the velocity of the flowing water. The four-
time increase in the degree of slope doubles the velocity of flowing water which can increase
its erosive power four times and the silt-carrying capacity 32 times. Unidirectional general
slope of the field results into sheet erosion while an undulating field with local slopes in more
than one direction results into rill or gully erosion in addition to imperceptible sheet erosion.
Lateritic soils, associated with rolling topography in high rainfall areas, also suffer from sheet
and rill erosion. Different characteristics of slope such as steepness of slope, length of slope,
configuration, variation in steepness, micro-topography and aspect of slope, all affect the soil
erosion.

4. Biological Factors
Biological factors attributing to soil erosion include vegetation, residue mulch, animals
and shifting cultivation practiced by tribal in hilly areas. Heavy destruction of natural
protective cover like trees and grasses accelerates erosion in hilly areas. Shifting cultivation,
particularly on steep slopes without any protective measures and animal traffic destroys natural
vegetation and exposes soil surface to direct action of raindrops and runoff water.
The presence of vegetation acts as an erosion-retarding factor. Forests and grasses
provide better cover than the cultivated crops. Vegetation intercepts the beating action of
falling raindrops, retards the amount and velocity of surface runoff, permits more water flow
into the soil, and checks the abrasive power of wind. It also reduces runoff as part of the
intercepted rainfall is evaporated directly from the plant surface. Lack of vegetation creates
erosion-permitting conditions. Plant roots and other residues of vegetation help to improve soil
aggregation and porosity and hereby enhance infiltration and reduce runoff.

FLOODED SOILS/ WATER LOGGED SOILS:-

Water logged or flooded soil can be defined as soil whose development and properties
are strongly influenced by temporary or permanent saturation in the upper part of the soil. The
water logging of the surface horizons bring about reducing condition for temporary chemical
and physical changes to take place.

Types of Water Logging

1. Riverine Flood Water Logging: - In the rainy season flood may come to the nearby
land from the river having excess flood water.
2. Oceanic Flood Water Logging:-Ocean water spreads in the nearby land and causes
water logging.

49
 3. Sub Soil Water Logging: - High water table in the rainy seasons is normally
unsuitable for root growth.
4. Seasonal Water Logging: - Runoff water accumulates in the low land and depressions
in the rainy seasons.
5. Perennial Water Logging: - Deep water, swamp etc. get rain water, runoff water and
seepage water from canal causing perennial water logging.

Factors affecting formation of water logged soils:-

1. Climatological factors: - Due to the high rain fall water accumulate on the soil surface.
2. Flood: - flood water is usually causing water logged situation in the field.
3. Seepage from canal: - Ground water levels are closer to the surface due to the seepage
from canal.
4. Land shape: - Saucer shaped land get water from high lands which results into water
logging.
5. Uncontrolled and unwanted irrigation: - excess irrigation may cause accumulation of
water on the soil surface.
6. Drainage: - Poor drainage system is responsible for water logging in the field.

Detrimental effect of water logging is:-

1. Water Depth: - low land areas are usually flooded to depths of about 50 cm. and the
limitation to crop production associated with extensively low reduction potential and
partly because of low P availability. In the deep water (flooding to depth of 50to 100cm. )
and very deep water or floating (water depth more than 100 cm.) areas the principles
problem of rice production is the tendency for the rice crop to be submerged for periods
of up to 10 days or more .
2. Poor aeration: - Inadequate supply of oxygen either retards or ceases plant growth as the
accumulated CO2 hampers the growth of the plants roots. Poor aeration results in the
development of toxin and other injurious substances, only rice plants can survive under
poor aeration.
3. Soil structure: - Continuous water stagnation destroys the soil structure and makes the
soil compact.
4. Soil temperature:- It lower down the soil temperature moist soil have a higher specific
heat than dry soil .Consequently a moist soil has lower temperature than dry soil. Low
temperature affects the microorganism activity which consequently lowers the rates of
nitrogen fixation.
5. Soil pH: - There is reversible pH change of the flooded soils. pH tends to increase in acid
soil and decrease in alkaline soil ,undoubtedly pH is after towards normal.

Availability of nutrient:-
1. Nitrogen: - N deficiency is extremely common in water logged conditions due to lower
temperature and reduced conditions; mineralization of organic N is affected.
2. Phosphorus: - The inorganic forms of P are usually present at higher levels in flooded
soil than upland soils.

50
 3. Potassium: - K response is apparent in many low lands soils. Flooding and pluddling of
the soil during low land preparation may considerably increase the soil solution
concentration of K because displacement of exchangeable K by the large amount of Fe
and Mn in the soil solution.
4. Sulphur: - Sulphur deficiency has been reported from many low land areas.
5. Zinc: - Widespread deficiency of Zn to rice crop in wet land conditions is reported.
6. Fe &Mn: - Fe and Mn are available in excess causing toxicity to the plant.
7. Salinity: - Salinity is an important constraint to rice production in many coastal low
lands as well as in some poorly drained in land areas.
8. Effect on crops: - under water logged condition all field crops cannot survive due to
poor aeration and unavailability of nutrient, only rice is an exception.

COMPACTED SOILS
Soil compaction can be a serious and unnecessary form of soil degradation that can
result in increased soil erosion and decreased crop production. Compaction of soil is the
compression of soil particles into a smaller volume, which reduces the size of pore space
available for air and water. Most soils are composed of about 50 per cent solids (sand, silt, clay
and organic matter) and about 50 per cent pore spaces. “Soil compaction can be a serious form
of soil degradation”.

Effects of soil compaction on soil properties

The various forces of soil compression by agricultural equipment can cause soil
particles to become compacted closer together into a smaller volume. As particles are
compressed together, the space between particles (pore space) is reduced, thereby reducing the
space available in the soil for air and water. Soil compaction can have a number of negative
effects on soil quality and crop production including the following:
1. causes soil pore spaces to become smaller
2. reduces water infiltration rate into soil
3. decreases the rate that water will penetrate into the soil root zone and subsoil
4. increases the potential for surface water ponding, water runoff, surface soil
waterlogging and soil erosion
5. reduces the ability of a soil to hold water and air, which are necessary for plant root
growth and function
6. reduces crop emergence as a result of soil crusting
7. impedes root growth and limits the volume of soil explored by roots
8. limits soil exploration by roots and decreases the ability of crops to take up nutrients
and water efficiently from soil
9. reduces crop yield potential

Importance of Soil Porosity

Soils consist of organic matter, various-sized soil particles referred to as soil texture
(proportion of solid particles including sand, silt and clay) and pore spaces that contain air and
water. The connectivity of soil pores coupled with the size and number of pores is very

51
important for water infiltration, water and nutrient movement within soil and the ability of the
soil to hold water. Large, inter-connected soil pore spaces enhance several actions:
1. water infiltration into soil
2. water percolation into the root zone and subsoil
3. air exchange with the atmosphere

Identifying Types of Soil Compaction

Soil compaction can occur at the soil surface in the form of soil crusting, or it can occur
in the subsoil. Soil compaction is sometimes blamed for reduced crop productivity, but it is
important to correctly diagnose the cause or causes of reduced crop production. Poor plant
growth can be caused by a number of factors, including soil compaction.
The first step is to correctly diagnosis if a soil compaction problem exists and then,
develops short and long-term management practices to prevent further damage.
Soil compaction can occur at different times of the year through different mechanisms. Careful
observations can help diagnose the problem:
1. Is there poor crop growth in all years, with all crop types in the same area of the field?
2. Is there a spatial pattern to the crop growth (associated with wheel tracks, windrows,
equipment widths, haul trails)?
3. Does the soil surface appear smooth and crusted?
4. Has there been a change in equipment size, weight or operations?
5. Are there soil types in the field with naturally dense horizons such as eroded knolls?
6. If you scrape away the surface soil with a shovel or trowel, can you see dense layers
and/or horizontal root growth?

Be aware that compaction of agricultural soils can be caused by various farming practices:
1. Soil tillage that removes the protective residue from the soil surface, leaving the soil
prone to natural environmental forces or excessive soil tillage that causes surface soil
aggregates to break down or degrade, can lead to soil crusting, causing the surface soil
layer to become hard and compacted.
2. Soil tillage implements can induce soil compaction just below the depth of tillage,
particularly when soils are wet.
3. The weight of large farm equipment (tractors, seed carts, combines, trucks, manure
spreaders) can cause wheel traffic compaction to a considerable depth within the root
zone. As soil moisture content increases, so too does the depth of soil compaction.

