Contents

1 Measurement and Error Concepts

1.1 The International System of Units
1.2 Unit Conversion
1.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Error in Measurement
1.4 Bisection Method of Reducing Error

2Plane Geometry: Concepts and Applications

2.1 Circles
2.2 Polygons
2.3 Perimeter of Polygons
2.4 Area of Polygons

3Solid Geometry: Concepts and Applications

3.1 Basic Concepts of Solids
3.2 Measurements of Solids

4Conic Section and Its Applications

4.1 Parabola
4.2 Ellipse
4.3 Hyperbola
 CHAPTER 1
MEASUREMENT AND ERROR CONCEPTS

1.1 The International System of Units

1.2 Unit Conversion
1.3 Accuracy, Precision and Error in Measurements
1.4 Bisection Method of Reducing Error

At the end of the chapter, students are expected to

 define the modern metric system called the International System of Units (SI
Units).
 apply the various conversion formulas of length, mass, time, area, and volume in
solving applied physical problems for both English Customary System of Units
and SI System of Units.
 distinguish and illustrate the notion of accuracy and precision in measurement.
 analyze and calculate the accuracy, precision, and error of single and repeated
measurements.
 apply the bisection method in estimating the root of an equation.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT

Measurement, loosely defined is the length, amount, or size of something that is

measured.

Measurement is as old as human history itself. Humans had always measure things and
phenomena around them. They measure time and passing of seasons, they tally their foods and
livestock, and they count their belongings. They have used various means to achieve these:
They used sticks to tally and count. They used sun dials and sand glasses to measure time and
seasons. Employing body parts, they measure lengths and heights.

Units of Measurements

The Egyptian cubit, the Indus Valley units of length referred to above and the
Mesopotamian cubit were used in the 3rd millennium BC and are the earliest known units used
by ancient peoples to measure length. The names for many units of measurement were
borrowed from human morphology. For example, the foot, the hand, the pace, etc. Still,
however, these units of measurement were not standardized. As industry and trade expanded
across the world, the need became dire for a single standardized system of measurement.
Today, units of measurement are generally defined on a scientific basis, overseen by
governmental or independent agencies, and established in international treaties, pre-eminent of
which is the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM), established in 1875 by the
Meter Convention, overseeing the International System of Units (SI) and having custody of the
International Prototype Kilogram. The meter, for example, was redefined in 1983 by the CGPM
in terms of light speed.

Systems of Measurements

The earliest known uniform systems of weights and measures seem all to have been
created at some time in the 4th and 3rd millennia BC among the ancient peoples of Egypt,
Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, and perhaps also Elam (in Iran) as well. The metric system
is a decimal system of measurement based on its units for length, the meter and for mass, the
kilogram. It exists in several variations, with different choices of base units, though these do not
affect its day-to-day use. Since the 1960s, the International System of Units (SI) is the
internationally recognized metric system. Metric units of mass, length, and electricity are
widely used around the world for both every day and scientific purposes.

1.1 The International System of Units

‚Measure what is measurable and make measurable what is not so.‛

- Galileo Galilei

The names for many units of measurement were borrowed from human morphology
like the foot, the hand, the pace, etc. Unfortunately, these units of measurement were not
standardized. As industry and trade expanded across the world, a single standardized system
of measurement must be developed in order to create balance across the various industries and
subsequently, the world.This unified system of measurement was then called the ‚metric
system‛.

The metric system was developed in France in the 1790s and was considered the first
standardized system of measurement.However back in 1960, the metric system was revised,
simplified, and renamed to ‚Le Système International d’Unites‛ (The International System of
Units) or the ‚SI System of Units‛, which is,nowadays, the standard form of measurement in
almost every country across the globe, except for the United States. Despite not being a
commonly-used measurement in the United States, the SI system is the standard system used
by scientists worldwide, including those in the United States.

The SI system is made up of mutually independent 7 base units (see Table 1) that define
the 4 derived units without special names and 22 derived units(see Table 2)with special names
and symbols.
 Table 1: The SI System Base Units

Base Quantity Unit Measurement Name Symbol

Length Meter
Mass Kilogram
Time Second
Electric Current Ampere
Temperature Kelvin
Amount of Substance Mole
Luminous Intensity Candela

Table 2: The SI System Derived Units without Special Names

Derived Quantity Symbol
Area
Volume
Velocity
Acceleration

Table 3: The SI System Derived Units With Special Names and Symbols
Derived Quantity Unit Measurement Symbol Equivalent SI Units
Name
Frequency Hertz Hz
Force Newton N
Pressure, Stress Pascal P
Energy, Work Joule J
Quantity of Heat
Power, Radiant Flux Watt W
Electric Charge Coulomb C
Electric Potential, Volt V
Electromotive Force
Electric Resistance Ohm Ω
Capacitance Farad F
Electric Conductance Siemens S
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb
Magnetic Flux Density Tesla T
Inductance Henry H
Plane Angle Radian rad -
Solid Angle Steradian Sr -
Illuminous flux Lumen lm
Illuminance Lux lx
Celsius Temperature degree Celsius -
Radioactivity Becquerel Bq
Absorbed Dose, Kerma Gray Gy
Equivalent Dose Sievert Sv
Catalytic Activity Katal Kat
1.1.1 Redefinition of the SI Base Units

On November 16, 2018, various measurement experts from 60 countries around the
globe have marked a historical breakthrough that will change the long-existing structure of the
unified measurement system. They unanimously agreed to redefine some of the SI base units of
measurements.

At the 26th convention of the General Conference on Weights and Measures

(Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures or CGPM) happenedin Versailles, France, delegates
voted to redefine the International System of Units (SI), changing the world’s definition of the
four SI base units of measurements: the kilogram, the ampere, the Kelvin, and the mole. Such
changes have finally come into full force on 2019 World Metrology Day, which happened on the
20th of May.

The revision of the SI system is pretty much inevitable due to the fact this universal
measurementsystem has always been established based on the fundamental constants of nature.
Long before the redefinition of SI system, its base units were defined based on physical objects
that would wear out over time; and experiments or phenomenon that are not universal.

However, the decisions of the policy makers have ultimately made the old SI system into
a more refined structure that might truly become a metric system ‚for all times and for all
people‛. This action would ensure the future stability and open the opportunity for the use of
new technologies (including quantum technologies) to implement the new definitions of the SI
base units.

Figure 1: Revised SI Base Unit Chart

 Image taken from https://www.nist.gov/image/siillustrationconstantscolourfullpng
Name: Date:
Program and Year: Score:

Activity 1.1: The International System of Units

A. Complete the table in reference to the SI System Redefinition.

Base Unit Defining Constant Defining Numerical Value

Constant Symbol
Kilogram
Meter
Second
Kelvin
Mole
Ampere
Candela

B. Answer the following questions.

1. Why do you think that a universal system of measurement is necessary in science?

2. Why does the SI Measurement System use ‚kilogram‛ instead of ‚gram‛ as the base unit of
mass?
1.2 Unit Conversion

To work with objects with varying sizes, one needs to be able to convert large and small
measurements quickly. Unit conversion is a process that every scientist, engineer, and even
ordinary individual must learn and understand because not all countries around the world are
using the standard (SI) metric system.

1.2.1 Conversion of SI Units

The SI system, unlike other measurement systems, makes conversion simple because
prefixes are based on groups of ten. (see Table 4)

Table 4: SI Prefixes Chart

 Image taken from http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/memg/Division03/International%20System%20of%20Units/index.html
In Table 4, note that the prefixes "kilo", "hecto", "centi" and "milli" are used very frequently
(light blue); the prefixes "mega", "deca" (or “deka‛), "deci" and "micro" are are used less frequently
(light red), while the remaining prefixes (light purple) are rarely used (other than for extremely
large or small numbers in science).

Converting between equivalent units with different prefixes can usually be done by
multiplying the given quantity by one (1) in a special form.

The following ratios are equivalent to one since any non-zero number divided by itself is
equal to one.

Moreover, since and , then the following ratios are

likewise equivalent to one.

Example 1. Convert to dekacandela (dacd).

Solution:

To convert candela (cd) into dekacandela (dacd), eliminate candela (cd) by multiplying the given
measured quantity by one in the form , i.e.,

( )

Hence, .

Example 2. Convert to kiloseconds (ks).

Solution:

To eliminate millisecond (ms), multiply the given measured quantity by one in the form ,
i.e.,
 ( )(1)
The conversion process above will then introduce the second (s) unit. Thus, to eliminate
introduced units of ‚s‛ and produce the desired units of ‚ks‛, multiply (1) by one in the form
, i.e.,

( )( )

Hence, .

Try this!

1. Convert to .
2. Convert to .

1.2.2 Unit Conversion of the US Customary System and the SI System

As the measurement system continues to evolve over several centuries, only two
types of measurement systems are distinguished historically. These are US Customary System
of Units, which grew more or less ambiguously out of custom, and The International System
of Units or ‚SI System‛, which is a unified, planned system used by the world’s scientific
community and by most nations. Each system uses different set of units for measuring things.

