Rahul M. Jondhale V/10/056: Vpe-511: Environment and Environmental Hygiene (2+1)

RAHUL M.
JONDHALE V/10/056
VPE-511: ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE (2+1)
This course is designed to study all aspects of environment, and how to protect it. The
definition of environmental education may be put as follows “the process of recognizing values
and clarifying concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and
appreciate the inter relatedness of man, his culture and his biophysical surroundings.
environmental education also entrails practice in decision making and self formulation of a
code of behaviour about issues concerning environment quality”. It is as branch of medical
science that deals with the effect of living conditions on health, devises measure to prevent the
occurrence of diseases and establishes conditions that ensure preservation of health. The
course makes everyone an “environmental – literate” and prepares them to tackle all
environmental issues. The subject also teaches everyone the basic scientific and social issues
with respect to environmental problems. It individuals are environmentally educated, the
society and the Government are automatically educated, because the latter two are only an
extension of an individual. The basic aim of environmental education has been not be
introduce a new subject but a new approach to teaching that cut across different disciplines.
Last but not the least, A man without environmental awareness is like a ship without a rudder.
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RAHUL M. JONDHALE V/10/056
INDEX
SR. CHAPTER PAGE NO.
NO.
1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND 4-6
IMPORTANCE
2 ECOSYSTEM AND ITS TYPES 7-13
3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF 14-20
ECOSYSTEM
4 FOOD CHAINS, BIO-DIVERSITY, 21-27
THREATS AND CONSERVATION
5 NATURAL RESOURCES - FOREST AND 28-31
MINERAL - THEIR USES AND ABUSES
6 NATURAL RESOURCES - SOIL AND 32-33
WATER - THEIR USES AND ABUSES
7 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND 34-35
ITS CLASSIFICATION
8 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF 36-46
AIR, WATER AND SOIL POLLUTION
9 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF 47-50
MARINE AND THERMAL POLLUTION
10 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND 51-52
RELATED ISSUES
11 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND 53-55
RELATED ISSUES
12 DISASTER MANAGEMENT 56-59
13 SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY AND 60-63
WATER QUALITY
14 SOURCES OF WATER 64-65
CONTAMINATION
15 BACTERIOLOGY OF WATER 66-67
16 PHYSICAL EVALUATION OF WATER 68-69
17 CHEMICAL EVALUATION OF WATER 70-72
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18 MICROBIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF 73-76

WATER
19 BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF 77-80
WATER
20 WATER PURIFICATION 81-86
21 DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE 87-94
22 DISPOSAL OF FARM WASTES 95-96
23 HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF FARM 97-102
WASTES
24 SANITATION OF ANIMAL HOUSES 103-107
25 DISINFECTION OF ANIMAL HOUSES 108-110
26 RECYCLING OF FARM WASTES 111-113
27 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION 114-115
WITHIN ANIMAL HOUSES
28 VENTILATION AND ITS SYSTEMS 116-117
29 PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF 118-119
WATER AND AIR BORNE DISEASES
30 PROBLEMS OF ATMOSPHERE 120-121
POLLUTION
31 PROBLEMS OF ATMOSPHERE 122-123
POLLUTION
32 TANNERY, WOOL, BONE AND BLOOD 124-126
MEAL INDUSTRY POLLUTION AND
ITS CONTROL
33 STRAY AND FALLEN ANIMALS 127
MANAGEMENT
34 POLLUTION DUE TO INDUSTRIAL 128-133
WASTES
135-139
Important terms in VPE-511
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MODULE-1: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE
Learning objectives
 At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o what is environment ?
o different types of environment
o scope of environmental Hygiene
o importance of environmental Hygiene
o impact of environmental Hygiene.
DEFINITION
 Environment means the surroundings of an organism. The French word „Environner‟

means „to surround‟. Environment includes water, air, land and their interrelationships
and interactions with living organisms and their properties. All physical and biological
surroundings of an organism and their interactions indicate its environment. According
to the Encylopedia of Science and Technology, environment is a collective term
describing the conditions surrounding an organism.
 Environmental Science is an inter-disciplinary study which deals with the interaction of

a human species with other species and the non-living environment.
 Environmental Studies include the study of atmosphere, the land ,the oceans and the
chemical cycles that flow through physical and biological systems.
 According to Newman, Environmental studies deal with the disturbances in the
environment and their reduction through societal changes. According to him
Environmental Science is the study of processes which occur in water, air, soil and in
living organisms leading to pollution, and solution to minimize the environmental
impacts.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
 There are two types of environment. The first one in Natural Environment and the other
one is Man-made Environment.
 Natural Environment: The natural environment comprises
o Atmosphere (500kms above the surface of earth),
o Hydrosphere (surface and ground water resources on earth‟s crust),
o Lithosphere (earth‟s crust which includes rocks and soil)
o Biosphere (region where life exists on earth-between 10,000 m below sea level
and 6,000 m above sea level).
 Man-made Environment: The man made environment comprises
o Human groups (religious and communities).
o Material infrastructure built by man (rural and urban settlements, railways,
roads etc.).
o Production relationships (factors of production-primary, secondary and tertiary
activities).
o Institutional systems (education, commercial and marketing).
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CATEGORIES OF ENVIRONMENT
 Environment consist of mainly four categories:

o Physical factors ( physical, chemical and both natural and man-made biological
factors).
o Social factors (Social and Cultural life, population and its density, community
composition, educational factors, religions, values, family structure and politics).
o Economic factors (Employment, unemployment, underemployment levels and
sources of income, production, demand patterns, land values, taxes and trade).
o Aesthetic factors (People deriving pleasure on seeing historical, archaeological
and architectural objects or sites, scientific areas and landscapes).
 Environment is defined as the sum total of physical and biological factors that influence
the life of an organism. It is the sum total of physical, social, cultural, economic and
aesthetic factors, which affect individuals and communities and determine their form,
character , relationship and survival.
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
 Environmental studies have multiple scopes. The study is very important for everyone.
The scope are as follows
o Environmental studies create an awareness among people on natural resources.
People come to know about conservation of resources and their management
following certain code of conduct.
o They provide knowledge about richness and conservation of biodiversity.
o The study provides knowledge about ecological systems and their cause, effect
and relationship.
o The study helps us to understand about environmental pollution and its control.
It helps us to know about the causes and consequences due to natural and man-
induced disaster.
o The study helps us to know the problem of overpopulation, health hygiene, etc.
o They teach us the need for sustainable development and enable us to convert our
theoretical into practice.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY
 Environmental study helps us to find practical solutions to the present environmental

problems. Since it is a comprehensive view of various environmental systems, we are
able to analysis aquatic, terrestrial and atmospheric systems.
 Life originated on the surface of the earth 3500 million years ago. But now, human
population has been increasing at an alarming rate, depleting the once abundant natural
resources. In 1950, the world population was 2.5 billion; In 1994, it became 5.6 billion
and in 2050 it would be 9 billion! The natural resources are depleted due to
overconsumption by the ever increasing population. The resources are limited on earth
but the methods of exploiting them are on the increase.
 Environmental study enables people to pursue sustainable development. It motivates
students in community action and makes them participate in activities relating to
environmental protection. Environmental study is a multidisciplinary approach to the
study of human interaction with the natural environment. In integrates humanities with
social sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences in order to investigate the
concerns of environment and establish stability and sustainability. This results in more
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environmental pollution. The resources are overexploited and are made scarce for the
future generation. So, environmental education and training are the need of the hour to
save our natural resources and biodiversity.
 Environmental study enables people to pursue sustainable development. It motivate
students in community action and makes them participate in activities relating to
environmental protection. Environmental study is a multidisciplinary approach to the
study of human interaction with the natural environment. It integerated humanities
with social sciences, biological sciences and physical sciences in order to investigate the
concerns of environment and establish stability and sustainability.
Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
 Since many physical , chemical and biological parameters are used to describe
environment, an interdisciplinary approach is required to environmental studies. One
needs „knowledge‟ inputs from many disciplines to study the various environmental
issues facing him/her. Each discipline in its own way . It is not complete in itself. So, a
multidisciplinary approach is essential to solve the present complex environmental
problems. In addition, the applied sciences are more useful to plan new strategies to
improve the environment, thereby preventing any further adverse effects.
 Refinement of one‟s knowledge is possible only when there is multidisciplinary
approach and a grasp of a comprehensive view of issues. Hybridization of different
disciplines leads to newer directions for research and methods of analysis to solve the
present problems of environment.
 The quality of environmental analysis is enhanced when sensor based in situ data
collection, remotely sensed data products and Geographical Information System (GIS)
based analysis are carried out. Mathematical modelling and calculations using statistical
analysis to compare data from various regions are used to study environment in a better
way. To study the natural resources, modern geographical and geological is very useful.
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MODULE-2: ECOSYSTEM AND ITS TYPES
Learning objectives
o What is Ecosystem ?
o Concept of Ecosystem
o Types of Ecosystem
o Components Ecosystem
o Producers, consumers and decomposers in Ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM
 An ecosystem is a group of living communities of species interacting with one another

and with their non-living environment, exchanging energy and matter.
 The term ecosystem was first introduced by Sir Arthur Tansely (1935). The relationship
between biotic and abiotic components is called holocoenois. Previously, Russian
ecologist, Sukachev in 1944, coined the term „biogeoconeosis‟ to include environment in
the study of Biological communities. This term biogeocoenosis is equivalent to term
ecosystem.
 Earnst Haekel (1869) coined the word „Ecology‟, which is the study of organisms in their
natural home interacting with their surroundings. Ecology is often defined as the study
of ecosystems. According to Utpary (1954), ecosystem is a complex system in which
living and non-living constituents are interacting with one another, triggering an
exchange of energy and matter
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
 We may consider the living component of ecosystem from the point of view of levels of
organization for better understanding of ecosystem and ecology. All living things are
made up of protoplasm which is the physical basis of life. The protoplasm is organized
into cells which are again, organized into tissue. The tissues organize themselves into
organs, organs into systems and systems into organisms. One kind of organisms (one
kind of species) living together to form a small or large assemblage is called a
population. Several population of different plant and animal species interacting with
one another are called a biotic community or community. A community with its
interacting populations for energy and nutrients constitutes and ecosystem.
 The largest ecosystem is called biosphere or ecosphere (entire habitable part of the
earth) in which plants and animals , living part of the community interact with
environment (non-living part)
 Ecosystem can be broadly classified into (i) natural ecosystem (ii) man made ecosystem.
The natural ecosystem comprises Terrestrial ecosystem (Forest, Grassland and Desert
E.S) and Aquatic ecosystem ( Freshwater E.S - Lake, Pond, Ditch, Swamp, River, Spring
and Stream E.S and Marine E.S - Ocean and Sea E.S). Man-made ecosystem (or)
Artificial ecosystem are those ecosystems which are modified by human activities. For
example, crop field, urban, industrial laboratory and space, space crafts, gardens, parks
and aquariums are artificial ecosystems.
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STRCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
 There are four major types of ecosystems. They are as follows

o Forest Ecosystem
o Grassland Ecosystem
o Desert Ecosystem
o Aquatic Ecosystem
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FOREST ECOSYSTEM
 Forest ecosystem is dominated by trees. Forests are natural plant communities. They
are found in the region where there is moderate to high rainfall. They are the climax
communities occupying 19% of the total land area in India. There are different types of
forests depending upon the climate. They are as follows:
 Tropical rain forests: They are evergreen forests found occurring near the equator.
They get high temperature, high humidity and heavy rainfall. These forests are famous
for richest biodiversity. There are three layers, namely topmost layer of tallest trees.
(e.g,. Lianes and orchids), shrub layer (many shrubs) and ground layer (herbs) eg., The
silent valley in Kerala.
 Tropical deciduous forests: They are found a little away from the equator . There is a
warm climate throughout the year. Monsoon rainfall occurs during the monsoon
seasons. Since drought prevails in the forest during most part of the year, the leaves fall
down during dry season.
 Tropical scrub forests: In this type of forest, dry season is longer. So, deciduous and
armed shrubs and trees grow here.
 Temperate rain forests: They occur in areas where there is adequate rain fall.
Coniferous trees like firs, redwoods and pines dominate these forests. There are also
evergreen trees, with broad leaves.
 Temperate Deciduous forests: Here, moderate temperature occurs. The trees like
poplar and oak grow in these forests.
 Evergreen coniferous forests (or) Boreal forests: They are found in the South of arctic
tundra. There will be long winters. The temperature will be mild in summer. The trees
are represented by fir, pines, spruce and cedar which have needle-shaped leaves. There
is less species diversity due to acidic soil.
Components of forest ecosystem
 The following are the different components of forest ecosystem:

 Abiotic factors
o Organic and inorganic substances in soil and air, temperature, light and rainfall
are some of the abiotic components. The minerals in the soil vary depending
upon the type of forest.
 Biotic factors
o Producers
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 They include mainly trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants .

 The trees include Tectona grandis (Teak), Butea monosperma
Dipterocarpus Quercus, pine , cedrus etc.
o Consumers
 Primary consumers: They include herbivores like flies, ants, bugs, beetles
and spiders and large herbivorous animals such as deer, elephants,
squirrels, mongoose etc.
 Secondary consumers: Snakes, lizards, foxes, birds and feeding
herbivores.
 Tertiary consumers: Lion, tiger, etc are the top carnivores.
o Decomposers
 They include fungi like Aspergillus, Polyporus, Trichodendron and
bacteria like Bacillus, Clostridium etc.
 The rate of decomposition varies from forest to forest.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
 Grassland occurs in places where there is cold climate during winter and hot climate
during summer. Rainfall is average. Grasslands and inhabited mainly by tall grasses.
 There are the types of grasslands. They are as follows
o Tropical grassland is dominated by tall grasses. Example: Africa and Savannas.

They occur near borders of tropical rain forests. Animals such as zebras, giraffes
and antelopes live here. Termites and mounds are found here.
o Temperate grassland occurs on slopes of hills. Winters are very cold and
summer is hot. Overgrazing leads to absence of trees and shrubs. Example:
Africa-Velds, US and Canada-Prairies, S America- Pampas and Central Europe
and Asia- Steppes.
o Polar grassland (Arctic Tundra) is characterized by the following:
 Severe cold and strong winds
 Summer sunshine (small annual plants grow)
 Animals-Wolf, fox, reindeer
 Below soil thick layer of ice remains frozen throughout the year
(Permafrost).
o Abiotic factors
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 They include soil, inorganic components in the air, rainfall, minerals in

soil.
o Biotic factors
 Producers
 There are different varieties of grasses namely Dichanthium
Cynodon, Cenchrus and Sachharum. But there are no trees.
 Consumers
 Primary consumers: They include cow, buffalo, bison, bull, deer,
rabbit, rat , insects, termites and millipedes.
 Secondary consumers: They include snake, garden lizard, calotes,
bird, fox and jackals which feed on herbivores.
 Tertiary consumers: They include hawks and vulture, which feed on
secondary consumers.
 Decomposers
 Mucor, Rhizopus, Penicillium and Aspergillus are of the fungi
which decay the dead organic matter.
 Bacteria also acts on dead organic matters and affect the mineral
cycling.
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
The desert ecosystem occurs in a region where there is less rainfall and snow and more
evaporation. The main features of the ecosystem are as follows:
 Rainfall less than 25cm in a year

 Evaporation exceeding precipitation (rainfall, snow etc.,)
 1/3 of the world‟s land area is desert.
 Little species diversity, with xerophytic characters.
 Day to hot , night too cold due to copper insulator of atmosphere.
Types
 Tropical deserts e.g. Sahara in Africa and Thar in Rajasthan with sand dunes.
 Temperate deserts e.g., Mojave in Southern California.
 Cold deserts e.g., Gobi deserts in China.
 Abiotic factors
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o The factors include more temperature, less rainfall, less mineral cycling and soil
has more nutrients but less water.
 Biotic factors
o Producers
 They include shrubs, armed plants, grasses few trees fleshy plants like
Euphrobia, Agaves with adapatations, lichens and
o Consumers
 Primary consumers (herbivores): Camles, rats , insects and birds.
 Secondary consumer: Snake, lizard with thick skin.
 Decomposers: Fungi and Bacteria are some of the thermophilic
decomposers
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
 Aquatic ecosystem deals with water bodies and the biotic communities. It is either
freshwater or marine.
 A pond ecosystem is a self regulating and self sufficient fresh water ecosystem. Here
fresh water is stagnant, receiving water during rainy season.
 There are three region in this ecosystem

o Littoral (surface of water with sunlight)
o Limnetic (sunlight penerates into less deep water)
o Profundal ( No sunlight with deep region)
 The various components of the ecosystem are as follow:
 Abiotic factors
o The biotic components are temperature, light, water, organic and inorganic
compounds like C,H,O,N,P, Ca, S and carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. The
amount of minerals present at any time in the pond is called standing state.
 Biotic factors
o Producers
 They include phytoplankton (Ulothrix, Spriogyra, Oedogonium, Diatom
and Zygnenna). There are larger plants like Marsilia, Vallisneria, Azolla,
Eichhornia, Salvinia, Wolffia and Pistia.
o Consumers
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 Primary consumers: They include Zooplankton, worms, protozoan and

crabs (Herbivores).
 Secondary consumers: They include insects, small fish which feed on
herbivores.
 Tertiary consumers: These are some fish, crane and hawks.
o Decomposers ( or) Micro consumers: These include Bacteria, fungi like
Aspergillus and Pythium.
Ocean Ecosystem
 The Ocean ecosystem is larger than the other ecosystems on earth. Oceangraphy is the
study of the oceans. There are two environments in the ocean. The open sea
environment (pelagic -40 -50 feet from the surface) and deep sea environment)
(Benthic).
 Two thirds of earth‟s surface is marine water. In sea water, more salt and metals are
present. Oceans are major sinks of CO2, regulating biogeochemical cycles, hydrological
cycles thereby earth‟s climate.
 These are two major life zones-coastal zone and open sea. The coastal zone will be warm
with nutrient rich shallow water. There is high primary productivity due to more
nutrients and light. The open is the deeper part of the ocean.
 Abiotic factors
o They include salt, organic and inorganic compounds O2, light, temperature, tides
and waves.
 Biotic factors
o Producers: They include phytoplanktons, algae, angiosperms, grasses mangrove
plants like Rhizophora, Avicennia and Sonneratia.
o Consumers: There are three types of consumers:
o Primary consumers: They include small fish, crabs, protozoans and prawns.
o Secondary consumers: They include big fishes like herring, saat and markerel.
o Tertiary consumers: They include very big fishes like cod, hedak, and whales.
o Decomposers: They include Bacteria and Fungi.
Estuaries or Estuarine Ecosystem
 At the mouth of a river where fresh water and sea water meet, estuary is present. The
estuary is always affected by tides of the sea. Mixing of fresh water and salt water helps
the producers in the ecosystem to get more nutrients and energy. The organisms show
wide range of tolerance to salinity and temperature because there are variations in the
stream flow and tidal currents (eg. Tidal marshes and coastal bays).
 The abiotic factors are salt and organic and inorganic compounds. The biotic factors
include macrophytes , microphytes and phytoplanktons. There are many endemic
species. The consumers resemble marine ecosystem. There are migratory species of
fishes eg., cels and salmons, These migratory fishes spend half of their life in salt water
and half in freshwater. They get a lot of food in estuaries which are highly productive
ecosystems.
 Since the estuaries provide more food for man and other animals, we have to protect the
estuary ecosystems by all means.
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MODULE-3: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
Learning objectives
o structure of ecosystem
o abiotic and Biotic substances in ecosystem
o functions of ecosystem
o food web
o types of pyramids in ecosystem.
ABIOTIC SUBSTANCES
Abiotic substances
 Physical factors: They include sunlight, shade, temperature, rainfall, wind, latitude,
altitude, soil type and water.
 Chemical factors: They include
o inorganic factors-C,N2,P,K, H2,O2,S
o Organic factors-Protein, Carbohydrates and fats.
Biotic substances
 Producers: They are producing their own food and therefore they are called autotrophs,
(eg. Green plants and bacteria).
o Photo-autotrophs : Green plants prepare food during photosyntheses
 Photo-autotorphs: Green plants prepare food during photosynthesis.
Light
Photosynthesis = 6CO2 +12H2O --------------- C6H12O6 + 6O2 +6H2O
Chlorophyll (Glucose)
o Chemto- autotrophs: Sulphur bacteria prepare organic compounds from H2S and
Co2.
H2S +CO2 ________ organic compounds
Heat
CONSUMERS
 Organisms get their food by feeding on other organisms or organic matter. They are
called heterotrophs.
 Primary consumers: Herbivores (or) Plant enters derive their nutrition directly from
plants. e.g. Rabbit, Cattle, Elephant, Camel, Insect, Deer, etc.
 Secondary consumers: They are carnivores deriving their energy from herbivores
Example: Frog and small Bird.
 Tertiary consumers: They are also carnivores that feed on other carnivores. Examples
are snake, Big fish, Fox, Eagle, Tiger, Lion and Wolf.
 Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. Example- Man, Rat, Birds and Fox.
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 Detrivores: They feed on dead organisms and wastes. Examples are Beetles, Termites,
Ants, Crabs and Earthworms.
Decomposers
 They are the heterotrophs (e.g. Bacteria and fungi) acting upon faecal matters, exudates
and dead bodies. They perform on invaluable service in the ecosystem by decomposing
the above organic matter and make it available for reuse.
ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
STRUCTURE OF NATURAL ECOSYSTEM
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FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEMS
 Ecosystems have various functions performed by the structural components to ensure

the persistence of the system. The green leaves (producers) prepare starch and the roots
absorb water and minerals from the soil.
 The solar energy is converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis. The
herbivores which feed on plants are consumed by carnivores.
 The decomposers break down the complex organic materials of dead decaying matter
into simpler ones which are used by producers.
 The major functional attributes of the ecosystems are as follows.
o Trophic structure
o Food chain
o Food web, Ecological pyramids
o Energy flow
o Nutrient cycle
o Productivity
 Primary Production
 Secondary Production
o Ecosystem Regulation
o Ecological Succession
 Trophic structure
o The producers and consumers are arranged in the ecosystem in a definite
manner and their interactions along with population size are expressed as trophic
structure. The trophic structure (food) of ecosystem is based on the existence of
several trophic levels.
 Food chain
o The sequence of eating and being eaten in a ecosystem is known as Food chain.
In the ecosystem , many trophic levels are connected through food chain.
o Example: Pond Ecosystem: Here, the following food chains take place from one
trophic level to other trophic levels.
o Phytoplankton ------Zooplankton ------Small fish --Big fish ----Tuna.
o Phytoplankton --Zooplankton ----Fish ---Bird -----Vulture.
o Phytoplankton ----Crab ----Carnivore ---Insect ----Small fish ----Big fish ----
Crane ----Crocodile
 Grassland Ecosystem (Grazing food chain): This food chain extends from producers
through hervbivores to carnivores. The following food chains are available in this
ecosystem
o Grass ------- Grasshopper -------Frog -------Snake -----Hawk.
o Grass -----Rabbit ------Fox -----Tiger.
o Grass -----Butterfly ------Frog ------Snake ----- Hawk
 Detritus Food Chain: This type of food chain starts with dead organic matter and passes
through detritus feeding organisms in soil. This food chain does not depend upon direct
solar energy.
o Example: Dead organic matter Algae Crabs Small fish Big fish (Mangrove
Ecosystem).
o Dead organic matter Fungi Bacteria( Forest Ecosystem).
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FOOD CHAIN AND TROPIC STRUCTURE
IMPORTANCE OF FOOD CHAIN
 In the process of food chains, energy flow, nutrient cycling, ecological balance and
biological magnification of some chemicals take place. Pesticides and heavy metals are
nonbiodegradable. They are carried along the food chain.
(C1) Food Web
 It is a network of Food chains where different types of organisms are connected

different levels. There are a number of options of eating and being eaten.
 Food web opens flow of food energy.
 Food web gives greater stability to the ecosystem.
 In a linear food chain if one species becomes extinct then the species in the subsequent
trophic levels are affected.
 In a food web number of options are available at each trophic level e.g. a field mouse
may be eaten by a wild cat, a snake or an owl.
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FOOD WEB
(C2) Ecological Pyramids
 They were first devised by Charles Elton (1927) So they, are also called Eltonion
Pyramids.
 Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem starting with
producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex are called
Ecological Pyramids.
 There are three Parameters of each Trophic level:
o Number of individuals
o Amount of Biomass
o Amount of Energy
 Three types of Pyramids are as follows:
o Pyramid of numbers
o Pyramid of Biomass
o Pyramid of Energy
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
(C2a) Pyramid of Numbers
 It is a graphic representation of number of individual organisms at each trophic level,

with producers forming the base and the carnivores at the tip.
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POND ECOSYSTEM
(C2b) Pyramid of Biomass
 The amount of living matter present in an environment is called biomass.

 Biomass of Trophic level depends upon reproductive potential and lonevity of the
member.
 Biomass is high in long-lived organisms.
UPRIGHT PYRAMID IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM
Inverted Pyramid in Aquatic Ecosystems
 The pyramid of biomass in aquatic ecosystem is inverted. The biomass trophic level
depends upon the reproductive potential and longevity of the membrane. In the case of
long lived organisms, the biomass is high.
 The biomass of phytoplankton is less than biomass of zooplanktons. The biomass
carnivores is higher than the herbivores.
INVERTED PYRAMID OF BIOMASS IN A POND
(C2c) Pyramid of Energy
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 Example: Pond ecosystem

 It is a graphic representation of the amount of energy trapped per unit time and area in
different trophic levels of food chain. The producers are at the base and carnivores are
at the top.
PYRAMID OF ENERGY
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MODULE-4: FOOD CHAINS, BIO-DIVERSITY, THREATS AND

CONSERVATION
Learning objectives
o what is food chain ?
o different types of food chain
o what is Biodiversity ?
o uses of Biodiversity
o threats and conservation of Biodiversity
FOOD CHAIN
 The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of organisms with
repeated stages of eating and being eaten is known as the food chain. A food chain
always starts with plant life and ends with an animal. Animals that eat only plants are
called herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores. For example, a
simple food chain links the plant, the insect (that eat plant), and the frog (that eat the
insect), and the snake (that eat the frog) and the eagle (that eat the snake).
 Why there are more herbivores than carnivores?

o When a herbivore eats, only a fraction of the energy (that it gets from the plant
food) becomes new body mass; the rest of the energy is lost as waste or used up (
by the herbivore as it moves). Likewise, when a carnivore eats another animal,
only a portion of the energy from the animal food is stored in its tissues. In other
words, organisms along a food chain pass on much less energy (in the form of
body mass) than they receive.
 The further along the food chain you go, the less food ( and hence energy) remains
available.
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 The above pyramid-shaped food chain shows many trees & shrubs providing food and
energy to giraffes. Note that as we go up, there are fewer giraffes than trees & shrubs
and even fewer lions than giraffes.
 Most food chains have no more than four or five links. This is because the animals at the
end of the chain would not get enough food (and hence energy ) to stay alive.
 Most animals are part of more than one food chain and eat more than one kind of food
in order to meet their food and energy requirements.
 A change in the size of one population in a food chain will affect other populations. This
interdependence of the populations within a food chain helps to maintain the balance of
plant and animal populations within a community. For example, when there are too
many giraffes; there will be insufficient trees and shrubs for all of them to eat. Many
giraffes will starve and die. Less giraffe means less reproduction, less food is available
for the lions to eat and some lions will starvae to death. When there are fewer lions, the
giraffe population will increase.
BIODIVERSITY
 The term biodiversity refers to the wealth of plants, animals and micro organisms that
contain precious genes and formulate delicate ecosystems.
Definition
 Biodiversity refers to variety and variability among the living organisms and ecological
complexes in which occur. This includes diversity within species, between species and of
the ecosystem. It is defined as the totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region.
 Biodiversity or Biological diversity comprises Genetic diversity, Species diversity and
Ecosystem diversity.
Genetic diversity
 It refers to the variation of genes within the species stores as immense amount of
genetic information. Genetic variation is seen among the individuals within a species .
For instance, in cattle there are many varieties with respect to colour, milk yield, size or
disease resistance.
 The genetic variation may be in alleles, entire genes or in chromosomal structures. It
leads to better adaptation of species to the changed environment. New species are
formed due to genetic variation.
Species diversity
 It refers to the various species found within a region. Variability found within a species
or between different species of a community. Species diversity is measured by species
richness (number of species per unit area) and evenness or equitability (evenness in the
number of individuals of a species).
 In the case of species richness, higher species diversity represents greater species
diversity. In the second case, evenness of species represents higher species diversity.
Ecosystem diversity
 It refers to the variations in the biological communities in which the species live. The
diversity within a community is called alpha diversity. The diversity between
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communities is called Beta diversity. Examples are Tropical Rain Forest and Boreal
Forest.
 The present diversity has developed over millions of years of evolution and therefore
ecological balance should not be disturbed. The diversity of the habitats over total
landscape or geological area is referred to as Gamma diversity (or) Landscape diversity.
For example Forest ecosystem, aquatic ecosystem, Grasslands, Deserts, mangroves etc.
USES OF BIODIVERSITY
 Biodiversity is very essential for the health of biosphere and it provides the raw
materials for man in order to make him adapt to the changing environment.
 Man derives many direct and indirect benefits from the living things. Biodiversity
provides ecological services also. The uses of biodiversity are as follows.
Consumptive use value
 It includes food, medicine, fuel, fibre, timber, clothing, etc. 80,000 species are edible
wild plant species. 90% of the crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants.
75% of the world population depends upon plants for medicines.
 For instance, penicillin from a fungus name Penicillium, quinine from a plant namely,
Cinchona, tetracycline from a bacterium and cancer-curing drugs like vinplastine and
vinchristine from a plant namely, Catharanthus roseus (Nithyakalyani) are obtained.
Productive use value
 The products are commercially usable

 The wild gene resources are traded to introduce desirable traits in the crops and
domesticated animals.
 Productive uses of biological resources are fuel, timber, musk, tusk, ivory, honey , fibre,
gums, resins, medicines, silk, wool etc.
Social value
 Biodiversity in India is related to our religious, cultural and spiritual uses.