52
 Chapter 6
Polluted Soils, Problems and Management
DEFINITION
Soil pollution is defined as the build-up in soils of persistent toxic compounds,
chemicals, salts, radioactive materials, or disease causing agents, which have adverse effects
on plant growth and animal health.
Soil is the thin layer of organic and inorganic materials that covers the Earth's rocky
surface. The organic portion, which is derived from the decayed remains of plants and animals,
is concentrated in the dark uppermost topsoil. The inorganic portion made up of rock
fragments, was formed over thousands of years by physical and chemical weathering of
bedrock. Productive soils are necessary for agriculture to supply the world with sufficient food.
Soil pollution adversely affects the quality and the fertility of soil from human-born
sources or natural sources. If the fundamental properties of soil fall, then its production
capacity decreases. The growth of crops and vegetation is reduced and the land is convened to
barren and rugged land. What is produced is not eatable due to pollution. Whether the pollution
is in air or water, its impact is felt on the soil. In recognition of the promotion of soil science
and soil resource conservation made by King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, the King's
birthday, December 5 is celebrated as 'World Soil Day'. The United Nations Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO), through this day, acknowledge soil's significance as a critical
component of the natural system and as a crucial contributor to the wellbeing of human, animal
and plant life.
Today, there is a crying need to take a resolution for "Going Green", as it is necessary
to take control over the growing soil pollution. Soil is the farmer's gold. If its quality
decreases, then the economy of India and our food plate too will feel the same adverse impact.
Agriculture without healthy soil cannot be the basis of the country's economy. It implies that if
we think about doing anything - increasing food production - first of all, farmer’s will get any
benefit or not. It is also necessary to do the management and disposal of liquid and solid
residues from the factories.
There are many different ways that soil can become polluted, such as
 Seepage from a landfill
 Discharge of industrial waste into the soil
 Percolation of contaminated water into the soil
 Rupture of underground storage tanks
 Excess application of pesticides, herbicides or fertilizer
 Solid waste seepage
The most common chemicals involved in causing soil pollution are:
 Petroleum hydrocarbons
 Heavy metals
 Pesticides
 Solvents

53
Types of Soil Pollution
A. Agricultural Soil Pollution
(i) Pollution of surface soil
(ii) Pollution of underground soil
B. Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes
(i) Pollution of surface soil
(ii) Disturbances in soil profile
C. Pollution due to urban activities
(i) Pollution of surface soil
(ii) Pollution of underground soil

What is Soil Pollution?

With the rise of concrete buildings and roads, one part of the Earth that we rarely see is
the soil. It has many different names, such as dirt, mud and ground. However, it is definitely
very important to us. The plants that feed us grow in soil and keeping it healthy is essential to
maintaining a beautiful planet. However, like all other forms of nature, soil also suffers from
pollution. The pollution of soil is a common thing these days, and it happens due to the
presence of manmade elements. The main reason why the soil becomes contaminated is due to
the presence of manmade waste. The waste produced from nature itself such as dead plants,
carcasses of animals and rotten fruits and vegetables only adds to the fertility of the soil

Main causes of Soil Pollution

The soil may be degraded either by toxic materials or contamination with heavy metals
or by poor management that exhaust its fertility, depletes its organic matter and changes its soil
structure to crusts and clods that restrict air and water movement.
A. Agrochemicals
 Pesticides
 Insecticides
 Herbicides
 Fungicides
 Fertilizers

B. Industrial wastes
 Effluents
 Dust and other wastes
 Radioactive wastes
 Heavy metals
 Acid precipitation

C. Urban wastes
 Municipal solid waste
 Municipal sewage
 Vehicular exhaust

54
D. Rural wastes
 Home wastes
 Litter
 Livestock wastes
 Plant residues
 Sediments

Effects of Soil Pollution

1. Effect on Health of Humans: Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain
ourselves, the contamination of it has major consequences on our health. Crops and
plants grown on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass these on to us.
This could explain the sudden surge in small and terminal illnesses. Long term
exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-up of the body, causing congenital
illnesses and chronic health problems that cannot be cured easily. In fact, it can sicken
the livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning over a long period of
time. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to
grow in it.
2. Effect on Growth of Plants: The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to
the widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the
chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi and bacteria
found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional
problem of soil erosion. The fertility slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for
agriculture and any local vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of
land to become hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for its native
vegetation, such land cannot support most forms of life.
3. Decreased Soil Fertility: The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil
fertility and therefore decrease in the soil yield. The contaminated soil is then used to
produce fruits and vegetables which lacks quality nutrients and may contain some
poisonous substance to cause serious health problems in people consuming them.
4. Toxic Dust: The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the
environment and causes serious effects on health of some people. The unpleasant smell
causes inconvenience to other people.
5. Changes in Soil Structure: The death of many soil organisms (e.g. earthworms) in the
soil can lead to alteration in soil structure. Apart from that it could also force other
predators to move to other places in search of food.

METHODS AND TOOLS FOR CONTROL SOIL POLLUTION:

To help the various players involved in the management of polluted soil are given below:
 Greater care in the use of pesticides
 Better land practices to reduce soil erosion and sedimentation
 Improvement of wastes from feedlots
 Disposal of waste accumulation of plant and animal waste without affecting the quality
of the air or water
 Percolation is reduced by vigorously growing crop
 Erosion can be greatly reduced by a dense vegetative cover
55
 The rotation of crops to include meadows in the cropping sequence may reduce soil
losses by as much 75 per cent
 Soil losses are reduced by mulching, strip cropping and contour cultivation
 Convening cropland to good grassland is recognized as most effective eliminating
erosion and consequent sedimentation
 By replacing persistent pesticides with readily degradable ones as they are developed
and become available
 Reduce nuisance conditions and improved sanitation
 The persistent pesticides are replaced by alternative methods of pest control
 Less persistent pesticides are used or more specific chemicals are used
 The rates of pesticides could be reduced sufficiently
 The greatest hazardous chemicals are not used
 To eliminate or reduce drastically the soil application of the toxic metals
 Animal excreta are used in biogas production
 Salts are removed by improved drainage systems
 Soil amendments are used
 Acid rain pollution is reduced by elimination S and N oxides drastically.

56
 Chapter 7
Quality of Irrigation Water

All natural waters used for irrigation contains inorganic salts in solutions which are
derived originally from the rocks or solid phase material through which water percolates. The
most common dissolved constituents are chlorides, sulphates and bicarbonates of Ca, Mg and
Na. The concentration and proportion of these salts determine the suitability of water for
irrigation. Other constituent such as B, Li, F or other ions, which have a toxic effect on plants,
may occur in lesser amounts in irrigation water. If water used for irrigation contains excessive
quantities of the constituents noted above, it might affect the growth of plants in three ways viz.
a. As a result of adverse changes in the physical characteristics of the soil,
b. The increased osmotic pressure of the soil solution may decrease the physiological
availability of moisture to plants,
c. Accumulation of certain ions in the soil solution that may have a specific toxic effect
upon the physiological processes of the plant.
Therefore, the question arises “What should be the ideal quality of water to be used for
irrigation?” Different workers for judging the quality of waters have proposed various
standards. The five generally recognized criteria for judging the quality of irrigation water are
as under:
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER
1. Salinity hazard: Continuous use of water having high salt content will convert a normal soil
into a saline soil. On the basis of electrical conductivity (EC) measurements, the waters
were divided into four classes by USSSL as follows:
Conductivity Class Symbol Inference
(dS/m)
0.00 – 0.25 Low salinity C1  Can be used for most soil for most crops
 Little likelihood of salinity
0.25 – 0.75 Medium C2  Can be used with moderate leaching
salinity  Moderate salt tolerant crops should be
grown
0.75 – 2.25 High salinity C3  Cannot be used where drainage is restricted
 Salt tolerant plant and additional
management practices should be followed
2.25 – 5.00 Very high C4  Not suitable for irrigation
salinity  Can be used occasionally with leaching
 Salt tolerant crop should be grown with
additional management practices
According to USSSL, the water having more than 5000 micromhos/cm EC
value cannot be used for purposes of irrigation.

2. Alkali hazard: The continuous use of water having high concentration of Na will convert a
normal soil into an alkali soil. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) developed by USSSL
expresses the relative activity of Na ions in cation exchange reactions with the soil. The
exchangeable Na percentage (ESP), which the soil will attain when the soil and water are in
57
equilibrium, can be predicted approximately from the value of SAR of water. Accordingly,
the waters are divided into four classes with respect to the Na hazards as follows:
SAR Class Symbol Inference
value
0 – 10 Low Na S1 (i) Can be used for all soils with little danger of
water harmful Na level development
(ii) The Na sensitive crops are affected
10 – 18 Medium S2 (i) Sodium hazard likely in fine textured soil
Na water (ii) Can be used on soils having high permeability
18– 26 High Na S3 (i) May produce harmful level of exchangeable
water Na in most soils except gypsiferous soils
(ii) Requires special management practice like
good drainage, high leaching and addition of
organic matter and gypsum
> 26 Very high S4 (i) Unsatisfactory for irrigation except at low and
Na water perhaps medium salinity of irrigation water,
special management as above should be made

Na
SAR : Ca + Mg
2

The USSSL has prepared the diagram for use of water having different values of EC as
well as SAR.