The US Customary System of Units uses units that have no predictable relationship to
each other. For instance, there are 16 ounces in a pound, but 2,000 pounds in a ton. To convert
units under this system, divide or multiply according to the relationship between the two given
units.

The SI System, on the contrary, is made of units based on powers of 10, which makes it a
lot easier for us to recall the conversion formulas and to apply them in a unit conversion
process.
Table 5
METRIC CONVERSIONS (US CUSTOMARY, SI, AND EQUIVALENTS)
A. UNITS OF LENGTH IN B. US CUSTOMARY C. UNITS OF TIME IN BOTH
THE US CUSTOMARY SYSTEM SYSTEMS
SYSTEM SI CONVERSIONS FOR
LENGTH 1 minute (min) = 60 seconds (s)
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in) 1 hour (hr) = 60 minutes (min)
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft) 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters
1 hour (hr) = 3,600 seconds (s)
1 yard (yd) = 36 inches (in) 1 meter ≈ 3.28 feet 1 day ≈ 24 hours (hrs)
1 mile (mi) = 5,280 feet (ft) 1 mile ≈ 1.61 kilometers 1month (mo) ≈ 30 days
1 foot ≈ 0.30 meters 1 year (yr) ≈ 365 days
1 yard ≈ 0.91 meters 1 banking year (banking yr) =
1 kilometer ≈ 0.62 miles 360 days

D. UNITS OF E. UNITS OF MASS/ F. US CUSTOMARY SYSTEM

MASS/WEIGHT IN THE US WEIGHT IN THE SI SYSTEM SI CONVERSIONS FOR
CUSTOMARY SYSTEM MASS/WEIGHT
1 tonne or metric ton (t) =
1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces 1,000 kg 1 ounce ≈ 28.3 grams
(oz) 1 pound ≈ 0.45 kilograms
1 ton (T) = 2,000 pounds (lb)
G. UNITS OF AREA IN H. UNITS OF AREA IN THE I. US CUSTOMARY SYSTEM
THE US CUSTOMARY SI SYSTEM SI CONVERSIONS FOR
SYSTEM AREA
1 are (a) = 100 m2
1 ft2 = 144 in2 1 hectare (ha) = 100 a 1 in2 ≈ 6.45 cm2
1 yd2 = 9 ft2 1 m2 ≈ 1.196 yd2
1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 ha ≈ 2.47 acres
1 mi2 = 640 acres
J. UNITS OF VOLUME IN K. UNITS OF VOLUME IN L. US CUSTOMARY SYSTEM
THE US CUSTOMARY THE SI SYSTEM SI CONVERSIONS FOR
SYSTEM VOLUME
1 ft3 = 1,728 in3 1 cc = 1 cm3
1 yd = 27 ft
3 3 1 in3 ≈ 16.39 mL
1 milliliter (mL) = 1 cm3
1 liter (L) ≈ 1.06 quarts (qt)
1 cord = 128 ft3
1 gallon (gal) ≈ 3.79 liters (L)
1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons
1 m3 ≈ 35.31 ft3
1 fluid ounce (fl oz) = 2
tablespoons 1 quart (qt) ≈ 0.95 liters (L)

1 cup (c) = 8 fl oz
1 pint (pt) = 2 cups (c)
1 qt = 2 pints (pt)
1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts (qt)
1 gallon (gal) = 128 fl oz
M. UNITS OF TEMPERATURE IN BOTH SYSTEMS
: :

: :

: :
Example 1. Convert to yards (yd)

Solution:

Both miles (mi) and yards (yd) belong to the US Customary System of Units of Length. Referring
to Table 5.A, we see that the appropriate conversion formulas to use are as follows:

To convert miles (mi) into yards (yd), multiply by one in the form ( )( ),
i.e.,

( )( )

Hence, .

Example 2. Convert to tons (T).

Solution:

The units of centigrams (cg) and tons (T) belong to the SI System of Mass/Weight and the US
Customary System of Mass/Weight, respectively. Referring to Table 4, Table 5.D and Table 5.F,
we see that the appropriate conversion formulas to use are as follows:

To convert centigrams (cg) into tons (T), multiply by one in the form

( )( )( )( ), i.e.,

( )( )( )( )

Hence, .*
* The use of equal sign (=) is not appropriate in this case since one of the multipliers, ( ), is derived only from the
approximated value of pounds in terms of kilograms, as shown in Table 5.F.

Example 3. Convert to cubic decimeters (dm3). Round off your answer to the nearest
hundredths.

Solution:

The units of cords and cubic decimeters (dm3) belong to the SI System of Volume and the US
Customary System of Volume, respectively. Referring to Table 4,Table 5.J and Table 5.L, we
see that the appropriate conversion formulas to use are as follows:

To convert cords into cubic decimeters (dm3), multiply by one in the form

( )( )( ) ( )( )( ) , i.e.,

( )( )( )

Hence, .

Try this!Convert the following measurements. Round off your answers to the nearest
hundredths, if possible.

1. to .
2. to .
3. to Kelvin(K)
Name: Date:
Program and Year: Score:

Activity 1.2: Unit Conversion

A. Convert the following measurements. For very small and/or very large results, write your
answers in scientific notation. If possible, round off your answers to the nearest hundredths.
Continue writing your solution on the other side of this sheet.

1. 0.002 L mL 6. 4.75 fL  teaspoons

2. 3.6 cmmm 7. 3,500 hg  metric tons
3. 1520 A  GA 8. 4 mo  ns
4. 0.45 dHz daHz 9. 4 cups  cm3
5. 6,520,000 µm  in 10. 324 K 

B. Solve the following problems as indicated. If possible, write your answers to the nearest
hundredths.

1. A newborn baby and a large professional football player are placed onto separate balances.
One has a mass of 4,000 grams, and the other has a mass of 90 kilograms. Which mass belongs
to the football player? Which mass is the baby’s?

2. A couple went to see a romantic movie. It started at 1:45 PM and ended at 4:00 PM. How
long was the movie, in centiseconds?
1.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Error in Measurements

‚It is better to be roughly right than precisely wrong."

- Carveth Read
- Galileo Galilei

1.3.1 Accuracy, Precision, Uncertainties, and Error

When scientists take measurements, they generally have two goals—accuracy and
precision. However, most people often tend to confuse these two ideas, and several of the
definitions out there aren’t entirely clear.

 Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true or accepted
value.

 Precision is a measure of how well a result can be determined (without reference to a

theoretical or true value). It is the degree of consistency and agreement among
independent measurements of the same quantity; also the reliability or reproducibility
of the result.

A target can serve as a concrete example to clarify the difference between accuracy and
precision, as shown in Figure 1 below. For this purpose, the measurements are arrows being
shot into the target. Accuracy describes how close to the center of the target the arrows have
landed. The arrows closer to the bulls-eye are more accurate. Precision, however, denotes how
close in relation to one another the arrows have landed in the target. If all arrows are close
together, the bunch is precise as all of the arrows are gathered at (nearly) the same spot. This
spot is not necessarily close to the bulls-eye, i.e. the shooting was precise, but not accurate.

Figure 1: An Illustration of Accuracy vs. Precision

Image taken from https://www.geavis.si/en/2017/06/difference-between-accuracy-and-precision/

 Unfortunately, measurement is never 100% precise or accurate, so the true value
measure of something is never exactly known. This uncertainty is a result of error. Error is a
concept that is naturally associated with measuring because measurement is always a
comparison to a standard. Measuring something manually always involves uncertainty because
it is based on judgment. If two people use a ruler to measure how long a human thumb is, it
may look like 3 inches to one person and 2 inches to the other.

There are two main types of error—random error and systematic error. Random error is
not controllable. As the name suggests, the occurrence of random errors is random and due to
chance. Alternatively, systematic errors are controllable and have a known cause. A systematic
error can result from many things, such as instrument error, method error, or human error.
Systematic errors can usually be identified and reduced or even eliminated.

When making measurements, we generally assume that some exact or true value exists
based on how we define what is being measured. Such exact value may be derived from a
‚textbook‛, which is usually well-known since it is used as the basis of an ideal measurement of
an object. Other times we know a theoretical value, which is calculated from basic principles,
and this also may be taken as an "ideal" value.

The most common way to show the range of values that we believe includes the true
value is

Measurement = (best estimate uncertainty) units

Note 1: As far as taking measurements of an object can go, remember to always round off the best
measured value to the same decimal place as the uncertainty.

Note 2: There are many ways to measure an uncertainty. The most common way is to take the
uncertainty to be half of the smallest division of your measuring device. For example, if your meter stick
has tick-marks every 0.01 m, then your uncertainty is .

