Welcome to the

Winter School of
AI and Robotics
on Autonomous
Organised by
Robotics! Technology
Robotix Society
in association
1 with IEEE
 Day 1
1 Topics to be covered today:
Installations
Drives
Basic electronics
H bridge
ICs
PWM
Sensors

Let’s get started!

 Installation
Links for the installation of
Ubuntu and Virtualbox:

https://releases.ubuntu.com/18.
04.5/?_ga=2.38049510.411934
705.1615554930-986537703.1
615554930

https://www.wikihow.com/Install
-VirtualBox

https://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=QbmRXJJKsvs
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 Drives:
Ackerman Drive

Differential Drive

Skid Steer Drive

4 Omni drive
 Ackerman Drive
Used for turning. Inner wheels rotate at a smaller radius than
the outer wheels.

All the wheels of the bot rotate in concentric circles with the Centre of the
turning circle as the centre.
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 Differential Drive

Castor wheel

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 Skid Steer Drive

The difference between skid steer drive and differential drive is that
differential drive uses a castor wheel for balancing the bot where as a skid
steer drive uses wheels that are attached to motors for balance.

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 Omni Drive

Omni wheels have ball bearings that

move perpendicular to the direction of
rotation of the wheel thus preventing
skidding of the bot.The wheel can
therefore move with great ease in the
lateral direction as well.

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 Switches

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 Relays Relays are electrical switches
that use electromagnetism to
convert small electrical stimuli
into larger currents.

There are 5 terminals in a

relay: Normally Open,
Normally Closed, Common
Terminal and the two coil
terminals.

When a potential difference

is applied between the two
coil terminals, the coil is
energised and the circuit
switches from normally
closed to normally open
10 configuration.
 Diodes • A p-n junction diode is
two-terminal or two-electrode
semiconductor device, which allows
the electric current in only one
direction while blocks the electric
current in opposite or reverse
direction.

In forward bias the positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode of the
diode and the negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the cathode of the
diode.

In reverse bias the positive terminal of the voltage source is connected to the cathode of the
diode and the negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the anode of the
diode.

For a forward-bias voltage, the current is an exponential function of voltage.

11 In the reverse-bias direction, the current is almost zero.

 Flyback Diodes

A flyback diode is a diode

used to eliminate flyback,
which is the sudden voltage
spike seen across an
inductive load when its supply
current is suddenly reduced or
interrupted.

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 Zener Diode
A Zener Diode is a special kind of
diode which permits current to
flow in the forward direction as
normal diode, but will also allow it
to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage is above the
breakdown voltage also known as
‘zener’ voltage..

Therefore a Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator in a circuit.It is

connected in parallel with the load.

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 Voltage Regulator IC

The figure on the left shows

an LM7805 IC.
A voltage regulator IC
maintains the output
voltage at a constant
value. 7805 IC, a voltage
regulator integrated
circuit which maintains
the output at 5V.

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 Rectifiers
Half Wave Rectifier:

The output voltage appears only during the

positive cycle of the input signal.

Full Wave Rectifier:

Rectified output voltage occurs

during both the positive and negative
cycles of the input signal.
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 Smoothening
While half-wave and full-wave
rectification deliver unidirectional
current, but neither of them
produces a constant voltage.

Producing steady DC from a

rectified AC supply requires a
smoothing circuit or filter.

A capacitor can be used as a filter,

as capacitor blocks low frequency
AC components and allows high
frequency AC components.

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 A filter is a circuit that allows to pass a
Filtering specified range of frequency
High Pass Filters: components, while blocking the rest
according to the frequency range of
signals.

When the output is taken across the

resistor the output voltage will be low for
low frequency and approximately equal
to input voltage for high frequency. Thus
it acts as a high pass filter.
Low Pass Filters:

When the output is taken

across the capacitor the
output voltage will be low for
high frequency and
approximately equal to input
for low frequency. Thus it
acts as a low pass filter.
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 MOSFETS(Metal Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistors)

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 Op-amps

An operational amplifier (often op-amp or opamp) is a DC-coupled

high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and,
usually, a single-ended output.

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 Op-amp Comparator:

The comparator is an electronic decision making circuit that makes use of an

operational amplifier’s very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, when there is
no feedback resistor.
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 H-Bridge:

An H bridge is an electronic circuit that enables a

D1,D2,D3,D4 are flyback diodes.
voltage to be applied across a load in many
directions. These circuits are often used in
robotics and other applications to allow DC
motors to run forwards or backwards.

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 L293D motor driver IC:
A motor driver IC is an integrated circuit chip which is usually used to control motors in autonomous
robots. Motor driver ICs act as an interface between microprocessors in robots and the motors in the
robot.