58
 3. Bicarbonate hazard: The bicarbonate ions are primarily important because their tendency
to precipitate Ca and to some extent Mg, in the soil solution as their normal carbonates e.g.
Ca + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O
The CO3 ions are seldom present in water but HCO3- ions may be present in appreciable
-2

proportion of the total anions present in irrigation waters. Based on the theory of
precipitation of Ca and Mg, Eaton (1950) suggested the concept of “Residual Sodium
Carbonate” commonly known as RSC. The RSC can be found out by following equation:
RSC = (CO3- + HCO3-) - (Ca2+ + Mg2+)
Where; concentrations of all ions are expressed in meq/lit.
It is obvious from above equation that as the Ca and Mg are lost from the soil solution
by precipitation, the relative proportion of Na remaining in water is increased. Thus, the
alkali hazard as defined by the SAR is increased. The standard for RSC as given by USSSL
as follows:
RSC (meq / lit) Quality of irrigation water
Less than 1.25 Probably safe for most purpose
1.25 – 2.50 Marginal can be used on light textured soil with adequate leaching
and application of gypsum
More than 2.50 Not suitable for irrigation purposes

4. Boron hazard: Boron is very toxic to plants at low concentration in the soil solution.
Because boron tends to accumulate in the soil from even low concentration in the irrigation
waters, it is necessary to consider this constituent in assessing the quality of irrigation
waters. The USDA has suggested the type of crops to be grown with respect to boron
content in irrigation water. The limits are as under:
Boron content of Boron tolerance Crops to be grown
irrigation water (ppm) of crops
0.3 – 1.0 Sensitive Citrus, Apricot, Peach, Apple, Pear,
Plum, walnut
1.0 – 2.0 Semi-tolerant Sweet potato, Oats, Sorghum, Maize,
Wheat, Barley, Radish, Peas, Tomato,
Cotton, Potato, Sunflower
2.0 – 4.0 Tolerant Carrot, Cabbage, Onion, Beans, Sugar
beet, Alfalfa, Date

5. Chlorides: The grading of irrigation waters based on chloride content as proposed by

Schofield is as under:
Chloride (meq/lit) Class
0–4 Excellent
4–7 Good
7 – 12 Permissible
12- 20 Doubtful
More than 20 Unsafe

59
6. Other elements: The safe limit for other elements present in irrigation water is as follows:
Element For waters used continuously on For used up to 20 years on fine textured
all soil (ppm) soil at pH 6.0 to 8.5 (ppm)
Al 5.00 20.00
Arsenic 0.10 2.00
Cu 0.20 5.00
Fluorine 1.00 15.00
Lead 5.00 10.00
Lithium 2.50 2.60
Mn 0.20 10.00
Mo 0.01 0.05
Se 0.02 0.02
Zn 2.00 10.00
Fe 5.00 20.00

SUITABILITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

It is said that “probably too much emphasis has been placed on an attempt to answer the
question. How good is the water?” rather than “What can be done with this water?” The
suitability of irrigation water (SI) will be determined by following five factors (ƒ): SI = ƒ
(QSPCM).
1. Quality of irrigation water: Amount, nature and proportion of various cations and
anions present in the water.
2. Nature of the soil to be irrigated: Texture, structure, drainage, permeability, depth of
water table, chemical composition of the soil, pH, and CaCO3 content will determine
the effect of irrigation water on the soil.
3. Nature of the crop plants to be grown: water, which may not be suitable for very
sensitive crop, may be excellent for tolerant crops.
4. Climatic conditions: High temperature and less humidity will require more number of
irrigation.

USE OF SALINE WATER

Even the waters containing high amount of dissolved salts has been used successfully in
highly permeable sandy soils. Similarly, the waters showing considerable alkali hazards have
also been used successfully on permeable soils or by addition of gypsum and FYM on semi-
permeable soils. The high RSC content can be corrected by addition of gypsum and the water
can be used for the purpose of irrigation. Attempts have also been made for using saline waters
by diluting it with good quality water or by giving alternate irrigation with good and bad
quality water.
Besides the salinity and alkalinity hazard of water, some industrial effluents and sewage
water are also problem water that can be reused by proper treatment. The complex growth of
industries and urbanization (Urban development) leads to massive increase in waste water in
the form of sewage and effluent. Waste water supplies not only nutrient but also some toxic
elements such as total solids of chloride, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, sodium chromium,
calcium magnesium, etc., in high concentration. Besides this the effluent or waste water creates

60
BOD (Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand). These waste water when used for irrigation leads to
surface and sub surface source of pollution due to horizontal and vertical seepage.
Much of the ground water (32-84%) surveyed in different Indian States is rated either
saline or alkali. Because of the continental monsoonal climate, the basic principles of saline
water management need some adaptation, e.g. providing for a leaching requirement is not
appropriate when the growing season for post-monsoon winter crops starts with a surface-
leached soil profile, because it would increase the salt load. High salinities during the initial
stages of growth are particularly harmful. Further, if benefits are to be gained from frequent
saline irrigation, the amount of water applied per irrigation needs to be reduced. This is not
possible with most widely surface irrigation methods; hut can be achieved with sprinkler and
drip methods. However, in India the large-scale use of such systems is not yet technically or
economically feasible.

RISKS INVOLVED IN USING SALINE WATER FOR IRRIGATION

Irrigating with saline water on duplex or clayey soils can result in dangerous levels of
salinity building up in the root zones of crops.
In such cases, after two years of irrigation with water with conductivities of 0.7-1.4
dS/m, the water ponding above the clayey B horizon has been found to have salinity values
ranging from 3.0 to 5.0 dS/m. These levels reduce yields significantly and if the soil dries out,
will kill crops.
The observations indicate that the depth of this "perched water" varies between about
20 and 30 cm and therefore is at least 10 cm thick. A layer of perched water like this represents
about 1000-2500 kg/ha (1-2.5 t/ha) of salt in the upper soil profile, the root zone of all crops.

Common problems are creates using for saline water

The following are the most common problems that result from using poor quality water.
1. Salinity: If the total quantity of salts in the irrigation water is high, the salts will
accumulate in the crop root zone and affect the crop growth and yield. Excess salt
condition reduce uptake of ware due to high concentration of soil solution.
2. Permeability: Some specific salts reduce the rate of infiltration in to the soil profile.
3. Toxicity: When certain constituents of water are taken up by plants which accumulates
in large quantities and results in plant toxicity and reduces yield.
4. Miscellaneous: Excessive nitrogen in irrigation water causes excessive vegetative
growth and leads to lodging and delayed crop maturity. White deposits on fruits or
leaves may occur due to sprinkler irrigation with high bicarbonate water

What can you do?

If you are in an area where there may be a soil salinity risk, or where your irrigation
water may be saline, there are six critical actions you should take:
i. Determine if there is salinity hazard from salt stored already in the soil or regolith or
if a saline water table is already present. This can be done by a consultant
experienced in a salinity assessment.
ii. Determine if your water source contains significant salinity and measure your water
salinity regularly. A chemical analysis of the water will also be needed. These tests

61
 will tell you if you are at risk from inducing salinity from your applied irrigation
water.
iii. Measure your soil salinity before and during your irrigation year. Measure at the
surface and in the zone just above the clayey B horizon. If you are adding salt, the
levels at these two locations can increase rapidly.
iv. Improve your drainage. This may mean subsurface drainage to be effective.
v. Ensure you leach out any salt build-up by using additional irrigations, and rainfall.
Check that leaching has occurred before you plant again.
vi. Maintain your calcium and sodium balance using gypsum or lime as appropriate.
vii. Application of greater amounts of organic matter such as FYM, compost etc., to the
soil to improve permeability and structure
viii. Mixing of good quality water with poor water in proper proportions so the both the
sources of water are effectively used to maximum advantage.
ix. Periodical application of organic matter and rising as well as incorporation of green
manure crops in the soil.
x. Raising of salt tolerant crops such as cotton, ragi, sugar beet, paddy, groundnut,
sorghum, corn, sunflower, chilies, tobacco, onion, tomato, garden beans, amaranthus
and lucerne.

NITRATE TOXICITY
All the N present in fertilizer and organic matter are ultimately converted to nitrates, the
form in which N is absorbed by most of the plants. The nitrates are readily soluble and are
leached down the soil profile and reach the ground water, soil erosion and runoff also can NO3
to water bodies.
Drinking water-contaminated by NO3-- can cause major health problems in human and
animals. Such as, ‘methemoglobinemia’ (blue baby syndrome) or possible carcinogenic effects
due to nitrosamines. When NO3-- is reduced to NO2- by bacteria in the digestive tract, NO2-
oxides iron in the hemoglobin (Fe2+ to Fe3+) forming methemoglobin. This results in bluish
colouration on the skin. It can be a serious problem in infants since after the age of 6 months.
The bacteria are suppressed, because of the increased acidity in the digestive tract. According
to EPA, 10 mg N/l (45 mg NO3-/l) is the prescribed limit for drinking water for human
consumption though it is four times more for livestock.
Out of the fertilizer N applied to the soil hardly 40% is utilized by the crops and the rest
are subjected to various losses or retention in soil. The NO3- loss can be minimized if the
following N management principles are followed:
1. Avoid excess use of N fertilizers.
2. Use of neem coated urea increases nitrogen use efficiency (NUE).
3. Granular urea, sulphur coated urea etc. are desirable.
4. Integrated nutrient management involving fertilizers and organics helps in increasing
CEC and thereby retention of NH4+ ions and moisture.
5. Excess frequent irrigations to be avoided. Sprinkler and drip methods are advantageous.
6. Cropping pattern should be such that the fertilizer residues are fully utilized, e.g. Potato
leaves a considerable residue. When pearl millet is taken without fertilizers in summer,
the residues are fully utilized.

