Lecture # 5

Corrosion

Definition
Corrosion is the gradual destruction and loss of a material and its critical properties due to
chemical, electrochemical and other reactions of the exposed material surface with the
surrounding environment. 

Corrosion explanation

Corrosion of metals and nonmetals takes place due to the gradual environmental interaction on
the material surface. The structures and of different materials are affected by this interaction.
Even the ambient air, with moisture and oxygen, can start this process, known as rusting, on
steel surfaces. In the case of buried structures and pipelines the soil chemistry and moisture
determine the rate of damage. Fumes of acids such as sulfuric acid also accelerate corrosion. In
the case of aluminum, however, the oxide film formed due to initial corrosive attack protects
the surface from further damage. In marine environments, in which airborne salt crystals are
deposited onto ships, corrosion of submerged surfaces as well as surfaces floating above water
level occurs. 

Corrosion affects the microstructure, mechanical properties and the physical appearance of the
materials. Rusting and other types of deterioration drastically reduce the capacity of pipelines
and equipment, resulting in loss of output as well as loss of equipment, or even life. Hence,
anti-corrosive coatings are used to combat the corrosion damage to critical structures and
equipment.

Corrosion Science/Corrosion Process

Elements are rarely found in a pure metal state. Rather they are found in chemical
combinations with one or more nonmetallic elements. These chemical combinations are
commonly known as ore. Iron, copper, and zinc ore are three of the most common ores found
in the earth’s crust.

Significant energy must be expended to reduce the ore to pure metal. This energy can be
applied via metallurgical or chemical means and is done so in the process called smelting and
refining. Additional energy also may be used in the form of cold-working or heating and casting
the pure metal into a working shape. Corrosion, which can be simply defined as rust, is the
tendency for metals to revert to their natural, lower energy state of ore.
Types of corrosion

There are many different types of corrosion, each of which can be classified by the cause of the
metal's chemical deterioration. Listed below are 10 common types of corrosion:

1. General Attack Corrosion:

Also known as uniform attack corrosion, general attack corrosion is the most common type of
corrosion and is caused by a chemical or electrochemical reaction that results in the
deterioration of the entire exposed surface of a metal. Ultimately, the metal deteriorates to the
point of failure.

General attack corrosion accounts for the greatest amount of metal destruction by
corrosion but is considered as a safe form of corrosion, due to the fact that it is predictable,
manageable and often preventable.

2. Localized Corrosion:

Unlike general attack corrosion, localized corrosion specifically targets one area of the metal
structure. Localized corrosion is classified as one of three types:

Pitting: Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually as a result of de-
passivation of a small area under specific conditions include low concentrations of oxygen or
high concentrations of chlorides (anions) that interfere with the alloy’s ability to reform a
passivating film. This area becomes anodic, while part of the remaining metal becomes
cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of this small area
penetrates the metal and can lead to failure. This form of corrosion is often difficult to detect
due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and may be covered and hidden by corrosion-
produced compounds.

Crevice corrosion: Similar to pitting, crevice corrosion occurs at a specific location. This type of
corrosion is often associated with a stagnant micro-environment, like those found under
gaskets and washers and clamps. Acidic conditions or a depletion of oxygen in a crevice can
lead to crevice corrosion.

Filiform corrosion: Occurring under painted or plated surfaces when water breaches the
coating, filiform corrosion begins at small defects in the coating and spreads to cause structural
weakness.
3. Galvanic Corrosion:
Galvanic corrosion (also called bimetallic corrosion) is an electrochemical process in which one
metal corrodes preferentially when it is in electrical contact with another, in the presence of an
electrolyte.

Galvanic corrosion, or dissimiliar metal corrosion, occurs when two different metals are located
together in a corrosive electrolyte. A galvanic couple forms between the two metals, where one
metal becomes the anode and the other the cathode. The anode, or sacrificial metal, corrodes
and deteriorates faster than it would alone, while the cathode deteriorates more slowly than it
would otherwise.

Different metals and alloys have different electrochemical potentials (or corrosion potentials) in

the same electrolyte. ... The potential difference (i.e., the voltage) between two dissimilar
metals is the driving force for the destructive attack on the active metal (anode).

