CHAPTER 1, PART 1-- WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?

Defining mathematics
- Came from the Greek word: mathema, which means, among others, knowledge
- Has no generally accepted definition
- Is defined differently by different people
Galileo Galilei David Hilbert
“The universe cannot be read until we have “We are not speaking here of arbitrariness in
learned the language and become familiar any sense. Mathematics is not like a game
with the characters in which it is written. It is whose tasks are determined by arbitrary
written in mathematical language, and the stipulated rules. Rather, it is a conceptual
letters are triangles, circles and other system possessing internal necessity that can
geometrical figures, without which means it only be so and by no means otherwise”
is humanly impossible to comprehend a
single word. Without these, one is wandering - Math is a conceptual system. It is a
about in a dark labyrinth” system oppose from an arbitrary

- Math is the key to understanding the

universe
- Without math it is impossible to
comprehend to attain understanding

How other people view mathematics

- Math is a process of thinking
- Math is a set of problem-solving tools
- Math is an art
- Math is a study of patters
- Math is a language

Mathematics as a language
- A language is a non-instinctive (must be learned) system of communication using
symbols possessing arbitrary (learned) meanings and shared by a community
- Mathematics is the only language shared by all human beings regardless of gender,
religion, or culture
- It is a universal language. it connects us with people across continents and through time
- Just like English, math has “words”
o 0, -1, +, /, x, y, =, >
- We follow letter conventions
o A, b, c –fixed values;
o I, j, k—for counting;
o X, y, z—for unknowns
- “nouns”
o Could be numbers: 15, 7
o Could be expressions with numbers: 2(3- ½), 5(3^2)
 - “verbs”
o Could be the equal sign: =
o Could be an inequality: >, <
- “pronouns”
o Could be variables: x, y
o Could be expressions: 5x, -7y, 3/x
- Having nouns, verbs, and pronouns, we can now from “sentences”
o Ex: 3x + 7= 22
o Ex: x= 2
o Sentences which are true or false are declarative
 3+4= 7 is a true declarative sentence
 3+4=10 is a false declarative sentence
 3+4 is an expression but not a sentence
 Interrogative sentences—asks a question
 Imperative sentences—commands
 Exclamatory sentences—strong emotions
o The truth of a declarative sentence may depend on the value of the variable
 X+2= 5 is true, when x=3. It is false otherwise

Propositions
- A proposition is a declarative sentence which is either true of false
o This subject is GEMATMW (true)
- Negation
o The negation of the proposition is: this subject is not GEMATMW (false)
- Propositional variables: p,q,r, etc. to denote our propositions
o P: this subject is GEMATMW
o  P: this subject is not GEMATMW
- Binary propositional connectives
o Conjunction, disjunction, exclusive or, implication, biconditional
Conjunction  And
Disjunction  Or
Exclusive or  X or/ either but not
both
Implication  Implies/ if… then
Biconditional  If and only if
o Compound proposition
 P  (q  r)
- Bit operations
o If we have a strings of TTFTF. And we replace T with 1, and F with 0, we end up
with a bit string
 TTFTF -> 11010
If we have 2 propositional variables (p and q), there are 4 combinations of their truth values

For conjunction: P  Q
The conjunction is true ONLY IF both P and Q are true
For disjunction: P  Q
The disjunction is false ONLY IF both P and Q are false
For exclusive or: P  Q
It is only true is P and Q have different truth values
For implication/ conditional: P  Q
The implication is false only if P is true, and Q is false
Regardless if P is false, the implication is true
For biconditional: P  Q
The biconditional is true only if P and Q are true, or if both are false

Examples:
 Proposition: manila is not the capital of the Philippines (F)
 Negation: manila is the capital of the Philippines (T)
1. Suppose it is Monday and it is not raining
o Suppose it is Monday and it is not raining
o P: today is Friday.; Q: it is not raining today
 P  Q: today is Friday, and it is not raining today—false

Compound propositions
1. Tautology—always true
2. Contradiction—always false
3. Contingency—neither a tautology nor a contradiction
4. Logical equivalence—a bi-conditional which is a tautology