62
 Nitrate toxicity can be serious when the purchased input fertilizer is carelessly used
without ensuring maximum NUE or not following soil and water conservation measures and
allowing excess soil erosion or runoff.

EUTROPHICATION
Pollutants do not have to be toxic themselves to result in the death of a species,
destruction of an ecosystem, or general degradation of water quality. In some cases their
presence is sufficient to set into play a chain of events that can have the same effect. In fact,
sometimes a substance in limited quantities is important, necessary, and a natural part of the
evolution of a given ecosystem. However, these same sub- stances will receive the label
"pollutant" when the effect they cause is undesirable.
The addition of nutrients to an ecosystem, such as a lake, is an example of some- thing
that is good in the right amounts but detrimental when in excess. This addition can be seen as
an enrichment of the lake that leads to other slow processes, collectively referred to as the
natural aging of a lake. The enrichment process is generally an irreversible one that all lakes
experience and is known as eutrophication. The word is derived from the Greeks whereas "eu"
means "well" and "trophe" means "nourishment". A simple definition of eutrophication is
therefore the naturally occurring biological process of the enrichment of water with nutrients.

Lakes are generally categorized by limnologists according to the degree of nutrient

enrichment. A young lake formed during the retreat of the glaciers is a cold, sandy-bottomed,
transparent lake with little plant life. It has a low nutrient input or loading and is referred to as
an "oligotrophic" lake, from the Greek word "oligo" for poor or few. As a lake becomes older,
it gradually receives nutrients and sediments from the surrounding drainage basin. It then
experiences an increase in productivity with increased plant growth and some production of
gamefish. The lake will eventually become nutrient rich or eutrophic, and plant growth, in the
form of microscopic phytoplankton and rooted aquatic plants, can occur to a level in which the
water becomes undesirable for various uses. Following are the general steps in the lake aging
process:
1. Streams from the drainage basin bring in soil and nutrients to a collective low point that
becomes a fertile lake.
2. The increased fertility gives rise to an accumulating growth of both plants and animals.
3. As the lake's biomass increases, organic deposits build up on the bottom and it becomes
shallower, richer, and warmer.
Given sunlight and nutrients, plant life abounds and is fed on by primary consumers.
The food chain/food web becomes established. If cultural Eutrophication comes into play,
abundant nutrients become available. The imbalance can result in algae blooms; the explosive
growth of one or more types or species to the detriment or exclusion of others. Blooms can
occur for long periods of time and extend over large areas having significant impact on the
ecology of the ecosystem and even human activities.
In agricultural soils, soil and water conservation measures should be followed to
minimize runoff and soil sediments added to the water bodies. Watershed management should
be effectively implemented to check runoff and soil erosion from non-agricultural lands such
as wastelands, grass lands, etc.

63
ACID RAINS
We have seen that the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are important gaseous pollutants
of air. These oxides are produced mainly by combustion of fossil fuels, smelters, power plants,
automobile exhausts, domestic fires etc. These oxides are swept up into the atmosphere and
can travel thousands of kilometers. The longer they stay in the atmosphere, the more likely
they are to be oxidised into acids. Sulphuric acids and nitric acid are the two main acids, which
then dissolve in the water in the atmosphere and fall to the ground as acid rain or may remain
in atmosphere in clouds and fogs.
Acidification of environment is a man-made phenomenon. The acid rain is infect a
cocktail of H2SO4 and HNO3 and the ratio of the two may vary depending on the relative
quantities of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen emitted. On an average 60-70% of the acidity is
ascribed to H2SO4 and 30-40% to HNO3. The acid rain problem has dramatically increased due
to industrialization. Burning of fossil fuels for power generation contributes to almost 60-70%
of total SO2 emitted globally. Emission of NO3-- from anthropogenic sources ranges between
20-90 million tons annually over the globe. Acid rains have assumed global ecological
problem, because oxides travel a long distance and during their journey in atmosphere they
may undergo physical and chemical transformations to produce more hazardous products.

Acid rains create complex problems and their impacts are far reaching. They increase
soil acidity, thus affecting land flora and fauna; cause acidification of lakes and streams thus
affecting aquatic life, affects crop productivity and human health. Besides these they also
corrode buildings, monuments, statues, bridges, fences, railings etc. Due to acidity, levels of
heavy metals as aluminium, manganese, zinc, cadmium, lead and copper in soil and water
increases beyond the safe limits. Many bacteria and blue green algae are killed due to
acidification, thus disrupting the ecological balance.
The acid rain problems are acute in developed Western countries. In India, industrial
belt emits lot of gases which have potential to cause acid rain. Proper planning is needful to
ensure unit for development of industries, environment and ecosystems are not threatened due
to acid rain.

SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 1: An irrigation water having EC value of 0.45 dS/m contains calcium (Ca2+) and
magnesium (Mg2+) 2.0 and 1.0 me/l, respectively. Calculate (i) the concentration of sodium
(Na+) in me/l and (ii) SAR of the irrigation water. Give comments on the irrigation water.
(i) Na (me/l) = EC (dS/m) x 10- Ca2+ + Mg2+ (me/l)
= 0.45 x 10 – (2+1) = 4.5 – 3 = 1.5
Na
(ii) SAR : Ca + Mg
2

1.5
(2+1)
2 = 1.225

The irrigation water has no sodium hazard and it can be safely used for the irrigation purposes.

64
Example 2: An irrigation water sample on analysis gives the following results: EC x 106 =
1200 µmhos/cm or 1.2 mmhos/cm or dS/m, Ca + Mg= 8 me/l Calculate the followings:
(1) Total salts in ppm and % (2) Na me/l and SAR (3) Salt added in kg/ha per irrigation (Depth
of irrigation = 5 cm)
(i) ppm = 640 x EC x 103
= 640 x 1.2 = 7680 =768 ppm
(ii) % salt = 768/10,000 = 0.0768 % or
= EC x 103 x 0.064 = 1.2 x 0.064 = 0.0768 %
(iii) SAR first Na me/l = ECe x 10 - Ca + Mg = 1.2 x 10 – 8 = 12 – 8 = 4 me/l
Na+ = 4 4 4
2+ 2+
SAR = Ca + Mg 8 = 4 = 2 = 2
2 2
(iv) Salt kg/ha
(i) ppm = mg/l = 768 mg/l
(ii) gram/l = 0.768
(iii) kg/l = 0.768/1000
100 x 100 x 0.05 = 500 cu.m. water/ha= 500 x 1000 litre

500x1000 0.768 768 3840

x = 500 x = = 384 kg/ha salt added
1 1000 1000 10

Example 3: An analysis of irrigation water as under:

(1) EC : 2.6 dS/m
(2) Ca + Mg : 18 meq/l
(3) CO3 : 3.5 me/l
(4) HCO3 : 21.5 me/l
Calculate : (1) % salt, (2) Total cation concentration, (3) ppm salt, (4) Na concentration
me/l, (5) SAR, (6) RSC, (7) Amount of salt added in soil kg/ha and GR of kg/ha
per irrigation. (Note : Depth of irrigation water = 6 cm.)
(1) ppm salt = 640 x EC x 103
= 640 x 2.6
= 1664 ppm salt = 1.424 g/l salt
(2) % salt = ppm/10,000 OR 0.0640 x EC x 103
= 0.1664
(3) Cation concentration = EC (dS/m) x 10 = Ca + Mg + Na
= 2.6 x 10 = 18 + Na
= 26 – 18 = Na
=8 = Na me/l