 Many plants like Tulsi, Pipal, Hibiscus and Datura are considered to be sacred.
 Peacock, cow, snake, bull and owl have a place in our spiritual areana.
Ethical value
 We must protect every life. It is based on the concept „Live and let live‟
 We must enjoy watching all animals-Kangaroo, Giraffe, Zebra etc., though they are not
useful to us directly. We should not cage birds for our pleasure and pastime.
Aesthetic value
 Biodiversity provides us a good deal for fun and recreation. This type of tourism is
known as ecotourisum which generates 12 billion dollars as income per year.
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 If we have a lion in a zero we get about Rs . 2 crores as income per year. But if we kill the
lion we get only Rs. 50,000/-
 A teak fetches Rs. 50,000/- if cut down; but it lives, its value is priceless by way of its
ecological role.
Option values or unknown benefits
 We must try to explore the potentials of biodiversity for future benefit of mankind. We
must protect the biodiversity in order to find out drugs to fight diseases like cancer and
AIDS.
BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA AND TAMIL NADU
Biodiversity in India
 In India biodiversity is rich due to favourable climate and natural environmental

conditions. India has 8.1% of the world‟s total biodiversity in contrast to her 2.4% of the
world area. India occupies seventh position of plant rich nations( megadiversity
countries). The first position is occupied by Mexico. There is enormous loss of
biodiversity and one of the root causes identified for the loss is the wrong model of
development we have followed so far. The development has centered on the following:
o Commercial and monocultural agricultural practices.
o Large scale industrial expansion
o Increasing the consumption of goods and benefits through exploiting natural
resources without giving importance of sustainability.
 The man-made communities have replaced the natural communities in order to protect
life on earth. Man must learn to control and adjust the balance in nature that are altered
by his activities.
Biodiversity in TamilNadu
 TamilNadu has a rich biodiversity. The state has 5 National Parks, 20 wild life
sanctuaries and 2 biosphere reserves.
 It is estimated that 9% of the freshwater fauna of India is found in Tamil Nadu. The
insects dominate the fresh water animals. There are about 31 species of molluscs and
153 species of fishes in Tamil Nadu.
 In Vedanthangal Birds Sanctuary many species of birds are seen. They visit this
sanctuary from far off places during migratory season.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
 Though the rate of loss of species has been a slow process in the past, the process of
extinction has become fast in recent years. It has been reported that approximately
10,000 species become extinct every year. This raises an alarm regarding the threat to
biodiversity. IF this trend continues 1/3 or 2/3 of our current biodiversity would become
extinct by the middle of the 21st century.
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Factors causing loss of biodiversity
 Loss of Habitat
o Destruction of habitats due to clearing of forests and grasslands for agricultural
lands, pastures, settlement areas or project development lead to loss of habitat.
These factors are responsible for the disappearance of thousands of species.
According to the world Health Organisation (WHO) estimates, about 80% of the
population of developing countries relies on traditional medicines, mostly drugs
from plants. In order to meet the demand, about 86% of plant collection involves
destructive harvesting. Many plants become endangered, besides loss and
degradation of natural habitats take place due to overharvesting.
o The wetlands, mangroves and estuaries with rich biodiversity are under threat.
They are destroyed, as if they have no value. For example estuarine ecosystem in
Adyar, Chennai has disappeared posing a major treat to nearly 170 species of
birds, many of which nest and breed there. Tropical forests disappear at the rate
of 0.6% per year in our country. Marine biodiversity is also threatened by human
intervention.
o The wetlands in India are distributed in different geographical regions. Most of
the wetlands in India are linked with major river systems. India has 27403
wetlands covering 4.1 million . Of these , 2,175 are natural and the rest are
manmade. Wetlands occupy 18.4 of the area of our country of which 70% are
under rice cultivation. In India, out of an estimated 4.1 million ha of wetlands, 1.5
mha are natural and 2.6 mha are man-made. Wetlands provide food and shelter
for mammals and birds.
 Poaching of wild life
o The illegal commercial hunting is called poaching. There are two types of hunting
subsistence hunting (killing animals for food) and sport hunting (killing animals
to sell their meat, fur, horns, tusks etc.)
 Man-Animal conflicts
o Sometimes, wild animals threaten human beings. This leads to conflict between
wild life and man. For example elephant in Sambalpur, Orissa killed 195 humans
in 5 years. The villagers killed 98 elephants in retaliation and injured 30
elephants.
Causes
 When the habitats of wild animal are destroyed by man, the animals are forced to come
out of the forest in search of food to the nearby human settlements and attack human
beings when they come in contact with them accidentally.
 When rice, sugarcane , etc., are not cultivated within the sanctuaries, the animals move
out in search of food. One adult elephant needs 2 quintals of green fodder and 150 litres
of water daily. If this is not available, the wild animals move out.
 The weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. A tigress attacks man in
order to protect its cubs. Once a tiger tastes the flesh of a man accidentally, it becomes a
man-eater.
 When wildlife corridors are converted into human settlements, the path of wild life is
disrupted and animals attack the settlements.
 Since the compensation by the government in lieu of crop damage is not enough, the
agonized farmers kill the wild animal to protect their crops.

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CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
 The enormous value of biodiversity emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity.

Biodiversity is a natural reservoir with tremendous economic potential.
 Wildlife is a gift of nature to be nutured. Biodiversity is an important resource for man
and nation. So its conservation and rational use are the need of the hour to achieve
sustainable development.
 World wide fund for Nature (WWF 1994) works to conserve biological diversity as
follows.
o Creating and maintaining systems of effective and sustainable protected areas.
o Promoting practices of sustainable development
o Conserving certain species of special concern.
o Promoting environmental education to enable people to manage the natural
resources sustainablely.
 Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) helps to provide policy guidelines which
regulate the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The code of conduct for
Responsible Fisheries adopted in 1995, provides principles to conserve, manage and
sustainable use living aquatic resources. F.A.O encourages all countries to implement
this code. A model of Forest Harvesting Practice was published 1996 to encourage
improved management to help conserve forests. The codes were developed for the Asia-
Pacific and, West and Central African regions.
 The International Plant Protection Convention is to protect plants by setting standards
for pest control. This protects biodiversity by preventing pests including invasive alien
species.
 In India, Biological Diversity Act 2002, regulates access to biological resources of the
country with the purpose of securing equitable share in benefits arising out of the
biological resources and knowledge relating to biological resources.
 National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) which was set up under the Biological Diversity
Act 2002, deals with requests for access to genetic resources by foreigners. It protects
resources and ensures economic benefits to local communities.
Methods of Conservation
 There are two methods of conservation of biodiversity.

o In-situ conservation (within habitat)
o Ex-situ conservation (outside habitats)
In-situ conservation of Biodiversity
 This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in the natural habitat itself. This is
called „in situ‟ or site conservation. E.g. Biosphere Reserves , National Parks,
Sanctuaries and Reserve forests. There are 13 Biosphere reserves, 80 national parks and
420 wildlife sanctuaries and 120 Botanical gardens in India.
Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity
 Preserving plants and animals away from their natural habitat is called Ex-situ
conservation.
 In the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) Karnal, Haryana, the
semen of Domesticated bovine animals is protected. About 90 million cattle were being
produced world wide by 1977 using artificial insemination involving frozen semen.
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 In the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Allahabad, several fish species are
preserved.
 Tissue culture methods help in conservation of varieties of crop plants and trees.
Moreover, aromatic plants and medicinal plants are also conserved by means of Gene
bank. (Seed bank, Pollen bank, DNA libraries, etc.)
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MODULE-5: NATURAL RESOURCES - FOREST AND MINERAL -

THEIR USES AND ABUSES
Learning objectives
o What is the meaning of natural resources ?
o Different types of natural resources
o Uses and abuses of forest resources
o Uses and abuses of mineral resources
o Impact on the environment due to abuses.
NATURAL RESOURCES
 Natural resources comprise abiotic resources and biotic resources. Abiotic resources
consist of land, water, air , sunlight and minerals. Biotic resources consist of forests
with wild plants and animals, human population, coal , oil and natural gas produced
million years ago.
Types of Natural resources
 There are two types of natural resources

o Renewable natural resources
o Non-renewable natural resources
Renewable Natural resources
 They are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of time. For example,
water, air, soil fertility, wild plants and animals, human beings and energy resources
like wind energy, tidal energy, hydropower, solar energy and biomass energy.
Non-Renewable Natural resources
 Non-renewable natural resources are minerals, fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and
some species of plants and animals. Sometimes, renewable resources become non-
renewable if we exploit them without any control. Some species, if overexploited,
become endangered or even extinct.
Natural resources
 The following are the natural resources

o Forest resources
o Mineral resources
o Soil resources.
o Water resources
o Food resources
o Energy resources
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FOREST RESOURCES
 Forest are important renewable renewable natural resources. Trees, shrubs and herbs
dominate forest ecosystem. 33% of the world‟s area consists of forest lands. Insects,
birds and animals live there. Native forest has naturally growing plants and trees.
Man-made forest consists of species of trees, shrubs, etc., grown by man. Boreal
coniferous forests are found around the Arctic Sea, 550 to 650 north latitude
.Temperate forests are found on either side of the earth 300 to 550 latitude north.
Tropical rain forests are found between 300 north latitude and 300 south latitude.
Uses of forests
 Productive function: Forests provide raw materials like pulp for paper industry and
ingredients for pharmaceutical industry. They also provide fuel, fruits, nuts , timber,
turpentine, gum, paints herbal oil, honey and alkaloids.
 Protective function: Forests provide shelter for insects, birds, animals etc., and aid in
their reproduction, provide food and ensure their free movement. They prevent
drought soil erosion and loss of water.
 Regulative function: Regulation of environmental equilibrium is successfully achieved
by forests. For example , regulation of Carbon-di-oxide (CO2), Oxygen (O2) ,water
(H2O)
and minerals is very essential for a healthy environment. Solar energy is absorbed,
retained and released by forests. During photosynthesis by green plants, starch is
formed from carbondioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and it is stored . In
this process, Carbon-di-oxide (CO2) is taken in and Oxygen (O2) is released to
maintain equilibrium in atmosphere and aid in reducing the global temperature. An
increase in global temperature poses a threat to human beings throughout the world.
 One acre of forest absorbs 4 tons of Carbon-di-oxide (CO2) and releases 8 tons of
Oxygen (O2), thereby regulating carbon cycle, flood and drought . It is the forest which
helps in economic development and maintenance of land value.
Abuses of forests
 In India, in the olden day (Period of Mauriya and Gaudilya), there was more forest cover
and less deforestation. During the period of Ashoka, many trees were planted. In the
beginning of 20th century, there was 30% of forest cover; but by the end of 20th
century, there was only 19.4% of forests left. This is mainly due to over exploitation of
forests for commercial purposes like timber, food, etc.
 According to the National Forest Act recommendations (1988), 33% of total area and
67% of hilly area must be preserved as forest area. We should not destroy forest for
our short-term benefits as it would lead to permanent loss of forests in an area
forever.
DEFORESTATION
 Deforestation occurs at an alarming rate. In India, we have lost 40 million hectares of

forests during the last 100 years. Of the total land area of 329 million hectares, 174
million hectares of forests, agricultural and non-agricultural lands have been
degraded. Deforestation in temperate countries is one per cent only. But, it is 40% in
tropical countries! Tropical forests are reduced by 10 million hectares per year. This
will lead to 90% reduction of forests in the next 60 years.
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Causes of deforestation
 The following are the causes of deforestation

o Overpopulation and shifting cultivation have resulted in a loss of 51 million of
hectares forests.
o The increase in demand for fuel in another reason. The demand was 200 to 500
million tons in 2001, whereas it was only 65 million tons in 1947.
o Increasing demand for raw materials for industries . About 900 million trees are
cut down in a year to supply raw materials needed for American pulpmills and
paper.
o Growing needs of food and development of various projects
o Overgrazing, increase of pests, mining, forest fire and construction of dams.
Consequences of deforestation
 Soil erosion; 6000 million tons of soil get eroded every year in India.
 Frequent floods are a common occurrence.
 Threatening of wild life species and their habitats, loss of biodiversity, erosion of genetic
diversity and loss of economy take place.
 The hydrological cycle is affected and rainfall is reduced.
 Global warming, climate and drought occur.
 Landslides in hilly areas and increase in wind speed occur.
MINERAL RESOURCES
 Minerals are non-renewable natural resources. They occur naturally as in organic,

crystalline solids with physical properties. There are thousands of minerals in the
world.
 A nation‟s economy depends mainly on minerals which are used by man everyday for
various activities. On the basis of usage of minerals, there are two types of Human
civilization namely Bronze Age and Iron Age. We extract about 74m.metric tons of
iron and steel per year.
 Minerals are mainly of inorganic origin but minerals like coal, petroleum and amber are
of organic origin. Industrialisation and overpopulation lead to exploitation of
minerals. Environmental problems arise when mineral exploitation is pursued
unscientifically by man.
Uses
 Development of Industrial plants and machinery.

 Generation of energy using coal, lignite and uranium.
 Construction, settlements and housing.
 Weapons and arnaments/ Transportation.
 Communication-Telephone wires, cables and electronic devices.
 Medical system-Ayurvedic system.
 Alloys, Jewellery (Gold, Platinum, Silver and Diamond)
 Agriculture-Fertilizers, seed dressing and fungicides
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Abuses
 Minerals have been exploited by way of open cast mining (stripped of unwanted
materials lying above the mineral-bearing strata cast extraction of minerals),
underground mining (coal seams) and placer mining (surface mining from stream bar
or beach deposits).
 U.S.A exploit huge amounts of minerals and energy resources and has become the
richest nation. Japan has the most efficient technologies with with respect to coal and
oil.
 In India, energy-generating minerals such as coal and lignite are found in West Bengal,
Maharashtra, M.P., A.P., and Orissa. The important ore, uranium taken from uranite
ore and pitchblende are found in Jharkhand, A.P. (Nellore), Megalaya and Rahasthan.
 Commercially used minerals are aluminium (bauxite ore) and iron ore (Haemetite and
Magnetite), found in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, M.P, and Tamil Nadu.
The copper pyrites (Copper ore) are found in Rajasthan, Bihar, A,P, M,P., Karnataka
and West Bengal.
Environmental Impact
 Mining is a dirty industry creating largest environmental disaster zones in the world.
Each step in the mining produces a lot of waste minerals which cause pollution.
 Environmental damage occurs due to the careless exploitation of minerals.
 They are as follows:
o Water pollution takes place due to washing loose materials from waste dumps
near adjacent water sources. Mine drainage and coal washing operations also
cause water pollution. Surface water is contaiminated by acid mine.
o Air pollution is caused by release of noxious gases such as Sulphur di-oxide
(SO2), Nitrogen di-oxide (NO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) into the
atmosphere. Hydrocarbons, suspended particulate matter, Silicon (Si),Fluoride
(FL), asbestos and metallic dust are released into the atmosphere affecting the
vegetation and causing health hazards.
o Noise pollution takes place due to blasting and operating of heavy machinery.
o Soil erosion and feiling of trees take place. Minerals cause diseases like silicosis,
flurosis and asbestosis. The economic devaluation of the land is an important
impact.
Remedial Measures
 We must follow ecofriendly mining technology. Microbes must be used in leaching

technique to utilise low grade ores. Bacteria and Thiobacillus, ferruxidans are used to
extract gold embedded in Iron sulphide ore. Moreover, some strains of bacteria
remove impurities of ore. Growing vegetation in mined area helps to prevent the
discharge of toxic drainage to minimize environmental impact.
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MODULE-6: NATURAL RESOURCES - SOIL AND WATER - THEIR

USES AND ABUSES
Learning objectives
SOIL RESOURCES
 Soil is the most finite and valuable resource upon which we depend for our basic
amenities of life. So, we should preserve soil by all means. The total area of India is
328.73 mha. of which the potential area is 264.5 mha. About 187.8 m ha of land have
been degraded due to water shortage, wind erosion, salinity, alkalinity and water-
logging. Soil is thin covering over land containing organic materials, living organisms,
air and water.
 Soil is a renewable source. But it is regenerated at a very slow rate i.e., 2.5 cm soil for
200-1000 years. Soil becomes non-renewable resource when the rate of erosion is
faster than the rate of renewal. A cross section of soil horizon is called soil profile.
Abuses
 The rapid increase of population results in demand for limited land resources which are
subject to degradation. Land degradation takes place due to natural and man-induced
or arthropogenic activities. Natural causes are soil erosion, land slide, volcanoes,
earthquakes, floods, droughts and desertification.
 Man induced causes are deforestation, mining, over-irrigation, dam construction and
use of more fertilizers. The flood havoc witnessed in Mumbai and Tamilnadu
(Nov.2005) was perhaps due to increase in global temperature and green house gases.
The average annual erosion rate of land is 20-100 times more than renewal rate.
Man-induced landslides
 Overirrigation of slopes for farming

 Diversion of surface water onto sensitive slopes
 Cutting of trees and forest fires along the slopes
 Construction work along the slopes
 Hydroelectric projects, large dams, reservoirs, construction of roads and railway lines
and mining.
 Mining combines with natural factors for landslides Example: Land slides between
Rishikesh and Byasi on Badrinath Highway due to construction of roads and mining.
Soil erosion
 Top soil moves from one place to another resulting in loss of fertility of soil. One third of
world‟s croplands is getting eroded. Two thirds of degraded lands lie in Asia and
Africa. Soil erosion takes place due to normal erosion by natural process and
accelerated erosion by overgrazing, deforestation and mining.
 Two types of agents cause soil erosion. The first one is climatic agent (water and wind)
and the other is biotic agent (overgrazing by 35% damage to soil, mining and
deforestation by 30% and unscientific modern farming practices by 28%)
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Desertification
 The croplands are converted into desert like land. The desertification may be moderate
(10-25% drop in productivity), sever (215-50% drop) and very severe (more than 50%
drop).
 The causes for desertification are overgrazing, disforestation, surface mining, quarrying
, unscientific farming, overcultivation, low rainfall, more drought and global warming.
WATER RESOURCES
 Water is an elixir of life. It is a renewable and indispensable natural resource. The

volume of water on the earth is 1.4 billion cu km of which 93% is sea water, 4.1% is
fresh water on land, 0.2% is glaciers and 0.0001% is humidity of air. The amount of
underground water is 8 million cu.km.
 Totally 97% of earth‟s surface is filled with water. If earth is flat, it will be two feet under
water. About 1% of water is needed by man. About 60-65% of water is present in the
body of animals and plants. Of the total rainfall, 77% of rain falls on the sea and 23%
on land. About 84% of water vapour rise from sea surface whereas 16% from land.
Uses
 Water is used by man for almost all developmental activities such as drinking,
irrigation, washing, transportation, waste disposal in the industries and coolant for
the thermal power plants.
 It is the water which shapes the earth‟s surface and regulates the climate. 70% of water
is used for agriculture in the whole world (93% in India and 4% in Kuwait) and 25% of
water for industries (70% in Europe and 5% in less developed countries). The per
capita use of water in a family of 4 members in the USA is 1000 m3 per year, many
time more than in the developing countries.
Abuses
 Man overexploits surface water due to overpopulation. Hence, drought condition

prevails. 41% (2.4 billion) of people in the world live under drought condition with
very less amount of water. It will increase to 48% (3.5 billion) in 2025 and 9 billion in
2050.
 The withdrawal of ground water is more than its recharge level. So, the sediments in
aquifer get compacted and sinking of overlying land surface leads to damage in
buildings, fracture in pipes, reversing the flow of sewer canals and tidal flowing takes
place. The lowering of water table and intrusion of sea water take place due to mining
of ground water.
 If irrigation is done with brackish water, it raises the water table in the ground leading
to water-logging and salinity problems. So, agricultural operations will suffer. The
surface water is largely used for irrigation (93% in India) , industrial use, public water
supply, navigation, hydroelectric generation and thermal power generation.
 The ground water resources in India is estimated at 395.6 billion cubic meters. But we
use only 10% of this water. The total requirement of water in India in 2050 would be
1,422 billion cubic metres.

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MODULE-7: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND ITS

CLASSIFICATION
Learning objectives
o What is environmental pollution?
o Classification of pollutants
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution
 The world pollution is derived from latin word „pollutionem‟, meaning „defile or make
dirty‟
 Pollution is defined as a deviation from the natural composition of a part of the
environment resulting in adverse effect on life.
 Pollution is an unfavourable change in the physical or biological characteristics of our
air, land and water (or basic amenities) causing harmful effect on our life or that of
other desirable species and cultural assets. Therefore, it is defined as, “ The addition
of the constituents to water, air, or land, which adversely alter the natural quality of
the environment”.
 Natural pollution is the act of nature and man cannot control its occurrence that easily.
Eg, natural forest fires, volcanic eruptions, earthquake, etc. Artificial pollution is due
to the activities of man and is under his control. Eg, industrial effluents and
emissions, thermal and radioactive emissions, etc.
 Environmental pollution is the result of urban- industrial technological revolution and
speedy exploitation and completion for the same with the intention of grabbing every
bit of natural resources without any empathy. The mad rat race among nations over
the entire globe for development jeopardized the existence of man itself. The craze of
progress in agriculture, industry, transportation and technology is taken as the
general criterion of development of the nation. Such activities of man have created
adverse effects on all living organisms in the biosphere. The splendid plentifulness of
nature is a heritage that should never be spoiled but at least in paper.
 Today India occupies 7th position among industrialized developing countries of the
world. Rapid demand for energy leads the progress in the directions of thermal and
nuclear energy sources, which generate enormous pollution to the environment.
 According to US President‟s Science Advisory Committee, Environmental pollution is
the unfavourable alteration of our surroundings, wholly or largely as a by-product of
man‟s actions, through direct or indirect effects of changes in the energy pattern,
radiation level, chemical and physical constitution and abundance of organisms.
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Pollutants
 The material, which causes the pollution of the environment is called pollutants.
Pollutants are undesirable substances present in the wrong place, at the wrong time
and in the wrong quantity.
 Pollutant is a harmful solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such a concentration
in the environment , which tends to be injurious for the whole living biota.
 Pollutant s need not be material substance. Noise, radiation, thermal energy etc are also
pollutants.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
 Primary pollutants: The substances emitted directly from an identifiable source are
called primary pollutants. Eg., sulfur dioxide , nitrogen oxides , etc.
 Secondary Pollutants: These are derived substances or effects from primary pollutants.
Eg, peroxyacetyl nitrate.
 Biodegradable pollutants: The pollutants that can be readily decomposed by natural
processes or by engineered methods in a relatively small time are called biodegradable
pollutants. Eg, municipal sewage.
 Non-biodegradable pollutants: Pollutants, which are resistant to biological action of
normal organisms in the environment, are called non-biodegradable pollutants. Eg,
DDT, mercury, lead, etc.
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MODULE-8: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF AIR, WATER AND

SOIL POLLUTION
Learning objectives
o How soil, air and water is polluted ?
o Causes of air, water and soil pollution
o Effect of air, water and soil pollution
o Control measures of air, water and soil pollution.
AIR POLLUTION
Definition
 Engineers Joint Council of USA defines air pollution as “ the presence in the outdoor
atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, odour,
smoke or vapour in quantities, with characteristics, and of duration which as to be
injurious to human, plant and animal life or to property, or which unreasonably
interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property”.
 According to the Bureau of Indian Standards. IS-4167 air pollution is “ the presence in
ambient atmospheres of substances, generally resulting from the activity of man, in
sufficient concentration, present for a sufficient time and under circumstances such as
to interfere with comfort, health or welfare of persons or with reasonable use or
enjoyment of property”.
Pollutants
 Thermal power amounts to more than 70 per cent of power generation and 1000 tons of
coal is burnt per year to produce.
 1 MW power, producing the following pollutants ( in tons/ MW/ year)
 Ash 750, carbon dioxide 7000, Sulfur dioxide 12, Oxides of Nitrogen 20. In addition,
carbon monoxide, and cancer causing heavy metals , present as impurities in coal, is
also released.
 Thermal power stations are responsible for about 14% of the global air pollution, while
transport systems and industry contribute 60% and 16% respectively.
Impacts
 The impacts from the air pollutants of thermal power plants are as follows
o Green house effect from CO2 release
o Corrosion of structures by SO2 and NO2
o Acid rains and death of aquatic life.
o Irritation of eyes and mucous membranes and respiratory distresses
o Anemia due to CO which destroys red blood cells
o Cancers due to some metal particulates
o Reduced yield of crops and dwarfed growth of plant life.
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Control Measures
 Proper Sitting: 25 km away from outer boundaries of cities, and sensitive ecosystems,
and sufficient distance from highways, coastline, agricultural land etc.
 EIA: Detailed assessment of impacts on the land, water, air and socioeconomic
environments.
 SPM Removal : Particulate removal from stack gases using settling chambers, cyclone
separators , bag glitters and electrostatic precipitators.
 Removal of Gases: Removal of SO2 from exhaust gases by absorption, adsorption etc.
 Subjecting the polluting body or company to rigorous control using Air (Prevention and
Protection of Pollution) Act.
Air pollution from refineries
 Pollution due to petroleum refineries encompases three stages , viz crude oil production,
transportation and refining operations. Maximum pollution occurs during refining,
where crude oil is subjected to distillation, cracking and hydro cracking operations to
give naphtha , kerosene, diesel oil, gasoline, fuel oil, lubricants, LPG, asphalt, coke,
grease and waxes. Air pollutants comprise of H2S, NH3, SO2, NOX, HF, HCL, CHX,
aldehydes, mercaptans, smoke, CO, CO2, fumes, mists and dusts. The major
pollutants are SO2, H2S, CHX and SPM. They are controlled as follows.
 SO2: De sulfurisation of effluent gases, besides pollution control can meet the sulphur
shortage. The desulfurization processes employed are: Cat- OX, Cal-OX, NOs- OX and
ammos- OX. In the cat- OX, SO2 is catalytically oxidized to SO3 and converted to
sulfuric acid ; with and efficiency of 93%. In the cal- OX & NOs- OX processes, SO2 is
scrubbed with and alkaline solution. In the Ammos – OX process ammonium sulfite
and sulfate solutions are used for scrubbing SO2.
 H2S: Ethyl amines are most commonly used to remove H2S along with CO2, carbon
disulfide and carbonyl sulfide. Sulfur is recovered in the process and the absorbent
amine is recycled, H2S can also be removed by adsorption using activated carbon,
alumina, zeolites, bauxite or iron oxide. The adsorbent can be regenerated and reused,
by a suitable method.
 NH3: Ammonia is scrubbed by dilute sulfuric acid to form ammonium sulfate.
Alternatively NH3 is oxidized to NO2, which can be absorbed in water to give HNO3.
 CHX: Hydrocarbons can be processed for recovery by cooling and adsorption, if
economically feasible . Otherwise they are disposed off by catalytic or non catalytic
combustion. Flares are provided for combustion of waste hydrocarbons.
 Particulates: SPM (Suspended Particulate matter) in the tail gases are controlled by
cyclone separators, , scrubbers, filters and electrostatic precipitators.
GLOBAL AIR POLLUTION
Global effect of air pollution
 Troposphere and stratospheric ozone depletion, aerosol scattering and absorption of

solar and terrestrial radiation, green-house gas warming, rain and precipitation
quality, long-range transport of air-pollutants, heat-islands and urban air quality are
known to be main global air pollution problems.
 The environment in which we live is unfortunately the host medium for air pollutants.
Man is the sole culprit in polluting the air and he alone should take the responsibility
to clean the atmosphere and protect the environment.
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Green House Effect (GHE)
 Solar energy is in the form of light radiation has wavelength in the range of 0.2 to 4 µm.
It will lose solar energy after striking the earth and will be converted to heat energy of
longer wavelengths. Thus the wavelength of this terrestrial reradiation, from earth to
atmosphere is more (4-100um).
 After striking earth since energy decrease, the wavelength increases. Carbon dioxide has
radiation absorption bands in the range of 12-18 mm wavelengths. Thus if CO2 is
present in the atmosphere, it allows the incoming solar radiation to pass through. This
is the origin of the term „ Green House Effect‟ since the glass in a green house also is
transparent to short wavelength solar radiation and absorb the long wavelength
radiation, emitted from inside the green-house. CO2, water vapour, methane N2O,
ozone and CFCs cause similar effects and hence are called green house gases. As these
green house gas molecules absorb energy, their temperature increases and they
themselves start radiating heat. Only part of it escapes out into the space while the
remaining is radiated back to earth further increasing its temperature.
 Green house effect is essential for mankind and life. But man‟s activities are accelerating
or enhancing the warming process to cause concern.
Sources of Green Houses Gasses
 Main source of GHE is carbon dioxide, contributes about 50% . Presently more than
10,000 million tons of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere every year by
industries. USA alone produces about 2500 million tones of CO2 per year.
 The carbon dioxide concentration in the pre-industrial era was 265-290 ppm and today
it is about 350 ppm.
Heat Islands
 The heat energy release causes a significant climate change in cities and may result in
global climate effects. Because of the thermal capacitance of the streets, buildings and
industries for solar input and because of energy dissipation, cities are warmer than
their rural surroundings.
 A difference of 60C is common is urbanized and industrialized cities. Hence become
heat island.
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Acid Rains
 Thermal power plants, industries and other sources release thousand tones of oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur into the atmosphere everyday. These gases undergo
transformation in the atmosphere from nitrates, sulphates, nitric acid or sulphuric
acid droplets. Some of these pollutants can travel 200-300 km in a day. Thus
compound emitted in one place may cause effect of concern on another place.
 Rain in the purest source of water „Acid Rain‟ means any precipitation-rain snow, or
dew, which is more acidic than normal. Acid rain in general has the pH less than 5.6.
In developed countries acid rains with pH <4.5 are common.
Ozone Holes
 Earth has a protective unmbrella in the form of Ozone Layer of 24 km thickness in the
stratosphere about 15 km away from the earth‟s surface . The concentration of ozone
in stratosphere is about 10 ppm. It is essential for the life to sustain on earth. It absorb
the dangerous ultraviolet radiation (UV-β rays with wavelengths from 200-280 nm)
from the sun and convert it to heat and chemical energy. It is this activity that is
responsible for the rise in temperature. The layer is highest at equator and lowest at
the poles.
 In nature , ozone is continuously formed and destroyed through photochemical
interaction and equilibrium in ozone concentration is ensured. However this
equilibrium is upset due to the discharge of anthropogenic air pollutants such as
Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFSs) into the atmosphere. The CFCs release free radicals of
chlorine, fluorine and bromine, which destroy the stratospheric ozone as a result of
which the ozone layer is thinned. The patches of thinned ozone layers are known as
“Ozone Holes”. By definition the ozone hole represents only a depletion of ozone
concentration but not an empty space in the atmosphere.
Indoor Air pollution
 As civilization improved man has constrained his life to indoors and started living more
and more indoor within the structures built by him. This led to the sever problem of “
Indoor Pollution”. Man and several thousands of household products made by him
pose a serious threat to indoor air quality. These products include cleaners,
detergents, paints, air fresheners, etc. Indoor air pollution often leads to severe health
hazards like irritation to eyes, nose, throat, headache and respiratory problems. It is
proved that indoor pollution increases the tension and decreases the productivity of
workers.
CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
 Causes of Indoor Air pollution:Improper ventilation and exhaustive use of synthetic