Example 1. A measurement of 5.07 g ± 0.02 g means that the experimenter is confident that the
true value for the quantity being measured lies between 5.05 g and 5.09 g. The uncertainty
(which is ± 0.02 g) is the experimenter's best estimate of how far an experimental quantity might
be from the "true value."

1.3.2 Estimating Uncertainty for a Single Measurement

Quantitatively, precision is often reported by using ‚relative or fractional uncertainty‛,

with formula given below:

| |
 On the other note, accuracy is reported quantitatively by using ‚relative error‛, with
formula given below:

| | | |

Example 2. Suppose that the diameter of a tennis ball is . Compute the relative
uncertainty and the relative error of the measurement if the ideal diameter of a tennis ball is
.

Solution:

The measured value and the uncertainty of the diameter’s length of the tennis ball are
6.7 cm and 0.2 cm, respectively. Thus, and .

Moreover, its expected value is given by 6.8 cm. Thus, .

With the given information above, its relative uncertainty and relative error are
computed as follows:

| |
Relative Uncertainty: | | Relative Error:

| |
| |

Try this! The relative uncertainty of the length of a pen is 0.4%, with a standard uncertainty of
0.03 inches.

(a) Compute the measured length of the pen.

(b) If the relative error of the length is 0.00625, what is the expected length of the pen?
(c) Determine the estimated length of the pen in the form (measured value uncertainty)
inches.
1.3.3 Estimating Uncertainty for a Repeated Measurement

To increase the accuracy, and thereby reducing the error, of the measurement, it is
advisable to measure a certain property of an object more than once. As a result, it can give us a
better idea concerning the sense of uncertainty in the measurement.

For repeated measurement, the best estimate of the ‚true‛ or ‚expected‛ value is the
‚AVERAGE‛ or ‚MEAN‛.
∑
̅

The uncertainty, on the other note, associated with the average value is the standard
error (also called standard deviation of the mean).

∑ ̅
̅ √
√ √

In connection to the formulas above, the range of values believed to have included the
‚true‛ value is given by:
̅ ̅

Example 3. Consider measuring the width of a piece of paper using the meter stick. The width
of the paper is measured at a number of points on the sheet, and the values are entered in the
data table below:

Observation Width (cm)

#1 31.32
#2 31.16
#3 31.24
#4 31.04
#5 31.20

Do the following and round off your answers to the nearest hundredths.

a) Compute the mean width of a piece of paper based on the observedmeasures in the data
table.
b) Calculate the standard error of the width of a piece of paper.
c) Estimate the width of the piece of paper by expressing it in the form (mean standard error)
cm.
d) Determine the relative uncertainty and the relative error of the measurement if the true
width of the piece of paper is .
Solution:

From the given problem, the expected or true width of the piece of paper is 31.20 cm.
Thus, .

a) Mean Width of the Piece of Paper:

∑
̅

b) Standard Error of the Width of the Piece of Paper:

∑ ̅
̅ √

̅ √

c) Estimated Width of the Piece of Paper:

̅ ̅

Thus, result above indicates that the true or ideal width of the piece of paper lies
between or and or .

d) Relative Uncertainty and Relative Error of the Width:

Relative Uncertainty: Relative Error:

| |
| |
|̅ |
| ̅̅ |
| |
| |
Try this! The volume of a Rubik’s cube is measured four times and these are the observed
measures (in cubic inches): , , , .

(a) Estimate the volume of the Rubik’s cube by expressing it in the form (mean
standard error) in3.
(b) Determine the relative uncertainty and the relative error of the measurement, if the
expected volume is 11.5 in3.
Name: Date:
Program and Year: Score:

Activity 1.3: Accuracy, Precision, and Error in Measurement

Solve the following problems as directed. Round your answers off to the nearest hundredths.

1. A glass of water was measured three times. The correct measurement was . Encircle
whether the following set of measurements is accurate, precise, both, or neither.
a) , , accurate precise both neither
b) , , accurate precise both neither
c) , , accurate precise both neither
d) , , accurate precise both neither
2. In a certain class, the best student got a score of 25 out of 35 questions in a Statistics quiz.
What is the best student’s relative error?

3. A student measured the amount of time she needed to reach the school from home using a
stopwatch. If the measured travel time is minutes, with a relative uncertainty is ,

a) how many minutes she is uncertain of the travel time?

b) determine the range (in minutes) in which the true travel time exactly lies.

c) Suppose the exact travel time from her home to school is minutes. What is
the relative error?

4. The radius of a circular-shaped pizza was measured four times, through which the observed
lengths of its radius (in inches) were as follows: .

a) Estimate the radius of the pizza in the form ̅ ̅ inches. Round off the values
of ̅ and ̅ to two decimal places.

b) Compute the relative uncertainty and the relative error of the measured radius of
the pizza, if the exact length of radius of the pizza is inches.
1.5 Bisection Method of Reducing Error

One of the first numerical methods developed to find the root of a non-linear equation
was the bisection method (also called binary-search method). This method is based on
the following theorem:

THEOREM:
An equation , where is a real, continuous function has at least one root between
and if . (See Figure 1)
If , there may or may not be any root between and . (See Figure 2 and
Figure 3)
If , then there may be more than one root between and . (See Figure 4)

Thus, the theorem only guarantees one rootbetween and .

Figure 1 Figure 2

There is a root in 𝒙𝒍 𝒙𝒖 .

At least one root exists between two points if the If the function does not change sign between two points,
function is real, continuous, and changes sign. the roots of equation may still exist between the two points.

Figure 3

If the function does not change sign between two points, there may not be any root for the equation between the two
points.
 Figure 4

If the function changes sign between two points, more than one root for the equation may exist between the two points

Images taken from http://mathforcollege.com/nm/mws/gen/03nle/mws_gen_nle_txt_bisection.pdf

ALGORITHM FOR THE BISECTION METHOD

The steps to apply the bisection method to find the root of the equation are as follows:

1) Choose and as two guesses for the root such that , or in other words,
changes sign between and .

2) Estimate the root, , of the equation as the midpoint between and , i.e.,

3) Now, check the following:

(a) If , then the root lies between and , where and .
(b) If , then the root lies between and , where and .
(c) If , then the root is . Stop the algorithm if this is true.

4) Find the new estimate of the root; i.e.,

Also, find the absolute relative approximate error as| | | | , where

is the estimated root of the present iteration; and

 is the estimated root of the previous iteration.

5) Compare the absolute relative approximate error with the pre-specified relative error
tolerance .

Go to Step 2 using
Yes new upper and
Is |𝜖𝑎 | 𝜖𝑠 ?
lower guesses.
No Stop the algorithm

Example 1. You are working for ‘DOWN THE TOILET COMPANY’ that makes floats for ABC
commodes. The floating ball has a specific gravity of 0.6 and has a radius of 5.5 cm. You are
asked to find the depth to which the ball is submerged when floating in water.

The equation that gives the depth x to which the ball is submerged under water is given by

Use the bisection method of finding roots of equations to find the depth (in meters) to
which the ball is submerged under water. Conduct iterations to estimate the root of the
above equation. Find the absolute relative approximate error at the end of each iteration,
with an error tolerance of . Round off your final answer to the nearest thousandths.

Figure 5
Floating Ball Problem

Images taken from http://mathforcollege.com/nm/mws/gen/03nle/mws_gen_nle_txt_bisection.pdf

Solution:

From the physics of the problem, the ball would be submerged between x  0 and x  2R ,
where R represents the radius of the ball (in meters), that is

Suppose that and .

Check if the function changes sign between and .

Hence , ( )( )

So there is at least one root between and , that is, between 0 and 0.11.

Iteration 1

The estimate of the root is

Hence the root is bracketed between and , that is, between 0.055 and 0.11. So, the lower
and upper limit of the new interval is

and

At this point, the absolute relative approximate error| | cannot be calculated as we do not
have a previous approximation.

Iteration 2

The estimate of the root is

Hence, the root is bracketed between and , that is, between 0.055 and 0.0825. So the lower
and upper limit of the new interval is

and

The absolute relative approximate error | | at the end of Iteration 2 is

| | | |

| | | |

| |

Since | | , then the algorithm continues in the next iteration.

Iteration 3

The estimate of the root is

Hence, the root is bracketed between and , that is, between 0.055 and 0.06875. So the lower
and upper limit of the new bracket is

and

The absolute relative approximate error| |at the end of Iteration 3 is

 | | | |

| | | |

| |
Since | | , then the algorithm continues in the next iteration.

Iteration 4

The estimate of the root is

( )

Hence, the root is bracketed between and , that is, between 0.061875 and 0.06875. So the
lower and upper limit of the new bracket is

and

The absolute relative approximate error| |at the end of Iteration 4 is

| | | |

| | | |

| |
Since | | , then the algorithm continues in the next iteration.

Iteration 5

The estimate of the root is

 ( )

Hence, the root is bracketed between and , that is, between 0.061875 and 0.0653125. So the
lower and upper limit of the new bracket is

and

The absolute relative approximate error| |at the end of Iteration 5 is

| | | |

| | | |

| |

Since | | , then the algorithm will terminate up to this iteration. This

means that the root of is , with .