(4) SAR = Na/√Ca+Mg = 8/√3 = 8/3 = 2.67

2
(5) RSC = (CO3 + HCO3) – (Ca + Mg)
= (3.5 + 21.5) – (18)
= 25 – 18
= 7 me/l

(6) Amount of salt added per irrigation per hectare

65
 6 x 100 x 100
6 cm/ha = = 600 cu.m. water/ha
100

1 cu.m. = 1000 litres

600 cu.m = 6,00,000 liters/irrigation
1664 mg/l = 1.664/1000 g/l
6,00,000 x 1.664/1000 = 998.4 kg/ha/irrigation
<1.25, 1.25-2.5, >2.5 7 RSC – 2.5 = 4.5 RSC to be reduced by gypsum
RSC Z me/l = Z x 86 mg/l GR
= Z x 0.086 g/l GR
= Z x 8.6 g/100 l GR
= 4.5 x 8.6 = Y g/100 l GR
lit g Y x 6,00,000
= = 6Y = 4.5 x 8.6 x 6
100 6,00,000 Y 100 x 1000
= 232.2 kg/ ha GR
Example 4: Work out the LR for water having 2000 µmhos/cm EC value. The crop has
capacity to withstand salinity to the extent of 8 mmhos/cm. Five cm of water is applied for
irrigation.
ECiw x 100
LR = = 2 x 100/8 = 25 %
ECdw
(2000 µmhos/cm = 2 mmhos/cm)
25 % water should be given extra for irrigation or 6.25 cm of water (5 cm+1.25cm
which is 25 % of 5 cm) must be given to leach down the excess of salts. Generally the LR
values should be kept below 25 % as excess value will induce wasteful use of water and reduce
the irrigation efficiency. It will also raise the underground water table depth or will increase the
drainage requirement. Thus, for reducing the value of LR, salt tolerant crops should be chosen.
Example 5: An irrigation water having EC value of 0.45 dS/m contains calcium (Ca2+) and
magnesium (Mg2+) 2.0 and 1.0 me/l, respectively. Calculate (i) the concentration of sodium
(Na+) in me/l and (ii) SAR of the irrigation water. Give comments on the irrigation water.
(i) Na (me/l) = (EC in dS/m x 10) - (Ca2+ + Mg2+)
= (0.45 x 10) – (2 +1) = 4.5 – 3 = 1.5
Na+
(ii) SAR = Ca2+ + Mg2+
2

= 1.5/√[(2+1)/2]

= 1.5/√(3/2)
= 1.5/1.224
= 1.225
The irrigation water has no sodium hazard and it can be safely used for the
irrigation purposes.

66
Example 6: Irrigation water containing 414, 120 and 24 mg/l of Na, Ca and Mg, respectively.
Calculate (1) Total cation concentration me/l) (2) SAR (3) EC value (mSm -1) (4) OP (5) Total
dissolve salt (mg/l).
Na = 414 mg/l = 414/23 = 18 me/l
Ca = 120 mg/l = 120/20 = 6 me/l
Mg = 24 mg/l = 24/12 = 2 me/l
Total cation concentration = Ca + Mg + Na = 6 + 2 + 18 = 26 me/l
SAR = Na/√Ca+Mg/2 = 18/√6 + 2/2 = 18/√4 = 18/2= 9
EC x 103 = Total cation( me/l) /10 = 26/10 = 2.6 mmhos/ cm or dS/m
OP = EC x 103 x 0.36 = 2.6 x 0.36 = 0.936 bars
Total dissolved salts = Ca + Mg + Na = 414 + 120 + 24 = 558 mg/l

Example 7: An analysis of irrigation water is as under:

(i) EC 250 mS/m, (ii) Ca + Mg = 9 me/l (iii) CO3 + HCO3 15.0 me/l (iv) Depth of
irrigation water 5 cm/ha (10 irrigations were given) Calculate :(i) Na me/l, (ii) SAR, (iii) ppm
and % salt, (iv) Amount of salt added through irrigation water (kg/ha), (v) RSC and necessary
to workout GR of irrigation water and give your comment.
EC = 250 mS/m = 2.5 dS/m
Total cation me/l = EC x 103 x 10 = 2.5 x 10 = 25 me/l
Na me/l = Total cation – (Ca + Mg) = 25 – 9 = 16 me/l
SAR = Na/√Ca+Mg/2 = 16/√9/2 = 16/√4.5 = 16/2.12 = 7.55
% salt = EC x 103 x 0.064 = 2.5 x 0.064 = 0.16 %
ppm salt = % salt x 10,000 = 0.16 x 10,000 = 1600 ppm
5 cm/ha irrigation = 100 x 100 x 0.5 = 500 cu.m/irrigation
10 irrigations = 500 x 10 = 5000 cu.m
1 cu.m = 1000 l water hence 5000 cu.m = 5000 x 1000 = 50,00,000 l
0.16 % salt means 0.16 kg/100 l water so 50,00,000 x 0.16/100 = 8000 kg/ha
or 1600 ppm = 1600 mg/l = 1.6 g/l = 50,00,000 x 1.6/1000 = 8000 kg/ha
RSC = (CO3 + HCO3) – (Ca + Mg) = 15 – 9 = 6 me/l
Initial RSC – Final RSC = 6 – 2.5 = 3.5 me/l to be reduced
1 me RSC = 86 mg gypsum/l
= 0.086 g/l
3.5 me RSC = 3.5 x 0.086 = 0.301 g/l
so for 1 litre = 0.301 g gypsum
hence 50,00,000 l = 0.301 x 50,00,000/1000 = 1505 kg gypsum/ha
Comment : EC = 2.5 mmhos/cm = 2500 micromhos/cm = C4 =Salinity hazard
SAR= 7.55 = S1 = Low Na water = can be used
RSC = 6 = not suitable for irrigation

67
 Chapter 8
Remote Sensing and GIS techniques

Remote sensing is the science and art of acquiring information about objects fro, made
at a distance without any physical contact. Infect, when we see an object and understand what
it is, our eye is sensing that object, remotely. Similarly, the term remote sensing is generally
used form observing out earth surface from space using satellites or from the air using aircraft
after suitable modification.
Remote Sensing (RS), also called tele-detection or earth observation, refers in a general
sense to the instrumentation, techniques and methods used to observe (Sense) the surface of the
earth usually by the formation of an image (portrait) in a position stationary or mobile at a
distance remote from that surface.

Use and potentialities of remote sensing in agriculture and forestry:

1. Identification and area measurements of various major agricultural crop types.
2. Mapping of soil and water temperatures.
3. Mapping of surface water, including snow-pack.
4. Mapping of disease and insect invasion.
5. Mapping of gross forest types.
6. Mapping of forest-lire boundaries.
7. Assessment of crop and timber-stand vigour.
8. Determination of soil characteristics and soil moisture condition.
9. Delineation of rangeland productivity.
10. Mapping of areas of potential forest-fire hazard.
11. Mapping of major soil boundaries.
In the field of soil studies, the remote sensing techniques have been employed in
obtaining land-use inventories, soil surveys, detection of salinity, and detection of moisture
stress, soil mapping and measuring thermal properties of soils.
Table 8.1: Possible Use of Remote Sensing Techniques in Assessment and Monitoring of
Land, Water and Crop Resources
A. Soil and Land  Soil characteristics, soil survey and land use planning,
resources  Watershed characterization and management.
 Waste land mapping and monitoring.
B. Soil salinity &  Extent of saline and effect of reclamation measures,
water logging  Seasonal water logging, extent of wetland areas.
C. Soil erosion &  Fluvial erosion, extent and depth of gullies.
Soil conservation  Eolian erosion, sand dune movement, shilling cultivation,
D. Agricultural  Desertification arid hind forms and change in vegetative cover.
disasters  Agricultural draught management.
 Extent and damage due to floods.
E. Water resources  Surface water bodies, ground water targeting,
 Soil moisture status and soil moisture mapping.
 irrigation scheduling, evapotranspiration estimation,
68
F. Crop resource  Crop identification, discrimination & acreage estimation.
estimation  Crop yield modeling and crop production forecasting.
 Crop condition assessment, crop stress detection (water, nutrient and
diseases).

Remote sensing in soil survey

Use of remote sensing techniques for soil survey has been advanced to a great extent
from aerial photo-interpretation to visual interpretation of aerospace multispectral data and
digital analysis. Introduction of microwave remote sensing for soil moisture studies has been of
high value for soil mapping.
Aerial photographs have been used since sixties and often soil scientists have found it
very useful tool for preparation of small and medium scale soil maps. Large scale aerial
photographs have been used for detailed soil survey with intensive and judicious field checks.

Aerial photography in soil survey

Aerial photographs are the pictures taken by an aerial camera fitted into a plane flying
under certain specific conditions of flight. Aerial photographs are of two types (1) oblique and
(2) vertical.

Importance
Aerial photographs are only pictures of earth's surface, but not of the soil which is a
three dimensional piece of land shape having specific morphological, physical, chemical and
biological characteristics. This information of soil profile is required for soil classification and
mapping.
In normal soil survey about 80 per cent of the observations are made in the field are
needed for locating the soil boundaries and the other 20 per cent are used to describe the soils.
So aerial photographs reduce the time spent for locating the soil boundaries.