Why need a Motor Driver-

1. The maximum current output of an Arduino is around 200mA and maximum voltage is 5V.
2. The voltage required by an actuator(motor) is around 9-12V.
3. The Arduino will burn out if this big current is pulled through it.

A motor driver takes the output from the arduino, amplifies it and supply it to the motors.

L293D is a typical Motor driver IC which allows DC motor to drive on either direction. L293D is a
16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors simultaneously in any direction. It means that
you can control two DC motor with a single L293D IC.

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 Pins Pins characteristics
1 Enable 1-2, when this is HIGH the left part of the IC will work and when it is low the
left part won’t work. So, this is the Master Control pin for the left part of IC.
L293D Pin Diagram: 2 INPUT 1, when this pin is HIGH the current will flow through output 1.
3 OUTPUT 1, this pin should be connected to one of the terminals of motor.
4,5 GND, ground pins.
6 OUTPUT 2, this pin should be connected to one of the terminals of motor.
7 INPUT 2, when this pin is HIGH the current will flow through output 2.
8 Vcc2, this is the voltage which will be supplied to the motor. So, if you are driving 12 V
DC motors then make sure that this pin is supplied with 12 V.
16 Vcc1, this is the power source to the IC. So, this pin should be supplied with 5 V.

15 INPUT 4, when this pin is HIGH the current will flow through output 4.
14 OUTPUT 4, this pin should be connected to one of the terminals of motor.
13,12 GND, ground pins.

11 OUTPUT 3, this pin should be connected to one of the terminals of motor.

10 INPUT 3, when this pin is HIGH the current will flow through output 3.
9 Enable 3-4, when this is HIGH the right part of the IC will work and when it is low the
right part won’t work. So, this is the Master Control pin for the right part of IC.

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 Pulse width modulation:
Duty Cycle:
When the signal is high, we call this “on time”. To describe the amount of “on time” , we use the
concept of duty cycle. Duty cycle is measured in percentage. The percentage duty cycle specifically
describes the percentage of time a digital signal is on over an interval or period of time.

Duty cycle = Ton/(Ton+Toff)*100

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Boolean algebra:
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to analyse digital gates and circuits. We can use these “Laws of
Boolean” to both reduce and simplify a complex Boolean expression in an attempt to reduce the number of logic
gates required.
● Logic AND Function
● Logic OR Function
● Logic NOT Function
● Logic NAND Function
● Logic NOR Function

MUX
In electronics, a multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects one of several input
signals and forwards the selected input into a single line. A multiplexer of 2n inputs
has ⌈n⌉ select lines, which are used to select which input line to send to the
output. Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount of data that can be
sent over the network.

A 2-to-1 multiplexer has a boolean equation where A, B are the two inputs,S is the
selector input, and Z is the output:

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 DEMUX

It has one input and many outputs.

Used when circuit intends to send signals to one of many devices.

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 Sensors:
➢ Distance - SONAR, LIDAR for robot localisation and mapping(uses laser pulses), RADAR
➢ Orientation - Accelerometer, Gyroscope, Magnetometer

An accelerometer is an electromechanical device used to measure acceleration forces. Such forces may
be static, like the continuous force of gravity or, as is the case with many mobile devices, dynamic to
sense movement or vibrations.
A gyroscope sensor is a device that can measure and maintain the orientation and angular velocity of an
object. These are more advanced than accelerometers. These can measure the tilt and lateral orientation
of the object whereas accelerometer can only measure the linear motion.

➢ Pressure - Touch screens: Capacitive sensors

When a charge is pulled by external conducting object like a finger(s) from an area on the grid, the IC
calculates the location of the finger on the touch surface. Touch sensors, made of projective capacitive
technology can be used to sense a finger that is not touching its surface. They act as near proximity sensors.

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➢ Temperature - Thermal resistors, heat sensors
➢ Light - LDR, IR, Camera

A photoresistor is a light-controlled variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases

with increasing incident light intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor
can be applied in light-sensitive detector circuits, and light-activated and dark-activated switching
circuits.
An infrared sensor is an electronic instrument that is used to sense certain characteristics of its
surroundings. It does this by either emitting or detecting infrared radiation. Infrared sensors are also
capable of measuring the heat being emitted by an object and detecting motion. It can also detect
the color of its surroundings based on the intensity of light reflected.

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 Motors
DC Motors:
A DC motor is any of a class of
rotary electrical machines that
converts direct current electrical
energy into mechanical energy.

Stepper Motors:

Stepper motors use an internal

rotor, electronically manipulated by
external magnets.

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 Thank you!

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