Conclusion: With an error tolerance of , the depth to which the ball is submerged
under water is approximately 0.065 meters (to the nearest thousandths).

Advantages of bisection method:

a) The bisection method is always convergent. Since the method brackets the root, the
method is guaranteed to converge.

b) As iterations are conducted, the interval gets halved. So one can guarantee the error
in the solution of the equation.

Drawbacks of bisection method:

a) The convergence of the bisection method is slow as it is simply based on halving the
interval.
 b) If one of the initial guesses is closer to the root, it will take larger number of
iterations to reach the root.

c) If a function f (x) is such that it just touches the x -axis (see Figure 6) just like
, it will be unable to guess the lower bound, , and upper bound, ,
such that .

*
d) For functions f (x) where there is a singularity and it reverses sign at the
singularity, the bisection method may converge on the singularity (see Figure 7). An
example includes , where and are valid initial guesses which
satisfy .However, the function is not continuous and the theorem
that a root exists is also not applicable.

* A singularity in a function is defined as a point where the function becomes infinite. For example, for a function such as 1/ x ,
the point of singularity is x  0 as it becomes infinite.
Figure 6

f (x)

x
The equation f ( x)  x  0 has a single root at x  0 that cannot be bracketed.
2

Figure 7
 f (x)

1
The equation f (x ) = = 0 has no root but changes sign.
x
Images taken from http://mathforcollege.com/nm/mws/gen/03nle/mws_gen_nle_txt_bisection.pdf
Name: Date:
Program and Year: Score:

Activity 1.4: Bisection Method of Reducing Error

Solve the following problems using the bisection method.

1. You are working for a start-up computer assembly company and have been asked to
determine the minimum number of computers that the shop will have to sell to make a profit.

The equation that gives the minimum number of computers n to be sold after considering the
total costs and the total sales is

Use the bisection method of finding roots of equations to find the minimum number of
computers n that need to be sold to make a profit. Conduct iterations to estimate the root of the
above equation. Find the absolute relative approximate error at the end of each iteration, with
an error tolerance of . Use and as your initial boundaries.

2.A rich company can determine the number of products that can be produced using the supply
function based on their production cost in millions. Use the bisection
method to determine, with a tolerance error of , the fixed production cost if no units,
, were produced. Use and as your initial boundaries. Round off your final
answer to the nearest hundredths.
 CHAPTER 2
PLANE GEOMETRY: CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

2.1 Circles
2.2 Polygons
2.3 Perimeter of Polygons
2.4 Area of Polygons

At the end of the chapter, students are expected to

 define and compute circumference and area of a circle;

 define, enumerate and illustrate polygons and their types and properties;
 compute perimeters and areas of triangles, quadrilaterals and any regular
polygons.

Most of the structural designs are inspired by geometry. Understanding the foundation
of geometry is vital in constructing or building solid structural designs. In this chapter, students
will learn concepts and applications of circles and polygons.

2.2 Polygons

A polygon is a closed plane figure formed by line segments. Each side must
intersect exactly two others sides but only at their endpoints.

Not a polygon Polygon Not a Polygon

(not formed by line segments) (not closed)

Parts of a Polygon:

1) Side/Edge – one of the line segments that make up a polygon. Adjacent sides are
pairs of sides that share a common endpoint.
2) Vertex – endpoint of each side of the polygon. Adjacent vertices are endpoints of a
side.

3) Diagonal – line segment joining two non-adjacent vertices of the polygon.

4) Interior Angle – angle formed two adjacent sides inside the polygon.

5) Exterior Angle – angle that is adjacent to and supplementary to an interior angle of

the polygon.

A polygon can also be defined as a union of line segments such that each vertex is
a common endpoint of two adjacent line segments, no two adjacent line segments intersect
except at an endpoint; and no two line segments with the same endpoint are collinear.

Types of Polygons:
1) Equiangular Polygon – polygon with congruent angles.
2) Equilateral Polygon – polygon with congruent sides.
3) Regular Polygon – polygon that is equiangular and equilateral at the same time.
4) Irregular Polygon – polygon that is neither equiangular nor equilateral.
5) Convex Polygon – polygon with all of its interior angles less than °. It also refers
to a polygon in which a line segment joining any two points in the interior lies
completely within the figure.

Example 1:

6) Concave Polygon – polygon with at least one interior angle that measures more than
°. It also refers to a polygon in which a line drawn through a concave polygon,
depending on exactly where you draw it, can intersect the polygon in more than two
places.

Nomenclature of Polygons

Polygons are named according to their number of sides. Generally, a polygon

with n sides is called an n-gon. To form the name of polygons with 13 to 99 sides, begin
with the prefix for the tens digit, then followed by kai (Greek word for “and”); add the
prefix for the units digit; and lastly, attach the suffix ‚-gon‛.

Number of sides Name of the Polygon

n n-gon
3 Triangle or Trigon
4 Quadrilateral or Tetragon
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
9 Nonagon or Enneagon
10 Decagon
11 Undecagon or Hendecagon
12 Dodecagon
13 Tridecagon or Triskaidecagon
14 Tetradecagon or Tetrakaidecagon
15 Pentadecagon or Pentakaidecagon
16 Hexadecagon or Hexakaidecagon
17 Heptadecagon or Heptakaidecagon
18 Octadecagon or Octakaidecagon
19 Enneadecagon or Enneakaidecagon
20 Icosagon
30 Triacontagon
Number of sides Name of the Polygon
 40 Tetracontagon
50 Pentacontagon
60 Hexacontagon
70 Heptacontagon
80 Octacontagon
90 Enneacontagon
100 Hectogon or Hecatontagon
1,000 Chiliagon
10,000 Myriagon
1,000,000 Megagon
0100 Googolgon

Similar Polygons

A ratio is the quotient of one quantity divided by another quantity. It is how

many times bigger one thing is than another. It's a number you multiply by to get one
thing from another. But remember, when you find the ratio of two quantities, they must
be in the same units.

A proportion is an equation that shows that two ratios are equivalent. The
general form of a proportion is , where neither b nor d is equal to zero. The cross
products of a proportion are ad and bc. The cross products of a proportion are equal.

Example 2:

a. Solve the proportion .

Solution:

 15x = 30  x = 5.

b. Two angles are supplementary. Find their measures if they are in the ratio 1/5.

Solution:
Let x represent the measure of the first angle.
Then 180 - x represents the measure of the second angle.

 5x = 180 - x  6x = 180  x = 30. Thus, the angles are 30 and 150.
Two polygons are similar if their corresponding interior angles are congruent and their
corresponding sides are proportional. Putting it simply, similar polygons have the same
shape but may differ in size.

Consider the similar polygons below:

y1
y2
x1
x2
A1 A2

The following relations between the two polygons are obtained using the concept of
ratio and proportion:

1. The ratio of any two corresponding sides of similar polygons are equal.

2. The ratio of the areas of similar polygons is the square of the ratio of any two
corresponding sides.

( ) ( )

3. The ratio of the perimeters of similar polygons is equal to the ratio of any two
corresponding sides. That is,
Exercise:

1. Use the diagram below to answer questions (a) to (d).

a) Is the polygon convex or concave?

b) How many diagonals can be drawn from vertex A?
c) How many sides does the polygon have?
d) What is the name of the polygon?

2. Use the diagram below to answer questions (a) to (d).

a) Is the polygon convex or concave?

b) How many diagonals can be drawn from vertex A?
c) How many sides does the polygon have?
d) What is the name of the polygon?
2.2.1 Triangles

Triangle is a closed figure formed by three noncollinear pointsconnected by line

segments called sides. It can also be defined as polygon of three sides.

Properties of Triangle

Side

Side of a triangle is a line segment that connects two vertices. Triangle has three sides, it
is denoted by a, b, and c in the figure below.

B
c
A
a
b

Vertex

Vertex is the point of intersection of two sides of triangle. The three vertices of the
triangle are denoted by A, B, and C in the figure above. Notice that the opposite of
vertex A is side a, opposite to vertex B is side B, and opposite to vertex C is side c.

Included Angle or Vertex Angle

Included angle is the angle subtended by two sides at the vertex of the triangle. It is also
called vertex angle. For convenience, each included angle has the same notation to that
of the vertex, that is, angle A is the included angle at vertex A, and so on. The sum of
the included angles of the triangle is always equal to 180°.

A+B+C=180∘
Altitude, h

Altitude is a line from vertex perpendicular to the opposite side. The altitudes of the
triangle will intersect at a common point called orthocenter.

Median, m

Median of the triangle is a line from vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side. A
triangle has three medians, and these three will intersect at the centroid. The figure
below shows the median through A, denoted by mA.