waxes, paints fumigants etc are the causes
Control of Indoor Air pollution
 Source Removal
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o Sources other than human such as motor vehicles, wastes, appliances that are not
in use etc to be moved out. Smoking must be practically prohibited in indoor.
 Improved Building Design
o Better consideration to instantaneously remove combustion production during
cooking and related enjoyment activities. Preferably use low fuming heating
agents, attached with chimney in the kitchen. Better exhaust in the toilet in
favourably placed position ion the house for better aeration and lighting.
 Tobacco smoke
o Cigarette smoking is injurious to others health too and hence many legislations to
prevent it with due license to manufacture and distribute the same. Typically
about 500 ppm carbon monoxide is inhaled in each smoke which inactivate
about 5% of hemoglobin . Other pollutants of cigarette smoke inclues
carcinogens such as aldehydes, tar, hydrogen cyanide, nicotine, lead etc.
o The effects of cigarette smoking include lung cancer to smokers and also others
living in the environment. Smokers recover slowly from acute virus infections.
Cigarette significantly causes air pollution.
 Air Pollution from Cement Industry
o Cement is manufactured by crushing two types of stones, argillaceous and
calcareous, brought from the quarry. The fine powders are blended in right
proportion and slurry is prepared by adding water. The slurry slides down an
inclined klin kept rotating on its axis, as very hot air blows through the klin.
Due to the heat and rolling action clinker balls are formed and they roll out of
the kiln. The clinker is pulverized to fine powder, which is the final product,
cement. The above process in called a dry process. In an alternative wet process
the raw material stones are crushed in a wet state and the slurries are blended
in proportion.
o The air pollution from cement factories comprises mainly of
 Dust, cement , crushed stone power and ash content of coal fuel burning
for power and
 So2, NOX, CO and CO2 , as combustion products of coal.
o Silica dust causes a lung disorder known as „silicosis‟. Vegetation is affected by
cement dust clogging the process of the leaves there by affecting the gas
exchange process of the plant. The cement dust settling on the soil will
adversely alter the soil composition affecting the land productivity. Noise and
heat pollution also add to the nuisance in the victinity.
o To control air pollution in cement factories the following measures are to be
recommended:
 Wet process of cement manufacturing should be encouraged. Since the dry
process has more pollution potentials.
 Pulverization of clinker and transport of materials in the process flow
should be enclosed to prevent dust spillage.
 Superior grade coal should be used, if coal firing is the source of energy.
 Air pollution control equipments like bag filters and electrostatic
precipitators should be used. Unlike in other industries cement dust
pollution control in the cement industry is rewarding to the
management, since pollution means loss of the product itself.
 Green belt should be developed around the industry to reduce the
dispersion of dust, noise and heat, which are efficiently absorbed by
plantations

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EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
Art Treasures
 Polluted air containing oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and particulates deteriorate
building materials and may ultimately result in a loss in structural integrity. When
buildings dating from antiquity and structures of great artistic and histortic values are
disfigured the loss is irreparable.
 Less than 100 years of exposure to air pollutants in London has done more damage to
the Cleopatra‟s Needle than what was caused by nature during 3500 years in the dry
atmosphere of Egypt.
 The miraculous and historical monuments built by long years of hard labour are losing
their faces. Disintegeration of stone caused largely by the expansion of iron by
corrosion had badly demaged the houses of parliament in London.
 In India, Taj Mahal, a miracle in marble is facing the grave danger from pollution
caused by foundaries , power houses, railway yards, Mathura refinery and other
industrial units. Similarily, Sri Channakeshava temple at Belur (Hasan district,
Karnataka), Jagannath temple at Puri, and Konark Sun temple on East Coast of India
are badly by particulates present in the air
WATER POLLUTION
 The quality of water is a vital concern for mankind since man is made up of 79% water.
Earth‟s surface contain 71% water yet only 1% is drinkable and its quality also going
down in addition to shrinkage of amount. Due to indiscriminate use of water for
industrial purpose, it is being contaminated by industrial wastage, sludge, oil, etc.
 According to section 2 of “ The Water (prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
(Act No.6 of 1974), “ water pollution means such contamination of water or such
alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of water or such discharge
of any sewage or trade effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into
water ( whether directly or indirectly) as may, or is likely to, create a nuisance or
render such water harmful or injurious to public health or safety, or to domestic,
commercial, industrial , agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life and health
of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms.”
CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
 Sewage and Other Wastes

o Sewage is a wastewater coming out from domestic waste and animal or food
processing plants. It includes human excreta, paper, cloth, soap, detergents,
etc. Due to accumulation of sewage and other wastes, it loses its self
purification capacity and microorganisms can not live it. It has very high
biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD).
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 Eutrophication
o Domestic sewage contain large amount of phosphates, nitrates and other
nutrients and thus it become nutrient rich. The water bodies become highly
productive or eutrophic and the phenomenon is known as eutrophication. It
stimulates the luxuriant growth of algae in water. It completes with other
aquatic forms, leading of depletion of oxygen. Further the algal growth releases
some toxic chemicals, which kills fish, birds and other animals , thus water
begins to stink.
 Industrial Effluents
o Effluents from industries like breweries, tanneries, dying textiles, paper and pulp
mills, steel industries, mining etc. The pollutants include oils, greases, plastics,
metallic wastes, suspended solids, phenols, cyanides, DDT, etc. Most of them
are non-biodegradable.
 Agricultural Discharges
o The agricultural chemicals and are fertilizers and pesticides. They are discharged
into water bodies.
 Physical Pollutants
o In this class, heat and radioactive substances coming out from thermal power
plants and nuclear power plants.
EFFECT OF WATER POLLUTION
 Oxygen Depletion
o Due to organic compounds overloading the chemical oxygen demand (COD)
increases. Consequently, the water contains less amount of oxygen to breach
the living forms in water. This leads to death of many life forms to low
dissolved oxygen (DO).
 Nitrogenous and Phosphorous Compound
o The nutrients nitrogen and phosphorous promotes the growth of algae which
prevents other plant‟s prosperity.
 Pathogens
o Water pollutants invariably encourage the ideal condition growth and
proliferation of disease causing microorganism (pathogens). This spreads
diseases like cholera, flu, etc.
 Toxic Compounds
o Heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides, lead, mercury, dyes, etc, are the ingredients
of many industrial effluents discharged in water.
CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION
Treated Wastewater Disposal and Effluent Reuse
Urban sewage
 With urbanization the water consumption increases with larger proportions of

industrial water needs. 80 to 90 percent of the water consumed ends up as sewage,
with its large pollution potentials.
 Untreated sewages find their way into natural streams, lakes , sea and ground water,
destroying the water quality in these natural water bodies and upsetting the ecological
balances. Thus shortage of good water resources, death of aquatic life, health hazard
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to man and animal, corrosion of structures and aesthetic degeneration result. To

avoid such consequences the following steps are necessary:
o Consumption of water by urban communities should be reduced, by avoiding
wastages and leakages , by adopting less water consuming industrial processes
and by treating and reusing wastewaters.
o Wastewaters should be treated with the objectives of reducing environmental
pollution, enabling the reuse of treated wastewater and recovering the useful
matter present in the wastewater.
o Water quality modeling and management of the receiving natural water bodies
should be undertaken to preserve their quality while availing their waste (self)
purification potentials thereby reducing the treatment costs.
Useful Constituents in Sewages
 More than 99% of sewage is mere water that is polluted the 1% impurities with all the
evil attributes. Hence water is the most abundant component of the wastewaters to be
put to reuse. The other components of wastewaters and their potentials for recovery
and reuse as follows:
o Organic matter is abundant in municipal sewage and some industrial wastes,
particularily distilleries, sugar factories , food processing industries, slaughter
houses, dairies etc. From this organic matter, manure and fuel gas can be
realized. Anaerobic digesters constructed in distilleries may recover the entire
cost in two, three years due to generation bio-gas that can be replace the huge
conception of coal. Also, as bio-gas is a clean fuel, pollution problem from the
industry can be minimized.
o Chemicals in industrial wastes can be varied depending on the industry. Some
chemicals will have recovery value and can partly pay for the waste treatment
processes. However the emphasis should be to reduce the concentration of the
effluents by suitable process alternations in the industry.
Methods of Recovery
 Organic matter in sewage can be recovered by aerobic and anaerobic bacterial

applications. Setting tanks, activated sludge process, anaerobic sludge digesters,
biogas plants etc, can enable the recovery of manure and fuel gas from organic
components of sewages. The chemical in sewages are recovered by precipitation,
adsorption, volatization, chelation, solvent extraction, ion filters, reverse osmosis, etc.
Reuse of Treated Wastewaters
 Some of the possible reuses of treated wastewaters are as follows:

 Where water scarcity is acute, the treated wastewater may be given further treatment
(often called tertiary treatment) to make it potable. Even today many places treat
sewage and reuse it for domestic purposes including drinking.
 Cooling towers in industries for heat exchange can use treated sewages.
 Irrigation and development of greenery can be largely benefited by treated sewages due
to the micro nutrients like N,P,S , mineral salts etc, present in treated effluents.
Development of sewage sickness of the soil and spread of sewage borne
communicable diseases are the inherent hazards of sewage farming, necessitating, a
careful management of the systems.
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 Treated effluents can be used to recharge the ground waters . Soil systems have an
excellent purification potential with rational management. The ground water
resources can be saved from depletion by artificial recharging with sewage effluents,
treated to the needed extent. Surface spreading, percolation tanks and injection wells
are the methods of recharging.
 Pisiculture is possible in ponds formed by treated sewage effluents, with careful
management.
 Sewage can be treated to any required quality and can be used for secondary purposes
for industries. To cite an example, Madras Refineries Limited treats the municipal
sewage of Madras by several advanced treatment processes to reuse it as the process
water.
SOIL POLLUTION
 Our Globe consists of 29% land remaining eater. Out of which the fertile land is very
less. Up to 19th century a good ecological balance was maintained the available land
was sufficient to support the population. At present the population of about 6 billion it
become a burden for Mother Earth.
 Besides the population, industrialization, urbanization, modernization, use of unethical
practices of insecticides, fertilizers etc have created a great concern over land and is
degrading fast in an unimaginable speed.
 Soil pollution is the result of urban technological revolution and speedy exploitation of
every bit of natural resources.
CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION
 Industrialisation
o As the result of man‟s technology, invented more than 50 lakhs substances of
which more than 70,000 are used in abundance or abnormal quantities.
o Further 30,000 being added every year. The production carried out in industries
and too liberates wastes, sludges that are dumped on the innocent earth. These
foreign substances percolate into soil and spoil it. This leads to loss of soil
characteristics and its fertility.
 Population
o Considerable portion of the soil is polluted by man by his own waste by spreading
it irregularly. His needs and creeds also increasing and some which he tied to
get it from soil leading to over exploitation and loosing its required properties.
o As a matter of fact, man is trying to cultivate thrice or ever four times in a year on
a land in order to get the expected from the land. He is happy in destroying for
his temporary well being to built house, laying roads, etc. All as a while leads to
ecological imbalance and soil become barren lands due to water logging,
draughts etc.
 Fertilizer, Insecticides and Pesticides
o Ever growing population needs ever demanding food. From the limited land
wants to get maximum and achieve sufficiency. The achievement is attained by
means of Fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides as supplements for crops.
o They are used excessively to achieve the creed needs. This leads to the
accumulation of chemicals leading to change in pH and other properties of soil
and become unusable forever.
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 Polluted Water
o As every activity one way other needs water and leading to its pollution, which in
turn discharged in a stable , body the soil.
o The polluted water from industries and the acid rain etc pollute the soil.
 Mining and Soil Pollution
o Soil damage and environmental damage are inevitable during mining. Large
quantity of topsoil and vegetation are removed mining. This lead to loss of
fertile land, soil erosion etc. Further mining waste dumps also lead to soil
pollution.
o According to recent estimate in India about 20,000 hectares of land has been
degraded due to mining and another 55,000 hectares of land being degraded to
meet the requirements of mining.
 Municipal Garbage and Composts
o Corporation dispose domestic wastes on the surface of the soil. The components
get of it get into the soil and it become unusable.
o The major portion of the waste includes detergents. oils, plastic materials etc.
 The Man the Ultimate Pollutant
o The mad rat race among nations over the world for development has jeopardized
the existence of man himself. According to Josae de Casro, “
Underdevelopment itself represents a type of pollution”. So development is
aimed but alternate pollutants are incorporated in the land. Today living
together nature of the man with nature is no longer exists.
o According to International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 1972 in
Stockholm conference on Environment, “ the war economy in which we live
must be converted into peace economy and the enormous savings resulting
from partial disarmament must be used to obtain such type of development
that would not only be more equitable but also non polluting land”.
o Bary Commoner‟s third law of ecology states that. “ nature knows best”.
o As a whole man‟s existence in the globe is in peril and he has to take a sole
responsibility in pollution including soil pollution.
o F.C.I and Tata Thermal Plants emit and add 1000 tons of pollutants to soil every
year.
EFFECT OF SOIL POLLUTION
 In Chembur, Mumbai trees without leaves, they neither grow flowers nor vegetables in
the garden.
Food Poisoning
 After exploding nature the food grain produced on soil in contaminated with all such
chemicals used since they are non-biodegradable and hence they are not an advisable
food for human. According to estimate more than 5 lakhs people die every year due to
above such consequence. Accordingly we are authorized to drink Pepsi, Cola
containing insecticides similar level in the ground water and court found to be safe
and use it or not is given to ultimate consumers. Seller beware rule need not be used
all the time.
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 Metallic contaminants added in the soil destroy beneficial bacteria and microorganisms
in the soil.
 Severe agricultural crop damage is caused by high or low acidity of soil. It is estimated
that more than 30% of the world‟s irrigated land is now affected by salinity of soil.
 Indian urban washes account about 20 million tons every year. It is spread over land
surfaces causes foul odour and spread diseases.
 Radioactive pollutants dumped on sol surface get into fruits and vegetables due to
nutrient cycle mechanism and causes great invisible harm initially then leads to
cancer and genetic disorders.
 Pesticides like DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls, organo phosphorous compounds etc
cause nervous disorders, mutation etc in man.
 Tuberculosis, Cholera etc spread due to the spread of pathogens live in polluted soil.
CONTROL OF SOIL POLLUTION
 Control of soil pollution includes the following steps.

o Collection of Waste
o Disposal of waste
o Recovery of resources
 Collection of Waste
o The waste products are to be collected in a common place to aid the common
treatment processes as a whole . In industries it is done through pipeline to
avoid the exposure to greater environment during transport. In municipality it
is done in periodical collection in closed containers or plastic bags.
 Disposal of Waste
o Usually land fill method is adopted to dispose solid waste. In this method the
waste is put into a deep pit and then covered with soil.
 Recovery of Resources
o This method is adopted to decrease the amount of waste and also to achieve
maximum utilization of given resource. Some of the methods include
production of biogas, vermicompost, electricity from waste etc.
 Sewage Treatment
o All sewage coming out should be treated in treatment plants before discharging,
or using it for irrigation purposes.
 Sludge Treatment
o Sludge is the solid waste after the sewage treatment is known as sludge. Sludge
should be properly disposed usually by incineration or by converting it to a
useful product.
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MODULE-9 CAUSES, EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF MARINE AND

THERMAL POLLUTION
Learning objectives
o How marine is polluted?
o Causes and effect of marine pollution
o Control measures of marine pollution
o What is thermal pollution?
o Causes and effect of thermal pollution
o Control measures of thermal pollution.
MARINE POLLUTION
 River what it carries ends up in the sea. Besides these discharges, discharge of oils,
petroleum products and radioactive wastes are dumped into the sea.
 Huge quantity of plastic is being added to the sea. Over 50 million lb plastic packing
materials are being dumped into the sea of commercial fleets, whereas over 300
million lb entering inland waterways in USA.
 Rivers bring large amount of pollutants including industrial effluents, drainage,
washings pesticides, nutrients, etc. Oil drilling , damage of oil tanks, breakage of
coastal pipelines, direct discharge of industrial and agricultural waste also
contributes to marine pollution. In addition , marine environment is polluted by
dumping of radioactive materials and wastes. Few elite industrially and
technologically developed countries do it. Generally it is done in remote and
continental shelf areas which leads to marine pollution to the neighboring state.
CAUSES OF MARINE POLLUTION
 Mercury Pollution
o It is entering sea through natural means and also through industrial effluents.
Both organic and inorganic mercury is poisonous. Mercury poison is
responsible to Minamata disease, which caused several deaths.
 Lead Poisoning
o The chief sources of lead are the effluents from lead and lead processing
industries. In some plastic industries lead is used as a stabilizer. Lead is also
used in insecticides, food , beverages, ointments and medical concoctions for
flavoring and sweetening.
 Fluoride Pollution
o Fluoride is present in water, as naturally and also effluents coming out from
industries like toothpaste manufacturing. Many times ground water itself
contaminated with fluoride.
 Foaming Agents
o Foaming agents are used in the detergent industry and are released in sea as
sewage. It causes danger to fish and are get into oyster or clams. When human
eat them without proper cooking spread diseases.
 Pesticides
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o Pesticides like DDT get accumulated in sea and it in turn end up inside the sea
animals through food chain, which are consumed by human being. The
concentration of non bio degradable pesticides increases when move up in the
food chain. Thus a fish, growing in 0.1 parts of DDT per billion parts of water
will have about 57 mg of DDT per kg of body weight. In India our human
mother milk contains.27 mg DDT which is more than the limit prescribed by
FAO.
 Chlorinated and Hydrogenated Hydrocarbons
o They are used in fire extinguishers , aerosol propellants, flame retardants and
also as solvents. Of the amount used about 25% leak out to environment in
which about 10% end up into oceans.
 Heavy metals
o Heavy metals such as Chromium, Cadmium, Mercury, Lead and Nickel are
dangerous and major health hazards.
o It is entering sea through natural means and also through industrial effluents.
Both organic and inorganic mercury is poisonous. Mercury poison is
responsible to Minamata disease, which caused several deaths in Japan.
o The chief sources of lead are the effluents from lead and lead processing
industries. In some plastic industries lead is used as a stabilizer. Lead is also
used in insecticides, food, beverages, ointments and medical concoctions for
flavoring and sweetening.
 Oil Pollution
o Oil spills in ocean is another potential pollution. In Torrey Canyon Disaster
spilled 117000 tons of crude oil in English Channel on March 18, 1967.
EFFECT OF MARINE POLLUTION
Eutrophication
 Domestic sewage contain large amount of phosphate, nitrates and other nutrients
and thus it become nutrient rich. The water bodies become highly productive or
eutrophic and the phenomenon is known as eutrophication. It stimulates the
luxuriant growth of algae in water. It competes with other aquatic forms, leading to
depletion of oxygen. The plants starts taking in oxygen and giving out carbondioxide
and hence a situation of oxygen deficiency created and animals die.
 Further the algal growth releases some toxic chemicals which kills fish, birds and
other animals, thus water begins to stink.
 In 1965, Lake Erie (USA) more than 80 tons of phosphate added daily. Each 400 g
phosphate encourages about 350 tons of algal slime. This growth appeared as big
mounds, clogging pipes and interfered fishing and navigation.
o Organic pollution causes excessive multiplication of harmful organisms and
the consequences will be passed on to human being eventually.
o Hence metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT, etc get accumulated in marine
food and its products and finally reached to man and animals by food chain.
o The oil spread due to oil spills forms a surface layer over water for several
hundred square kilometer, which prevent the oxygen dissolution from the
environment and hence marine living being die due to lack of oxygen.
o Radioactive nuclei having half life period with several million years are get in
to mineral deposits or other living organisms. As the radiations are harmful
which leads to many type of cancers in man and other animals.
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o Heat causes local ecological imbalance in energy flow and biological

equilibrium . In tropical countries animals live little lower than the lethal limit
and increase in temperature leads to distress of even death.
CONTROL OF MARINE POLLUTION
 Dumping of sewage to rive and sea should be prevented by stringent laws.

 Toxic and hazardous chemicals should not be allowed to be discharged into the sea.
 Coastal areas, which are rich in biodiversity and economic importance, should be
protected from public voyage and other disturbing activities.
 Oil tankers should be up to norms having double layer of protection, which prevents
the oil pollution episodes.
 Building star hotels, tourism, etc around costal area should be minimized and
regularized.
CAUSES OF THERMAL POLLUTION
 Indoor Noises
o It involves baby crying, playing of radios, banging doors, conversation
movement of furniture , kitchen noise , type writers, etc.
 Outdoor Noises
o Largest source is automobile traffic on the road. Others include railway traffic,
loud speakers, nearby factory activity, etc.

EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION
 Auditory System
o Medical research confirmed that, noise pollution cause human auditory failure,
temporary, permanent or acoustic trauma.
 Annoyance
o A noise is said to be annoying if an exposed individual or a group of individuals would
reduce the noise, avoid or leave the noisy area if possible. Both loudness and annoyance
increase with increasing sound level.
 Effect of Human Performance
o Noise increase accident levels, percentage of rejection in the work place. A risk of hostile
behavior of human also reported due to noise.
 Effect of Circulatory System
o Noise reduces the blood supply by shrinking blood vessels. It causes headache and
temporary laziness.
 Effect of Nervous System
o Noise stimulates nervous system, which causes irregular heart beat. Prolonged exposure
of noise causes nervous breakdown and temporary deafness. It makes man sleepless and
disturbs brain.
 Other Effects
o Noise levels of 150 Db can cause a rash under the collar, in between fingers, and the
thighs. It can cause dizziness nausea and vomiting.
o Loud noise increases the heart beat of foetus of a pregnant woman.
o Very high noise can damage buildings develop cracks.
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CONTROL OF THERMAL POLLUTION
Reduction of Noise at source
 Select a better machinery even if expensive which produces lease noise. Some extent
noise may have a relation with
 Handling materials and equipments gently, which produces noises when it is handled
improperly. For example, trolleys, trucks etc.
 Better supporting structures and tight fixing can reduce the noise up to 3 dB.
 Use of resilient materials like rubber, springs , felt etc can reduce noise.
 Noise isolation can be achieved by enclosing noise producing area from the other or
keeping away from the normal human activity.
 Better maintenance and greasing the machine will lead to reduction of noise and
machine performance.
Noise Control by Absorption of Reflected Sound
 Ceiling
o The absorptivity of the ceiling can be increased by introducing large absorbing
area. By using suspended grid systems or by vertically suspending panels of
noise absorbing materials can be used for this purpose.
 Screens
o Sound reduction of about 10 dB can be achieved by using proper screens near
the noise location. Woolen boards, perforated asbestos, teak plywood etc are
used for this purpose.
 Noise Pollution by Design
o Proper aquastics of building could reduce the noise and echoing to a great
extent. Excellent sound insulation is achieved by construction of glassed
windows without space by filling with sound absorbing material.
 Planting Trees
o The presence of trees near the noise site can reduce the noise by 8-10 dB. It
has been reported that dense evergreen forest can reduce the noise by 18 dB by
multiple scattering by dense barrier.
 Use of Ear Protection Aids
o In noise industries workers are provided with ear protection aids, like
earplugs, headphones, noise helmets etc.
 Noise Control by Town Planning and Legislation
o It is the duty of the planners to segregate industrial area, highways etc from
the residential area.
o Legislators are to make acceptable law and their coordinates to help in
implementing the same in letter and spirit.
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MODULE-10: NUCLEAR HAZARDS, BIOSAFETY AND RISK

ASSESSMENT
Learning objectives
o Nuclear hazards
o Natural sources of radioactivity
o Anthropogenic source of radioactivity
o Bio safety
o Risk assessment.
NUCLEAR HAZARDS
 Radioactive pollution is a form of pollution of air, water and soil with radioactive
substances like radium, thorium and uranium present in nature.
 Natural decay in which unstable isotopes give out fast moving particles, radiations
or both until new stable isotope is formed. Isotopes release energy as gamma rays
(high energy electromagnetic radiation (or) Ionisation particles i.e., alpha particles
(high speed positively charged electrons) and beta particles (high speed negatively
charged electrons).
Sources of Radioactivity
Natural Sources
 Cosmic Rays from outer space and radiation from earth‟s surface (Radium- 224,
Uranium-238, Thorium-232, Potassium- 40, Carbon-14)
Anthropogenic Sources
 Nuclear power plants, Nuclear accidents, X-rays, diagnostic kits, test labs etc, where
radioactive substances are used.
 Nuclear explosion- Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
BIO SAFETY
Genetic damages
 Radiation causes mutations in the DNA thereby damaging the genes and
chromosomes . This is often seen in children, affecting several generations.
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Somatic Damage
 Radiation affects the body resulting in burns, miscarriage, eye cataract and cancer of
bone, thyroid, breast , lungs and skin . Even small done of radiation over a period of
time may cause adverse effects. Alpha particles have more energy than beta
particles. So they are dangerous when entering into our body through inhalation or
food.
 Beta particles penetrate our skin and damage internal organs.
 Radioisotopes with intermediate halflives require long time to enter our body. They
enter environment during mining of Uranium.
 Radioactive Iodine (I-131) is accumulated in the thyroid gland causing cancer.
 Strontium- 90 causes cancer in the bone marrow or Leukaemia.
 Single body with dose of over 500 rems could result in death in 4 or 5 days.
 Delayed effects after 20 years-blood cancer (or) leukemia and other cancers. There is
noe remedy available, once a person is exposed to radiation.
RISK ASSESSMENT
 Installation of nuclear power plants must be done after studying long term and short
term effects.
 Proper disposal of wastes from lab using radioisotopes should be done.
 At present, burning high level irradiated wastes deep inside earth‟s crust is being
done. (Volcano and tectonic plate movements of rocks are hurdles for this type of
safety method).
 It appears almost impossible to find a safe and permanent resting place for the
nuclear wastes for hundreds of thousands of years or millions or years.
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MODULE-11: ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND RELATED ISSUES
Learning objectives
o Environmental protection acts
o Constitutional provision for the act
o Different types of acts
o Activities and objectives of the act
o The related issues.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND RELATED ISSUES
 Environmental legislations are meant for the protection of our environment, UN

conference on Human Environment was held at Stockholm on 5th June 1972, the world
Environment Day. The conference emphasised the environmental protection. India was
the first country to make provisions for protection and conservation of environment in
its constitution, after the UN conference on Human environm
Constitutional Provisions- 42nd Amendment-1976 Article 48 A of the Indian Constitution
 The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard
forests and wildlife of the country.
Article 47, Article 48 and Article 51 A (g)
 It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for
living creatures. It shall be the duty of state to protect and improve environment and
public health and provide water, air and environment, free of pollution for the public.
WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT-1972 (AMENDED IN 1991)
 This Act has been a landmark in the history of protection of wildlife which was
transferred from state to concurrent list in 1976.
 After enactment of Wildlife Protection Act (1972). Indian Board of Wildlife (1952) took
up the task of setting up wildlife national parks and sanctuaries.
Major activities and objectives
 Restriction and prohibition of hunting and trapping wildlife.

 Protection of rare plant species.
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 Botanical Survey of India (BSI) and Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) to preserve
endangered, rare and threatened species.
 Setting up of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries to preserve biodiversity.
 Empowering zoo authority with control of zoo and captive breeding of the endangered
species.
 Controlling the trade of some wildlife species, wildlife products and trophies.
 Setting guidelines for issuing license for arms near wildlife sanctuaries.
 Legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
 Impounding of all weapons, tools and vehicles used for wildlife offences.
 Breeding programme for endangered species.
Drawbacks
 Ownership certificates for animal articles (like tiger, leopard skins etc., are allowed. It
leads to illegal trading.
 The offender is fined upto upto for Rs. 25,000 or imprisoned for 3 years or both. But
these measures are not enough to deal with the poachers and wildlife traders.
THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION ACT-

1974 (AMENDED IN 1988)
 This act was enacted under Article 252 (1) of the Constitution as a social welfare
measure.
Objectives
 To prevent and control water pollution.