Tautology
PP
Contradiction
PP
Contingency
P  (Q  R)  (P  R)  R
Logical equivalence
 (P  Q)  ( P   Q)

Tautology
P P P  P
 T F T
F T T

Logical equivalence
P Q PQ  (P  Q) P Q P   Q
T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T

 (P  Q)  P   Q
F T F
F T F
F T F
T T T
Since we have all trues, our bi-conditional is a tautology. Therefore, we have a logical
equivalence

Important equivalences
Identity laws  PTP
 PFP
Domination laws  PTT
 P FF
Idempotent laws  PPP
 P PP
Double negation laws  ( P)  P
Commutative laws  PQQP
 PQQ P
Associative laws  (P  Q)  R  P  (Q  R)
 (P  Q)  R  P  (Q  R)
Distributive laws  P  (Q  R)  (P  Q)  (Q  R)
 P  (Q  R)  (P  Q)  (Q  R)
De Morgan’s laws   (P  Q)   P   Q
  (P  Q)   P   Q

Implications
- Implication (P  Q)
 P—hypothesis, antecedent
 Q—conclusion, consequence
o Converse (Q  P)
o Inverse ( P   Q)
 o Contrapositive ( Q   P)

Original implication = Contrapositive

Converse = Inverse

Examples
Implication: if today is Thursday, then I have a test today (P  Q)
 P= if today is Thursday
 Q= then I have a test today
Converse: if I have a test today, then today is Thursday (Q P)
Inverse: if today is not Thursday, then I do not have a test today ( P   Q)
Contrapositive: if I do not have a test today, then today is not a Thursday ( Q   P)

Propositional functions
- Predicate, argument
o P(x): x is a boy
 True or false?
 P(Romeo)—true statement
 P(Juliet)—false statement
- Quantification
Another way we can transform a propositional function to a statement with a definite
truth value is through: QUANTIFICATION

o Universal quantification: :for all X, P(x).

 P(x) is true when whatever the value of X is
 In our example P(x): x is a boy. P(Romeo) and P(Juliet)
 The universal quantification is FALSE because Juliet is not a boy
o Existential qualification: :there exists an x, such that P(x).
 for which we can find at least 1 X where P(x) is true
 in our example: P(x)L x is a boy. P(Romeo) and P(Juliet)
 The existential qualification is TRUE because there is 1 P(x) that is true
o Negation of a quantification:
 ¬ ∀ P ( x )=∃ x ¬ P ( x )
 not for all X, P(x) is equivalent to there exists an X, such that not
P(x)
 ¬∃ P ( x )=∀ x ¬ P ( x )
 There exists not an X, such that P(x) is equivalent to: for all X, not
P(x)

Example
P(x): X > 3
 1. P (5)—true because 5 is greater than 3
2. P (2)—false because 2 is not greater than 3
3. P (3)—false because 3 is not greater than 3
4. ∀ xP ( x ) —false because not every X is greater than 3
5. ∃ xP( x)—true because there is at least 1 x (5) that is greater than 3

Q (x, y): x is the capital of y

1. Q (Tokyo, japan)—true
2. Q (Shanghai, China)—false

R (x, y, z): x + y =z
1. R (5, 2, 3)—false because 5+2 ≠ 3
2. R (1, 2, 3)—true because 1+2=3

Quiz 1
1. Which of the following combinations of propositions P and Q is true when at least one
of them is true?
a. P ∨Q
b. P →Q
c. P Q
d. P ∧Q
2. Which of the following is the negation of the proposition? :¬ P ∧Q
a. P ∨¬Q
 b. P ∧¬Q
c. ¬ P ∨¬ Q
d. ¬ P ∧¬ Q
3. Consider the statements:
P: today is Monday
Q: Amy has no classes
R: tomorrow is a busy day
What valid conclusion can be drawn from the following premises if they are assumed to
be true?
P →Q
Q→R
a. If tomorrow is a busy day, then Amy has no classes
b. If today is Monday, then tomorrow is a busy day
c. Amy has no classes
d. Today is a Monday and tomorrow is a busy day
4. Which of the following symbolizes the exclusive-or statement?
a. P ∨Q
b. P →Q
c. P Q
d. P ∧Q
5. Let P, Q, R, and S be propositions such that P is true, Q is false, R is true, and S is false.
What is the truth value of the proposition: (( P →¬Q )( R ∧ S )
a. True
b. False
6. Which of the following is the symbol for a conjunction? -- ⋀
7. Suppose P is the proposition : 4 is a perfect square” and Q is the proposition “5 is an odd
number”. Which of the following is the symbolic representation of the statement: “4 is
not a perfect square or 5 is an odd number?”
a. ¬ ( P ∧Q )
b. ¬ P ∧Q
c. ¬ P ∨Q
d. ¬ ( P ∨Q )
8. Which of the following illustrates disjunctive syllogism?
P ∨Q
¬P
∴Q