Classification of Triangles According to Sides

1. Equilateral is a triangle with three congruent sides and three congruent angles.
Each angle measures 60.
2. Isosceles is a triangle with two congruent sides and two congruent angles.
3. Scalene is a triangle with no congruent sides and no congruent angles.

Triangles can be classified by angles. All tirangles have at least two acute angles. Use
the third angle to classify the triangle.
Classification of Triangles According to Angles
1. Right Triangle is a triangle with one angle that measures exactly 90.
2. Obtuse Triangle is a triangle with one obtuse angle.
3. Acute Triangle is a triangle with three acute angles.

Exercise 2.2.1:

I. State if each of the following statements is always, sometimes, or never.

1. A right triangle is isosceles.
2. An obtuse triangle has exactly two acute angles.
3. An equilateral triangle is also an equianglular.
4. An obtuse triangle is isoscele.
5. An Scalene triangle is an acute triangle.
II. Tell whether the angle measures are those of a triangle. If so, classify the triangle
as acute, right, or obtuse.
1. 35, 35, 90 4. 100, 46, 54
2. 90, 52, 38 5. 110, 37, 33
3. 74, 55, 51

2.2.2 Quadrilaterals
Quadrilateral is a polygon of four sides and four vertices. It is also known as tetragon
or quadrangle. The sum of its interior angles is always 360. There are 6 types of
quadrilaterals, namely: square, parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus, trapezoid, and
trapezium. Each type of quadrilateral has unique properties that make it distinct form
other types.

Classifications of Quadrilaterals

There are two broad classifications of quadrilaterals; simple and complex. The sides of
simple quadrilaterals do not cross each other while two sides of complex
quadrilaterals cross each other.

Simple quadrilaterals are further classified into two: convex and concave. Convex if
none of the sides pass through the quadrilateral when prolonged while concave if the
prolongation of any one side will pass inside the quadrilateral.
The following formulas are applicable only to convex quadrilaterals.

Special Quadrilateral Diagram

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with 2

pairs of parallel sides.

A rectangle is a parallelogram with 4

right angles.

A rhombus is a parallelogram with 4

sides of equal length.

A square is a parallelogram with 4 right

angles and 4 sides of equal length.
Exercise 2.2.2

I. Complete the statement using all or some.

1. ______ rectangles are squares.
2. ______ rhombuses are parallelogram.
3. ______ squares are rhombuses.
4. ______ parallelogram are squares.
5. ______ squares are rectangles.
6. ______ rhombuses are squares.
7. ______ rectangles are rhombuses.
8. ______ rhombuses are rectangles.

2.2.3 Properties of a Regular Polygon

A regular polygon of n sides can be subdivided into n congruent isosceles
triangles, whose base is a side of the polygon. The common vertex of these isosceles
triangles is the center of the polygon.

1) Perimeter (P) of a Regular Polygon – product of the length of a side (s) and the number
of sides (n). That is, 𝑷 = .

2) Central Angle of a Regular Polygon (𝜽) – angle opposite to a side of a polygon. It also
pertains to the angle formed by two lines from the center of the polygon to two adjacent
vertices. Since a regular polygon is equiangular, then the measure of each central angle

is given by 𝜽 = , where n represents the number of sides.

3) Apothem (a) – altitude of the isosceles triangles that can be formed from a regular
polygon. It bisects the central angle and its opposite side. To measure the apothem, we
apply the formula = .
( )

4) Interior Angle (I.A) – the measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon can be
computed by using the formula 𝑰. .= .

5) Sum of Interior Angles (S.𝑰. .) – total measure of all interior angles in a polygon. It is
calculated by the formula .𝑰. . = °( − ).
6) Diagonal – line segment drawn from the vertex to a non-adjacent vertex. The total
number of distinct diagonals of a regular polygon is given by

7) Area (A) – is the amount of two-dimensional space that a plane figure occupies. To
find the area of a regular polygon, one can apply any of the two formulas:

(a) (b)
( )

Example:

Find the area of a regular octagon whose sides measures 4 units. Determine the number
of distinct diagonals that can be drawn from each vertex and the sum of its interior
angles.

Solution:

An octagon is an 8-sided polygon. Thus, n = 8. Given s = 4 units. Hence, we have the

area:

( )

A
( )

Number of diagonals:

Sum of interior angles:

.𝑰. . = °( − ) = 1,080.
Exercises 2.2.3:

Answer as directed.

1. What is the measure of an interior angle of a regular pentadecagon?

2. What is the sum of the interior angles of a regular icosagon?
3. The number of diagonals of a regular polygon is 35. Find the area of the polygon
if its apothem measures 10 centimeters.
2.2.4 Inscribed and Circumscribed Polygons

Inscribed Polygons

An inscribed polygon is a polygon whose vertices lie on the circle. It is a ‚polygon in a

circle.‛

Remarks:

1. All triangles and regular polygons can be inscribed in a circle.

2. If a quadrilateral is inscribed in a circle, its opposite angles are supplementary.
3. If a parallelogram is inscribed in a circle, it must be a rectangle.
4. If a right triangle is inscribed in a circle, then the hypotenuse is a diameter of the circle.
Conversely, if one side of an inscribed triangle is a diameter, then the triangle is a right
triangle, and the angle opposite the diameter is a right angle.

In an inscribed square, the radius of the circle is given by

where is the measurement of the side of the square.

Example 1 Find the radius of the circle in the figure given below.

Solution

√
r
√
5 cm
In an inscribed triangle, the radius of the circle is given by

a c
where A is the area of the triangle. If the area is unknown, r
b
√
where .

Example 2 Find the radius of the circle in the figure given below.

Solution

5 in 5 in
√

√
4 in
inches

If the inscribed polygon is regular, then the measure of its side can be determined by

where is the radius of the circle and the central angle (n is the number of sides of the
polygon.)

Example 3 Find the measure of the side of the square inscribed in a circle whose radius is 10
meters.
Solution

√
10 m
Example 4 Find the measure of the side of a regular pentagon inscribed in a circle whose
radius is 13 millimeters.

Solution

√
13 mm

Circumscribed Polygons

If each side of a polygon is tangent to a circle, then it is said to be a circumscribed polygon,

that is, the polygon is circumscribed about the circle. It is a ‚circle in a polygon.‛

Remarks:

1. A quadrilateral can only be circumscribed about a circle if the sums of its opposite sides
are the same. In case of parallelograms, it is valid only for a rhombus (a square.)
2. All triangles and regular polygons can be circumscribed about a circle.

Given a triangle circumscribed about a circle, the radius of the circle can be determined by

or

where A is the area of the triangle and .

Example 5 Find the radius of the circle in the figure given below.

Solution
20 cm

20 cm
√
14 cm

If a regular polygon is circumscribed about a circle with radius , then the measure of the side
of the regular polygon can be determined by

( )

where n is the number of sides of the regular polygon.

Example 6 Find the measure of the side of the regular hexagon circumscribed about a circle
with radius 36 mm.

Solution
( )

36 mm
Name Date
Program Score

Activity 2.2.4: Inscribed and Circumscribed Polygons

Directions: Provide an illustration of the figures described below and answer as directed.

1. A square frame whose side measures 48 cm is inscribed in a circle. Find the radius of the
circle.

2. A triangle whose sides measure 70 m, 90 m, and 120 m, respectively, is inscribed in a

circle. Find the diameter of the circle.

3. A regular hexagon is inscribed in a circle whose diameter is 77 millimeters. Find the

measure of the side of the regular hexagon.

4. A triangle whose sides measure 3 m, 4 m, and 5 m, respectively is circumscribed about a

circle. Find the radius of the circle.

5. A regular heptagon is circumscribed about a circle whose diameter is 152 cm. Find the
measure of the side of the regular heptagon.
2.3 Perimeter of Polygons

A perimeter of a polygon is the sum of all the lengths of the sides of the polygon.

2.3.1 TRIANGLE

The polygon with the smallest number of sides is called triangle. It has 3 sides and 3
internal angles that sums up to .

𝑏 𝑐
𝑐 𝑎
𝑎 𝑏
𝑐 𝑎
𝑏

Figure 1. THE TRIANGLES

The table below is the classifications of triangles according to the type of its sides and angles.

Table 1. TYPES OF TRIANGLE

By Side By Angle

Equilateral Triangle Acute Triangle

(It has 3 equal sides) ( It has 3 angles less than

Isosceles Triangle Right Triangle

(It has two equal sides) (It has one right angle)

Scalene Triangle Obtuse Triangle

(It has no equal sides) (It has 1 angle greater than

PERIMETER OF THE TRIANGLE

The perimeter of the triangle is the sum of all the lengths of its sides. That is,

Example 1. Find the perimeter of a triangle with sides measuring 5 centimeters, 9 centimeters
and 11 centimeters.
Solution: The perimeter of the given triangle with sides cm, cm, and cm,
respectively, is

cm.

For a regular polygon, the perimeter is

where: is the number of sides and is the length of each side.