Methods of image interpretation

Visual Interpretation
For visual interpretation, imagery of visible and infrared bands i.e., standard False
Color Composites (FCCs) are used in identifying the various elements for soil survey. The
steps involved are summarized below:
1. Procurement of satellite imagery and toposheet of scale 1: 250,000 or 1: 50,000.
2. Construction of tentative legends.
3. Monoscopic visual interpretation of the imagery for physiography, based on differences
in- tone and texture or a combination of these two elements to prepare pre field
physiographic map.
4. Transfer of physiographic delineation into a topo-base of scale of satellite imagery.
5. Selection of sample areas/sample strips for detailed study.
6. Procurement of aerial photographs of the sample areas.
7. Transfer of broad land types from satellite imagery to aerial photograph.
8. Detailed photo-interpretation of the aerial photographs.

69
 9. Selection of sample area on aerial photographs.
10. Ground observations in sample areas of photo/imagery to correlate land type
(physiographic unit) and soil relation-ship.
11. A minimum of five to seven soil observations are done within each physiographic
delineation
12. Compilation of the legend from sample strips and construction of final legend.
13. The soil map of the sample area is prepared.
The above information is transferred over a base map. Once the soil composition of
each land unit is established, the interpretation of the imagery can be done for the entire area
by extrapolation. Thus a physiographic-soil map is prepared.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

With the advancement of computer technology digital image processing techniques are
also being used for soil mapping. Wherever there is close relationship between physiographic
and land use, digital analysis proves to be useful. Thus digital soil mapping requires
incorporation of landforms, topography (slope/aspect) and vegetation (land use/land cover)
information to improve the accuracy while classifying remotely sensed data. GIS has been
emerged as a powerful tool to integrate this information's to improve the classification.
Ancillary data are of any type of spatial and non-spatial information that may be value in the
image classification process: including elevation, slope aspect, geology, and hydrology and
vegetation maps.

What is GIS?
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and
analyzing things that exist and events that happen on Earth. The system which provides for the
entry, storing, manipulation, analysis, retrieval and display of spatially orients data, through
digital techniques. The major components are:
 Data input
 Data encoding (topology creation)
 Editing and manipulation
 Data conversion
 Data analysis
 Data base management
 Output generation and presentation

Fundamental concepts of GIS

Any data that can be mapped has both location and possess an attribute, attribute can be
both qualitative (e.g. land use, geology, etc.) or quantitative (e.g. elevation, dip, population,
etc.) and it may sometime very with time (e.g. temperature, land use, population etc.) These
three components viz., location, attributed and time represent the content of most GIS. The real
value of any information, derived from any source, depends on whether or not it can be
interrelated 1 with other spatially distributed (cartographic) information. This is possible only
when the varied information is stored in GIS format.

70
Potential areas of GIS for Agriculture
GIS is a useful tool for database management analysis and presenting of all types of
spatial data with the textual information. By integrating the crop simulation models with the
research information generated at various location across variable natural resources
environment, optimum by plans at farm, regional and national level can be derived. GIS could
be of immense use in the following areas of agriculture.
 Land suitability assessment
 Agriculture production marketing
 Irrigation scheduling
 Crop condition monitoring
 Farm management
 Soil and water management
 Fisheries management
 Wet land management
 Wasteland development
 Disaster management

71
 Chapter 9
Land Capability Soil Classification

LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION

Evaluation of land for land use planning is a consequent step following the soil survey
and mapping process. In the recent years, it has been popularized in almost every land
development programme. The system of land capability classification requires that every acre
of land be used in accordance with its capability and limitations. The land capability
classification is a broad grouping of soils bases on their limitations and also serves as a guide
to assess suitability of the land for cultivation, grazing and forest plantation. The use of land
without paying regard to its capability is like drawing on bank account without knowing the
balance. As a result, crop yields progressively decline and it requires extra-efforts for obtaining
sustain crop production.

Land Capability Groupings

The grouping of soils into capability classes and sub-classes is done on the basis of
their, capability to produce crops and pasture plants without deterioration over a long period of
time. The criteria used in assessing a land unit are the physical land properties and the degree
of limitation as a function of the severity with which crop growth is inhibited. It is mainly 1
based on:
(i) the inherent soil properties,
(ii) the external land features and
(iii) the environmental factor that limit land use. The first two information are provided by
standard soil survey report and the third information is provided by other agencies.
The following different factors that determine the capability of a soil are
a) Depth of soil
b) Drainage condition of soil
c) Texture and Structure of soil
d) Relief (slope)
e) Intensity of soil erosion
f) Susceptibility to overflow and flooding and degree of saturation
g) Problematic soils with particular reference to salts, alkali, acidity and other
unfavorable chemical properties
h) Climatic variation etc.
The land capability classification scheme developed by soil conservation
service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is appended in Table 9.1. The
classification scheme has four categories namely land suitability class, land capability
classes (comprising eight classes). Land capability sub-class and capability units.
(i) Land suitability class. It is a broad grouping of lands and it can be grouped into (a)
land suitable for cultivation and (b) land not suitable for cultivation because of
various constraints like excessive wetness or dryness, extreme variation in slopes
etc.
(ii) Land capability classes. It consists of eight classes viz. Class I to Class VIII.
Classes I through IV can be used for cultivation and classes V through VIII cannot
be cultivated in their present state under normal management.

72
Table 9.1: Land Capability Classification System
Land Capability Classification System
LAND
↓
Land use suitability (Broad grouping)
______________________________________↓__________________________________
↓ ↓
Land suitable for cultivation Land not suitable for cultivation
↓ ↓
Land Capability class Land Capability class
_________________↓______________ __________↓_____________
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Class I Class II Class III Class IV Suitable for pasture and grazing Class VIII
Very good Good land Moderaterly Fairly good
land (with no (with minor good land (with major
__________↓_______ Suitable for
wild life and
limitation) limitation) (with major limitation, ↓ ↓ ↓ watershed
limitation) occasional Class V Class VI Class VII
cultivation) (with no (with minor (with major
limitation) limitation) limitation)
↓
Land capability subclass
[grouped according to kind of limitation in each subclass viz.,erosion (e), climate (c),
excess of wetness (w), soil limitation (s)]
↓
Land capability units
↓
(land management grouped based on physical characteristics- land that is siuted for
essentially the same kind of management and same kind of manegement and same kind
of soil and water conservation treatment)
Examples: IIe, IIc, IIw mean good land with problem of erosion, climate condition, wetness and soil limitations, respectively.
73
 Class –I —Very good land
Class –II
Class –III
Class –IV
—good land
—moderate] good land
—fairly good land
—Land suitable for pastures and
} Land suitable for cultivation

Class-V, VI and VII

Class-VIII
grazing
—Land suitable for wild life
and watershed
} Land not suitable for cultivation

(iii) Land capability sub-class. It is a sub-group of land capability class, indicates

the kind of limitations encountered in the management and use of the land. The soil
capability sub-classes recognized are :
e—erosion hazard is the main limitation
w—wetness
s—shallow, droughty or stony
c—climate, too cold or too dry

These are indicated on the land capability maps by the above mentioned
symbols. In class I land, there is no limitation. In othe classes like Class II, if there is
problem of wetness, this is indicated by llw.
(iii) Land capability units. It is the further sub-divisions of the land capability
sub-classes. Soils in one Unit are enough alike to be suited to the same crops
and pasture plants, to require similar management and to have similar
productivity and other responses to management.

Soils in a land capability unit are characteristically similar having similar

potentialities and hazards. A given land capability unit can be used by farmers
directly for farm planning and other uses. If the existing limitations can be
permanently removed or reduced by following appropriate measurs like provisions of
irrigation, drainage, control of gullies and construction of flood controlling structure
etc., then the land capability class can be changed toward a better class. A further
deterioration of the existing conditions will shift the capability to a worse class.

As an output from soil survey, classification provides a framework for

making local generalisation about soil, based on the properties of the soil series
identified. Recently, for making soil survey data a more precise and useful,
geographic information system (GIS) and soil information system (SIS) techniques
are being used to give physical distribution of soil classes, to assess full range of soil
variability, to relate individual data with the spatial variability of social properties, to
interpret individual components of map units and other current information about
land use practices through a comprehensive electronic database. However, of late,
these techniques have been widely used to increase efficiency and speed of the soil
survey and land use planning programme. These modern systems were developed
mainly because it was not possible for humans to handle in an orderly way the huge
amounts of data derived from soil and land surveys until and unless advanced
computer hardware and software technology is used for the purpose.

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 Chapter 10
Multipurpose Trees: Their Selection and Role in Land-Use Systems

How Do We Define 'Multipurpose' Trees-Mpts?

We have already noted in the introduction that the term 'multipurpose trees', as
used in this source book, covers all woody perennials used in agroforestry. From many
attempts to arrive at an agreed definition, we have selected the following as most
appropriate for understanding the multiple functions of woody perennials in an
agroforestry technology:
Multipurpose trees are defined as all woody perennials that are purposefully
grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service
functions of a land-use system. They are so classified according to the attributes of the
plant species as well as to the plant's functional role in the agroforestry technology under
consideration (after Burley and von Carlowitz, 1984).
“Any woody perennial species can be 'multipurpose' in one situation and
'singlepurpose' in another.”

At What Scale Do We Use Multipurpose Trees In The Landscape?