 To establish Central and State Boards for water pollution control.
 To empower the Central and State Boards to prevent water pollution.
Functions of Central Board
 To advise the Central Government regarding the prevention and abatement of water
pollution.
 To plan for the prevention, control and abatement of water pollution.
 To provide technical assistance and guidance to state boards and sponsor investigation
and research regarding water pollution.
 To lay down standards for a stream or well waters.
 To organize nationwide programme for prevention and control of water pollution.
 To establish or recognize labs for analysis of water samples.
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Functions of State Board
 To advise the State Government about prevention and abatement of water pollution.
 To plan a programme for prevention and control of water pollution.
 To encourage research and investigation regarding waters pollution
 To take legal samples of trade effluent in accordance with the procedure and take
necessary action.
 To organize mass education programme in collaboration with Central Board.
 To evolve efficient method of sewage and trade effluents disposal.
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MODULE-12: DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Learning objectives
o Diaster management
o Different types of diasters
o Impact of diasters
o Management of diasters
o Mitigations for disaster.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT - INTRODUCTION
 Natural Calamities like cyclones, flood, earthquake, volcanoes and landslides are normal
natural events in the formation of earth, but they are disastrous when they strike human
settlements.
 In India, natural disasters occur frequently . For example, about 260 million people are
being affected by frequent floods which occur in eight major river valleys in 40 million
ha..
 Drought affects nearly 86 million people 14 states including Tamilnadu.
 About ten million people are affected by cyclones in the entire 5700km long coastline of
peninsular India in 9 states. This impact of earthquake is much more than the other
disasters because about 400 million people in the seismic zones IV and V (55% of total
area of India) are being greatly affected.
 About ten million people living along the entire sub Himalayan region and Western
Ghats suffer a lot due to landslides. Since the disasters strike human settlements often
in different parts of the world, they have to learn to minimize the effects of disasters.
CYCLONES
 Tropical cyclones in the warm oceans are formed to heat and moisture. Sea surface
temperature should be above 260C. Cyclones move like a spin (120-400 km/hr) with a
diameter of 100-1500 km.
 The following are the examples of types of cyclones:
o Hurricane in the Atlantic, Caribbean and North East Pacific areas.
o Typhoons in Western Pacific areas.
o Cyclone in the Indian Ocean.
o Willy Willies in the sea around Australia.
o Cyclones occur more in the Bay of Bengal than Arabian Sea.
Management
 It is not possible to stop cyclones. But we can follow certain measures to escape from
their devastation. The measures are as follows:
o Planting of trees along coastal belts.
o Construction of dams and wind breaks.
o Installation of wide roads for the people to evacuate quickly in emergencies.
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o Installation of better working system.

o Construction of proper drainage.
o Disaster prediction i.e., announcement of cyclone warning to people would help
in minimizing the impact.
FLOODS
 Inundation of extensive land area with water for many is called floods. Flood causes
colossal loss of human lives and property.

Causes
 It is caused by natural and human factors.

 Natural Factors: Heavy and prolonged rainfall , blocking of free flow of the rivers due to
landsides and overflowing of river banks.
 Human Factors: Building activities, channel manipulation through diversion of river
course, construction of bridges, deforestation, changes in land use and blockage of water
courses by plastics. Recently in Chennai, the intensity of flooding of roads and
residential colonies increased due to the accumulation of plastics in water courses.
Control
 The impact of flood can be minimized by the following steps

o The discharge of waste must be hastened.
o The flow of water must be diverted.
o The return runoff water from river must be delayed.
o The flood situation must be announced to the people in advance through media.
EARTHQUAKES
 A sudden movement of Earth‟s crust (or) a motion of the ground surface is known as
earthquake.
 Earth‟s crust has many tectonic plates of solid rock which slowly move along their
boundaries.
 Hypocenter is a point of sudden energy release.
 Epicenter is the place on the ground surface (fault lines or planes of weakness)
recording seismic waves (first movement) for the first time.
 The intensity of energy released by an earthquake is measured by the Richter scale
devised by Charles F. Richter.
 Sesimometer is an instrument used to measure seismic waves.
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Severity of an earthquake
S.No Richter Scale Severity of Earth quake

1. Less than 4 Insignificant
2. 4-4.9 Minor
3. 5-5.9 Damaging
4. 6-6.9 Destructive
5. 7-7.9 Major
6. More than 8.9 Great
Tusnamis-(High Sea waves) (Japanese word)
 Severe earthquakes under sea water generate high sea waves and these are referred to as
tsunami in Japanese language. They travel at a speed up to 1000mk/hr or more. They
rise from 15 meters to 65 meters in height at sea shore, causing vast devastation in
coastal areas.
 The first Tsunami hit India in 1945, when Indians were engaged in the war of
Independence. At that time, people did not worry about Tsunami much. Even now there
is a danger of Tsunami in the Arabian sea. People are not aware of this danger. But the
animals are capable of learning the tsunami strike in advance with the help of their
ultrasonic radiation. Thus, they often escape from the danger. Therefore, it is better to
train sea animals as done in China, in order to caution the human beings about tsunami
in advance. A tsunami-warning instrument is to be fixed in the Bay of Bengal to track
tsunami in advance.
 Generally tsunami strikes during the beginning or towards the end of a month. For
example, tsunamis struck on 27th August 1883, 25th November 1945 and 26th December
2004. In some countries, tsunami struck in the beginning of the month.
Case studies
 Earthquake on 26-12-04 with 9 Richer scaler occurred under sea near Sumatra in
Indonesia and it created tsunami waves to a height of 10m in India (Tamil Nadu),
Malaysia, Thailand and Andaman island. About 2.5 lakhs of people died due to tsunami
waves.
 In TamilNadu , tsunami caused death and destruction in the low-lying areas near sea
shore from Chennai to Kanyakumari.
 In China, 8,30,000 people in the year 1556 and 50,000 people in the year 1976 died of
tsunami.
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Causes
 Natural factors: Friction due to moving of tectonic plates creates stress which leads to
fractures and causes earthquakes.
 Human factors:
o Underground nuclear testing causes earth tremor.
o Collection of huge amount of water behind a dam also causes earthquake.
o Pouring liquid wastes into deeper wells creates tremor.
Effects
 Earthquake causes damage to buildings, roads, factories, dams and bridges.

 Water supply and electricity supply and Telecommunication are completely disrupted.
 In hilly areas, land slides occur damaging dams and causing floods
Mitigation of earthquakes
 By constructing earthquake resistant buildings or by making pads or floats beneath the

buildings we can reduce the impact of earthquake.
 By making wooden houses in seismic zones, the effects of earthquake can be mitigated.
LANDSLIDES
 The moving down of coherent rock of soil mass due to gravitation is called landslide.
The sudden rockslides are more dangerous then slow landslips.
Causes
 Human activities like hydroelectric Projects, dams, construction of roads, railway lines,
mines and deforestation cause landslides.
Mitigation
 Landslides can be minimized by stabilizing the slopes by adopting the following

measures:
 Afforestation in vulnerable areas so that vegetation consolidates the slope materials and
provides cohesion with the help of root and also retards water flow and erosion.
 Providing slope supported by wired stone blocks.
 Providing concrete support at the base of slope.
 Draining the surface and subsurface water.
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MODULE-13: SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY AND WATER QUALITY
Learning objectives
o Sources of water supply
o Natural sources
o Surface water
o Underground water
o Water quality and its classification.
WATER SOURCES
Environmental Hygiene
 It is a branch of medical sciences that deals with the effect of living conditions on health,
devises measure to prevent the occurrence of disease and establishes conditions that
ensure preservation of health.
Sources of Water Supply and Water Quality
 Water is indispensible to support life and to help in the productive processes of animals.
 Water is also needed for many other operations in the farm to maintain the cleanliness
of animals and their habitations and to process many of the animal products like milk,
butter, cheese and meat.
 Water is also needed for cleaning various utensils used in the handling of animal
products.
 This aspect has a direct bearing on public health, hence the water supplies should
confirm standards.
 Lack of knowledge on the quality of water and its source will bring down the efficiency
of farm management leading to general breakdown in the health and production of
animals.
 The natural sources of water
o Rain water
o Surface water
o Brooks
o Streams
o Rivers
o Lakes
 Underground Water
o Subsoil water
o Deep ground water
o Springs
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RAIN WATER
 This is precipitation of water which is obtained as the condensation of moisture in the

form of rains, snow and dew.
 The amount of rain water depends upon the rainfall, and the distribution of rain over a
period in particular region.
 The two monsoons , the south west and north east monsoons bring about 80 per cent of
total rainfall.
 The average rainfall for Tamil Nadu state is about 1143 mm to 1270 mm per annum.
 The rain water must be collected in suitable natural basins or artificial reservoir and
stored as a source for use in the farm.
 Rain water at its origin is the least polluted water with minimum impurities but as it
descends down it gathers various impurities /pollutants depending upon the activities
of the region.
 Rain water collected under the rural conditions is less polluted than that collected
under the urban conditions.
 Rain water collected from highly industrialized places are heavily contaminated with
toxic matter or harmful matters.
 In general rain water is comparatively pure and is soft in nature with less of dissolved
impurities.
 It is insipid in taste and some times it will acidic in reaction, having plumbo solvent
characters with corrosive properties.
SURFACE WATER
 Surface water is the natural collection of rain water, that has fallen on the earth,
washed the surface and collected in the form of rivers and lakes. These are most
common and economical sources under natural farming conditions, where there is a
good rainfall. In the absence of good rainfall, most of these sources will be dried up.
 Surface sources in general provide a poor quality water sometimes the water may be
dangerously polluted by manure and land washings.
 The quality of such water changes due to the influence of rain and sun.the lake water is
highly impure even when it is freshly collected. The river water is least populated as its
origin but as it travels it gathers impurities in the form of land washings and household
sewage and various industrial effluents discharged into the river.
 Polluted river water when it travels more distance it undergoes certain amount of self
purification, due to natural sedimentation, absorption of oxygen and oxidation,
percolation into the beds and reappear in the form of springs.
 The exposure of vast sheet of water to the ultra -violet rays of the sun is also responsible
for self purifications.
 The mineral content of the river water depends upon geological strata of the earth
through which the water flows.
 The chemical character of river water is subjects of wide variation according to the
nature of the gathering grounds and also to the different geological formations through
which the river bed passes.
 Dissolved solids taken up in one are may be deposited in another area. The bacterial
quality of water depends upon the amount of river pollution taking place and the
chances given for self purification of water.
 Hygienic measures should be taken for the protection of surface water sources to
prevent pollution and contaminations by preventing the mixing up of industrial wastes
wash water from livestock farm and dwelling places.
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 Public health acts as well as river pollution prevention act should be enforced undue
pollution with sewage, industrial effluents should be checked.
 Gathering grounds or catchment are such as lakes should be protected by high raised
wall/fencing, preventing unauthorized entry of livestock and human beings and should
be maintained as per the public health regulations.
UNDERGROUND WATER
Two categories of Underground Water
o Sub soil water

o Deep ground water
 The water is held beneath the soil and it has to be tapped in the form of wells or springs.
Sub Soil water
 This water is held above the first impermeable layer and it rises and falls according to
the season and rainfall of the locality.
 The sub soil water is liable to gross contamination form organic vegetable wastes and
livestock excretory pollutants.
 The fitness of the sub soil water as a source for the livestock should be regarded with
suspicion and such water has to be submitted to bacteriological examination before put
to use.
Deep ground water
 This water lies below at least one impermeable stratum. As it has percolated to a greater
depth it is usually free form significant bacterial pollution.
 Water is protected form surface pollution by the presence of impermeable strata.
 Even this ground water sources may occasionally be grossly polluted and contaminated
due to certain natural faults such as cracks, and fissures in the course of rock formation.
 Mineral contents of ground water is generally very high.
SPRINGS
 These are natural outlets of underground water and they supply the water at the surface
of the earth in the form in different springs
Land spring or dip spring (intermittent)
 Whenever there is a dip in the land exposing the impermeable stratum to the surface the
water comes out in the farm of land spring. The water is doubtful purity and its supply is
seasonal.
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Fissure spring
 This spring occurs due to the presence of deep fissure or crack in the rock upto the water
bearing stratum.
Junction spring
 This spring results form the geological fault occurring due to two different strata coming
together and forming a junction.
 Deep ground water comes out in the form of spring at the junction of the strata.
 The last two springs are permanent springs supplying good quality water with lesser
seasonal fluctuations. These natural springs can be developed into good water sources.
 An artificial basin should be constructed for collection of such water.
 Fence should be provided all around to prevent unauthorized entry of human beings
and animals.
 The quality of water is similar to that of the deep underground water.
CLASSIFCATION OF WATER
 Classification of water according to their palatability and wholesomeness is as follows
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MODULE-14: SOURCES OF WATER CONTAMINATION
Learning objectives
o Sources of water contamination
o Leachates
o Solid wastes
o Main sources of water contamination
o Possible sources of water contamination.
SOURCE FOR CONTAMINATION OF WATER
 Sewage from un-sewered area

 Faulty municipal sewerage system
 Storm water run off
 Industrial effluents
 Agricultural - Leachates from household and industrial solid wastes and infiltration of
fertilizers and pesticides from agricultural areas.
 The house hold effluents are discharged into open sewers which often infiltrate into the
surface water sources. Deficiencies in the sewerage systems such as overflow of
untreated sewage from deficient pumping stations and clogged sewerage pipelines.
Leakages from badly maintained sewerage pipelines are major pollutant sources and
clogging of sewers often occur due to uncontrolled dumping of solid wastes.
 In many places where sewers are connected to the storm drains. This results in
contamination water sources. In general many drains are silted up and choked with
vegetation. Thus large areas particularly the low lying areas are flooded during rainy
seasons and water stagnates for several weeks after the rains. This may result in
contamination of potential ground waters. Furthermore the washout of accumulated
waste and debris from the storm drains during the rainy season results in pollution of
sediments in the surface waters near the outfalls.
 Non treated or poorly treated waste water from the textile plants , tanneries, distilleries
leachates from hazardous waste. eg fertilizer, petrochemical and caustic soda plants also
contaminate the water
 Agriculture: Due to uncontrolled use that significant amount of fertilizers and pesticides
infiltrate to the surface water.
RAIN WATER
Main Source Area Possible Sources
Sewerage Systems  Lack of systems in un sewered areas, slum areas.
 Leakages and over flow from the sewerage pipelines.
 Overflow fom deficient pumping sytems.
 Inadequate sewerage treatment facilities inclusive
pipelines
and pumping station for treated waste water.
Storm Water  Over flow from drainage with wash out of accumulated
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waste.
Industrial effuents  Inadequately treated industrial effluents.

 Leakage and spillages of chemicals.
 Irrigation water from distilleries and textile plants.
Municipal solid waste  Leachates from inadequate collection facilities,

uncontrolled
dumping sites and unprotected land fills.
 Uncontrolled dumping into surface waters and sewers.
Industrial solid wastes  Leachates from onsite storage, uncontrolled

inclusive of hazardous dumping sites and unprotected landfills.
wastes.
Energy plants  Leachates from coal, cinders and fly ash.
Agriculture  Infiltration of fertilizers and pesticides
Sea water  Over exploitation of ground water, tidles
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MODULE-15: BACTERIOLOGY OF
WATER
Learning objectives
o Bacteriology of water
o Influencing factors
o Faecal and non faecal coliforms
o Soil bacteria
o Iron bacteria.
BACTERIOLOGY OF WATER
 The presence of bacteria in water depend largely on the character of the water and on
the source from which it is drawn.
 Classification of Bacteria
o The bacteria found in water may be broadly classified into two main groups
 Firstly, Saprophytic bacteria which are indigenous to water are adapted to
live and multiply at temperature lower than body heat
eg: at 20-220c and derive their nutrient from decaying organic matter.
These free living forms are of little importance from the hygienic
standpoint except that their presence in a water in very large number
denotes an abundance of organic matter.
 The Second broad group which may be called the adventitious water
microorganisms are introduced from outside sources and are incapable of
surviving in water for an indefinite period. Amongst these are included
bacteria precipitated from the air by rain or snow, soil bacteria washed in
after heavy rainfall and excretal bacteria from human or animal sources.
 Coliform Bacilli
 Soil Bacteria
 Iron Bacteria
COLIFORM BACILLI
 The coliform bacilli constitute a group of organisms of diverse origin.

 The most important member is Escherichia coli whose natural habitat is the human and
animal intestine .
 The other member E. aerogenes and E. cloacae are found in soil and on vegetation and
they are regarded as saprophytes. All these microbes may be found in sewage.
 The first type is dominant organisms found in faeces and for this reason is commonly
referred to as faecal coli whilst the other two referred to as non faecal coli.
 The E. coli does not normally live for any length of time outside the intestinal tract of
man and animals, the presence of this organism in water can be regarded as almost
certain evidence of recent excretal pollution of human or animal origin.
 There is no very satisfactory method at present for distinguishing between faecal coli of
human origin on the one hand and those of animal origin on the other. But the
topographical circumstances relevant to the water supply may sometime help in
assigning faecal coli to their probable source.
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SOIL BACTERIA
 Ground water lying near the surface will usually contain free living bacteria derived
from the upper few inches of the soil complex.
 These bacteria include aerobic forms which break down organic material into its simple
component elements of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen. This resolution process is
further carried on by two groups of nitrogen oxidizing organisms which convert
ammoniacal nitrogen to acid radicles that in combination with existing soil bases form
nitrites and nitrates.
 The first of these bacterial groups (Nitrosomonas) converts ammonia to nitrites whilst
the second (Nitrobactor) completes the oxidation process by converting the nitrites to
nitrates, which constitute the completely oxidized state of nitrogen.
 The bacteria which initiate breakdown of organic material as well as those involved in
the oxidation of nitrogen require for their efficient functioning the provision of adequate
moisture, oxygen , suitable bases and an environmental temperature over 50c.
 This process of converting the soil organic matter to nitrites and nitrates is called
biological scavenging.
 If the process is interrupted it leads to accumulation of acid radicals which cause
souring of the soil. Water draining from such soil in which these condition pertain will
be acid in character.
 Another example of failure of this biological scavenging process sometime occurs in
connection with land treatment of sewage tank liquor, where as a result of excessive
application of the sewage liquor the alkaline bases in the soil become exhausted and
consequently the conversion of the acid formed by the nitrifying bacteria to nitrates and
nitrites does not occur and they accumulate in the soil rendering it “sewage sick”. Such
soil may have its purifying properties restored by the addition of 1-2 tons of lime per
acre, combined with a period of rest from further sewage application.
IRON BACTERIA
 Certain of the bacteria have the power of abstracting iron from the water in which they
live and of depositing it in the form of ferric hydroxide in the mucilagenous sheath with
which they are invested.
 Crenothrix
 The best known iron bacteria but not the most widespread it consists of minute
filaments attached by one end of some solid object .
 Generally the service supply pipes become coated with a rusty pile of crenothrix and
such pipes were actually obstructed by a hard ferruginous deposit.
 The water is unusable for domestic supply owing to its bad taste and smell.
 Gallionella
 Another iron bacteria and it is more widespread, it forms a slimy coating on the inner
surface of iron supply pipes, this coating may become so thick that it considerably
reduces the capacity of the pipes.
 The organisms also plays a part in the formation of the hard rusty nodules and
incrustations that are commonly seen in water pipes in some areas.
 The organism also accelerate the deposition of rust probably through their oxidation
processes.
 Chlorination of water is one of the remedies that have been found satisfactory in the
control of iron bacteria.
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MODULE-16: PHYSICAL EVALUATION OF WATER
Learning objectives
o Physical evaluation of water
o Necessity and importance
o Different parameters
o Inference
o Judgment.
PHYSICAL EVALUATION OF WATER
 water sample is evaluated physically for colour, turbidity, odour, taste and electrical
conductivity
o Colour and Turbidity
o Odour and Taste
o Electrical Conductivity
COLOUR AND TURBIDITITY
 Natural waters rarely show colours other than yellow or reddish brown, which usually
indicate the presence of peat acids or , in the case of turbid water, suspended particles
clay or iron oxides: occasionally algal growth is responsible for the appearance of a
green or red colour.
 Few waters which can be considered satisfactory contain appreciable quantities of
suspended organic matter.
 Its presence in any quantity encourages the growth of micro-organisms, renders the
water difficult to filter, and frequently makes sterilization difficult. Suspended mineral
matter, on the other hand , is less objectionable.
 Its presence tends to be seasonal, occurring usually after periods of heavy rain, although
when in the form of hydrated oxide of iron it appears as a permanent turbidity in
ferruginous waters.
ODOUR AND TASTE
 Odour and taste can only give an indication of sewage contamination if it is excessive ,
but they are useful in detecting other unusual types of contamination which are difficult
to detect chemically.
 For example, the accidental contamination with small quantities of paraffin oil or
similar substances sometimes occurs; chemical methods may not be sufficiently
sensitive to detect traces of these compounds, and in such cases taste and smell may be
the only guides to the presence of these contaminants.
 Peaty water nearly always has a slight adour. Certain waters contain sulphuretted
hydrogen.
 Decomposing aquatic fauna and flora in service mains are not infrequently the cause of
“smelly” water.
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 Rain water has a flat insipid taste. Soft waters taste “soft”, Ferruginous waters taste of
ink. Waters containing much sodium chloride have a brackish taste.
 The water from newly laid mains may have a tarry flavour.
 Water treated with bleaching powder tastes of chlorine if the available chlorine in the
water exceeds three of four parts per million.
 Hard waters, and also those containing nitrates and carbonic acid, are more palatable
than soft waters of those free from gas in solution.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
 Chemically pure water is a non-conductor of electricity, but the solution in it of

ionisable salts renders it conducting, the case with which an electric current is
transmitted being directly proportional to the concentration of ionisable salts in
solution. This fact is made use of in the examination of natural waters, the electrical
conductivity of the water being an indirect measure of the amount of dissolved
substance present it.
 It should be noted that, by itself , the electrical conductivity gives no indication of the
nature of the substances in solution.
 Values of electrical conductivity for natural waters vary from about 100 gemmhos for
soft waters derived from the older crystalline rocks to about 2,000 gemmhos for very
hard waters derived from the newer and softer rocks; sea water has a conductivity of
about 50,000 gemmhos.
 In the absence of sodium salts, the electrical conductivity is proportional to the
hardness, one degree of hardness raising the electrical conductivity by about 20 units.
Thus such a water with a conductivity of 500 units , would possess a hardness of
approximately 250.
 The determination of electrical conductivity finds its greatest use in indicating changes
in the amount of dissolved solids present in a water where the composition of the
dissolved solids fraction is known and is fairly constant.
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MODULE-17: CHEMICAL EVALUATION OF WATER
Learning objectives
o Chemical evaluation water
o Different parameters
o Inference
o Judgment.
CHEMICAL EVALUATION OF WATER
 The complete chemical examination of water in respect of its suitability or otherwise for
drinking and for ordinary domestic uses normally includes determination of total solids,
pH, hardness , free and albumoinoid ammonia, nitrate , nitrite, chlorides, and action on
metals.
 It may also be necessary to examine waters for unusual constituents such as lead, zinc,
arsenic, copper, iron, aluminium, magnesium, fluorides and cyanides, whose presence
may be suspected from a consideration of the source of supply or from a history of toxic
symptoms arising in man or animals drinking the water.
 Whilist the chemical examination and the interpretation of the results falls strictly
within the province of the experienced analyst, some knowledge of the procedures
involved will greatly aid the veterinary surgeon in appreciating the significance of the
analytical findings.
 Total Solids
 pH value
 Hardness
 Chlorides
 The Nitrogen Constituents
 Reducing Powder or "Oxygen Absorbed"
TOTAL SOLIDS
 The method of determination employed is briefly as follows:- The residue left after
evaporating a measured volume of water is weighted and the result calculated to parts
per 100,000 of water.
 The estimation is usually carried out on filtered water if appreciable quantities of
suspended solids are present, so that suspended solids are reported separately from
dissolved solids.
 The residue consists of all the non-volatile substances which were present in solution in
the original water.
 The organic content of the residue can be assessed from the appearance of the residue
after gentle ignition, considerable charring indicating a high content of organic matter.
 Satisfactory waters rarely contain more than 80 parts per 100,000 of dissolved solids,
and for most purposes should contain much less; they rarely contain more than a mere
trace of organic matter.
70
pH VALUE
 The pH of natural waters is of importance chiefly from the point of view of possible
corrosion of metals.
 Waters with low pH values, especially if the acidity is due to dissolved carbondioxide or
to humic acids are potentially plumbo-solvent; they corrode most metals to some
degree.
 Akaline waters , particularly if the alkalinity is due to dissolved sodium carbonate are
corrosive of zinc.
 It should be pointed out that waters which are neutral in reaction are not necessarily
non-corrosive, e.g. neutral solutions of chloride and nitrates will corrode most metals.
 The pH value of a sample of water should, therefore, be considered along with other
determinations, particula
HARDNESS
 The hardness of water refers to its soap-destroying power and is due to the presence of
calcium and magnesium salts in solution.
 It is usual to distinguish between waters that are “temporary” hard and those that are
“permanently” hard .
 Temporary hardness is due to the presence of the bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium in solution, permanent hardness is due to the chloride, sulphates and, to a
lesser extent, the nitrates of calcium and magnesium.
 Hardness, whether temporary or permanent, is expressed as parts of calcium carbonate
per 100,000 parts of water; “degrees „‟of hardness are numerically equal to parts of
calcium carbonate per 100,000 parts of water.
 A total hardness of more than 30 is sufficient to render a water unsuitable for most
purposes , although if required for drinking only a considerably higher hardness
might be tolerated.
 Waters with hardness less than 5 are very soft, and such hardness values should be
considered along with pH value for possible plumbo-solvent action.
CHLORIDES
 Chlorides are rarely absent from natural waters, being present chiefly as sodium
chloride, with occasionally magnesium, potassium and calcium chlorides.
 The chloride content of waters derived from rocks near the sea is invariably high; waters
from deep wells may contain sufficient to impart a brackish taste.
 The presence of chloride considered alone is therefore of little significance as regards
hygienic quality, but as sewage contains appreciable quantities of it, if the chloride is
present together with free ammonia, nitrite or appreciable quantities of nitrate, this
finding may support an indication of sewage pollution.
 Uncontaminated surface waters (except near the sea ) rarely contain more than 2 parts
of chloride per 100,000; well waters may contain considerably greater quantities.
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THE NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS
 Uncontaminated water supplies are rarely completely free from nitrogenous

constituents, and in such waters nitrogen may be present in the form of humic acids or
nitrates.
 Waters contaminated with sewage or other decaying organic matter may contain, in
addition to these, ammonium salts or easily decomposable amides , and nitrites.
 As ammonium salts and nitrites are quickly oxidised in natural waters to nitrate, their
presence is taken as a strong indication of recent contamination with sewage.
 Quantitatively the ammonium salts and easily decomposable amides are estimated by
distilling a sample of the water made alkaline with sodium carbonate; the amount of
ammonia distilling off is estimated calculated to part per 100,000 and reported as “Free
Ammonia.”
 Humic acids and the more complex nitrogenous compounds such as protein do not
liberate ammonia on boiling with sodium carbonate, but do so when distilled with an
alkaline solution of potassium permanganate. This ammonia is estimated calculated to
parts per 100,000 and reported as “Albuminoid Ammonia.”
 Satisfactory waters rarely contain any free ammonia at all, and the presence of more
than 0.005 parts per 100,000 must be regarded as significant of pollution.
 If the amount of free ammonia present is greater than the amount of albuminoid
ammonia then sewage contamination is certain. Many satisfactory waters, e.g. peaty
waters, contain appreciable quantities of albuminoid ammonia but such waters yield
their albuminoid ammonia slowly, and they contain only traces of free ammonia.
 In waters other than moorland waters, the albuminoid ammonia may be significant of
sewage pollution if it is a present in concentrations greater than 0.01 parts per 100,000.
 The presence of nitrate is of no significance in the absence of other nitrogenous
constituents. If, on the other hand, free ammonia is present then the presence of nitrate
is an added indication of pollution.
REDUCING POWDER OR "OXYGEN ABSORBED"
 The pollution of natural waters is invariably accompanied by an increase in the amount

of organic matter present in solution. This dissolved organic matter is easily oxidised
and the amount of available oxygen absorbed by the water from a oxidising solution
gives a measure of it.
 The ability of water to reduce a dilute solution of acid potassium permanganate referred
to as the Reducing Powder or Oxygen Absorbed figure, and is reported as parts of
available oxygen absorbed per 1000,00 parts of water.
 Many natural waters contain dissolved organic watter that is innocuous . Moorland
waters, for example, contain peat acids, and if the reducing powder of such waters is not
in excess of about 0.1 parts per 100,000, they may be regarded as satisfactory.
 In the case of other waters the reducing power should not normally be in excess of 0.05
parts per 100,000.
 In all cases the reducing power should be considered in the light of the other
estimations, e.g. free ammonia and chloride, that indicate possible contamination.
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MODULE-18: MICROBIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF WATER
Learning objectives
o Microbiological evaluation of water
o Different test
o Interpretation
o Judgment.
MICROBIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF WATER
 An understanding of the significance of the results obtained by the bacteriological