REGULAR TRIANGLE

When the sides of a triangle are equal, the triangle is called an equilateral triangle.
Equilateral triangle is also called an equiangular triangle because it has also 3 equal internal
angles, that is, each. Because it has 3 equal sides, equilateral triangle is a regular polygon.

Figure 2. An Equilateral Triangle

To find the perimeter of an equilateral triangle, simply multiply the length of its side by
3, that is,

where is the length of the side of the equilateral triangle.

Example 2. Find the perimeter of an equilateral triangle with each side measuring 4
centimeters.

Solutions: The perimeter of the given equilateral triangle with side is

𝑷
 𝑷

Example 3. Find the coordinates of point such that triangle is equilateral triangle of side
12 units.

𝐶 𝑥𝑦

𝐴 𝐵 𝑏

Solution: Since then also. And , that is, .

Likewise,
𝐶 𝑥𝑦

𝑏 𝑏
𝑦
𝑥

𝐴 𝐵 𝑏

that is, . Expanding this last equation,

and using in this last equation to obtain

units

Substituting in the equation to solve , we have

√
 √ units

Thus, the coordinate of point is √ .

2.3.2 QUADRILATERALS

A quadrilateral is a 4-sided polygon. An irregular quadrilateral includes trapezium,

trapezoid, parallelogram, kite, and as simple as rectangle. While rhombus and square areregular
quadrilaterals.

trapezium trapezoid isosceles trapezium parallelogram

d

kite rhombus rectangle square

d
Figure 3. Some Common Quadrilaterals

To find the perimeter of an irregular quadrilateral, simply add the lengths of its sides,
that is

𝑑
𝑎
𝑐

Figure 4. An Irregular Quadrilateral

Example 4.Find the perimeter of the quadrilateral with sides 5 cm, 7 cm, 9 cm and 11 cm.

Solution: The perimeter of the quadrilateral with the given sides

and is
 cm

REGULAR QUADRILATERALS

For asquareand rhombus, the perimeter is obtained by the formula,

where is the length of the side of the square( or rhombus).

𝑠 𝑠

𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

𝑠 𝑠

Figure 4. A square and a rhombus

Example 5. Find the perimeter of a square with each side measuring 2 inches.

Solutions: The perimeter of the given square with sides inches is

𝑷 inches.

OTHER REGULAR POLYGONS

Other regular polygons of sides greater than 4 includes pentagon(5-sided) , hexagon(6-

sided), heptagon(7-sided), octagon(8-sided), etc.

Example 6. Find the perimeter of a regular pentagon with each side measuring 3 inches.

𝑖𝑛

Solutions: The perimeter of the given regular pentagon with sides inches is
 𝑷 inches.

Example 7. The perimeter of a regular hexagon is 18 centimeters. How long is each side?

𝑠
Solutions: Since 𝑷 and 𝑷 , then

and cm.

Thus, the length of each side of the given regular hexagon is .

Try this:

1. Find the perimeter of a regular hexagon with each side measuring 8 meters.

2. The perimeter of a square is 20 feet. How long is each side?

3. The perimeter of a regular pentagon is 100 centimeters. How long is each side?

4. What is the perimeter of an equilateral triangle of height 20 units?

5. What is the perimeter of an equilateral triangle formed by connecting the 3 centers of the
three circles with equal radii of 15 units and are tangent to each other?

Find
Name Date
Program Score

Activity 2.3:Perimeter of Polygons

Direction: Answer the following as required.

1. Find the perimeter of the triangle shown.

2. What is missing side length of a triangle whose perimeter is 40 cm and two sides are 10
cm each.

3. The width and length of a rectangle are two consecutive numbers. If the perimeter is 30
cm, calculate its width.

4. Peter builds a square with a side of 12 cm from some wire. If from the same wire, he
builds a rectangle with a width of 6 cm, what is the length of the rectangle?

5. The square in the figure has a perimeter of 24 cm. The blue triangle has a perimeter of 15
cm. What is the perimeter of the red figure?
 CHAPTER 3
SOLID GEOMETRY: CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

3.1 Basic Concepts of Solids

3.2 Measurements of Solids

At the end of the chapter, students are expected to

 Identify different geometric solids.

 Explore the properties and attributes of two and three dimensional figures.
 Apply the concepts of geometric solids to various real-life problems in the
world around them.

The world around us is obviously three-dimensional (Euclidean space) having height, width,
and depth. Understanding solids is a building block for finding their lateral area, surface area,
and measurements of volumes of various solid figures. These include pyramids, cylinders,
cubes, cones, spheres and prisms.

3.1 Basic concept of Solids

A solid is a three-dimensional figure bounded by surfaces or plane figures.

Some Types of Solids

The following are the most familiar types and useful solids.
1. Right Circular Cylinder – it is solid or circular right section in which the centers of the
two circular bases lie on a single line.
2. Pyramid – it is a solid whose base is a polygon and whose lateral faces are triangles
which meet at a common vertex.
3. Cone – it resembles a pyramid but with a circular base.
4. Sphere – it is a solid in which all points on its surface are equidistant from its center.

MAIN ELEMENTS OF SOLID MENSURATION:

1. Volume – amount of space the solid occupies. The unit of measure for volume is in
cubic length.
2. Surface Area– area of the surface of a three-dimensional figure or solid.
  Lateral Area of a Solid – area the lateral or side surfaces of a solid.
 Total Surface Area of a Solid – total area of all surfaces (which include the
bases and the lateral surface) that bound the solid.
SIMILAR FIGURES

Two solids are said to be similar if they have the same number of faces that are similarly
placed, and whose corresponding linear dimension (such as length, height, radius, etc.) are
proportional.
𝑦
Properties of Similar Solids
𝑦

𝑥 𝐴
𝑥 𝐴

𝑉 𝑉

1. Corresponding linear dimensions of any two similar solids have the same ratio.

2. The ratio of the areas of similar plane figures or similar surfaces is equal to the
square of the ratio of any two corresponding dimensions.
( ) ( )

3. The ratio of the volumes of two similar solids is equal to the cube of the ratio of any
two corresponding dimensions.
( ) ( )

3.2 Measurements of Solids

3.2.1 Prisms

A prism is a type of polyhedron whose congruent bases lie in parallel planes.

 Right Prism – is a prism whose lateral faces or lateral edges are perpendicular to
the bases.
 Regular Prism – is a right prism whose bases are regular polygon.
 Oblique Prism – is a prism whose lateral faces and lateral edges are not
perpendicular to its bases.

Parts of a Prism
1. Base – is the planes where the two-dimensional shape or polygon begins and ends.
 2. Lateral faces – is a surface on the sides of a prism.
3. Lateral edges – is the intersection of lateral faces of a prism.
4. Altitude/Height – is the distance between the bases.
Properties of a Prism

1. The lateral faces of a prism are either rectangles or parallelograms. If each base of
a right prism is a regular polygon of n sides, the prism contains n number of
congruent lateral faces which are rectangles.
2. The sections of a prism made by parallel planes intersecting all the lateral edges
are congruent polygons.
3. The bases of a prism are congruent polygons.
4. Every section made by a plane parallel to the base is congruent to the base.
5. The lateral edges of a prism are parallel and equal.

Types of Prism

Cube Rectangular Regular Square Triangular Regular Regular

Prism Prism Prism Pentagonal Hexagonal
Prism Prism

LATERAL SURFACE AREA OF A PRISM:

Where is the lateral surface area, 𝑷 is the perimeter of a right section, and is the
length of a lateral edge.

TOTAL SURFACE AREA OF A PRISM:

Where is the total surface area, is the lateral surface area, and is the area of
one base.

VOLUME OF A PRISM:
 where is the volume of a prism, is the area of the base, and is the height of the
prism.
For oblique Prism:

where is the volume of a prism, is the area of a right section, and is the length of
the lateral edge with the inclination 𝜽 measured with respect to plane . Since and
𝜽, then 𝜽.

Example 1. Find the lateral area and the total surface area of the right triangular prism.

Use Pythagorean Theorem to find the value of :

12 cm √ √

x
Perimeter of base: Since height of prism:
8 cm 6 cm

Lateral Surface Area: Area of the (triangular) base:

, since

Total surface area:

Example 2. Find the total surface area of the rectangular prism.

Solution:
Since the total surface area is given by
6
, since and

4
8
Try this!
1. A rectangular prism has a surface area of . It has a height of and a length of
. What is the width of the rectangular prism?

2. A loft is 5m long, 6m wide and 3.8 metres high. What is it’s volume?

3.8m

5m
6m

3. A ramp for wheelchairs and pushchairs is made to these measurements. How many
cubic metres of concrete are needed?

2m

0.6m

20m

3.2.2 Cylinders

A cylinder is a solid bounded by a closed cylindrical surface and two parallel planes
cutting all the elements of the surface.