Agroforestry can be applied at different scales in a landscape. The smallest scale
is the individual farm, where trees might be grown around the homestead or as boundary
markers. At the macro scale, agroforestry practices may be applied to whole watersheds
or to large expanses of open cereal farms, where the trees may be used to control water or
wind erosion, as contour barriers or shelterbelts.
The fundamental roles of the woody perennials can vary greatly in relation to the
needs of the system, as indicated in Table 1.1. Many examples are described in ICRAF's
Agroforestry Systems Inventory (see Nair, 1989). Supplement One is a checklist of MPT
characteristics, their possible productive and service roles, and also some important
management characteristics. In the context of experiments on agroforestry, the smallest
unit can be regarded as the zone of interaction between the multipurpose tree and the
individual crop plant —the 'tree-crop interface' (Huxley, 1983a).

The production roles of woody perennials in land-use systems

A. Forestry Applications
1. Protection forestry, land reclamation and rehabilitation
2. Management of natural vegetation
3. Industrial plantations
4. Community woodlots
5. Farm woodlots
B. Agroforestry Technologies
1. Trees in cropland, mixed intercropping
2. Hedgerow intercropping
3. Contour strips in farmland
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 4. Trees in home gardens
5. Live fences and hedges
6. Trees on borderlines and boundaries
7. Trees on terraces and earthworks
8. Trees on waterways, gullies and flood plains
9. Fodder lots
10. Windbreaks and shelterbelts
11. Improved fallows
12. Trees in pastures and rangelands

Agroforestry Systems and Fuelwood Resources

The use of agroforestry to meet the multifarious requirements of rural farmers has
been practiced in this country since time immemorial. The need is now increasingly felt in view
of the dwindling forest area, rising prices and uncertain availability of commercial energy
resource in the near future. King and Chandler (1978) defined it as a sustainable land
management system which increases the overall yield of land, combines the production of crops
(including tree crops) and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially on the
same unit of land and applies management practices that are compatible with cultural practices of
local people. The system holds promise to the energy needs of small and marginal farmers who
cannot afford to keep 10 per cent of the land for fuelwood plantations. Choice and selection of
right species and site are the two most important factors determining its success or the failure.
The tree species should not only be compatible with underlying crops but complementary also
with due emphasis on fast growth and short rotation.
The species selected should offer the advantage of:
1) multipurpose plants,
2) wide adaptability and easy to establish,
3) little care and maintenance cost,
4) unpalatably: to goats and wild animals,
5) high survival under adverse edapho-climatic conditions,
6) rapid growth and ability to coppice,
7) increase soil fertility i.e., N-fixation,
8) least competitors and good nutrient pumps and
9) high calorific values and burning quality.
Before starting any such experiments, a, preliminary survey of overall requirement.
of the local people, availability and suitability of the land, fodder and fibre requirement and oilier
problems need to be studied in detail. The diagnostic and design technique of the ICRAF can be
handy in this regard (ICRAF, 1983). The fuelwood requirement can also be substantiated by any
of the following agroforestry systems:

1. Agri-silviculture: Agricultural crop (and fodder crop) + Fuel/fodder tree species

2. Silvi-pastoral: Rearing of animal + Fuel/fodder tree and grass/forage species
3. Agri-silvipastoral: Agricultural crop + Fuel/fodder tree and forage + rearing of animal
4. Horti-silviculture: Fruit vegetable crop + Fuel/fodder tree species
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 5. Multipurpose production system: Minor forest produce (and medicinal plants)
+Fuel/fodder tree species.

Multipurpose Trees to People's Needs:

The Importance of Socioeconomic Factors
The role of a woody perennial is not confined to its service and production functions; it must
be acceptable in all respects to the farmer and to the local community. Tree characteristics that are
particularly important to many local communities include smokiness of fuelwood, odours and
flavours imparted by fuelwood or charcoal, and thorniness. However, the overriding factors for
farmers are perceived economic benefits and the reduction of risk. A new species or technology will
not be adopted by local farmers if it cannot be shown to be superior in these respects. For this
reason, long-term research programmes must include the collection of appropriate economic data.
Other, 'social', factors have to be taken into account when planning research, although they
are more difficult to quantify than economic benefits. These include personal and community
preferences, tastes, and cultural and religious behaviour; there are many examples of species that
grow well on a particular site but are not favoured by farmers for such reasons. Many of these
factors can be identified during diagnostic surveys of rural areas (see Chapter Two for more
details). A research programme must eventually investigate these preferences, attempt to put values
on community preferences and provide factual information on growth characteristics and uses of
trees to help local communities and development planners in decision making.

The Role of Indigenous Species

In many countries, an important point of discussion is whether MPT species used in
agroforestry should be indigenous or exotic. The most important factor in all cases is to make the
best choice for the farmer and for the site. As in modern farming and also in plantation forestry,
there may have been an overemphasis on exotic tree species for agroforestry, mainly because they
were thought to be easier to manage than indigenous species and their products more saleable.
However, indigenous MPT species also need to be evaluated—not only those that are
common locally, but also those that are less well known or that have specialized uses. Many of
these species can be identified during diagnostic exercises, ethnobotanical surveys or specialized
marketing studies. Although the fact that local farmers currently utilize a particular species does not
necessarily imply that it will be suitable for a specific agroforestry technology, such information at
least suggests that the species should be examined since it is known to survive and to be acceptable
under local conditions.

Diagnosing Land-Use Problems and Designing Agroforestry Technologies

The farmer or other land user makes the final decision on whether or not to adopt an
agroforestry technology for use in a particular land-use system. Yet the enormous variety of
potentially useful ways of using trees together with crops and/or animals makes it difficult to decide
which agroforestry technologies to adopt in any given situation.
Similar problems confront the researcher who has to decide which of many possible
agroforestry experiments should be conducted, especially when resources for research are scarce.
77
The priorities for research and extension should always be those technologies that have the greatest
potential for solving problems, and not necessarily those that are easiest to carry out.
In order to help agroforestry researchers and extension workers to identify these priorities
and arrive at sound agroforestry recommendations, ICRAF has developed a tool known as the
diagnosis and design (D&D) methodology. This is simply a systematic approach for applying to
agroforestry the common-sense medical principle that 'diagnosis should precede treatment'.
In any field of endeavour, the ability to solve a problem depends on being able to define
exactly what that problem is. A clear statement of the problem is often all that is needed to suggest
the nature of a possible solution. This is the core of the logic that the D&D methodology uses to
identify relevant agroforestry technologies for a given set of land-use problems and potentials. This
same logic is followed to ascertain the desirable attributes of MPT species to be used in a particular
land-use system.

The Diagnosis of Problems and Potentials

Following this approach, the diagnosis of land-management problems and potentials leads to
a set of specifications for agroforestry interventions, i.e. what an agroforestry technology is
expected to do for the system and, to some extent, how it should do it. These system specifications
suggest general agroforestry technologies from the list given in Table 1.1. To design an appropriate
prototype technology, detailed specifications are required. These specifications must include the
characteristics of suitable MPT species and other plant components, plus detailed plans for spatial
arrangements and management practices.
This step requires knowledge of the component species, the ways in which they interact
with each other and their responses to management, so that they can be combined into a workable
system.
Because each distinctive land-use system has a different set of problems that call for
different solutions, each system requires a separate D&D exercise. Thus, there is a need for a
prediagnostic reconnaissance survey, during which the land-use systems that are to be the focus of a
particular exercise are delineated and described. Detailed D&D field surveys then examine each
distinct land-use system.
The ultimate objective of the D&D process is, of course, to encourage the use of selected
agroforestry technologies by farmers and other land users. However, available knowledge on the
precise ways in which species interact is still rudimentary. At the same time, many agroforestry
technologies are still of a 'notional' character, while others, known to exist as traditional farmer
practices, have yet to be subjected to systematic scientific scrutiny. For this reason, most D&D
exercises point to requirements and priorities for further research.
Several tree species produce gums and resins that are easily collected, for instance
Boswellia and Acacia. They provide valuable cash income for rural people.