examination of water supplies presupposes a knowledge of the possible bacterial forms
which may be found in water. These forms may be broadly classified into two main
groups.
 Firstly, saprophytic bacteria which are indigenous to water, are adapted to live and
multiply at temperatures lower than body heat, e.g. at 20-220C., and derive their
nutriment from decaying organic matter. These free-living forms are of little importance
from the hygienic standpoint, except that their presence in a water in very large
numbers denotes an abundance of organic matter.
 The second broad group , which may be called the adventitious water micro-organisms,
are introduced from outside sources and are incapable of surviving in water for an
indefinite period.
 Amongst these are included bacteria precipitated from the air by rain or snow, soil
bacteria washed in after heavy rainfall, and excretal bacteria from human or animal
sources. It is with the two last named that the microbiological evaluation of water
supplies is almost entirely concerned.
 It has already been mentioned that the present bacteriological techniques used for the
detection of sewage pollution of water supplies are directed to the demonstration of
known excretal bacteria, especially organisms of the coliform group, and , to a lesser
extent, faecal streptococci and Clostridium welchii.
 The reason for this greater concentration on the coliform bacilli is partly because of the
greater ease with which they can be demonstrated by cultural methods, and partly
because Cl.welchii has been found to survive considerably longer in water than
members of the coliform group.
 The presence therefore of this organism alone in a water sample may indicate a
pollution more distant in time than is the case with members of the coliform group
COLIFORM BACILLI
 The coliform bacilli constitute a group of organisms of diverse origin. Whose natural
habitat is the human and animal intestine and named as Escherichia coli.
 Some of the coliform groups appear to have their primary habitat in the soil and on
vegetation and may, therefore, be regarded as saprophytes; these comprise
the E.aerogenes,and E cloacae.
 The typical E. coli does not normally lead a saprophytic existence outside the human
and animal intestine.
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 It is the dominant organism found in faeces, and for this reason is commonly referred to
as “ faecal coli,” whilst the saprophytes referred to as “non-faecal coli”.
 The observations of various workers suggest that at ordinary temperatures non faecal
coli group tend to survive longer in water than do faecal coli, through factors other than
temperature probably play a part in determining the relative length of survival of these
organisms.
 Since E coli does not normally live for any length of time outside the intestinal tract of
man and animals , the presence of this organism in water can be regarded as almost
certain evidence of recent excretal pollution of human or animal origin.
 The further significance of the coliform group as an indication of the nature and time of
pollution will be returned to later.
 It may be mentioned here, however, that there is no very satisfactory method at present
for distinguishing between faecal coil of human origin on the one hand and those of
animal origin on the other.
 A consideration of the topographical circumstances relevant to the water supply under
examination may sometimes help in assigning faecal coli to their probable source.
 For example , in the case of surface waters where sheep commonly graze the gathering
grounds , and in the absence of any known sources of human pollution, the faecal coli
isolated from samples are in all probability of animal origin.
 A similar conclusion may sometimes be arrived at in the interpretation of the
bacteriological findings in the case of a well or stream water, where the topographical
survey on the spot indicates excretal pollution by livestock and, as far as can be seen
after careful investigation, there is little possibility of contamination from human
sources.
CLOSTRIDRIUM WELCHII
 This organism is normally an intestinal inhabitant . It is a spore-forming organism,

which survives for a considerably longer time in water than the coliform bacilli, and
usually resists chlorination.
 Its presence in water indicates that faecal pollution has occurred, and the finding
of Cl.welchii in the absence of members of the coliform group indicates that the
contamination is not of very recent date.
 The chief value of looking for this organism would seem to lie in the detection of remote
or intermittent pollution in surface or shallow water supplies , such as those from a
pond or a well.
 Supplies from these sources are commonly used on farms and by small rural
communities and their frequent examination by the coliform test is seldom, if ever ,
practicable.
 An occasional examination for coliform bacilli might in any case yield misleading
results, since these organisms might have died out since the last access of pollution. In
circumstances such as those mentioned, then, the demonstration of Cl. welchii will
show that water is subject to contamination, and will indicate the necessity of taking
steps to eliminate the source of pollution, or otherwise prevent it gaining access to the
water.
FAECAL STREPTOCOCCI
 Streptococci of various types are present in a number of situations in the human and
animal body. In human faeces the most characteristic type is that usually referred to
asStr.faecalis.
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 The value of a bacteriological test for the detection of these organisms in water supplies
appears to be largely undecided at the present time. Many workers are of the opinion
that it adds little to the information yielded by the test for coliform bacilli.
 Other workers, on the other hand, believe that it has a considerable value in assisting
the interpretation of bacteriological analysis when the results of the coliform test are
irregular or indefinite.
 Thus, for example , when it is uncertain whether certain irregular types of coliform
bacilli are or are not of faecal origin, the accompanying presence of faecal streptococci
will constitute presumptive evidence that the irregular coliform types are derived from
faeces.
THE COLIFORM TEST
 The bacteriological examination of water supplies for organisms of the coliform group
comprises the most suitable and the most generally applicable test for evidence of
pollution.
 The complete examination comprises a number of separate procedures by which it is
possible not only to demonstrate the presence of coliform bacilli, but also to assign them
to the sub-groups already mentioned.
 The complete test for coliform bacilli comprises the following procedures (i) the
presumptive coliform count, (ii) the differential coliform test, and plate counts at 220C
and 370C.
 The particular test or combination of tests required for any given sample submitted for
examination will be decided by the bacteriologist after consideration of the relevant
details pertaining to the circumstances under which examination of the water supply in
question became necessary.
 The importance of supplying as full particulars as possible when forwarding samples to
a laboratory for examination can, therefore, be readily understood.
 By the plate counts at 220C and 370C, the total number of viable bacteria per unit
volume of water is determined. Most of the bacteria growing at 220C , are saprophytic
types which are non-pathogenic to human beings or animals.
 It may be thought that the plate count at 220C, is immaterial; to come extent this is true,
but it may be pointed out that this count affords some indication of firstly the amount of
food substance available for bacterial nutrition, and secondly the amount of soil, dust
and other extraneous material carrying bacteria with it that has gained access to the
water.
 On general grounds the greater the number of organisms developing at this
temperature, the larger is the amount of available organic matter present, and the less
suitable is the water for human consumption.
 The bacteria developing at 370C on the other hand, are mainly parasitic or potentially
parasitic, though not necessarily pathogenic, types derived from soil, sewage or excretal
material , and must therefore be regarded as evidence of the possible presence of
pathogenic types such as members of the typhoid , paratyphoid group.
 The presumptive coliform count, together with the differential coliform test, is by far the
most delicate index of excretal pollution. These tests are carried out on a quantitative
basis and the results reported, according to the most recent recommendations, in the
following manner
o Probable number of coliform bacilli present in 100 ml.
o Probable number of faecal coli present in 100 ml.
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INTERPRETATION OF BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
 The interpretation of the results of the bacteriological examination for coliform bacilli,
as well as those for the other intestinal bacteria, calls not only for careful consideration
of all the relevant factors, but also for considerable experience in this work.
 Final decisions have yet to be reached as to the meaning of all the data obtainable in the
laboratory, and any conclusions reached must still be to some extent reflections of
individual experience and , therefore , variable.
 The bacteriological condition of a water, too , has to be considered in relation to many
other factors such as season, nature and topography of the source of supply, the
frequency of examination, etc.
 The following quotations give the most authoritative information available at the
present time regarding the interpretation of results and the hygienic classification of
water supplies
o E. coli is essentially an index of recent excretal pollution. The finding of this
organism in water in more than minimal numbers can never be safely ignored.
o The presence of organisms of the saprophytic group in water in the absence of
faecal coli may be due either to (a) contamination of the water with soil; (b)
contamination of the water with excretal material at a time sufficiently distant to
allow faecal coli to die out; (c) Contamination of the water with the excreta of a
person who is discharging the saprophytic organisms in almost pure culture; this
must be relatively uncommon; (d) inadequate treatment of an initially polluted
water with chlorine; which has only succeeded in killing off the more susceptible
faecal coli. Which of these explanations is correct can be determined only by
inquiry into the source and history of the water.
o The finding of a high proportion of faecal coli among the total
coliform organisms is indicative of heavy or recent excretal pollution. On the
other hand, a result showing that the majority of the coliform organisms appear
to belong to saprophytic group , or to irregular types may be regarded as
indicative of a slight, infrequent, or remote excretal pollution; or perhaps if no
faecal coli are present at all, of simple contamination with soil that may or may
not have been excretally polluted some time previously.
o In practice it is unwise to neglect completely the presence of organisms of the
saprophytic group. Even though no faecal coli can be found , their presence may
indicate a minor degree of pollution which at any time might become serious.
Their appearance in a water, particularly a deep well water, from which they are
normally absent, sometimes heralds the advent of pollution and enables steps to
be taken in time to stop further pollution or , if this is impossible, to protect the
consumer by suitable treatment of the water.
o In general terms, the presence of faecal coli denotes recent and possibly
dangerous excretal contamination, which must be urgently attended to. The
presence of saprophytes in an untreated water suggests less recent
contamination, which though not immediately dangerous is nevertheless
sufficient to call for further steps towards obtaining greater purity of the supply.
The presence of saprophytes in a treated water suggests either inadequate
treatment or the access of undesirable material to the water after treatment.
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MODULE-19: BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF WATER
Learning objectives
o Biological evaluation of water
o Algae in water
o Fungi in water
o Protozoa in water
o Problems and remedy.
BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF WATER
 All natural waters, excepting possibly some of the deepset underground waters, are
inhabited by a diverse plant and animal life, the chief phyla of the former being Algae,
Fungi and Bacteria, whilst the animal kingdom is represented by Protozoa, Sponges,
Rotifers, Molluscs, various free-living “worms”, Insects, Fishes and Amphibia.
 The kinds of plants and animals found in any particular water depend largely on the
character of the water and on the source from which it is drawn, and, as far as
contaminant intestinal bacterial of human or animal origin are concerned, on the degree
to which the water has been exposed to sewage and/or manurial pollution.
 In general , the flora and fauna of surface waters are more abundant and more diverse
than those of underground waters, whilst those of the deepest subterranean waters are
relatively poorer than the life of sub-soil waters.
 A few minute Crustacae feeding on bacteria and fungi are able to live in deep wells and
in the subterranean waters on which they draw, but if the wells be of great depth or are
poorly aerated the water will usually be devoid of living things.
 Few, if any, of the forms of life, apart from contaminant bacteria of intestinal origin,
which may be found in natural waters would appear to be toxic or harmful to man or
animals drinking the water.
 In the following paragraphs, some account is given of the more important forms of plant
and animal life which are to be found in water supplies, and which may give rise to
problems during the purification, storage, and distribution of the water.
ALGAE
 The algae constitute the most ubiquitous form of plant life existing in freshwater; the
majority are microscopic in size but some are visible to the naked eye, eg., the bright
green thread-like algae often seen in ponds and streams.
 From the point of view of water supply, three groups of algae are of great importance,
namely the Isokcnatae or Green Algae, the Myxophyceae or Blue-Green Algae, and the
Diatoms.
 These and other groups of algae, which may only flourish moderately in the running
water of rivers and streams, generally increase markedly in the comparatively still
waters of lakes and storage reservoirs. This increase in useful in some ways.
 The aeration of the water by the algae helps to purify it and, as will be mentioned later,
they play a vital role in the purification of water supplies by filtration processes but, if
their growth becomes excessive, they may interfere with filtration.
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 Such excessive increases in the algal population of open storage reservoirs can be
controlled by the application to the water of a chemical algicide, such as copper sulphate
which is used at the rate of 1kg to 4.5kg. CuSo4 per 45,46,000 litres of water. Care must
be taken to ensure the even distribution of the CuSO4 throughout the reservoir.
 The usual method of application is to tow a bag of the along carefully planned lines in
the reservoir .
 It is better policy to use Cuso4 as a preventive against excessive algal multiplication in a
reservoir than as a curative, in which case the dead algae undergoing decomposition
may render the water unfit to use for time.
 Objectionable taste due to algal growths may be removed by dosing the water the with
powdered activated carbon at the rate of 1 to 5 parts per million. The covering over of
small reservoirs will effectively reduce algal growth therein.
 A great bulk of algae passing on from storage reservoirs to the filter beds during periods
of algal abundance introduces mechanical difficulties in the filtration of the water, and
unless the filtration plant is frequently cleaned the filter beds will become choked.
 The use of algicides in the filter beds is not practicable, as the purification of vary large
quantities of dead algae may be even more objectionable than the presence of the living
plants in the water.
 If it is necessary to remove offensive tastes after filtration about 0.5 part per million of
potassium permanganate may be used.
SOIL BACTERIA
 Ground-water lying near the surface will usually contain free-living bacteria derived
from the upper few inches of the soil complex.
 These bacteria include aerobic forms which break down organic material into its simple
component elements of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen.
 This resolution process is further carried on by two groups of nitrogen-oxidising
organisms, which convert ammoniacal nitrogen to acid radicles that in combination
with existing soil bases form nitrites and nitrates. The first of these bacterial groups
( Nitrosomonas) converts ammonia to nitrites, whilst the second ( Nitrobacter)
completes the oxidation process by converting the nitrites to nitrates, which constitute
the completely oxidised state of N2.
 The bacteria which initiate the breakdown of organic material, as well as those involved
in the oxidation of nitrogen, require for their efficient functioning the provision of
adequate moisture, oxygen, suitable bases and an environmental temperature of over
50c. Unless this requirements are satisfied, the disintegration of organic matter cannot
proceed to completion and the end products represented by the humic acids now
formed cause “souring” of the soil.
 Water draining from a soil in which these condition pertain will be acid in character, as
for example, the acid waters draining from water-logged peat accumulations, in which
the incomplete breakdown of the excessive amounts of vegetable organic matter is due
to the absence of oxygen and of suitable bases.
 The plant remains are finally converted to true peat by anaerobic bacteria. Sandy soils,
which are always characteristically low in mineral matter, may also under certain
conditions accumulate organic matter, because in the absence of soil bases (lime) the
decomposition of plant debris cannot proceed, and layers of peat may be formed.
 Similarly, even on heavy land plant debris may tend to accumulate, e.g., many old grass-
lands have matted turves many inches thick which show little or no signs of
decomposition if ploughed in unless lime is used to correct the soil acidity .
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 Another example of failure of this biological scavenging process sometimes occurs in

connection with land treatment of sewage-tank liquor, where as a result of excessive
application of the sewage liquor the alkaline bases in the soil become exhausted, and
consequently the conversion of the acids formed by the nitrifying bacteria to nitrates
and nitrites does not occur and they accumulate in the soil, rendering it “sewage-sick”.
 Such soil may have its purifying properties restored by the addition of 1 to 2 tons of lime
per acre, combined with a period of rest from further sewage application.
IRON BACTERIA
 Certain of the Bacteria have the power of abstracting iron from the water in which they
live and of depositing it in the form of ferric hydroxide in the mucilagenous sheath with
which they are invested.
 The “ochre-beds” sometimes seen on boggy moorland streams are produced by the
deposition of the iron impregnated sheaths of these bacteria, which sink to the bottom
of the stream when the bacteria die.
 The presence of iron in their surrounding medium is not essential to the life of the Iron
Bacteria, for they can flourish in its absence.
 The iron seems to be assimilated by the bacteria probably in the form of ferrous
bicarbonate, along with nutrient materials, is oxidised to the insoluble hydrated ferric
oxide, and is then deposited in this form in the filament sheaths of the bacteria.
 Crenothrix is perhaps the best known of the Iron Bacteria, though possibly it is not the
most widespread.
 As normally found, it consists of minute filaments attached by one end to some solid
object.
 Each filament consists of a single row of cells, the whole being invested by mucilagenous
sheath.
 Rapid multiplication of Crenothrix in supply reservoirs has occasionally produced
spectacular effects in the water drawn from the service main. The water was unusable
for domestic supply owing to its bad taste and smell.
 The effect in water supply systems due to Gallionella, another of the Iron Bacteria, is
less striking than those of Crenothrix, but this organism in probably far more
widespread.
 Gallionella forms a slimy coating on the inner surface of iron supply pipes, from which
streamers extend into the water; this coating may become so thick that it considerably
reduces the capacity of the pipes, Gallionella also plays a part in the formation of the
hard rusty nodules and incrustations that are commonly seen in water-pipes in some
areas.
 The exact role of the bacteria in the production of these is uncertain, but it is thought
that in some way they accelerate the deposition of rust, probably through their oxidation
processes.
 Chlorination of the water is one of the remedies that have been found satisfactory in the
control of Iron Bacteria and the troubles arising there from in public supply systems.
FUNGI
 Since all free-living fungi are saprophytic, i.e. derive their nourishment from
decomposing organic material, the occurrence of fungi growing in water is evidence of
the presence in the water in question of decomposing organic substances, and therefore
of possible excretal pollution.
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 The number of species of aquatic fungi is small, and of these the only one which needs
consideration in relation to the purity of water supply is the association of fungi,
bacteria and protozoa, commonly known as the “Sewage Fungus” which may be found
in streams and rivers into which sewage effluent is discharged.
 The appearance presented by this growth is that of a dirty yellow or greyish jelly-like
film covering the bottom and sides of the watercourse in which it occurs, and which is
especially abundant where the current is slow or the watercourse tortuous.
 It may be found growing plentifully in drains which carry off the effluent water of
sewage farms. Whenever this fungus occurs, it is certain sign of the presence in the
water of a large quantity of organic compounds and, therefore, of possible pollution
either with sewage effluent, or perhaps with raw sewage.
FAUNA OF WATER SUPPLIES
 Members of all the chief groups of fresh water animals are to be found in one or other of
the various sources from which water supplies are drawn.
 They may gain access to purification plants at waterworks, but rarely cause serious
trouble in these.
 In the past, before the sand filtration of public water supplies was universally adopted ,
there are several instances where Sponges, Polyzoa and Mollusca are reported to have
flourished abundantly in service pipes and mains.
 The sand filtration of water effectively excludes the minute larval stages of these animal
types, which can pass readily through the strainers used to stop the grosser inclusions of
natural waters.
 Should these larvae, on the other hand, gain access to the water pipes, they may lodge at
suitable sites and develop into the adult forms. The latter feed on Diatoms and other
Algae which are invariably present in unfiltered water, and may multiply so greatly as to
seriously reduce the capacity of the pipes.
 They afford lodgment, too, to a whole host of organisms which would otherwise to swept
on by the current, and when members of this pipe fauna die their decay pollutes the
water and favors the growth of saprophytic bacteria.
 The common freshwater fishes are usually to be found in sources of water supply, such
as rivers and natural lakes.
 They are thought to exercise a beneficial influence on the quality of the water, in that
they feed on the smaller plant and protozoal forms, and so possible limit the numbers of
these.
 For this reason, artificial impounding reservoirs for the storage of water are commonly
stocked with fish, generally trout.
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MODULE-20: WATER PURIFICATION
Learning objectives
o Water purification
o Natural purification
o Large scale purification
o Small scale purification
o Physical and chemical agents in purification.
INTRODUCTION
Water Purification
 The method employed depends upon quantum of water to be purified.
Large Scale Purification
 The aim is to ensure the absence of pathogenic organisms, other factors like relative
hardness in the water.
 The treatment received by public supplies at the present time may comprise one or all of
the following processes.
o Storage
o Filtration with or without the aid of coagulants.
o Chemical sterilization
Small Scale Purification
 Boiling
 Chlorination
 Potassium Permanganate
STORAGE
 The storage of water in large open reservoir is practiced principally as a water

conservation project and it also fulfils an important function as a water purifier.
 Sedimentation of suspended matter results in the removal of turbidity and
sedimentation also carries down with it an appreciable quantity of organic
contaminants.
 Exposure to sunlight and the oxygenation of the water by respiring algae effect the
removal of many pathogenic and other organisms.
 Although algal growth is confined to the surface layer, the oxygen introduced into the
water through its agency diffuses downward, raising the oxygen content of the middle
layer.
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 The bottom of the reservoir is frequently devoid of available oxygen and is the site of
anaerobic decomposition of organic materials.
 To avoid the removal of the tainted water from the bottom of the reservoir, and the filter
blocking algae from the surface, means are usually provided for drawing off water from
the reservoir at points between these layers.
FILTRATION
 Filtration is normally carried out by allowing the water flowing from the reservoir to
percolate through sand, and two types of sand filters are recognized slow sand filters
and rapid sand filters.
 The slow sand filters when first put into use act simply as strainers removing solid
matter in suspension without retaining bacteria but after a time the sand grains become
coated with a film of organisms which are effective in biologically purifying the water as
it passes through the filter.
 Slow sand filters which have reached this condition are said to have “ripened” and such
filters require careful supervision to maintain them in this ripened condition out of
doors .
 Slow sand filters function efficiently , but as they only pass about 120 litres per square
metre per hour they suffer from the obvious drawback that they need to be very
extensive to cope with a large volume of water.
 In rapid sand filters the water drawn from the reservoir is forced through the filter
under pressure, either by means of a pump or by maintaining a head of water above the
filter.
 Suspended particles are removed but biological purification does not takes place.
Purification is effected in this case by introducing a coagulant before filtration or by
sterilizing with chlorine afterwards.
 Coagulants in the form of freshly precipitated hydroxides of many metals possess the
property of adsorbing considerable quantities of organic matter and this property is
made use of in removing organic contaminants from water, the metallic hydroxide in
common use is aluminium hydroxide.
 In practice the aluminium hydroxide precipitate is formed in the water by adding to it
either aluminium sulphate or sodium aluminate. In both cases the aluminium salt is
hydrolysed to aluminium hydroxide which settles rapidly, dragging with it at the same
time the organic matter dissolved or suspended in the water.
 Bacterial contamination is largely removal by this procedure and the removal of filter
blocking particles permits of a more rapid and efficient filtration subsequently.
 Impure water when it has filtered is improved is appearance , colour, taste and odour.
Its organic matter is reduced and its bacterial content may be reduced 99 per cent.
 The microorganisms that are pathogenic to man are more easily killed in the film than
are the harmless ones and coliform bacilli which are always found in sewage are taken
as the index of the efficiency of the filtration because if they are absent form filtered
water it may rightly be presumed that pathogenic organisms are absent.
 If water containing much suspended solid matter or muddy water is habitually drunk by
animals it leaves an even increasing deposit of silica, mica in the alimentary tract.
 This is a cause of colic, constipation and in the case of mica which forms a coating on
the mucous membrane, malnutrition. Water of this nature can be roughly filtered by
passing it through a gravel and sand bed or in case of emergency, through coarse
canvas.
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CHEMICAL STERILISATION
 Its aim is to destruction of all non sporulating pathogenic organisms, particularly those
of intestinal origin, which may be present in it.
 Sterilization of water, whether on a large or small scale by the use of chemicals should
always be preceded by some form of filtration so as to remove the grosser particles of
organic matter.
 The chemical substance used for sterilization must not impart a disagreeable taste to the
water nor make it harmful to animals or people, while at the same time it must possess
sufficient germicidal power to effect its purpose.
 The sterilizing agent most frequently used for the treatment of potable waters are
chlorine and ozone. Chorination is more generally applicable and is cheaper than
ozonisation, although the latter process possesses certain advantage over the former.
 In both processes the essential feature is the introduction into the water of the
sterilizing agent in such concentration as to leave a small residuum of free agent after a
contact time between agent and water of sufficient duration to ensure destruction of
pathogenic bacteria.
 Efficient sterilization can only be carried out in water free from suspended organic
matter, since bacteria embedded in particles of organic material may not be reached by
the sterilizing agent .
 Also organic matter reduces the efficiency of most chemical sterilizing or disinfecting
agents, the concentration of sterilizing agent available for the destruction of bacteria
being reduced rapidly to negligible proportions.
SMALL SCALE PURIFICATION
Boiling
 Except for domestic purposes or for the sterilization of very limited amounts of water,
boiling is impracticable in most circumstances, as for instance in the supply of water for
a dairy form.
 Boiling is however of great value when there is reason to believe that the filters of a
public supply have become temporarily faulty or when owing to heavy flooding, surface
water has gained entrance to wells or springs. When such an accident as the letter
occurs, warning is usually given by the turbid appearance of the water.
Chlorination
 Is the best method for the routine treatment of small supplies of water, the chlorine
being readily obtainable in the form of chloride of lime (bleaching powder). The latter
should be added to the water in such quantity that free chlorine will be available to the
extent of at least one part per million of water. This may be done by first preparing a
solution of chloride of lime consisting of 30 gms of chloride of lime to 250ml water,
which will suffice to treat 2000 gallons of a water not containing an excessive amount of
organic matter. After chlorination the water should be allowed to stand in an open tank
for four hours before being used.
 In the case of waters which contain much organic matter or are heavily contaminated by
bacteria, super chlorination followed by dechlorination should be the method adopted .
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After standing for not less than 30 minutes, small quantities of this water may be
dechlorinated by adding sodium thiosulphate , which removes the taste of chlorine
Potassium permanganate
 Potassium permanganate very rapidly decomposes in the presence of organic matter,

yielding nascent oxygen. It is feeble disinfectant in water, but has a specific action on
the vibrio cholera owing to the lethal effect of oxygen on this particular organism. A
better reaction is obtained by the addition to the water of some dilute acid .
 This treatment is not used on a large scale but is sometimes adopted for the disinfection
of wells and water tanks. The amount of permanganate added must obviously vary with
the degree of pollution.
 The treatment of wells is effected by adding to each gallon of water 3.9 gms of
permanganate with 12 ml of strong hydrochloric acid, leaving for twenty four hours;
pumping until the water is colourless , removing dead aquatic fauna.
CHLORINATION
 Chlorination is essentially the addition of “free” chlorine to water; it may be introduced

as chlorine gas, as sodium hypochlorite, or as bleaching powder.
 Chlorine gas is used in large scale practice while sodium hypochlorite and bleaching
powder find use in small scale sterilizers. The two recognized procedures for the
treatment of water by free chlorine are normal chlorination and super chlorination.
 In normal chlorination the concentration of chlorine is brought to such a level that a
residuum is left after a contact time between chlorine and water of at least half an hour;
this contact time is extended as along as practicable.
 It is arranged for the residuum of chlorine to be so small that it imparts no detectable
smell or taste to the water , so that the water is available for use without further
treatment.
 Difficulties occasionally arise where the water before treatment contains substances that
react with chlorine to yield products possessing a powerful and objectionable taste.
 Traces of phenol compounds for example , even in concentrations as low as 1 part in
2000 millions, react with chlorine to produce chlorphenols which impart a very
objectionable and persistent iodoform like taste and smell to the water.
 These difficulties may sometimes be obviated by super chlorination which results in the
complete destruction by oxidation of the substances concerned, but the safest procedure
appears to be removal of such compounds before chlorination by filtering the water
through charcoal.
 Super chlorination is adopted where the contact time between water and sterilizing
agent is necessarily reduced (where storage tanks are not available or their use is
inconvenient. In this process chlorine is introduced into the water to a concentration
about ten times that used in normal chlorination.
 Rapid and complete sterilization is effected in a few minutes but the treated water
contains a very high residuum of the free chlorine and must be dechlorinated.
 Sulphur dioxide (in large scale practice) and sodium thiosulphate ( in small scale
practice) are the dechlorinating agents in general use.
 The advantages of super chlorination lie in the very short contact time required for
sterilization and also in the fact that as the high concentration of chlorine tends to
oxidize organic matter completely there is less tendency for taints of the chlorphenol
type to develop.
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CHLORINATION
 Chlorination is essentially the addition of “free” chlorine to water; it may be introduced

as chlorine gas, as sodium hypochlorite, or as bleaching powder.
 Chlorine gas is used in large scale practice while sodium hypochlorite and bleaching
powder find use in small scale sterilizers. The two recognized procedures for the
treatment of water by free chlorine are normal chlorination and super chlorination.
 In normal chlorination the concentration of chlorine is brought to such a level that a
residuum is left after a contact time between chlorine and water of at least half an hour;
this contact time is extended as along as practicable.
 It is arranged for the residuum of chlorine to be so small that it imparts no detectable
smell or taste to the water , so that the water is available for use without further
treatment.
 Difficulties occasionally arise where the water before treatment contains substances that
react with chlorine to yield products possessing a powerful and objectionable taste.
 Traces of phenol compounds for example , even in concentrations as low as 1 part in
2000 millions, react with chlorine to produce chlorphenols which impart a very
objectionable and persistent iodoform like taste and smell to the water.
 These difficulties may sometimes be obviated by super chlorination which results in the
complete destruction by oxidation of the substances concerned, but the safest procedure
appears to be removal of such compounds before chlorination by filtering the water
through charcoal.
 Super chlorination is adopted where the contact time between water and sterilizing
agent is necessarily reduced (where storage tanks are not available or their use is
inconvenient. In this process chlorine is introduced into the water to a concentration
about ten times that used in normal chlorination.
 Rapid and complete sterilization is effected in a few minutes but the treated water
contains a very high residuum of the free chlorine and must be dechlorinated.
 Sulphur dioxide (in large scale practice) and sodium thiosulphate ( in small scale
practice) are the dechlorinating agents in general use.
 The advantages of super chlorination lie in the very short contact time required for
sterilization and also in the fact that as the high concentration of chlorine tends to
oxidize organic matter completely there is less tendency for taints of the chlorphenol
type to develop.
CHLORAMINE
 A combination of chlorine and ammonia is now widely used for the sterilization of
water.
 It is less affected by the presence of organic matter and its sterilizing action is more
prolonged than that of chlorine.
 Its only advantage over chlorine is that it does not to the same extent give raise to
iodoform and chlorinous tastes in the water.
 Its bactericidal effect is however, very much slower than that of chlorine and long
contact is therefore necessary which in many circumstances is a decided drawback to
the use of chloramine.
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OZONISATION
 Ozonisation is practiced chiefly for the sterilization of swimming bath water.