In a bimetallic couple, the less noble material will become the anode of this corrosion cell and
tend to corrode at an accelerated rate, compared with the uncoupled condition. The more
noble material will act as the cathode in the corrosion cell. Galvanic corrosion can be one of the
most common forms of corrosion as well as one of the most destructive.

Galvanic corrosion is caused by self-induced current created by electrical potential of two

dissimilar metals in contact with an electrolyte. It can occur when two dissimilar metals (such as
copper tube and steel pipe) are connected in the presence of an electrolyte. Fresh potable
water is a weak electrolyte.

Three conditions must exist for galvanic corrosion to occur:

 Electrochemically dissimilar metals must be present

 The metals must be in electrical contact, and
 The metals must be exposed to an electrolyte

4. Environmental Cracking:

Environmental cracking is a corrosion process that can result from a combination of

environmental conditions affecting the metal. Chemical, temperature and stress-related
conditions can result in the following types of environmental corrosion:

 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) is the growth of crack formation in a corrosive

environment. It can lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metals subjected
to a tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature.
 Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the mechanical degradation of a
material under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering
structures experience some form of alternating stress, and are exposed to harmful
environments during their service life.
 Hydrogen-induced cracking: The individual hydrogen atoms within the metal gradually
recombine to form hydrogen molecules, creating pressure from within the metal. This
pressure can increase to levels where the metal has reduced ductility, toughness, and
tensile strength, up to the point where it cracks open (hydrogen-induced cracking, or HIC).

5. Flow-Assisted Corrosion (FAC):

Flow-assisted corrosion, or flow-accelerated corrosion, results when a protective layer of oxide

on a metal surface is dissolved or removed by wind or water, exposing the underlying metal to
further corrode and deteriorate.

 Erosion-assisted corrosion is the combined effect that occurs due to corrosion and erosion
and is caused by the rapid flow of any turbulent fluid on a metal surface.
Erosion-corrosion is caused by the relative movement between a corrosive fluid and a metal
surface. The mechanical aspect of the movement is important and friction and wear
phenomena can be involved. This process leads to the formation of grooves, valleys, wavy
surfaces, holes, etc., with a characteristic directional appearance (comet tails, horseshoe
marks, etc
 Impingement corrosion is a chemical form of degradation of a metallic or nonmetal surface
and its material properties. It is caused by the sustained impact of fluid or solid particles in a
high-velocity flow against a surface.
 Cavitation corrosion is particular form of erosion caused by the "implosion" of gas bubbles
on a metal surface. It is often associated with sudden variations in pressure related to the
hydrodynamic parameters of the fluid (e.g. hydraulic turbine blades, propellers, stirrer
blades, etc.).

7. Intergranular corrosion

Intergranular corrosion is a chemical or electrochemical attack on the grain boundaries of a

metal. This often occurs due to impurities in the metal, which tend to be present in higher
contents near grain boundaries. These boundaries can be more vulnerable to corrosion than
the bulk of the metal.
8. De-Alloying:

De-alloying, or selective leaching, is the selective corrosion of a specific element in an alloy. The
most common type of de-alloying is de-zincification of unstabilized brass. The result of
corrosion in such cases is a deteriorated and porous copper.

9. Fretting corrosion:

Fretting corrosion occurs as a result of repeated wearing, weight and/or vibration on an

uneven, rough surface. Corrosion, resulting in pits and grooves, occurs on the surface.

Fretting corrosion is often found in rotation and impact machinery, bolted assemblies and
bearings, as well as to surfaces exposed to vibration during transportation.

10. High-Temperature Corrosion:

Fuels used in gas turbines, diesel engines and other machinery, which contain vanadium or
sulfates can, during combustion, form compounds with a low melting point. These compounds
are very corrosive towards metal alloys normally resistant to high temperatures and corrosion,
including stainless steel.

Microbial corrosion
Microbial corrosion, commonly referred to as microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is
caused by microorganisms.  It applies to both metallic and non-metallic materials with or
without oxygen.  When oxygen is absent, sulfate-reducing bacteria are active and produce
hydrogen sulfide causing sulfide stress cracking.  When oxygen is present, some bacteria may
directly oxidize iron to iron oxides and hydroxides.  Concentration cells can form in the deposits
of corrosion products, leading to localized corrosion.