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MPT attributes in relation to production and service functions
Attributes Effects
Breeding pattern, outcrossing or Related to production and service functions; variation found in
inbreeding, pollination method populations of seedling origin
Dioecious or monoecious Distribution of sexes within and between individual
plants: important for seed and fruit production
and pollen flow
Tree height Ease of harvesting leaf, fruit, seed, branch wood; shading
effects
Stem form Suitability for timber, posts, poles; shading effects
Crown size and form Quantity of leaf, mulch and fruit production; shading effects
Multi-stemmed habit Fuelwood production; shading effects
Rooting pattern (deep or Competitiveness with other components, particularly resource
shallow; spreading or sharing with crops; suitability for soil conservation
geotrophic)
Leafiness; physical and chemical Fodder and mulch yield and quality; soil nutritional aspects
composition of leaves and pods
Thorniness Suitability for live fencing or hedgerow intercropping
Wood quality Acceptability for fuelwood and various wood products
Phenology: leaf flush, leaf fall, Timing and labour demand for fruit, fodder, seed harvest;
flowering and fruiting cycle; ability to withstand extreme conditions
seasonality
Deciduousness Seasonal or permanent leaf fodder availability; suitability for
live fences, hedges and shelterbelts
Pest resistance; vigour Major requirements, irrespective of function
Site adaptability and ecological Suitability for extreme sites or reclamation uses
range
Response to pruning and cutting Use in hedgerow intercropping or for pollarding, lopping,
coppicing
Possibility of nitrogen fixation Use in hedgerow intercropping, planted fallows, rotational
systems

Albedo: The ratio of reflected to incoming radiation, usually given in percent of vegetation or soil.
Allelopathy: The influence of plants, rather than microorganisms, upon each other, arising from the
products of their metabolism.
Alley cropping: Also called 'alley farming' and 'hedgerow intercropping'; an agroforestry
intercropping system in which species of shrubs or trees are planted at close in-row spacing, with
wide spacing between rows to leave room for herbaceous crops.
Phenology: The study of the time of appearance of characteristic periodic phenomena in the life
cycle of organisms in nature, for example flowering or leaf fall, especially as influenced by
environmental factors.

Bio remediation
“Remediate" means to solve a problem and "Bio-remediation" means to use biological
organisms to solve an environmental problem such as contaminated soil or groundwater.
Agroforestry is the collective name for all land use systems in which woody perennials are
79
deliberately grown with agriculture crops and/or animals either in some form of spatial or temporal
sequence. In agroforestry system there must be ecological and economic interaction between the
components. Agroforestry systems have the potential to make use of marginal and degraded lands
through the soil improving effects of trees. Problematic soils are those soils which are not suitable
for arable farming because of specific limitations.

Aspects of this new approach include:

1. find ways of making the use of marginal lands sustainable; reclaim and restore degraded
land;
2. improve germplasm to produce plant varieties which are adapted to soil constraints;
3. maintain soil organic matter and biological activity, with benefits both for soil physical
conditions and balanced nutrient supplies;
4. improve nutrient cycling and nutrient use efficiency in
5. agro ecosystems;
6. use fertilizers and other external inputs at moderate
7. levels, seeking strategic use to overcome deficiencies that cannot otherwise be remedied;
8. Improve water-use efficiency.

The capacity of trees to maintain or improve soils is shown by the high fertility status and
closed nutrient cycling under natural forest, the restoration of fertility under forest fallow in shifting
cultivation, and the experience of reclamation forestry and agroforestry. Soil transects frequently
show higher organic matter and better soil physical properties under trees. Some species, most
notably Faidherbia abide, regularly give higher crop yields beneath the tree canopy.
Trees improve soil fertility by processes which:
1. Increase additions to the soil;
2. Reduce losses from the soil;
3. Improve soil physical, chemical and biological conditions.
The most important sets of processes are those by which trees:
1. Check runoff and soil erosion;
2. Maintain soil organic matter and physical properties;
3. Increase nutrient inputs, through nitrogen fixation and uptake from deep soil horizons;
4. Promote more closed nutrient cycling.
Kinds of Problem Soils
There are two types of problems.
1. Physical problems
2. Chemical Problems
1. Fluffy paddy soil
2. Acidic soils
3. Sandy soil
4. Salt affected soils –Saline soils
5. Subsoil hardening or hardpan -Sodic soils
6. Surface crusting -Saline-sodic soils
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 7. Water logged soil
8. Peat and marshy soils
1) Fluffy Paddy soils – these are the low mechanical strength soil developed under continuous
rice cultivation practice. Puddling break soil aggregates into a uniform structure less mass.
2) Sandy soil- Sandy soils are the result of the weathering and disintegration of a variety of
rocks such as Granite, Limestone and Quartz. This soil is found in Haryana, U.P., Bihar
states of India.
3) Hardpan soil- these occurs in red soils due to illuviation of clay in association with oxides of
Fe, Al and calcium carbonate. It prevents root proliferation and limits nutrient uptake from
surface soil.
4) Surface crusting – it refers to the crust formation at the surface of the soil.This is due to
presence of colloidal oxides of iron and aluminium in Alfisols which binds the soil particles
under wet regimes.
5) Peat and Marshy Soil- Occur in Humid region Formed by accumulation organic matter
black in colour and High acidic. Areas: Kottayam and Alleppey in Kerala, Coastal Odisha,
Sunderbans of W.B.
6) Waterlogged Soil- In any land where Excessive water content and inadequate aeration in the
soil called waterlogged soil.

Bioremediation through agroforestry

1. Tree species: Eucalyptus robusta, Syzygium cumuni, Terminalia arjuna, Salix tetrasperma,
Dalbergia latifolia, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus grandis
2. Grasses: Brachiaria mutica, Dichanthium caricosum, Paspalum notatum, Brachiaria
decumbens.

Chemical Problem
Acid soils – This soil having pH less than 7 is called Acidic Soil and extremely acidic soil
has pH between 4- 4.75.These are formed due to leaching of bases in high rainfall zones and also
due to development of soils from acidic parent materials like granite and sandstone and application
of acid forming fertilizers. It is common in Pine forest. Areas: Karnataka, M.P., Odisha, West
Bengal, Kerala, Assam, Bihar.
Adverse effect on plant growth
1. High solubility of elements like Al, Mn and Fe in toxic amounts due to high soil acidity.
2. Beneficial activities of soil micro- organisms are adversely affected.
3. Due to soil acidity, nutrients such as Ca and K may be deficient.

Mechanism for reclamation of saline soils

Halophytes are the native flora of saline soils. Few are suitable for reclamation. The basic
principle of reclamation is the removal of excess salt to a desired level in root zone.
Providing proper drainage, use of salt free irrigation water, acidic fertilizers, organic manures etc.
are some of the mechanisms adopted. The process of salinization is accelerated by rapid
evaporation from the surface. Leaching with water of good quality and adequate drainage of excess
81
water from the soil is carried out. The selection of salt tolerant species is done which include
suitable tree species such as Prosopis juliflora, Tamarix articulate, Acacia nilotica etc. Agricultural
crops include barley, sugarbeet, cotton wheat, rice beans etc.
1. The removal of excess salts to a desired level in root zone.
2. Leaching and adequate drainage.
3. Mulching to reduce salinity.
4. Organic matter addition keeps the salts in diluted form and increases water holding
capacity of soil.
5. Green manuring, tree planting.

Bioremediation through Agroforestry

1. Promising woody species for saline soils are Salvadora spp., Prosopis juliflora, Acacia
nilotica, Parkinsonia aculeata, Butea monosperma, Terminalia arjuna, Salix spp., D. sissoo
and Casurina equisetifolia.
2. Highly salt tolerant and high biomass producing grass species include Aeluropus
lagopoides, Sporobolus helvolus, Cynodon dactylon and Brachiaria ramosa.

Mechanism for reclamation of alkali soils

The reclamation practice include proper drainage of water to remove salts from the root
zone use of salt free irrigation water, addition of organic matter, addition of molasses, alkali tolerant
crops sush as paddy, cotton, mustard, wheat, tomato, onion etc. Green manuring of dhaincha has
been found to be beneficial.
Bioremediation through Agroforestry
Prosopis juliflora and Karnal grass improves the soil condition to such an extent that after
some time or years, less tolerant but more palatable fodder species such as- Berseem (Trifolium
alexandricum) senji (Melilotus parviflora) and shaftal (Trifolium resupinatum) can be grown under
trees.
Saline and Sodic Soil
Soil that is high in both salt and sodium is considered to be saline - sodic soil. Due to high
pH and the dominance of sodium (Na+) ions in alkali soil, part of the soil organic matter dissolves
and comes into the soil solution. Extracts of such soils have a characteristic dark brown or black
colour. The dissolved organic matter in the soil solution becomes deposited as a thin film on the soil
surface. The prevalence of such black stains in such soils are called “Black alkali”.
Areas: Parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra.

Mechanism for reclamation

Such soils have the mixture of characteristics of both saline and alkali soils. Therefore soils
showing high salinity should be reclaimed for both first for salinity and later for excessive
exchangeable sodium. Growing of crops tolerant to high exchangeable sodium ensures reasonable
returns during initial years of reclamation. Cropping practice including a green manure crop and/or
legume is common. Low organic matter and high pH deters the biological activity and thus

82
decreases the transformation of\and availability of nutrients, and causes significant volatilization of
nitrogen from applied nitrogenous fertilizers. Tolerant crops such as rice, sugarbeet and dhaincha
are used. Trees species include Prosopis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, Prosopis chinensis etc.

Bioremediation through Agroforestry

Acacia auriculiformis, Azadirachta indica, Casurina equisetifoia, Dalbergia sissoo,
Alianthus excelsa, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia tortilis and A. nilotica tree species are used for
bioremediation of the saline and sodic soils.

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