 It is generally preferable to chlorination for this purpose as no objectionable taste or
smell is imparted to the water.
 It is of interest to note that the efficient sterilization by ozone is due in part to the
presence of impurities in the form of oxides of nitrogen which are more toxic to bacteria
than ozone itself .
 The wider use of ozonisation is prevented by the high initial cost of the ozone
production plant and the high consumption of electric current by the plant in use.
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MODULE-21: DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE
Learning objectives
o Disposal of sewage
o Large scale disposal
o Small scale disposal
o Methods of disposal
o Treatment of sewage.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL
 Sewage consists of a mixture of solid and liquid human excreta, waste water from dwelling
houses and usually road water and rain washings, it may also contain a greater or lesser amount
of trade wastes. The disposal of sewage in a manner which will be free from nuisance and
danger to public health through contamination of water and food supplies is a matter of great
importance in connection with food control and inspection.
o Sewage and animal health
o Conservancy Methods
o Composition and Strength of sewage
o Disposal of water carried sewage by dilution
o Purification treatment of water carried sewage
o Classification of sweage treatment
o Preliminary treatment
o Artificial biological treatment
o Bioaeration or Activated sludge process
o Chemical Sterilization of Sewage Effluent
o Small scale sewage purification and disposal
o Disposal of Farm Wastes
o Removal of Manure from Buildings
SEWAGE AND ANIMAL HEALTH
 It has frequently been alleged that the drinking water polluted by domestic sewage has
given rise to symptoms of poisoning in cattle and other animals.
 It has been affirmed that cattle may be rendered ill by drinking water containing
sewage. In this connection it is important to make it clear that there are two kinds of
sewage namely household or domestic sewage and industrial sewage. The latter consists
of waste products from factories and its composition will naturally vary with the
industry concerned, but if it contains some poison whether chemical or bacteriological it
is liable to cause harmful effects on stock. Domestic sewage is also a product of variable
composition and consists of water containing human faeces and urine as well as kitchen
waste.
 It is especially in connection with the effluent from works engaged in the disposal of
domestic sewage that so called sewage poisoning of animals and particularly cattle has
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been alleged. It has been stated that the symptoms of so called sewage pollution in cattle
resemble in some respects those of johne‟s disease , and there can be no doubt that
streams contaminated with faeces from cattle with Johne‟ s disease play a large part in
the spread of infection. Intestinal parasites such as nematodes are also quite commonly
transmitted in a similar manner, and in countries where the human population carries
the cestode T. saginata, cattle grazed on the sewage farms become invariably infected
with cysticercus bovis from the eggs which have been passed in the human feaces. There
is possibility that bacteria pathogenic to cattle may be also conveyed by water.
 In general human sewage does not injure cattle, since cattle and other stock are
commonly kept on sewage farms where they eat grass wet with sewage and even drink
sewage with no apparent harm.
 On the other hand there is plenty of evidence that some industrial effluents are
definitely poisonous for animals. Thus cyanide in toxic amounts have been found in the
drinking water of animals on several occasions, which is being discharged into drinking
water in the effluent from factories.
 The method of sewage disposal may be divided broadly into the conservancy and water
carriage systems.
METHODS OF SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Conservancy Methods
 It is now practically confined to rural areas where the water supply is inadequate for the
installation of a water carriage system. The simplest method of disposing of human
excreta is burial in the soil. Since proper disposal is of some importance owing to the
risk of flies carrying pathogenic bacteria such as typhoid bacilli from infected excreta to
the milk.
 The human excreta should be buried in shallow trenches and covered with top soil
without chemicals since disinfectants and antiseptics merely retard putrefaction. The
faeces decompose without causing any harm. The place chosen for the ultimate
deposition should be distant from the house and not near a well.
Water Carriage System
 In this system the private drains from dwelling houses and other buildings empty into
public sewers, which convey the sewage to a purification works where it is treated so as
to render the resulting effluent suitable for ultimate disposal into the sea or into rivers
and streams.
COMPOSITION AND STRENGTH OF SEWAGE
 Sewage is a mixture of saline matter in solution and nitrogenous and carbonaeous

organic matter in solution and suspension together with a certain amount of grit and
mineral matter.
 The strength of an ordinary domestic sewage depends on the amount of water used per
head of population. If there are industrial wastes the strength will usually be increased.
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 These are of course great variations daily, seasonal and those due to storm water.
Industrial wastes such as those from breweries, gas works and dairies etc introduce
additional complications.
 Chemical analyses of sewage usually indicted in parts of 100,000 (1) The solids in
suspension and in solution (2) organic nitrogen, ammonical and albuminoid (3)
Chlorides and (4) Quantity of oxygen required for oxidation of the organic matter to
produce a non putrefactive effluent.
 In the sewage settling solids will be about two third of the total. About three fourths of
the total suspended solids would be organic. The non settling solids are in a very fine
state of division or in colloid form. The total suspended matter appears to be very small
in the sewage.
Disposal of water carried sewage by dilution

DISCHARGE INTO THE SEA AND THE RIVER
Sea
 This is a way of disposal of sewage from coastal towns. The following points are taken
into consideration.
 The state of the tides, action of discharging rivers and influence of prevailing winds,
tending to carry the sewage to the foreshore the possible deleterious effects of the
sewage on boating and bathing. The pollution of the beach by the deposit of solids, the
possible injury to fishing and the possible infection of shell fish by sewage contaminated
with pathogenic organisms such as typhoid bacilli.
 The sewage is either discharged in its crude state into the sea , or after it has been
screened and treated in a settling tank, but unless the position of the outlet and the tidal
flow are particularly favourable, further preliminary treatment is usually carried out. In
some cases tanks are used to store the sewage during the raising tide and to enable
discharge to take place during the ebb tide only. As a method of purifying sewage
screening is not very effective, particularly if the sewage has travelled through several
kilometers of pipes, because by the time that it has arrived at the screen it is already in a
state of emulsion, the solids having become disintegrated but not reduced while passing
through the pipes.
Rivers
 Where the stream is large enough to give a dilution of over 500 volumes the crude
sewage may be discharged into the stream.
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PURIFICATION TREATMENT OF WATER CARRIED SEWAGE
 The object of a sewage purification works are

o To separate the solids and suspended matter, which are for the most part
putrifiable from the fluid portion.
o To purify the fluid portion, so that it can be ultimately discharged into a river or
stream with safety and without causing a nuisance and To dispose of the more
solid portion of the sewage which becomes settled out to form sludge.
o The treatment of sewage depends on whether it is generated from residential or
industrial area. Sewage from a purely residential town with a good water supply
is comparatively easy to treat that from a manufacturing town with a less
generous water supply and with the inclusion of industrial wastes presents for
more difficulty.
o The volume of sewage is usually stated in gallons per head of population per day,
this may very from about 10 gallons up to 100 gallons or even more, depending
on the water supply available and the habits of the community under
consideration. A common figure for daily dry weather flow is 30-40 gallons per
head.
o The sewerage systems may be separate or combined in the first mentioned
separate sewers are provided for sewage and for rain water. In the combined
system rain water and sewage are carried in one sewer. The latter method is the
more common and where it is adopted the quantity of sewage to be dealt with is
of course greatly increased in wet weather.
CLASSIFICATION OF SEWAGE TREATMENT
 Preliminary treatment
o Arrangement for dealing with storm water
o Screening
o Detritus or Grit tanks
o Sedimentation or Precipitation tanks
o Disposal of sludge
o Treatment of tank liquor
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
 Storm water
o The quantum of storm of upto three times the dry weather flow should be dealt
with in the works as ordinary sewage. Anything over this amount should be
diverted to special storm tanks.
 Screening
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o This is necessary to remove gross solids such as lumps of faeces or paper etc. The
process may consist of coarse or fine screening. In the former method the sewage
is passed through fixed screens made up of vertical iron bars which are 1 cm to 5
cm apart. These screens may remove as much as 10 percent of the total
suspended matter in the sewage. Fine screens are of various types, the opening
being from 0.5 to 1 cm in wide.
 Detritus or Grit tanks
o These are intended to remove the heavier inorganic matter such as road grit
which is easily settled.
 Sedimentation or Precipitation tanks
o These are tanks usually built of concrete, which may be worked with or without
the addition of chemical precipitants, and in which finer solids in the sewage are
allowed to settle by sedimentation the resultant precipitate or sludge is pumped
out daily or weekly as may be found necessary in practice.
o Tanks may be operated on the fill and draw method or on the continuous
method. In the former the top liquid is drawn off leaving the sludge. Continuous
flow tanks may be designed for horizontal flow or vertical flow.
o Horizontal flow tanks are usually long in relation to width. Where the bottom is
flat the sludge may be removed after the removal of the supernatant liquid. The
capacity of a sedimentation tank is usually fixed to give a period of detention of 6
to 8 hours in the tank.
o Chemical precipitation of the suspended matter is adopted where sewage is very
concentrated or where trade wastes have to be removed. Lime or lime and ferrous
sulphate or sulphates of aluminum are used as precipitants. The amount of
sludge produced by the aid of precipitants is greater than with simple
sedimentation.
 Disposal of sludge
o One of the most troublesome parts of sewage treatment is the disposal of sludge
including screenings and detritus. Screenings and detritus are always very
offensive and are usually dealt with by shallow burial The screenings may also be
burnt. The sludge may also be discharged into the open sea .Where sea disposal is
not possible, disposal on land is resorted to either direct or after partial
dehydration. Where direct disposal is adopted the sludge is pumped on the land
and after drying is ploughed in.
o Sludge has considerable manurial value but before it can handle the water
content must be reduced. This may be done on sludge filter beds , where the
sludge is spread on comparatively thin layers of porous material, such as ashes
well under drained. In some cities the sludge may be pressed into cake and
afterwards converted into manure.
o Sludge may be digested in deep tanks during which process a considerable
amount of gas is given off, consisting chiefly of methane with a small proportion
of Co2 and H2. These gases are collected and utilised for power generation.
Digested sludge contains of course considerably less organic material than the
original and is non-putrefactive. It may be used for raising the level of low lying
areas of land without causing any offence. In some cases the digested sludge is
used as a base in the manufacture of artificial manure.
 Septic tanks
o If sewage were held sufficiently long in a tank the greater proportion of the
organic matter would pass into solution and little or sludge remain such a tank
would then become a septic tank. This is due to putrefaction of organic matter
under anaerobic condition. Septic tanks constitute a suitable means of sewage
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treatment for single houses or for all communities provided that not too much
inorganic solids are carried in the sewage.
LAND OR ARTIFICIAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
Percolating or trickling filters
 Trickling filters are really aerating beds, not filters they consist essentially of circular
beds of broken stone of various sizes on which sewage is distributed.
 The broken stone becomes coated after a short period with a gelatinous covering which
in the presence of oxygen forms a nidus for aerobic bacteria which is then said to be
ripened or activated.
 Distribution of the tank liquor is obtained by means of a revolving sprinkler driven by a
constant head of water or by the intermittent discharge of a siphon.
Contact beds
 It comprise tanks filled with broken stone the object being to permit digestion of organic
material by aerobic bacteria.
 The tank is filled and the liquor allowed to remain in contact with the material in the
bed for a sufficient period to allow purification to take place, thereafter the tank is
emptied, and in the process air is drawn into the interstices of the stone, thus providing
the oxygen necessary for the bacteria.
 The cycle of operation occupies eight to twelve hours, the resting period being about half
this to keep the beds in condition.
Humus tanks
 The effluent from percolating filters and contact beds often contain a good deal of fine
organic matter termed humus.
 It is necessary to allow this to settle before discharging the final effluent into a stream.
This may be done by holding the filter effluent in tanks.
BIOAERATION OR ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
 In this method screened sewage free from detritus is purified in tanks largely by aerobic
bacterial action.
 The bacteria are attached to the particles of ripened or activated sludge which is mixed
with the incoming sewage and mixed liquid is kept in continuous motion during its
passage through aeration tanks in order to prevent settlement of the sludge, secondly to
bring the organic matter in contact with activated sludge and thirdly to supply the
bacteria with oxygen.
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CHEMICAL STERILIZATION OF SEWAGE EFFLUENT
 Pathogenic bacteria, typhoid and paratyphoid bacilli have frequently been isolated from
sewage and sewage effluents.
 To make the effluent innocuous disinfectants such as pure chlorine, bleaching powder
and chloros (containing 10% available chlorine) added.
 In the case of a ordinary sewage, it has been found that these would have to be added in
the proportion of atleast 10-15 parts of available chlorine per million parts of sewage, in
addition a long period of contact would have to be allowed.
SMALL SCALE SEWAGE PURIFICATION AND DISPOSAL
 Where no public sewer is available, other methods such as the impervious cesspool or a
septic tank installation must be adopted for the disposal of sewage.
Cesspool
 Cesspools of two kinds may be met with pervious and impervious.

 The pervious cesspool is a chamber built of concrete or brick or stone rendered in
cement and surrounded if necessary by puddled clay, having the bottom open so that
the liquid percolates into the soil, this type of cesspool is thus a soak-away pit and it is
obvious that to be effective it must be situated in a sufficiently porous sub-soil.
 In the impervious cesspool the wall and the bottom is made of impervious material
through which nothing can be percolate.
 In both types of cesspool decomposition of the sewage which is affected by bacteria is
incomplete so that there is a continuous accumulation of partially decomposed evil
smelling material which has to be removed periodically.
 During the process of decomposition objectionable gases including large volumes of
hydrogen sulphide are given off.
 In the pervious cesspool comparatively little material accumulates; with the impervious
type frequent emptying is necessary.
 In the case of singe houses or farms it is a common practice to provide an overflow
drain, the liquid being disposed of by irrigation over land. When no overflow is provided
the whole of the liquid requires to be pumped out.
 The cesspool is not placed in proximity to a well or other water supply
Septic tank Installation
 An installation suitable for the purification and disposal of sewage from isolated
building usually comprises
o a single from of septic tank designed to retain the sewage for a period of time
sufficient to permit anaerobic digestion of its organic solids and to allow
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insoluble matter to settle out as sludge and

o a percolating filter or a contact bed in which the effluent from the septic tank is
purified by aerobic bacterial action. The final effluent should be fit for discharge
into a stream or for disposal by subsoil irrigation without any potential risk
arising. Rain and other surface water should not be allowed access to a septic
tank. The sludge needs removal only at long intervals extending in some cases to
as long as two years.
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MODULE-22: DISPOSAL OF FARM WASTES
DISPOSAL OF FARM WASTE
 A proper system for the hygienic disposal of animal excreta is essential for the
preservation of animal health and as an aid to the control of disease.
 The disposal of excreta, together with the straw or other material used for bedding is
complicated by the fact that this material has a considerable manurial value and usually
has to be conserved or stored in some way until it can be conveniently applied to the
land.
Collection and storage of animal manure
 Collection of dung and bedding from stable or cow shed.

 Storage of solid manure so that it‟s potentially disease bearing state is rendered
innocuous whilst at the same time its land fertilizing capacity is conserved.
 Conveyance of voided urine to an outside drainage system.
 Disposal or conservation of liquid manure.
REMOVAL OF MANURE FROM BUILDINGS
 The collection of solid manure in animal habitations under ordinary management is

usually carried out once or twice daily.
 Removal from the building is usually effected either by means of a wheelbarrow or
similar vehicle or often by simply throwing the manure through an open door on to a
dump situated immediately outside the buildings.
 From the hygienic point of view a serious objection to this latter method is the close
proximity of the dung heap to the buildings.
 While transporting these materials should not scattered or spilt and give rise to
unnecessary filth on the yards and roadways where a barrow has to be used ,it should be
made of metal and have widely slopping sides so that is easily retains the manure placed
in it being of metal it can be washed and disinfected periodically.
 If number of animals kept are large means. It can be transported either by bullock cart
or tractor.
Manure pit
 Should be for away from the stable or cowsheds, not only as a safeguard against smell,
but also as a preventive measure against the nuisance of flies. Fresh manure forms an
ideal breeding ground for the common house fly, a pest which may easily become a
hindrance to clean milk production. Flies also cause considerable annoyance to the cows
in summer, and there is some evidence that they may be a factor in the spread of
mastitis.
 The common practice of depositing the manure in a dump immediately outside the
buildings and into which the drainage system empties is most objectionable. A concrete
pathway should connect the building and manure pit and where it is possible
accessibility to the latter from a hard road is an advantage when it comes to transferring
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the manure to the land.

 The space required for a manure pit depends on number of factors. These include the
number and species of animals kept the nature of the food consumed, the amount of
bedding supplied and the extent to which it is re-used or discarded and the length of
time the manure is to be stored. The manure pits have a capacity of not more than 1
cubic metre unless it be emptied every 48 hrs. It is suggested that a manure pit should
be of such a size as to ensure that it must be emptied every 6 to 8 weeks.
 If bedding is used it should be separated from manure and can be dried for further use
 Approximate quantity of dung expelled per animal per day
o Horse - 10-12 Kg
o Ox - 30-35 Kg
o Sheep - 1-3 kg
o Swine - 1.5-3kg
 The capacity manure pit for 100 cattle per day is 6.4 sq metres. The retaining walls
about 1.2-1.5 metres high preferably of brick or concrete. Bottom should always be
impervious, cement concrete is the best material, there should be a fall to one end where
a drain leads to the liquid manure tank.
 The manure pit should be roofed over with galvanized iron or other suitable material to
prevent the leeching of the valuable soluble constituents, nitrogen, phosphates and
potash from the manure.
 The roof must allow free circulation of air over the manure, otherwise the latter may get
too hot and so deteriorate.
 To make the stored manure to become fertilizer anaerobic condition is essential hence
the manure mass is tightly packed.
 These conditions essential for the making of good manure also serve to prevent the
multiplication of flies and to bring about the destruction of certain pathogenic bacteria
and strongyle and other worm larvae.
 In certain circumstances manure may be directly applied to the land without storage,
but it is to be spread on arable land or on field not being used for livestock since it may
remain potentially infective with the organisms of tuberculosis paratuberculosis and
with parasitic ova and larva for considerable period.
Liquid maure
 The urine and other organic liquid waste should be drained with surface channels and
collected in liquid manure tank.
 The advantage of surface channel are not blocked, and economy to construct.
Liquid manur Tank
 The channels from the animal houses still converge at the inspection chamber.
 From this chamber one pipe carried the liquid to the settling chamber.
 The settling chamber is constructed of cement concrete throughout or with cement
concrete floor and walls of brick faced with cement. From the settling chamber liquid
alone carried to liquid manure pit and liquid is pumped out.
 The tank must be made of impervious material throughout and the bottom should be
constricted of reinforced concrete.
 The sides may also be build of reinforced concrete or alternatively be brick built and
faced inside with a good coating of cement Absolute gas tightness in a liquid manure
tank is essential in order to conserve the anmonia.
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MODULE-23: HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF FARM WASTES
Learning objectives
o Health implications of farm wastes
o Organism involved
o Manure as a breeding material for flies
o Fly borne diseases
o Methods to prevent.
INTRODUCTION
 It may be stated as a general principle that manure is potentially that manure is

potentially dangerous to the health of livestock and in its disposal therefore all measures
which will serve to keep manure. With its content of bacteria, protozoa, worm eggs and
larvae from contaminating the food or water of livestock should be adopted. Hence the
manure should be adopted. Hence the manure should be removed from animal horse
frequently and thoroughly and it should be disposal safely. Regarding the safety one
method is to disregard the organism content of the manure and to secure its disposal in
such a manner as to effectively keep it from being a source of to susceptible animals. Its
other method is to treat it in such a manner that the organisms in it are destroyed.
ORGANISMS OCCUR TO EXCRETA
 Organisms pathogenic to livestock occur in animal excreta. Some are excreted in the
droppings or urine of diseases or carrier animals. Eg swine fever flies use the faeces as
sutiable breeding material. The mycobactrous peratuberculosis remain viable for bovius
faece as long as 246 days.
 The anthrax bacillus is another micro organisms which occurs in the excreta and to
carrier eatening animal and birds of prey, considered as potential dissemenatures of
infection particularly in hot climate when flies are abdunent.
 Amongest other bacteria which occur in excreta and may cause disease are organisms
belonging to the clostridium and salmonella group.
 Of the protozoa which are excreted in faeces, coccidia are important in the production of
disease amongst both animal and birds. Owing to the resistant nature of the oocysts
especially when sproulated they not only remain alive for periods of many months but
are difficult to destroy by most chemical disinfectants.
 Numerous helminths occur in the droppings of livestock mostly in the egg stage but
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a few as larvae and may transmitted from the diseased to the healthy animal by
contaminated food or water which contains the infective stages of the worms. The red
worm of strongyles of horses, the lung worm of cattle dictyocaulus
viviparous, habronema species of horses which use house fillies and stable flies as
recturns.
 Organisms which use faeces as breeding material are precipally insects particularly flies.
They are mostly important in playering the role of disseminators of diseases producing
organisms.
 The pathogens found in faeces may also be carried on the clothing and footwear of
persons whose business is to remove faeces another from sheds and stables. They may
contaminate food stuff as for example when doing is distributed over land when green
crops are being raised for animal food. Birds may to some extent be responsible for
disseminating pathogenic organisms service some species frequent manure heaps in
search of seeds and insects and in doing so pick up infective material on their feet and
legs and convey it else where.
Manure as a breeding material for flies
 Of the flies which select manure as a breeding material the most important is the house
fly musca domestica and somoxys calicitrans commonly known as the stable fly or biting
house fly. Horse , pig and to a lesser extent cattle doing appears to bethe most favoural
materials in which these species and flies breed. The flies oviposits only in material
which can provide food in a readily assemilable form, suffered moisture and
usually warmth and shelter for the developing maggots.
 The fly also breed in decaying and fermenting organic matter of various kinds and in
poultury droppings. It does not breed in cow dung scattered in fields. Although horse
manure is the chief breeding site this material is attractive to oviposting house flies only
so long as it is and not much older than twenty for hours.
 The stomoxys calcitrans deposits its eggs in moist decaying vegetable matter shown as
piles of waste litter and find stuffs that may collect in a farm yard, get wet and decay as
are with urine or have certain amount of manure added to them.
 The flies in great numbers may result in epidemics of typhoid fever and other disease.
The whole life cycle of muscle domestic can be completed under very favourable
circumstances in 8-9 drop. The rate of development rares greatly depending upon the
temperature of the air and of the feval material and upon the nature of the ford and
other factors. The eggs are deposited in small matter of 120-150 in cervices below the
surface of the manure. After housefly may deposit five or six such batches during her life
time and may produce in all for 60 to 900 or more eggs. The maggots avoid light
and burrow into and feed upon their food material. They do not to have occur
throughout a manure heap but are usually restricted to the superficial layer, at the most
from 10 to 12cm deep, because the head produced by fermentation makes t impossible
for them to love it deeper levels. To pupate the maggot leaves the manure heap to find a
drier and cooler place outside the base of the heap her which to undergo its
metamorphosis.
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FLY BORNE DISEASE
 The house fly not merely a nuisance in disturbing the rest of men and animals, in
certain circumstances a carrier of disease and therefore a serious danger to human and
animal health.
 The disease which this insect carrier or is capable of carrying are at restricted to
dysentery, cholera, typhoid fever and some infection of man by parasitic helminths, the
fly is also an important factor in the spread of infertile or summer diarrhoea which
results from the consumption of fly contaminated milk hydration.
 The flies also act as vectors of habronema species parasitic in horses. The organisms
cornyebacterium pyogens responsible for summer moisture or dry cows and heifers is
transmitted by flies.
METHOD OF MANURE DISPOSAL
Incineration and burial
 Manure is a valuable land fertilizer and wherever possible should not be burnt or deathy buried.
When however it is neither practicable nor desirable to conserve it as a fertilizer incineration is
the best method of disposing of it.
 Regarding burial it should be buried deeply since simple burial of the material in sand or
ordinary soil will not prevent the development of house flies which have considerable powers of
borrowing upwards both as mature maggots and as newly hatched flies to gain the soil surface.
 Furthemore the simple burial or ploughing under of manure cannot be guaranteed to dispose
of nematode eggs and larvae. The larvae of equine strongyles can migrate upwards for varying
distances according to the nature of the soil and moreover can live for many month under
favourable conditions of temperature and moisture in the soil.
 Similarily cattle are sheep roundworm larvae such as Ostertagia, Haemonchus and Nematodirus
can all regain the soil surface after being ploughed under, in fact ploughing in may help
development of the nematodes by breaking up the soil and faeces.
Uses of chemical agents
 The application of chemicals and oily fluid to manure in order to deter flies from oviposting and
for killing fly larvae, worm eggs and larvae and other pathogenic organisms has been suggested.
The general use of these substances for the purpose of combating the fly nuisance is however of
doubtful value because,
o Most chemical when applied in large quantities to manure regard fermentation and so
prolong the period of fly infestation.
o Most chemicals if they are to be effective require to be used in large quantities so that
this form of treatment is expensive are deleterious to the manure rendering it
totally unfit for agricultural uses.
o Before they can be effective as larvicides most chemicals require to be intimately mixed
with the manure a coating procedure requiring considerable labour and careful
supervision .
o Some of the substance which have been suggested may have poisonous effects should be
the treated manure be allowed to come in contact with plants or animals.
 These are however certain substances relatively free from the objection enumerated above
which have been should to be effective in preventing the housefly from breeding in manure
heaps are of these is powdered hellebore which has no ill effect upon the manure or a crops to
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which the manure is later applied. To prepare for use one half pound of the powder should be
mixed in 10 gallons of water and left to stand for 24 hrs. This amount applied with a spray or
watering can to the manure as soon as it is removed from the stable is sufficient to treat 10 cubic
feet of manure, during application the manure must be turned over so as to bring the liquid into
contact with every part of the mass. Another satisfactory agent is powdered borax this may be
applied dry at the rate of 1 lb of borax to each 16 cubic feet of manure which must then be
watered care being taken not the add more water than the manure will sock up. A solution of 1 lb
borax in 6 gallons of water may also be used . A degree of caution is necessary in adding borax to
manure which is later to be used for agricultural purposes because in large quantities their
chemical may have bad effects upon crops. A third chemical that has been recommended is
sodium fluosilicate applies as a solution of 1 lb in 15 gallons of water until the manure is
thoroughly soaked.
 Benzene hexachloride and DDT can be sprayed on manure heaps and other fly breeding places.
The larvae, young and emerging flies and also adult flies are get killed. Approximately 200 mg
DDT per square feet of manure and surface will give adequate control during fly season if
spraying carried out at 2-6 weekly intervals. Urine particularily horse urine is lethal to
strongyles larvae, as a rule the addition of 30-40 per cent by weight of urine to fresh faeces will
kill the free living stages of equire strongyles. Some fertilizers are also lethal to eggs and larvae
urea at 0.75 per cent by weight to fresh faeces will kill struggles.
Manipulation of manure
 It is biological method which involves manipulation of the accumulated manure heap itself in
such a way as to kill the preliminary stages of both flies and worms without the addition of any
special larvicidal substances. This method its relatively less costly and is preferable. There are
three main procedures by which eggs and larvae in animal manure may be destroyed through
biological effects these procedures may for conveniences be called
o spreading or drying
o turning over the surface and
o close packening.
SPREEDING OR DRYING
 Suitable for hot dry climates, this method consists in spreading within 24 hours of its
being voided each day‟s output of manure in a thin layer so that it may be subjected to
rapid desiccation by sun and wind.
 Rapid and regular daily drying is essential as only the eggs and pre infective stages of
struggles are easily destroyed by desiccation. Moreover dry or drying manure does not
attract over poisoning flies and any maggets already present therein cease development
and die.
 The method should be worked on the “ Three day system” using three areas of ground
each just large enough to take one days output of manure when it is spread out thinly.
Each area is covered in turn and before re-using an area again the dries along may
where necessary be swift raced to one sole for burning.
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TURNING OVER THE SURFACE
 The basic principle of both this and the close packening method is the utilization of the
natural heat which is generated in fermenting manure for the purpose of destroying the
eggs, larvae and pupae of flies and the eggs and larvae of round worms normally present
in the dung of farm livestock. A well packed stock of horse manure becomes very hot
after a interval of manure becomes very hot after or interval of from one to three days.
The temperature attained vary at different depths, at 2.5 cm below the surface the heat
regenerated may lie between 30-360c at 10 cm below the surface it will range between,
63-690C, at 15 cm depth it will commonly be about 700C whilst, at a depth of 25 cm it
will be about 710C.
 In general a temperature level that will destroy the strongyles of horses will also destroy
almost any of the related parasites of other livestock, as equine red worms are amongst
the most hardy of the nematodes so far as resistance and viability of the larvae and
concerned. As a rule sufficient heat will be generated by fermentation in a tightly packed
stock of horse manure to kill during the first three days all fly larvae and worm eggs one
larvae buried at a depth of 15 cm below the surface.
 Atmospheric warmth combine with moisture accelerates the temperature of organic
manure whereas dry heat or cold retard it. Finally it must be noted that whilst the lethal
effect of the heat generated in fermenting manure is undoubtly great, the killing of eggs
and larvae is not occurred by this means alone, gases liberated during the
decomposition of dung also exert considerable toxic action or these stages.
 It would appear, then that a surface method of dealing with fresh manure so as to free it
from these free living forms of parasitic life is to bury it in a mass which is
already undergoing fermentation fresh manure instead of being thrown or to the surface
of the stock should be buried at a depth which ensures a surrounding temperature high
enough to prevent eggs hatching and to kill any larvae that may be present. The outside
layer at the stock must be buried periodically in a similar fashion. The procedure
outlived here is the essence of the turning over the surface method which it must be
recognized entails a degree of labour one of intelligent.
CLOSE PACKENING
 The simplest form of this method consists of making a compact block of manure of any
desired horizontal dimension but, which for ease in its subsequent treatment should not
exceed about 150 cm height.
 The site selected must have a hard level surface, and to the block must be firmly pressed
down with shovels or other means The following are methods of close packening patton,
Barbar, Alnutt and Hutchison trap.
Patton's method
 Patton's is the simplest form of trap consisting merely of an empervious floor upon
which its manure is placed.
 Around the edge of the floor, but quite clear of the packed manure, runs a trench or
gutter which has straight and smooth sides and is 10cm deep 15cm wide, into which the
third stage larvae of musca fill during their migration.
 The larvae so trapped should be collected daily for destinction.
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Baber's method
 It has got four compartments each sufficiently large to hold a week's output of maure.
Each compartment is floured with cement concrete slopening document at the edges to
a surrounding gutter. Retention of the manure is secured by a enclosure of strong iron
posts and wire -netting erected an the floor.
 The manure must be tightly packed into the various compartments in turn and must be
moistered if it is too dry and be protected against heavy rainfall by a covering of some
sort against heavy rainfall by a covering of some sort.
 Any maggots not killed by the heat of fermentation and leaving the manure to seek a
fermentation and leaving its manure to seek a pupation site or trapped in the gutter
from which pupation site are trapped in the gutter from which their escape through
crawling up the walls can be their escape through crawling up the walls can be
prevented by filtering a metal over hang to the edges of the gutter.
 The gutter slope to a sump of appropriate size into which the drainage from the manure
is collected. If desired the gutter may be filled with any suitable disinfectant or fly
poison.
Allnutt's method
 It have the receptable , killed on three sides and set on a cement concrete or other
strong impervious platform and having a gutter running across the open front.
 The surrounding walls and the partition are provided or their inner surface a few can
from the top with a baffle or ledge projecting inward in order to prevent migrating
larvae which have crawled up the walls from escaping over the edge.
 The manure is stored below the baffle level. The gutter is constructed in front of it and is
half with a solution of cresol to kill migrating larvae.
 Here one compartment being filled and tightly packed fermentation and decomposition
can proceed in the other which is already full. The system allows the front and top layers
of manure to be periodically removed and deposited in the centre of the stack with the
least difficulty.
Hutchison's method
 Manure is stored as a platform perforated by may fine slits which stand over a shallow
concrete basen sloping slightly to one carrier where there is an outltet pipe
and containing water to a depth of 1.5 cm in the shallowest part. Here the maggots leave
the manure through the slits of the platform to pupate.
 The water should be drawn off at intervals and the dead and dying maggots destroyed.
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MODULE-24: SANITATION OF ANIMAL HOUSES
Learning objectives
o Sanitation of animal house
o Objectives
o Drainage Laying of drainage system
o Testing of drainage system.
SANITATION OF ANIMALS HOUSES
 The dictionary meaning of the word sanitation is the science of safeguarding health.
According to the World Health Organization environmental sanitation embraces the
control of all those factors in man‟s (in our context animals) physical environment
which exercise a deleterious effect on the physical development ( to productivity), health
and survival. The physical environment encompasses the non-living objects and
physical factors affecting the animals, viz., air, ventilation, lighting, noise , climate and
water. In fact the term sanitation covers the whole field of controlling the environment
of animals with a view to prevent disease and promote health.
 The basic problems encountered during the maintenance of sanitation in animal houses
included the lack of awareness and ignorance of nearly 80% of our population about the
role of environmental sanitation in the protection and promotion of their own health
and safety and in the alleviation of their poverty.
Water requirements for animals/animal houses
 Dairy cows and buffaloes under average feeding conditions require about 28 litres of
water per day for maintenance purpose and additional 3 litres of water for each litre of
milk produced. In addition, for washing and cleansing of cow-sheds, the animal
themselves, utensils, etc., an average of another 45-70 litres of water per cow is
necessary. Thus, for all purposes, a daily supply of 110 litres of water per cow is
necessary.
 A horse under average stable-feeding conditions will drink about 36 litres of water per
day. For washing and other general stable purposes, an additional 36 litres of water is
required. An average daily allowance of 18 litres of waste per head would be sufficient
for sheep and goats. For pigs, about 40 litres of water may be provided per day head for
all purposes. On an average 100 hens require 20-30 litres of water per day.
Objectives of sanitation
 The aim of ensuring sanitation within animal horses are (i) to establish hygienic
atmosphere and structures and (ii) to create conditions for comfortable living of the
livestock (including poultry and ducks) so that they may remain healthy and productive.
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REQUIREMENTS OF LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS
 This aspect is of prime importance in maintaining good sanitation. Farm livestock are
hometherms. They maintain a thermal balance between the heat they produce or gain
from the environment and the heat they loose to it.
 The heat produced and released by the body is related to the working efficiency and
production. While small amount of heat is lost with excretions and secretions, the main
losses are through radiation, convection, conduction and evaporation.
 The temperature of surroundings, air temperature and humidity of air inside the sheds
and movement of air within and outside the buildings determine the heat loss/ gain by
convection.
 Temperature regulation of the body is a function of immense importance especially
during hot and cold weather to maintain good health and productivity. Similarly, the
atmosphere with 30 to 90 per cent relative humidity allows the livestock to thrive well.
The moisture produced by the animals within the sheds has to be removed through
proper ventilation.
 Air movement inside the animal house requires due attention to ensure health and
productivity of livestock. Air temperature above and below body temperature tend to
reduce dissemination of body temperature and compels animals through more exercise,
more feed intake and sufferings.
 The animals should be kept in thermo comfort zone, within which they capable of giving
an optimal performance. They should not be forced to huddle or separate themselves
warm or cool, respectively. They should remain in complete harmony with their
environment. Development of such a zone depends on many factors, viz., species , age,
weight and sex of animals and feeding rate, acclimatization, husbandry system.
DRAINAGE OF BUILDINGS
 To maintain sanitation in animal house one has to pay attention in drainage. The
drainage system may conveniently be divided into three sections which all inter
connected. That part inside and outside the building situated above ground level and
leading to.
 The underground drain pipes and fittings in turn or connected to,
 The public sewer cesspool, septic tank or other means of disposal.
 The general principles of only drainage system
 The pipes should be made of non absorbent material and be laid with air and water tight
joints.
 The drains should be laid in straight lines between points of access all changes of
direction or gradient being open to inspection. All connections being on made that the
incoming drain points in the direction of the flow of sewage.
 The drain should be laid to gradients which will ensure their being self cleaning.
 All inlets to fowl drain should be trapped.
 No drain should pass under buildings.
 All entrance to drains should be outside the building.
 There should be ample means of access for inspection.
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 The drainage should be disconnected from the sewer or other outfall by means of a
proper intercepting trap.
 The drainage system should be properly ventilated.
 It is desirable to provide a separate system of drains to take the rainwater in most cases.
Drain pipes
 Pipes for underground drains must possess strength to withstand the pressure of the
super imposed soil and the weight and jar of traffic. Strength is also necessary to resist
the internal pressure of gases. Drain pipes must have a smooth internal face so that the
free passage of waste matter is not hindered. The internal surface must also resist the
corrosion of liquids or gases.
 Pipes must be durable be able to withstand alternating temperatures, the action of
chemicals and the friction of sand and other solid particles. Absolute impermeability to
gases and water is an essential feature without which any drain pipe is not only useless
but extremely dangerous as otherwise the surrounding soil would soon become the
stoneware or fireclay pipes when well laid are always cleaner than iron drains and will in
ordinary circumstances remain practically tight for long periods. On the other hand iron
pipes will remain perfectly tight for long periods but do not remain for any length of
time perfectly clean. Because of greater length of iron pipes fewer joints are required
than with stoneware fireclay pipes.
Bends
 The drainage pipes must be laid in straight line if abrupt deviations from the straight are
necessary bend are used. At the curve chokage is liable to occur the curved pipes are
frequently provided with removable bolted covers.
Junctions
 Junctions at right angles are to be avoided for free flow. Junction should have
inspection chambers and it is covered by lid which is securely bolted down. The
optimum size of the pipe for livestock farm is 10-15 cm internal diameter.
Trap
 Is to prevent the gas escaping from the sewer to the house.