 Right Circular Cylinder – is a cylinder whose line segment drawn from the
center of the bottom base to the center of the top base is perpendicular to each of
the bases.
 Circular Cylinder – is a right circular cylinder whose bases are circles.
 Oblique Circular Cylinder – is a cylinder whose line segment drawn from the
center of the bottom base to the center of the top base is not perpendicular to
each of the bases.
Parts of a
Cylinder
Images taken from https://www.onlinemathlearning.com/volume-of-a-cylinder.html
1. Base – is a two parallel planes where circle in shape begins and ends.
2. Lateral faces – is a cylindrical surface.
3. Element – is a line segment formed in a cylindrical surface.
4. Radius – refers to the radius of the base.
5. Vertex – is the point where the slant height meet.
6. Axis of a Cone – is the line segment joining the vertex and the center of the base.
7. Altitude/Height – is the perpendicular distance between the bases.

LATERAL SURFACE AREA OF A CYLINDER:

where is the lateral surface area of the circular cylinder, is the radius of the base,
and is the height of the circular cylinder.

TOTAL SURFACE AREA OF A CYLINDER:

Where is the total surface area, is the lateral surface area, and is the area of
one base.

where is the circumference of the base, is the radius of the base, and is the height
of the circular cylinder.

VOLUME OF A CYLINDER:
 where is the volume of a circular cylinder, is the area of the base, and is the
height of the cylinder.

For oblique Cylinder:

where is the volume of a circular cylinder, is the area of a right section, and is the
length of the element with the inclination 𝜽 measured with respect to plane . Since
and 𝜽, then 𝜽.

Example 1. The total surface area of a cylinder is . If , find and .

Solution:

Since the total surface area is given by .

, since

√ √

Example 2. This cylinder is 8 cm high. The end is a circle with a radius of 3 cm. Find the
volume.

Solution: 3
cm
Since the area of the upper base .
8 cm
3
cm
Volume:

Try this!

Find the volume of each cylinder.

 6c
1.
m

3c
m

 5c
2.
5c m
m

30cm
3.
r = 4cm
Name: Date:
Year & Section: Score:

Activity 3.1: Prism and Cylinder

1. A rectangular prism has a volume of and a height of . What is the area

of the base of the prism?

2. Find the volume of the prism below.

𝑚
𝑚

3. How many cubic centimetres of stuffing are needed to fill

a cylindrical bean bag, which measures 30cm from the
20cm
centre to the edge, and stands 20cm high?
30cm

4. Find the surface area of this 3-D figure. List all formulas you use, and show all your
work.

5. Find the volume of this 3-D figure. List all formulas you use
 CHAPTER 4
CONIC SECTION AND ITS APPLICATION

4.1 Parabola
4.2 Ellipse
4.3 Hyperbola

At the end of the chapter, students are expected to

 identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;

 determine Fibonacci sequence;
 articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life;
 argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed,
represented and used; and
 express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.

Most people wonder how mathematics works. What is it? Where is it? What is it for?
What is it about? How is it done? Who uses it? And why is it important to learn mathematics?
This chapter helps to answer these questions. Students will discover and appreciate the
importance of mathematics in the advancement of our world, be it in nature or in technology.

3.3 The Hyperbola

Definition 1. A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane, the absolute value of the difference of whose
distances from two fixed points is a constant. The two fixed points are called the foci of the hyperbola.

In this section, we denote the undirected distance between the foci of the hyperbola by
and by the positive constant referred in Definition 1.

3.3.1 Equation of the Hyperbola with Center at the Origin

Theorem 2 An equation of a hyperbola whose foci are the points and is

(3.1)

where .

Proof: Let be a point on the hyperbola (see Figure 1).

𝑦

𝑃 𝑥𝑦

𝑑 𝑑

𝑥
𝐹 𝑐 O 𝐹 𝑐

Figure 1

Let and denote the focus and , respectively. Let |̅̅̅̅̅| and |̅̅̅̅̅|. By
Definition 1, we have | | or equivalently, ||̅̅̅̅̅| |̅̅̅̅̅|| This implies that

|̅̅̅̅̅| |̅̅̅̅̅| .

Using the distance formula, we have

√ √

or equivalently,

√ √ . (3.2)

Squaring both sides of the equation (3.2), we get

√ (3.3)

which is equivalent to
 √ . (3.4)

Dividing both sides of the equation (3.3) by 4 and squaring both sides of the resulting equation,
we obtain

(3.5)

Dividing both sides of the equation (3.5) by , we get

. (3.6)

Let √ . Then we have,

Remark 3 The points and are points of the hyperbola . These are
called the vertices of the corresponding hyperbola.

Theorem 4 An equation of a hyperbola whose foci are the points and is

(3.7)

where .

Theorem 4 can be proved in similar manner.

Remark 5 The points and are points of the hyperbola . These are
called the vertices of the corresponding hyperbola.

Definition 6 The line segment joining the vertices (and hence, its length is 2a) of a hyperbola is
called the transverse axis and the line segment joining the points and (hence its
length is 2b) is called the conjugate axis of the hyperbola. The midpoint of the line segment
joining the foci (or the vertices of a hyperbola or the endpoints of the conjugate axis) is called
the center of the hyperbola.
The equation in Theorem 2 (or in Theorem 4) is the standard form of an equation of a hyperbola
whose center is at the point of origin. Other properties of a hyperbola are given in the following
remarks.

Remark 7 The hyperbola have the following properties.

(a) Center is C
(b) Vertices are V
(c) Foci are F
(d) Endpoints (extremities) of the conjugate axis are E
(e) Transverse axis is along the x-axis.
(f) Eccentricity is
(g) Directrices are the lines .
(h) Asymptotes are the lines . (This can be obtained by setting and then
solving for .)

We can construct a sketch of the graph of the hyperbola by using the vertices, the
endpoints of the conjugate axis and the asymptotes of the hyperbola. To do this, first draw the
rectangle (auxiliary rectangle of the hyperbola) having the vertices and
Next, draw the asymptotes of the hyperbola (which are actually the lines through the
diagonals of the rectangle.) With the vertices and asymptotes properly located, a sketch of the
graph can be then constructed. The Figure 2 shows a sketch of the graph of

𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
𝑐 𝑐 𝑎
𝑬𝟐 𝟎 𝒃

𝑭𝟏 𝑽𝟏 C 𝑽𝟐 𝑭𝟐

C
𝑬𝟏 𝟎 𝒃
𝑏
𝑦 𝑥
𝑎
Figure 2
Remark 8 The hyperbola have the following properties.

(a) Center is C
(b) Vertices are V
(c) Foci are F
(d) Endpoints (extremities) of the conjugate axis are E
(e) Transverse axis is along the y-axis.
(f) Eccentricity is
(g) Directrices are the lines .
(h) Asymptotes are the lines . (This can be obtained by setting and then
solving for .)

A similar procedure as in above can be used to obtain a sketch of the graph of as

shown in Figure 3 but first draw a rectangle having a vertices and
.

𝒚
𝑎
𝑦 𝑥
𝑭𝟐 𝑏
𝟎𝒄

𝑎 𝑽𝟐 𝟎 𝒂
𝑥
𝑐
C
𝑬𝟏 𝟎 𝒃 𝑬𝟐 𝟎 𝒃
𝑎
𝑥
𝑐
𝑽𝟏 𝟎 𝒂

𝑭𝟏 𝟎 𝒄
𝑎
𝑦 𝑥
𝑏

Figure 3
3.3.2 Equation of a Hyperbola with Center at C

Theorem 9 An equation of a hyperbola whose center is at the point C and whose transverse axis is
parallel to the x-axis is

where .

Proof: Let be the new origin O*(0,0) of the coordinate axes with respect to the
original axes. Then we have and . Observe that with respect to the the
coordinate axes, the foci of the hyperbola are the points and along the -
axis . By Theorem 2, the equation of the hyperbola with respect to the coordinate axes is

where . Since and , the equation of the hyperbola with

respect to the original axes is

By translation of axes and Remarks 7, we obtain the following properties of a hyperbola

with center at C(h,k).

Remark 10 The hyperbola have the following properties.

(a) Center is C
(b) Vertices are V
(c) Foci are F
(d) Endpoints (extremities) of the conjugate axis are E
 (e) Transverse axis is parallel to the x- axis or along the line y=k.
(f) Eccentricity is
(g) Directrices are the lines .
(h) Asymptotes are the lines .

A sketch of the graph of is shown in Figure 4 below.

𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 𝑐 𝑐 𝑏
𝑦 𝑥 𝑘
𝑎
𝑬𝟐

𝑬𝟐

𝑭𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑪 𝒉𝒌 𝑽𝟐 𝑭𝟐
𝑦 𝑘
𝑥

𝑬𝟏 𝑏
𝑦 𝑥 𝑘
𝑎

Figure 4

𝑬𝟏

𝑦
Theorem 11 An equation of a hyperbola whose center is at the point C and whose transverse axis is
parallel to the x-axis is
where .