9. Which of the following can be concluded from the statement: “none of the club’s
members is willing to help but everyone wants to get something”?
a. Every club member is willing to help
b. Some club members are helpful
c. No club member wants to get something
d. Every club member wants to get something
10. Which of the following is the contrapositive of the statement: “you win the game if you
know the rules but are not overconfident.”?
a. A sufficient condition that you win the game is that you know the rules or you
are not overconfident
b. If you lose the game then you don’t know the rules or you are overconfident
c. A necessary condition that you know the rules or you are not confident that you
win the game
d. If you don’t know the rules or are overconfident that you lose the game
11. What is the inverse of the statement: “if P then not Q.”?
a. If not P, then Q
b. If not Q, then not P
c. If not P, then not Q
d. If not Q, then P
12. If P is true and Q is false, what is the truth value of the following compound proposition?
¬PQ
a. True
b. False
13. A conditional statement is false only when the antecedent is ____.
a. False and the consequent is true
b. True and the consequent is true
c. True and the consequent is false
d. False and the consequent is false
14. Which of the following is a tautology?
a. P ∨¬ P
b. P ¬ P
c. P →¬ P
d. ¬ ( P ↔ P )
15. Suppose there are 3propositions in a compound statement (for example, P ∨ ( Q ∨¬ R )
and you want to construct a truth table for this. How many combinations of truth values
will there be in this table?
a. 9
b. 16
c. 8
d. 6
16. Which of the following illustrates MODUS PONENS?
P →Q
P
∴Q
17. Consider the following propositions:
If an athlete is hardworking, then his coach is proud
Coach Sam is not proud of this athlete named Sean
Which of the following is a valid conclusion from the statements above?
a. Sean is not hardworking
b. Sam is not an athlete
 c. Sean is not proud
d. Sam is not hardworking
18. Which of the following is a proposition that is sometimes true and sometimes false?
a. Contradiction
b. Contingency
c. Tautology
d. Biconditional
19. Consider the proposition:
“When two lines intersect, they meet at a unique point”
Which of the following is its contrapositive?
a. When two lines do not meet at a unique point, then they do not intersect
b. When two lines do not intersect, they do not meet at a unique point
c. When two lines meet at a unique point, they intersect
d. When two lines do not meet, they intersect at a unique point
20. Which of the following is valid conclusion drawn by applying disjunctive syllogism?
P: Either the student is hardworking or easy-going
Q: My student Lisa is not easy-going
a. If Lisa is a student, then she is easy-going
b. If the student is easy-going, then she is Lisa
c. If Lisa is hardworking, then she is a student
d. Lisa is hardworking
21. Which of the following symbolizes a conditional statement?
a. P ∨Q
b. P Q
c. P →Q
d. P ∧Q
22. What is the converse of the statement: “if P then not Q”?
a. If Q, then not P
b. If not P, then not Q
c. If not Q, then P
d. If not P, then Q
23. Which of the following illustrates MODUS TOLLENS?
P →Q
¬Q
∴¬P

24. Consider the premises:

P: all athletes practice
Q: if one practices, then s/he becomes strong
R: Peter is an athlete
Which of the following is a valid conclusion from these premises?
a. All of the given statements are valid
b. Peter practices and is strong
 c. Peter practices
d. Peter is strong
25. Which of the following is NOT a proposition?
a. What I am saying is true
b. DLSU is a trimestral university
c. The number 0 is even
d. 4 + 5= 8