 Syphone trap
o The reliability of a trap depends primarily upon the depth to which the in-bent
portion of the piping. An ideal trap effectively prevent sewer gases under
ordinary circumstances from passing up the inlet pipes. It must be self cleansing.
 Dip stone, mason‟s or built trap
o It is a receptacle built of brick. It is of the worst forms of traps. It is not self
cleaning, allow to settle solids.
 Buchan‟s Intercepting Syphon trap
o It is provided with an abrupt inlet and a gradual outlet, and the seal in this trap is
very effective
 Gully trap
o In the drainage system the fluid alone pass into the drain and at the same time
hold back the more solid portion. For this purpose gully traps are placed at the
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inlet of the drains, they are designed to catch and retain any solid matter.
LAYING OF A DRAINAGE SYSTEM
 When laying drain pipes and fittings in a drench care must be exercised to see that the
trench has a firm bottom. If the soil is of a loose character it is well to make a solid bed
of concrete for the pipes.
 The gradient of its pipes should be such as to ensure a steady and even passage of
sewage. For ordinary drains from most animal habitations a speed of 10 cm/second is
satisfactory and this attained in a 10 cm pipe if there is a gradient of one in forty and in
a 15 cm pipe with a gradient of one in sixty is maintained .
 All joints must be made perfectly gas and water- proof and the material used for sealing
the join must be able to resist the action of fluids from without and of fluids and gases
from within. One part of cement and one part of sand makes a excellent jointing
material for stoneware or fireclay pipes.
Defects
 Defects in drains may be due to several cause

 Blockage of the pipes or fittings through the entrance of solid objects.
 In sufficient gradient or conversely to steep a gradient.
 Imperfect laying of traps so that these become tilted out of line so reducing the depth of
the seal.
 Bad workman-ship in laying drains.
 Using pipes which are too large or two small.
 Too many bends in a system.
Testing of drains
 Drains must be tested after laying to ensure that they are gas and water tight and that
the water seals of the traps are satisfactory. Tests are carried out on the various sections
of a drainage system during its construction and a final test on the whole system when
completed. Thereafter periodical tests should be made from time to time to ascertain
that the system remains satisfactory as defects may developed from various causes
which if not rectified may cause serious pollution.
 The methods of testing drains are described below
o The air and smoke tests: The air test consists of plugging the open ends of the
drains and ventilating pipes and the pumping in air under a pressure sufficient to
be indicated on a pressure gauge. If the gauge does not show that a fixed pressure
is being mentioned this denotes a leak or leakage. These can generally be located
by filling the pipes with dense white smoke afterwards plugging the pipes and
applying the same pressure before. This will force the smoke out at the defective
parts and enable them to be located and made good. This test should be
continued until the gauge remains steady and proves that the drains are sound.
o Hydraulic test: In the hydraulic test the outlet of a drain or a section of it is
plugged with a extending rubber bag or other patent stopper, and the section to
be tested then filled with water . The water is left in for two or three hours and if
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a leak exists its pressure will be indicated by a fall in the head of water at the
point of observation.
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MODULE-25: DISINFECTION OF ANIMAL HOUSES
Learning objectives
o Disinfection of animals houses
o Necessity Ideal disinfectant
o Physical agents
o Chemical agents.
DISINFECTION - INTRODUCTION
 The term disinfectant is applied to agents which kills or prevent multiplication of

microorganisms, particularly those which cause disease i.e. bacteria, protozoa, fungi or
viruses, Disinfectants are usually applied to in animate surfaces
 Since few disinfectants act instantly, ample time must be allows for their bactericidal
effect. As bacterial agents, most disinfectants seem to act more effectively when applied
in solution then as an emulsion powder, aerosol or gas because solutions penetrate to a
greater depth.
 Germicidal activity of disinfectant solutions is greater when they are heated because hot
solutions penetrate manure and other organic debris better than cold. It is extremely
important to remove as much organic matter as practicable from the areas to be
disinfected.
 The disinfectant should be applied as spray with sufficient force to drive the solution
into all cracks and services.
PROPERTIES OF A DISINFECTANT
 The ideal properties of a disinfectant are

o It should be rapidly effective.
o It should have a broad spectrum of activity excluding bacteria, viruses and fungi.
o It should not allow emergence of resistant populations.
o It should not be inactivated by protein.
o It should be minimally toxic.
o It should be non straining and un corrosive.
o It should not has the skin by direct action or sensitization.
o It should be adourless and decodorsing.
o It should possess residual action after rienseing.
o It should have detergent properties and it should be simple and economics to
use.
TYPES OF DISINFECTANTS
There are two types of disinfectants

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 Physical agents
 Chemical agents
PHYSICAL AGENTS
 Two important physical agents or heat and light

 Heat
o Heat sterilization is an efficient and convenient procedure. Moist heat has the
advantage of penetrating climps of organic matter and reaches surfaces not
readily available to chemical disinfectants.
o Dry heat requires higher temperatures and larger exposure periods than moist
hat. Moist heat produces its germicidal effect by protein Coagulation, whereas
dry heat oxidizes or -------------- microorganisms.
 Light
o Ultraviolet light has antimicrobial activity. Ultraviolet wavelength of 254-280 nm
are most effective against gram negative and non sporulating bacteria, while
stephylocci and streptococci as well as viruses are resistant.
CHEMICAL AGENTS
Chemical agents may be classified as follows
 Oxidising agents
 Reducing agents
 Acids and alkalis
 Alcohol
 Phenol and cresols
 Dyes
 Detergents and surface active agents
 Miscellaneous organic compounds
Oxidising agents
 Oxidising agents are rapid in action, and can be divided into those which release oxygen
oxidation without the release of oxygen the halogens.
Peroxides
 Hydrogen peroxide solution

o An aqueous solution of hydrogen peroxide is colourless and adourless but has a
characteristic taste. Hydrogen peroxide is relatively stable when slightly acidified
but decomposes is alkaline media and in contact with organic matter and metals.
Hydrogen peroxide is a deodorant by virtue of the strong oxidizing effect of the
nascent oxygen produced in contact with organic tissue. The second action is
mechanical cleansing action resulting from the rapid release of oxygen
Potassium permanganate
 Consists of dark, adourless, purble crystals with a metabolic luster, which are solubless
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water giving pink to deep purple solutions depending on concentrations. Solutions of

potassium permanganate have strong oxidizing properties without releasing gaseous
oxygen.
Halogens
 Sodium Hypochlorite- contains approximately 0.5% W/V of available chlorine.
Reducing agents
 Formaldehyde useful to disinfect straw, clotheing, hay etc a 2% formaldehyde in used as

spray.
Sulphur dioxide
 Sulphur dioxide is liberated as a gas when sulphur is ingnited. It is used as fumignant

disinfectant for animal houses to destroy bacteria and viruses, parasites and vermin. for
every 3m3 of our 0.5 kg of sulphur should be burned. The disadvantage is it attack and
corrodes metal, -------- fabries and blackes dyes.
Acids and Alkalis
 The strong mineral acids can be used as disinfectants but their corrosive actions limit
their usefulness to disinfection of -------- surfaces.
 Several alkalis are in common use as disinfectant, e.g sodium hydroxide, sodium
carbonate and quick lime. Most bacteria are inactivated above pH 9, but a particular
property of the alkalis is their antiviral activity. A 4% solution of sodium carbonate
(washing soda) is employed in the cleansing and disinfection procedures required after
or outbreak of fat and mouth disease.
 Acid alcohol is effective in inactivating bacterial spares.
Phenol and Cresols
 Phenols and cresols and their derivatives such as the various chlorinated cresols and
phenyl mercuric compounds are used.
 Phenol is toxic but it is a good disinfectant even at low concentration (0.5%)
 Cresol is straw coloured liquid which darkens with age and exposure, less soluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents. Cresol in very effective against acid fast bacteria
but less effective against viruses and it has no effect on spores. It act even in the
presence of organic matter. Solution of cresol and soap (Lysol) is preferred because of
its greater solubility in water. Phenol should not be used in ------ since it ----- mick and
mink products. Phenol and cresol are toxic to cats and dogs.
 Cholroxyloenol: Is a white or creamy white crystalline substance with a slight phenolic
adour. It is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents and soap solutions . It is
bactericide mainly against gram positive bacteria.
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MODULE-26: RECYCLING OF FARM WASTES
Learning objectives
o Recycling of farm wastes
o Necessity
o Different types of farm wastes
o Collection
o Zero waste management.
RECYCLING OF FARM SURPLUS/WASTES
 The farm waste may be solid, semisolid or liquid. Some waste may be treated primarily
as sewage and the residues emanating from the digestion tank serve as manure. The
sludge from the primary sedimentation tank could be disposed by land bury or by
composting while the liquid effluent after the separation of activated sludge in the
secondary sedimentation tank is disposed to courses. Besides, the sludge may also be
disposed in the sea as done in Mumbai, spread over the land or used as manure.
 The effluent from secondary settling tank, ie disposed into water courses such as rivers
and streams should be diluted at least 8:1 (water: effluent) in manner that it should not
contain > 10 ppm of suspended solids and 10ppm of BOD. Since people may use as
source waters, the effluents needs essentially to be rendered pathogen free by
chlorination. If chemicals are not removed from the water it could prove toxic to man,
fish, agriculture and limits its use for other purpose.
Oxidation pond
 It is a cheap method of sewage treatment. It is an open shallow pool 1 to 1.5m deep with
an inlet and outlet. It functions in the presence of algae, certain types of bacteria and
sunlight. The organic matter is oxidized by bacteria to CO2 , ammonia and water.
 The algae with the help of sunlight utilizes CO2 , water and inorganic minerals for their
growth and liberates oxygen which together with atmospheric oxygen induces the
process of oxidation in the pond. It can become profitable of sewage purification for a
small community. Twenty two acres of land is required to develop an oxidation pond.
Oxidation ditches
 With the use of mechanical rotors for extended aeration, the aerated lagoons can also be
used for purification of sewage and wastes generated by townships with 5000 to 20000
population. Only one acre of land is required for an oxidation ditch and 2.5 acres for
aerated lagoon.
Collection of wastes
 Dung, feed wastes, soiled bedding , etc. forming solid wastes and waste water
constituting liquid manure can be collected separately or flushed out together with
plenty of water through hose pipes. The former group of wastes are lifted into wheel
barrows or trolleys and drawn out by bullock carts.
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 Solid manure is to be collected and removed from the shed at least twice daily and
should be stored in manure pit with impervious walls which is located at a minimum
distance of 10m from a well, river, tank or boundary of an adjoining land property to
safeguard against the menace of foul odours and flies.
TYPES OF MANURE AND SOLID WASTE
 The production of manure is on an average 40 kg per day per one adult unit ( one adult
cattle or buffalo above 3 years of age). One calf blow one year or one adult sheep or goat
or pig produces manure roughly equal to 1/3rd of an adult unit.
 Aggregates of small globules are voided by sheep and goats, which are quite hard and
can be swept of floors. For pig paddock, 0.5 m wide trench covered with slats or iron
grills can be provided along the outer border where the animals will void the faeces
which will drop through the grill to fall at the bottom of the trench, from where it can be
collected periodically.
Manure pit
 Simple manure pit for villages can be constructed by digging out on an elevated land
4x3 sqm pit of 2 m depth with a roof constructed of locally available material. The
objective is to desiccate the manure quickly to dung cake, and to prevent entry of rain
water into the pit to overcome leaching of plant nutrients.
 Another way is to construct a brick walled pit with cement concrete bottom. There
should be fall of base to one end from where a drain is to lead to the liquid manure
chamber. This pit as usual would have roof at a height of permitting free circulation of
air over the manure yet preventing leaching of valuable soluble plant nutrients. It also
prevents anaerobic conditions causing deterioration of manure.
 The manure is well turned periodically to ensure uniform decomposition of fresh
manure that is added to the pit daily. It is essential for destruction of eggs and larvae of
parasites which are normally present in the dung of animals.
Biogas plant
 At village or farm level, the disposal of farmyard manure can be utilized for production
biogas, fertilizer or compost. The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Resources,
Govt. of India, is implementing biogas program, - gas being produced from cattle dung,
other organic wastes and / or human excreta in a system popularly known as Gobar-gas
plant through the process of digestion. The plant consist of
o Mixing tank and inlet
o Digester
o Gas holder or storage dome
 The slurry from the biogas plant is a good quality manure free from weeds, sedds, foul
smell and pathogens.
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Biogas plant
Liquid manure
 When the slurry from the biogas plant is used in liquid form as it comes out, it can be
easily distributed in the field by linking the outlets with the main irrigation channel or
through an appropriate handling system.
Composting
 Rectangular pits of 3x2x1.5 m are dug. A layer of straw, animal bedding, garbage and
leaves is first put in the pit. Digested slurry is then allowed to flow into the pit. Alternate
layers of refuse and slurry are laid until the pit is full. Bamboo poles having holes 10cm
apart are placed in the compostable material for aeration. Finally the pit is plastered
with mud layer. This will minimize the loss of nitrogen from the pit. After one pit is
filled, the same process is repeated for filling another pits because compost from such
pits is usable as manure only after 3 to 4 months. Composting process consist of
compost heaps, semi-dried slurry and slurry filter bed.
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MODULE-27: SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION WITHIN ANIMAL

HOUSES
Learning objectives
o Sources of air pollution within animal house
o Natural air pollution within animal house
o Man made air pollution within animal house
o Effect on animal health
o Effect on animal production.
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION IN ANIMAL HOUSES
 It is necessary to know
o The impurities that may be present in the atmospheric air
o How they accumulate
o To what degree they can be tolerated by man and domesticated animals and
o How polluted air may be purified.
The composition of atmospheric air
 Pure air is a mixture of various gases including a quantity of water vapour, it has the
following approximate composition by volume
o Oxygen : 20.94%
o Carbondioxide : 0.28 to 0.04 %
o Nitrogen : 78.04%
o Argon : 0.94%
o Helium, Krypton, neon, etc. : Traces
 There are also traces of ammonia, ozone, nitric acid, free hydrogen and methane on an
average air contains about 1.4% moisture which exists as a gas and not in the form of
droplets.
Pollution of atmospheric air
 Can be man made are naturally occurring the main sources of air pollution are
stationary and area sources, mobile sources, agricultural sources and natural sources.
Stationery and area sources
 A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move
(Chemical and manufacturing) industries. Stationary sources are defined as large
emitters who release relatively consistent qualities and quantities of pollutants.
 The term area source is used to describe the many smaller stationery sources located
together whose individual emissions may be low but whose collective emissions can be
significant.
Mobile sources
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 Mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its own
power.
 In general mobile sources imply on road transportation. In addition there is also a non
road or off road category that that includes gas powered lawn tools and mowers, farm
and construction equipments, recreational vehicles, boats, planes and trains.
Agricultural sources
 Animals also eliminate CO2 into the atmosphere

 The following is the average figures for the hourly excretion of CO2.
o Lactating cow : 5 .8 cubic feet
o Horses : 3.9 cubic feet
o Swine : 1.3 cubic feet
o Sheep : 0.55 cubic feet
 From animal houses ammonia is emitted, ammonia is also emitted from manure storage
areas or from the land after the manure is applied in crop production, the
misapplication of fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides can potentially result in aerial
drift of these materials.
Natural sources
 An erupting volcano emits particulate matter and gages, forest and prairie fires can emit
large quantities of pollutants, plants and tress emit hydrocarbons, and dust storms can
create large amounts of particulate matter.
EFFECT ON ANIMAL HEALTH AND PRODUCTION
 In domestic animals natural resistance to disease particularly respiratory affections is

lowered by continued living in polluted surroundings. With regard to production milk
yield in cows and egg production in poultry is lowered.
 The CO2 concentration in dairy cow sheds usually lies between 0.2. and 0.3 per cent. At
a concentration of 7.8% the horse is said to be able to live but exhibits severe dyspnoea
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MODULE-28: VENTILATION AND ITS SYSTEMS
Learning objectives
o Standards of ventilation
o Types of ventilation.
INTRODUCTION - VENTILATION
 Ventilation in animal houses required for removing stale air and to replace it by fresh
air. Very little or too much of it is injurious to the health of animals and their
attendants.
 The stagnant air becomes warmer and more humid in improperly ventilated animal
houses. Condensation of water on the surface, bedding and floor makes them wet and
animals become uncomfortable.
 It eventually leads to concentration of animals at places causing accumulation of excreta
and expired air in pockets. All these factors are also lead to concentration of dust,
particulate matter, ammonia, other gases and pathogenic micro-organisms carried by
animals facilitating exacerbation of respiratory and enteric diseases, mastitis and other
illnesses.
STANDARDS OF VENTILATION
 The standards of ventilation have been based on the efficiency of ventilation in

removing odour and obnoxious gases. The gases generated are mainly CO2 , NH3, H2S,
methane, CO and fumigation gases like HCHO, etc. The threshold limit value for
animals is lower than that for man and deserves utmost attention. Three standards are
considered for ventilation.
o Cubic space: The air of the animal house would appear fresh as long as the
amount of carbon dioxide produced during respiration does not exceed more
than two parts in 10,000 parts of air. This would depend on the type, age, and
number of livestock housed therein.
o Air change: It is more important than the cubic space requirement because the
cooling effect power of the air is to be maintained satisfactorily. The number of
air changes per hour is calculated by dividing the total hourly air supply to the
house by the cubic capacity of the house.
o Floor space: the floor space per animal is more important than the cubic space.
Height in excess of 3 meters is ineffective from the point of view of ventilation as
the products of respiration tend to accumulate at the lower levels.
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TYPES OF VENTILATION
 There are broadly two types of ventilation

o Natural
o Mechanical
Natural ventilation
 Natural ventilation is the simplest system of ventilation which depends on three forces
such as wind, diffusion and inequality of temperature.
 Broadly three types of natural ventilation are in use;
o A fixed open ridge with a protective cap is sufficient in climatic housing for cattle
o A simple chimney type of insulated flue is satisfactory for a limited area of
controlled outlet ventilation.
o Hopper type windows fitted with gussets to prevent direct draughts serving as
principal inlets and small baffled openings left open during cold or windy
weather.
Mechanical or artificial ventilation
 Mechanical or artificial ventilation can be effected by four means;

o Exhaust ventilation: air is extracted to the outside from the inside by an exhaust
fan operated electrically
o Plenum ventilation: fresh air is blown into the room by centrifugal fans so as to
create a positive pressure and replace the ventilated air proportionately.
o Balanced ventilation: this is a combination of exhaust and plenum system of
ventilation.
o Air conditioning: it is the simultaneous control of all factors affecting both
physical and chemical conditions of atmosphere within a structure.
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MODULE-29: PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WATER AND AIR

BORNE DISEASES
Learning objectives
o Controlling the source and agent
o Preventing the susceptible host from the source of infection or agents of disease.
CONTROLLING THE SOURCE AND AGENT
 From the disease control point of view, the weakest link in a disease transmission
process is the agent or the source of the disease. Any measures to eliminate this source
is the easiest way by which the disease problem can be checked. The important tools to
achieve this are,
o Early detection and notification: when a disease is diagnosed and notified to the
authorities at a very early stage, it becomes very easy to stamp out the etiological
agent before it spreads into the masses. Early diagnosis makes it easy to carry out
detailed epidemiological studies in a more effective manner and helps the
authorities to take pre-emptive measures before the agents spreads in a larger
population.
o Epidemiological investigation: Epidemiological investigation involves
identification of the source of infection and factors influencing its spread in the
population. Successful epidemiological studies ensure implementation of prompt
disease management measures right at the initiation stage of a disease process.
o Quarantine and isolation: Quarantine and isolation measures are the oldest
communicable disease prevention and control measures. It is applied for the
livestock imported from other countries in order to minimize the risk of
transmission of and exotic disease in importing countries. A large number of
infectious diseases of humans and animals particularly those that are air-borne,
can be controlled by physical isolation of the diseased hosts till they get rid of
infections either through treatment or naturally after the infective stage of the
disease has passed.
o Sanitation and disinfection: Majority of the water borne diseases are transmitted
through sewage contaminated drinking water. It is , therefore, of paramount
importance to either prevent such sewage from contaminating water sources or
to treat it in such a manner that the risk of contamination with infectious
diseases is either eliminated or minimized. Treatment of industrial effluents or
smoke which prevent the discharge of harmful and toxic chemical hazards due to
water and air pollution. Regular disinfection of hospitals, animal sheds, meat
processing plants, human and animal dwellings, public places will reduce the risk
of spread of both water and air borne pathogens.
o Legislation: Legislative measures are important tools in controlling water and
air-borne diseases. The health hazards caused by pollution of water and air due
to both biological and chemical agents can be effectively checked by bringing
about comprehensive legislation against agencies polluting the water sources and
air and implementing it in true spirit.
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PREVENTING THE SUSCEPTIBLE HOST FROM THE SOURCE OF

INFECTION
 Complexity of a disease process makes it virtually impossible to prevent its occurrence

merely by attempting to control the source and agent of the disease. It is therefore of
prime importance to protect the susceptible host from the disease agents. This can be
achieved by the following ways.
o Immunoprophylaxis
o Chemoprophylaxis
o Community participation
o Monitoring and surveillance
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MODULE-30: PROBLEMS OF ATMOSPHERE POLLUTION
Learning objectives
o Effects and controls of acid rain
o Depletion of ozone layers
o Methane production.
EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF ACID RAIN
Acid rain
 Acid forming gases (SO2, N2O) from industries and fossil fuel combustion, are oxidise
after traveling thousand of kilometer in the atmosphere to form acid rain.
 Sulphur-di-oxide (SO2) ð Sulphuric acid (H2So4), Nitrous oxide (N2O) ð Nitric acid
(HNO3) : HCI ð Hydrochloric acid (HCI ACID); CO2 ð carbonic acid .
Effects of acid rain
 Deterioration of buildings (Taj Mahal with marble)