By translation of axes and Remarks 8, we obtain the following properties of a hyperbola

with center at C(h,k).

Remark 12 The hyperbola have the following properties.

(a) Center is C
(b) Vertices are V
(c) Foci are F
(d) Endpoints (extremities) of the conjugate axis are E
(e) Transverse axis is parallel to the y-axis or along the line .
(f) Eccentricity is
(g) Directrices are the lines .
(h) Asymptotes are the lines .

A sketch of the graph of is shown in Figure 5 below.

𝑥 𝑎
𝑦 𝑥 𝑘
𝑦 𝑏

𝑭𝟐
𝑽𝟐
𝑎
𝑦 𝑘
𝑐
𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐
𝑪 𝒉𝒌
𝑎 𝑥
𝑦 𝑘
𝑐
𝑽𝟏
𝑭𝟏
𝑎
𝑦 𝑥 𝑘
𝑏

Figure 5
Remark 13 (a) a is the undirected distance from the center of the hyperbola to any of its
vertices, that is, |̅̅̅̅̅ | |̅̅̅̅̅ |

(b) c is the undirected distance from the center of the hyperbola to any of its two foci, that is ,
|̅̅̅̅̅ | |̅̅̅̅̅ |

(c) b is the undirected distance from the center of the hyperbola to any of the extremities of the
conjugate axis, that is, |̅̅̅̅̅ | |̅̅̅̅̅ |

Example: Given the equation of the hyperbola, find the coordinates of the center, vertices, foci,
extremities of the conjugate axis, equations of the directrices, the asymptotes, and the
eccentricity. Draw a sketch of the graph of the hyperbola.

1.
2.
3.

Solution:

(1). Write the given equation into its standard form. To do this, divide both sides of the equation
by 36 and yield

Thus, we have a hyperbola center at the origin, with and . Since ,

. Thus, √ and so, the given hyperbola has the following
properties:

Center: C(0,0)

Vertices: V( )

Foci : F( √ )

Endpoints of the conjugate axis : E

Transverse axis is along the x-axis. 𝑉 𝑉

√
Eccentricity :

√
Directrices :the lines .
Asymptotes : the lines

(2.) Write the given equation into its standard form. To do this, divide both sides of the equation
by 84 and obtain

Thus, we have a hyperbola center at the origin, with and √ . Since ,

. Thus, and so, the given hyperbola has the following
properties:

Center: C(0,0)

Vertices: V( )

Foci : F

Endpoints of the conjugate axis : E( √ )

Transverse axis is along the y-axis.

Eccentricity :

Directrices :the lines .

√
Asymptotes : the lines

(3) We transform the given equation in its standard form as follows:

 ( ) ( )

By Remark 12(e) , the transverse axis is parallel to the -axis. With and , we
find that . Therefore by Remark 12, it follows that the center is
C , the vertices are or the points and , the foci
are √ or the points ( √ ) and √ , the endpoints of
the conjugate axis are √ or the points √ and √
√
and . The asymptotes are and the directrices are the lines
√
√
.

Example: Find the equation of the hyperbola satisfying the following properties.

1. ( √ ) , ( √ ); the hyperbola passes through the point ( √ )

2.
3. Endpoints of the conjugate axis are at the points and one of the foci lies
on the -axis.
Solution:

(1) The locations of the foci in the plane indicate that the transverse axis is along the -axis
(see Figure below). √
𝐹
𝐹 √

By Remark 8(e), the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola is . The midpoint
of the line segment joining the foci is Therefore, by Definition 6, the center is By
Remark 13(b), it follows that |̅̅̅̅̅| |̅̅̅̅̅ |, that is,

|̅̅̅̅ | √ √ √

From the equation , we have . Since ( √ ) is a point of the hyperbola

√
(and so, satisfies the equation of the hyperbola), we have or equivalently,
(*)
.

With , equation (*) becomes or equivalently,

. Thus, or . Since (since ), it follows that .
Therefore, and an equation of the hyperbola is

or equivalently, .

(2) Since the transverse axis passes through the foci and the vertices, the locations of the
given points in the plane indicate that the transverse axis is parallel to the -axis (see
Figure below.)
By Remark 10 (e), the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola is . By
Remark 13,

|̅̅̅̅̅| √ and

|̅̅̅̅̅| √ .

It follows that and . Therefore, an equation of the hyperbola

is

or equivalently,

(3) The locations of the given points in the real plane show that the transverse axis of the
hyperbola is parallel to the -axis (see Figure below.)
 Thus, by Remark 12 (e), the standard form of the equation of the hyperbola is
. By Definition 6, the center is the midpoint of the endpoints of the
conjugate axis; hence
and .
Since the focus lies on the -axis, it follows that is the point . By Remark 13 (b),
|̅̅̅̅ | √ ; hence . Also, by Remark 13 (c), |̅̅̅̅̅ |
√ √ ; hence, From , it follows that
Therefore, an equation of the hyperbola is

or equivalently,

Example: (Solving applied problems involving hyperbolas)

The design layout of cooling tower is shown below (see Figure below).
The tower stands 179.6 meters tall. The diameter is 72 meters. At their closest, the sides of the
tower are 60 meters apart. Find the equation of the hyperbola that models the sides of the
cooling tower. Assume that the center of the hyperbola—indicated by the intersection of dashed
perpendicular lines in the figure—is the origin of the coordinate plane.

Solution: Let the center of the tower be at the origin. By Remark 7, the standard form of the
hyperbola centered at the origin is that models the sides of the cooling tower. To
complete the model we must find the values of and of . Note that the length of the
transverse axis of a hyperbola is of . This length is represented by the distance where the
sides are closest, which is given as 65.3 meters. Now, or equivalently of
Therefore, of To solve for of , we need to substitute for of of and of in our
equation using a known point. To do this, we can use the dimensions of the tower to find some
point of that lies on the hyperbola. We will use the top right corner of the tower to
represent that point. Since the y-axis bisects the tower, our x-value can be represented by the
radius of the top, or 36 meters. The y-value is represented by the distance from the origin to the
top, which is given as 79.6 meters. Therefore,

The sides of the tower can be modeled by the hyperbolic equation

Exercises

A. Given an equation of the hyperbola, find the coordinates of the center, vertices, foci,
extremities of the conjugate axis, and the eccentricity. Draw a sketch of the graph.

1.
2.
3.
 4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

B. Find an equation of the hyperbola satisfying the following conditions.

1. one focus is ; the asymptotes are .

2. ; transverse axis is on the -axis ; contains the points and

3. ; one of its vertices is ; one of its asymptotes is the line .

4. one focus is ; ; on eof its directrices is the line

5. ; one of its vertex is ; a focus is \

6. ; transverse axis along ; passes through ; conjugate axis along the -axis
√
7. eccentricity is ; endpoints of the conjugate are √

8. vertices are and ; focus at

9. the asymptotes are the lines and ; one of the vertices is

and √

10. one of its asymptotes has the equation ; one vertex is and its

conjugate axis is perpendicular to the -axis.

C. (Application)

1. A comet’s path (as it approaches the sun) can be modeled by one branch of hyperbola
, where the sun is at the focus of that part of the hyperbola. Each unit of the
coordinate system is 1 million miles.
(a) Find the coordinates of the sun (assuming it is at the focus with non-negative
coordinates).
(b) How close does the comet come to the sun?
2. Two buildings in a shopping complex are shaped like a branches of the hyperbola
,
 where and are in feet. How far apart are the buildings at their closest part?

3. Two radar sites are tracking an airplane that is flying on a hyperbolic path. The first
radar site is located at and shows the airplane to be 250 meters away at a certain
time. The second radar site, located 125 miles east of the first, shows the airplane to
be 100 meters away at this same time. Find the coordinates of all possible points where
the airplane could be located. (Find the equation of the hyperbola where the plane could
be located).
4. Alpha particles are deflected along hyperbolic paths when they are directed towards the
nuclei of gold atoms. If an alpha particle gets as close as 8 units to the nucleus along a
hyperbolic path with asymptote , what is the equation of its path?
Name: Date:
Program: Score:

Activity 4.3. Hyperbola

A. Given an equation of the hyperbola, find the coordinates of the center, vertices, foci,
extremities of the conjugate axis, and the eccentricity. Draw a sketch of the graph.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

B. Find an equation of the hyperbola satisfying the following conditions.

1. one focus is (√ ); ; the asymptotes are the lines .

2. ; one focus at ; one vertex at .

3. asymptotes are the line √ x; contains the point

4. vertices are and ; passes through the point

5. one vertex is ; ; the other vertex is on the lines and the center is on

the line

C. (Application) A design for a cooling tower project is shown in Figure below. Find the

equation of the hyperbola that models the sides of the cooling tower. Assume that the

center of the hyperbola—indicated by the intersection of dashed perpendicular lines in

the figure—is the origin of the coordinate plane.