 Damage of statues, metals, fishes and leaves of trees.
 Sufferings of aquatic animals.
 Damage to trees by insects and fungi which are tolerant to acid rain.
Control of acid rain
 To reduce emission of SO2 and N2O from industries and power plants by installing
modern equipment.
 To add lime in the lakes and soils to neutralize acid rain.
 To use natural gas instead of fossil fuels.
 To use sulphur scrubbers to control the addition of sulphur in the air during combustion
of fossil fuels.
DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYERS
Depletion of ozone layers
 Ozone layer is in stratosphere it is anatural sun screen filtring ultra violet rays from
sunlight protecting living organisms for the past 450 million years. The thinning of the
stratospheric ozone layer is referred to as ozone hole.
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Pollutants causing O3 depletion
 Among the pollutants which cause O3 depletion, the prominent ones are CFC‟s CH4 and
N2O. Of these three pollutants, CFC‟s are the most damaging gas of ozone layer and are
used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners. They enter from the troposphere
to the stratosphere and remain there for 65-110 years, depleting O3.
 Anthropogenic emissions of CFC‟s are the main cause of worrying seasonal ozone losses
in both the hemispheres of our earth. Long-lived chloride compounds of CFC‟s are
mainly responsible for ozone losses.
 Markus Rex, an atmosphere scientist at the Alfred Wegener Institute of Polar and
Marine Research in Potsdam, Germany, saw new data for the break – down rate of a
crucial molecule, dichlorine peroxide (Cl2O2). The rate of photolysis (light activated
splitting) of this molecule was extremely low in the wavelengths available in the
stratosphere – much lower than the currently accepted rate.
 The rapid photolysis of Cl2O2 is a key reaction in the chemical model of ozone
destruction developed 20 years ago. At least 60% of ozone destruction at the poles
points only to an unknown mechanism.
METHANE PRODUCTION
 Methane which is 20 times effectual than carbon di oxide

 Methane is produced in rice field if it is flooded which leads to anerobic situation and
the organic matter in the soil decays and releasing methane.
 Bovine flatulence, bacteria in fogs, fossil fuel refineries
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MODULE-31: PROBLEMS OF ATMOSPHERE POLLUTION
Learning objectives
o Green house effect
o Global warming.
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
 The increase in the global mean temperature is called global warming. The global
warming is due to increase in green house gases in the atmosphere.
 A green house means a special house in which delicate plants are grown with controlled
temperature inside than outside but with less radiation. This is called green house effect
which is due to glass walls, high Carbon-di-oxide (Co2) content and high water vapour in
the green house. The green house allows short wave radiations inside but prevent the
long wave, i.e, infrared radiations from the earth‟s surface. That is why the green house
is warmer inside than outside.
 In the same way, green house effect occurs in our environment. Some atmospheric gases
allow short wave radiations through them but absorb long wave radiations from the
earth and reflect the heat to earth. These gases are called green house gases.
Green House Gases
 The green houses gases include Carbon-di-oxide (CO2), Oxygen (O3), Methane, Nitrous
Oxide (N2O), Chlorofluoro carbon (CFC), water vapour and Hydro Fluorocarbons
(HFC). The predominant gases are CO2 and water vapour. About 70 million tons of CO2
per day are dumped into the earth‟s atmosphere.
o The average global temperature is 150C.
o If there are no green house gases, the temperature would be – 180C.
o The green house gases increase the temperature to 330C.
o The moderate heat trapped by mainly CO2 and water vapour keeps planet warm
enough to allow species to exist.
o The level of H2O vapour is constant but CO2 is increased.
o Man contributes to the increase of methane, N2O and CFC‟s. This leads to
enhanced green house effect.
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GLOBAL WARMING AND ITS EFFECTS
Global warming
 Thermal expansion of ocean and melting of glaciers and polar ice sheets and increase in
sea level.
 Increase in sea level at the rate of 1 to 2 mm/yr during 20th Century.
 Increase by 30C would increase the see level by 0.2 to 1.5 meters over the next 100 years.
 1 meter rise of sea level will inundate many cities like Sydney, Cairo, Bangkok etc.
 Negative impact on human settlements, fisheries, tourism, agriculture and coastal
ecosystems.
Effects of global warming
 Change of weather and climate

 In the 20th century, the global temperature increased by 0.60C.
 Earth‟s mean temperature may increase by 1.5 to 5.50C by 2050.
 The moisture carrying capacity will increase.
 The temperature of the troposphere will increase, whereas the temperature of
stratosphere will decrease.
 This causes more rain at higher latitudes and less at lower latitudes.
 Extreme drought and floods will be increased.
 In tropical and subtropical areas, human diseases will be increased.
 Rise in Sea level
Effects on living organisms
 Distribution pattern of organisms changes and many species will shift to mountain
areas.
 Rapid rise in temperature leads to the trees to die and it would result in creation of
scrub vegetation.
 Many species disappear due to inability to migrate fast.
Effects on agriculture
 Increase in plant diseases, pests and weeds resulting in the reduction of crop
productivity.
 In temperate region, small increase in temperature may increase crop production but
more temperature decreases the crop productivity.
123
MODULE-32: TANNERY, WOOL, BONE AND BLOOD MEAL

INDUSTRY POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL
Learning objectives
o Tannery, wool, bone and blood meal industry pollution and its control
o Chemical hazards
o Impact of hazards and prevention
o Treatment of tannery effluent.
INTRODUCTION
Tannery, wool, bone and blood meal industry pollution and its control
 Tanning is a chemical process that is used to convert animal hides and skins into
leather. The term hide used for the skin of large animals (e.g., cows or horses), while
skin is used for that of small animals (e.g. sheep). In the tanning process, chemical
reactions convert the semi-soluble protein “collagen”, present in the corium of animal
skins and hides into tough, flexible and highly durable leather.
 The tanning process uses acids, alkalis, salts, enzymes and tanning agents to dissolve
fats and non-fibrous proteins and chemically bind the collagen fibers together.
Chemical hazards
 The large variety of acids, alkalis, tannins, solvents, disinfectants and other chemicals in
a tannery can be respiratory and skin irritants. Dust of vegetable tanning materials, lime
and leather and chemical mists and vapours arising in the various processes may be
responsible for causing chronic bronchitis.
 Several chemicals may cause contact dermatitis. Chrome ulceration may occur in
chrome tanning, especially on the hands. Exposures in the beamhouse operations are
mainly due to sulphur compounds such as sulphides and sulphates. Since these are
alkaline substances, there is a potential to generate hydrogen sulphide gas, if these
substances , there is a potential tog generate hydrogen sulphides gas, if these substances
come into contact with acids.
IMPACT OF HAZARDS AND PREVENTION
 In many countries tannery effluents are discharged into sewers or inland surface water
or brought onto the land with irrigation water.
 The high concentrations of salt and hydrogen sulphide affect the quality of water and
may cause bad taste and odour. Though the suspended matter (lime, hair, fleshigns,
etc.) makes the surface water turbid, it eventually settles at the bottom.
 Both processes create unfavourable conditions for aquatic life. Mineral tannery waste
water that is discharged on land, affects the productivity of soil adversely and may cause
land to become infertile. As a result of infiltration, the quality of ground water is also
124
affected adversely.
 Discharge of untreated tannery effluents into the sewer system causes deposition of
calcium carbonate and choking fo the sewer. It is possible to treat the waste water
effectively before it is discharged into surface water. As a result of this purification, the
chromium and BOD levels of the purified water are relatively low. However, the sludge
in the wastewater systems has to be brought to special dumping grounds because of its
chromium content.
 The tanning industry discharges different types of waste, primarily in the form of liquid
effluents containing organic matter, chromium sulphide, ammonium,
pentachlorophenol (PCP) and other salts which not only affect the quality of the
environment, but also are toxic for flora and fauna.
 Some times the concentration of chromium in tannery effluent reaches upto 6500 ppm,
however, pentachlorophenol used as biocide concentration reaches upto 25 ppm, thus,
major pollutant of the effluent.
TREATMENT OF TANNERY EFFLUENT
 Treatment of tannery waste water is required prior to discharge. The major prevention
measures of tanning are flashing of hides after washing, recycling of spent chrome
tanning solution, recycling and decontamination of toxic chemicals removing toxic
sulphides and chromium. In all the processes dealing with solid and liquids, it is very
important to define the optimum conditions to carry out the solid-liquid separation.
 The studies involve the definition of the type pollutant and treatment methods,
including physical, chemical and biological methods. Sulphides are deadly toxic
materials and must be destroyed chemically. The normal treatment system in the
industry is to collect the entire sulphide containing wastes, and then oxidise the
sulphides with air with a manganese suphate catalyst.
 Lime solution, free of sulphide, can be used to neutralize the acid wastes to adjust the
pH to the acceptable range. Chromium present in very high concentration together with
pentachlorophenol needs special attention for removal from the effluent.
Primary treatment of the effluent
 The mixing of the acid and alkaline wastes at a control pH results in the coagulation of
the suspended solids.
 The removal of the coagulated materials by primary treatment results in a decrease of
the suspended solids by about 80 percent and BOD by 50-70 percent.
Chemical treatment of the effluent
 Several physicochemical processes have been developed for the removal of pollutants
from industrial effluents. Various chemical techniques such as coagulation,
precipitation and reverse osmosis etc. are used to remove PCP from effluents.
 A chemical method for oxidative degradation of PCP in soil, under unsaturated
condition and neutral pH was developed. Reagents used were heme (Fe++) as a catalyst
and hydrogen peroxide as on oxidant. Heme and peroxide (Fenton reagent) could
degrade PCP efficiently in a short period of time, either in liquid or unsaturated soil
125
systems. However, the problems underlying the industrial non-acceptability of the

physicochemical treatment technology are those associated with cost and reliability.
 Sulphides are deadly toxic materials and must be destroyed chemically. The normal
treatment system in the industry is to collect the entire sulphide containing wastes, and
then oxidize the sulphides with air and manganese sulphate catalyst. The lime solution,
free of sulphide, can be used to neutrlise the acid wastes to adjust the pH to the
acceptable range.
 Traditionally, chromium removal was made by chemical precipitation, oxidation /
reduction, ion exchange, filtration, membranes and evaporation of all which are
extremely expensive.
 The toxicity of heavy metal chromium is associated with a particular form of that metal,
called Gr (IV). The toxicity may be removed by converting Cr (IV) to Cr (III), a non-toxic
form of the metal, by adding more electrons to the metal through a chemical process
called „reduction”.
126
MODULE-33: STRAY AND FALLEN ANIMALS MANAGEMENT
Learning objectives
 At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about handling of stray and
fallen animals.
HANDLING OF STRAY AND FALLEN ANIMALS
 Stray animals roam about freely and create nuisance for the community in a number of
ways including damage to crops. They can be a serious hazard for vehicular traffic
especially in congested urban areas. These animals are more likely to be exposed to
diseases and environmental toxicities. When old and weak, their movements become
restricted. Thus, the dung and urine excreted by these animals become serious threats
to environmental safety. Besides, the filth created by such animals helps in the
propagation of a variety of insects. Fly breeding can become a real threat to community
health and environment.
 The menace of stray animals can be minimized by collecting these animals in what are
called cattle pounds which are managed by pound keepers. The activity is regulated by
the cattle trespass act, 1921.
 There are a number of private organizations that deal with the problem of old and
decrepit animals. In recent times, however, some goshalas have begun keeping even
healthy for breeding purpose and production. The goshalas are supported by charitable
organization and occasional grants from the Government sources.
 There has been a growing awareness about the welfare of animals. The activities
concerning animal welfare in India are regulated by Animal Welfare Board of India
through the provision of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals act, 1960.
 Stray animals dying in open areas cause enormous damage to environment. They not
only pollute the environment with foul gases/odours but also invite vultures and other
birds and wild animals to create nuisance. These animals need to be collected
immediately and disposed off in an economic and efficient manner by cremation, burial,
rendering or by composting as relevantly suitable.
127
MODULE-34: POLLUTION DUE TO INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Learning objectives
o Distillery Industry
o Petroleum Industry
o Food and Beverage Industry
o Pesticide Industry
o Dye Industry
o Pharmaceutical industry
o Heavy Metal Industry.
POLLUTION DUE TO INDUSTRIAL WASTES
 Population explosion and rapid industrial development for the essential commodities
have led to formation of various contaminants in the environment. During the last five
decades xenobiotic compounds have been increasingly added to the environment by
industrial activities. Some of them are highly toxic, recalcitrant, and have higher bio-
accumulating and biomagnifications properties.
 The following are the major industries which pollute the environment.
o Pulp and paper industries
o Distillery industry
o Petroleum industry
o Food and Beverages industry
o Pesticide industry
o Dye industry
o Pharmaceuticals industry
o Heavy metal industry
 Pulp and paper are manufactured from wood, non-wood fibres and recycled fibres. The
primary raw material used in paper manufacturing is cellulose fibre, which constitutes
50% of wood. The pulp and paper industry is both huge and small in size, technically
diverse, operate on a wide variety of manufacturing processes on a large number fibre
types. There are two main pulping methods, mechanical and chemical. The yield of the
pulp by mechanical process is as high as 90-95%, but the quality fo the pulp is of low
grade, highly colorued, and contains short fibres. In the chemical process, the wood
chips are cooked with appropriate chemicals in an aqueous solution, at an elevated
temperature and pressure so as to break the chips into a fibrous mass. The yield of the
pulp by this process is about 40-50% of the original wood material. Chemical pulping is
carried out in two media: alkaline and acidic.
 Paper mill effluent is a white colorued effluent noted for low pH value and high
suspended solids. BOD and COD values are not so high. It also contains filler size
material and pigments.
 Impact on air quality is an important concern of the pulp and paper industry, even
though it is not often the most dangerous for human health. Odour, smoke, vapour and
dust are emissions that people recognize immediately as characteristic of a pulp mill.
Hydrogen Sulphide, Methyl Mercaptan, Dimethyl Sulphide and Dimethyl Disulphide.
128
Total Reduced Sulphur (TRS) emissions, Sox and NOx emissions are different
compounds which are a major source of odour and main factors of air pollution.
 Hazardous material in the pulp and paper industries can fall into two different risk
classes, such as first: inflammable, corrosive, reactive, toxic, pathogenic, mutagenic, and
second: general hazards associated with industrial facilities like electrical, structural,
mechanical or general conditions like ergonomy, temperature, noise and oxygen
deficiency which can lead to accidents. The effluent, even upon dilution by the receiving
waters, can cause adverse effects on the reproduction and behaviour of aquatic
organisms. The effluents from pulp mill using bleaching were identified as a priority for
the assessment of their effect on human health and environment.
Control
Treatment of Air Pollutants
 Electrostatic precipitators, thermal precipitators and bioscrabbers are used for the
removal of air pollutants from pulp and paper mills.
 Wet scrubbers are applied to provide a more effective removal of fine particles, in the
size range of 0.1 to 2.0 m radius from an exhaust gas stream.
Treatment of Waste Water
 One of the main constraints on effluent discharge from the pulp and paper mill industry
is its brown or black colour due to the dissolved lignin based compounds derived from
the blow – heat condensate, pulp-Decker washing, chlorine and alkali bleach waste,
black liquid spillage and foul evaporator condensate.
 The waste water should be treated and discharged.
DISTILLED INDUSTRY
 Molasses is one of the most important raw materials used in fermentation industries
due to its low cost and ready availability. Molasses Waste Water (MMW) from the above
industries, however, contains high pollution load and a large amount of dark brown
pigment, melanoidins, which is poorly decolourised by physiochemical methods and the
usual biological treatments, such as activated sludge systems, aerated lagoons and
anaerobic methods viz. anaerobic lagoon, anaerobic digester, anaerobic contact reactor,
anaerobic filter, Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket reactor (UASB) and anaerobic
fluidized and expanded bed reactors.
 Benzo(a)pyrene, a Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and phenolic compounds
are also seen in the molasses wastewater, and this appears to be one of the causes of
toxicity to flora and fauna. The high organic load of the effluent causes eutrophication
When disposed in soil, MSW acidifies soil and affects agricultural crops. About 2.7
billion litres of alcohol is produced by about 285 distilleries in India, servicing as a basic
chemical for a large number of chemical industries, therefore, increasing the demand
for alcohol in the future.
 Molasses spent wash in such effluents is nearly 15 times in volume of the total alcohol
production, about 40 billion litres of MSW effluent, if disposed of untreated in water
courses can cause great stress on aquatic life. Anaerobic digestion of MSW containing
129
effluents results in dark brown sludge which is used as a fertilizer, and other value
added products biogas, food and feed and commercial products.
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
 Most of this waste is disposed of in hazardous landfills, which results in a high costs to
the producers, without relieving them of the liabilities associated with these wastes.
Some wastes are treated by thermal methods, especially in cement kilns or thermal
desorbers.
 Conventional land farming bioremediation processes for the treatment of these wastes
are not environmentally acceptable. By optimizing fermentation process parameters
and by paying particular attention to strategies for increasing hydrocarbon accession to
the petroleum degrading mixed culture, a cost effective bioreactor-based process with a
relatively short cycle-time has been developed.
 Process constancy has been proven over hundreds of full scale runs by the conversion of
hazardous into non hazardous waste. Supporting studies have illustrated the contrasting
physiological mechanism exhibited by different component organisms in the mixed
culture, particularly with respect to their association with the hydrocarbon substrate.
 In addition, the beneficial effects of using surfactants to improve hydrocarbon accession
and the effects of key surfactant properties on degradation have been shown. From a
different perspective, the process for the degradation of refinery oil wastes could be
viewed as a low cost (or negative cost) fermentation process for the production of
biomass, capable of transforming other hydrophobic molecules.
 Environmental requirements provide scope of microbiologist to optimize culture
dependent and independent techniques in which oily soil slurry and sludge may be
treated, with volatile organic carbon containment, and where rates and extent of
hydrocarbon degradation are maximized.
 Petroleum biodegradation research is advancing on many fronts i.e. anaerobic
hydrocarbon degradation (lagging behind aerobic systems), hydrocarbon accession to
microbes (role of biosurfactants and their production), microbial consortia approach for
degradation, microbial de-emulsification, desulphurization and denitrogenation of
crude oil.
 Bacteria with selected petroleum metabolishing enzymes, amenable to being linked to
electronic interfaces, are being engineered and developed as biosensors. These systems
have applications in monitoring environmental contaminant concentration and
toxicities during implementation of remedial process and also have potential
applications to control environmental processes.
FOOD AND BEVERAGE INDUSTRY
 Some environmental impacts of waste and effluents derived from the agricultural and
food processing industry are inevitable. Their composition is extremely varied,
130
depending on both the nature of the product and the production techniques employed,
resulting in various pollution effects of the different food processing industries. There
are, however, certain characteristic of particular food processing industries as described
above. Which may be useful in evaluating pollution factors and as consequence, in
applying appropriate treatment operations for environmental protection objectives.
 Generally, attention must be placed on minimization of waste through advanced
manufacturing practices and constructive utilization of what is unavoidable by recycling
and bioprocessing of by products and waste into edible food, feed, fuel and chemicals
with industrial application in order to prevent pollution and minimize the effects of
effluents on the environment.
 Research work that will help the entire agricultural and food processing industry
identify , develop and implement new and better systems for producing high-quality
and economical foods with reduced adverse effects on the environment and better
utilization of the raw materials, is urgently needed.
 In our time of environmental concern, much greater efforts are required to solve the
problems of air emissions, water discharges, and too much waste. No doubt, appropriate
technologies, techniques processes and treatment methods are available to a great
extent for the different types of the food processing industry. However, further
environmental related research is needed to evaluate.
o The qualitative and quantitative chemical composition of the solid, liquid, and
gaseous by-products and waste, as well as the extent to which they are released to
the environment
o The environmental media into which they are discharged
o The qualitative and quantitative environmental impact of waste and by-products
from the food processing industry.
o The available techniques for waste recovery and reutilization, and effective
methods for waste bioconversion and upgrading in order to minimize
environmental pollution.
o Improved packaging technologies to reduce the quantity of solid waste and
environmental impact, thereof,
o Alternatives to toxic chemicals used in agricultural and food processing
operations, and
o Policy and authority options which should be aimed at controlling and
strengthening existing environmental regulations, or even posing stricter
requirements.
 Last but not least, increased efforts should be concentrated to motivate of the
consumers, producers, and authorities to conserve energy, water and raw materials, and
to minimise the generation of waste materials by re-utilization and upgrading
techniques, and in consequence, to prevent pollution of the environment.
PESTICIDE INDUSTRY
 Indiscriminate and non-judicious use of pesticides has led to acute contamination of

food and food products, ground water and air. Misuse of pesticides is a serious problem
in most of the developing countries, including India.
 Availability and sale of banned and outdated pesticides is quite common. Precautionary
measures to be taken by the personnel involved in spraying operations are hardly
followed, thereby leading to serious health problems in farm workers.
131
 The waiting period recommended for different pesticides before the product is
harvested, is hardly ever followed. Pesticides are necessary at present, but they are not a
long term solution for crops and human health.
 In this context, we need to lay greater emphasis on biological control within the frame
work of IPM. Recent years have seen tremendous efforts to understand the natural
diversity of biodegradation, with the aim of exploiting these findings for bioremediation
purposes.
 New genes, enzymes and metabolic route have been discovered for the aerobic and
anaerobic degradation of organic pollutant. Methods have been fine – tuned to gain a
more detailed insight into structure-function relationships, leading to the identification
of structural elements and single amino acids (and therefore nucleotides) that
determine protein activities and specificities.
 The broad knowledge acquired has allowed us to use culture independent studies, based
on functional characteristics to assess the diversity and quantity of catabolic genes in
response to pollution, rather than just changes in community structure.
 The integration of new methodologies, like stable isotope probing, has allowed changes
in the community to be linked with functional characteristics and has enabled active
community members to be identified.
DYE INDUSTRY
 Dyes and intermediates are among the inorganic and organic chemicals which we
encounter as technological and functional necessities in nearly every sphere of our daily
lives. The environmental problems associated with the manufacture and use of dyes are
so complex and varied that only a discerning appraisal can put them into proper
perspective.
 An attempt has been made to define and evaluate these problems and to show, with
reference to selected examples, what measure have been and are being implemented to
overcome them.
 A good deal of creative, interdisciplinary effort and meticulous attention to minor
details will be necessary to master existing and future environmental problems in this
area. Dyes and intermediates are partly relatively stable in the aquatic environment and
cannot efficiently be degraded under wastewater plan conditions.
 Degradation of these substances in sludge, under aerobic conditions proceeds via
oxidation of the substituents located on the aromatic ring system or in the side chain. As
this reaction only leads to a partial degradation, genetic modification of the enzymatic
system of different microorganism may be studied to make the system more active.
PHAEMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
 The pharmaceuticals industry is one of the most important industries for modern
civilization. The life of millions animals and human depends on the life saving medicine
manufactured by this industries. These medicines are metabolized in the body, a part is
utilized and the rest is excreted as it is or along with metabolic products. These
medicines entire in the environment and cause severe problems.
 The toxicity of this compounds is generally very high has they have the capacity to
interfere the biological systems including changes at biochemical levels. Apart from this
132
the pollutants are also generated during the manufacturing process of medicines. Thus
the pharmaceuticals industry has becomes one of the major causes of concern.
 The pollutant generated during the manufacturing process are easier to tackle as an
industry is point source of pollution and it is possible to install pollutant specific
treatment facilities. However the pollution caused by the usage of medicine is very
difficult to control because of its disbursed nature.
 There are many studies which have confirmed the presence of pharmaceutically active
compounds in surface ground and drinking water. Though the concentration of this is
usually in PPM or lower, the toxic effects of this compounds are well known. The sewage
treatment plants are not efficient enough to degrade all the products. At the same time it
is not possible to stop the use of medicines as, the adverse effect has not using the
medicine on society outweigh way the potential adverb effects of the presence of such
compounds in the environment. Thus one of the most effective way of dealings with this
problem is the use of source separation management practices.
 Source separation of urine and hospital effluent from the normal waste water will
reduce the amount of toxic effluent to a great extent. Also it will be possible to install
more efficient, specially designed and costly treatment technologies for the treatment of
toxic compound thereby reducing the risk of environmental contamination.
HEAVY METAL INDUSTRY
 Rapid industrialization, increased anthropogenic activities, modern agricultural

practices and faulty waste disposal methods have increased the concentration of
elemental pollutants in the environment, which cause toxicity to all living organisms.
 Contamination of radionuclide has also become problematic since the development of
nuclear technology in the second half of the 20th century.
 Other sources of radioactive contamination include, naturally occurring radioactive
materials such as uranium, thorium, radon and radium. Recognition of the ecological
and human health hazards of the pollutants has led to the development of several
technologies for remediation.
 However, due to the prohibitive cost of some of these technologies, attention has been
diverted towards the development of alternate / complementary technologies, such as
bioremediation, which uses materials of microbial and plant origin.
 Bioremediation of radionuclides, heavy metals and organic waste has been a major
recent activity in the laboratory and compared to the conventional treatment methods,
these biomass-based systems are more acceptable in being cost effective, with high
efficiency of detoxification of even very dilute effluents, and in minimizing the
disposable sludge volume.
 In conclusion strive to archive proper and balanced nutrition by choosing fresh (organic
when possible) fruits, vegetables, grains, lean meat, and cold-water fish. Consider taking
supplemental antioxidants, herbs, minerals, amino acids, phytoextracts, detoxifying
agents, protective agents, and fibre as adjuncts to a healthy diet to enhance vital organ
functioning and to aid your body‟s natural detoxifying actions against heavy metals.
133
Important terms in VPE-511
A
Abiotic:Non-living components in the ecosystem
Acid rain:Rain water having pH below 4
Aerobic:Organism live in air, breath oxygen
Aerosol:Suspended particles in air, a liquid gas colloidal mixture
Air pollution:Pollution of air by foreign entities like toxic gases, particles radiation, noise.
Alpha particles:High speed positively charged electrons
Anaerobic:Anaerobic organism does not require oxygen for its living.
Argillaceous:Cement ore stone.
Arid:Regions prevailing dry condition.
Atmosphere:Gaseous phase occupied above the surface of the earth.
Autotroph:Animals and plants synthesize own food by photosynthesis.
134
B
Beta particles:High speed negatively charged electrons.
Bioaccumulation:Progressive increase in concentration of pesticides, herbicides, etc, in lower tropic

level to higher tropic level.
Biodegradation:Substances which are amenable for enzyme action.
Biodiversity:Species variation in a given area.
Biogeochemical:Nutrient cycles passing through living and non living components.
Biomass:Weight of organic matter accumulated in an organism.
BOD:Biological Oxygen Demand, the amount of oxygen required for the biodegeneration of organic
compounds in water.
C
Calcarcous:Cement ore stone.
Cancer:Abnormal growth of cells causing tumors.
Carcinogen:Compound capable of producing cancers.
Carnivor:Organism depend on other animals for their food.
Chlorophyll:Green pigment in plant containing Mg metal, catalyze photosynthesis.
135
D
Decibel:Unit measuring the noise.
Deciduous:Kind of trees that shed their leaves at the end of growth season.
Decompres:Organisms live and decompose dead animals and plants.
Desert:Ecosystem where rate precipitation per annum.
Desertification:Gradual transformation of fertile land to desert like land.
E
Ecology:Branch of study deals with living being and their interactions, non living beings.
Ecosystem:A system of living and non living components interacting each other.
Eutrophication:Excessive nutrients in water.
Extinction:Permanent loss of a species from the world.
F
Famine:Acute shortage of food.
Fauna:Total population of animals in a given region.
Fertilizer:Chemicals added in soil to improve its nutritive value and hence increase yield of crops
Flora:Total population of plants in a given region.
136
Fossil fuels:Fuels obtained from under the earth believed to be formed from fossil.
G
Game species:Animal species attracts hunting for game.
Gamma rays:High energy electro magnetic particles.
Gasohol:A mixture of gasoline and alcohol fuel.
Greenhouse effect:Increase in atmospheric temperature by green house gases like CO2 ,CH4.
H
Habitat:Natural living place of an organisms.
Heterotroph:Organisms which are depending other organism for their food.
Humus:Organic constituent.
Hurricanes:Heavy rain with cyclone.
I
Infiltration:Entering water into the soil.
Invertebrates:Animals with no backbone.
L
Landslides:Mass download movement of soil and rock.
Lava:Matter flowing from volcano.

137
Lethal dose:Amount of a toxin required just to kill on an animal.

Lithosphere:Outer shell of earth.
M
Malnutrition:Food with low nutrient value than minimum daily requirement.
Minamata disease:Mercury poison.
Monoculture:Repeated cultivation of same species for many years.

Mutagen:Responsible factors to cause mutation.
N
Natural gas:Gases existing underground of natural origin.
Niche:Species interaction with other species and also resources.
O
Omnivores:Organisms consumes both animal and plant as food.
Ore:Minerals used for extraction of methods.
P
Pathogen:Organism causing disease.
Perennial species:Plants which grow more than 2 years.
R
Rehabilitation:Re-establishing in displaced area.
S
Salinity:Total amount of soluble salts in soil or water.
T
Troposphere:Atmosphere just above earth’s surface.
Z
Zooplankton:Small floating animals on surface of water feeding on phytoplankton.
138

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VPE-511: ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE (2+1)

18 MICROBIOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF 73-76

MODULE-1: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE

 Environment means the surroundings of an organism. The French word „Environner‟

 Environmental Science is an inter-disciplinary study which deals with the interaction of

 Environment consist of mainly four categories:

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY

 Environmental study helps us to find practical solutions to the present environmental

Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

MODULE-2: ECOSYSTEM AND ITS TYPES

 An ecosystem is a group of living communities of species interacting with one another

STRCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

 There are four major types of ecosystems. They are as follows

Components of forest ecosystem

 The following are the different components of forest ecosystem:

 They include mainly trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants .

o Tropical grassland is dominated by tall grasses. Example: Africa and Savannas.

 They include soil, inorganic components in the air, rainfall, minerals in

 Rainfall less than 25cm in a year

 There are three region in this ecosystem

 Primary consumers: They include Zooplankton, worms, protozoan and

Estuaries or Estuarine Ecosystem

MODULE-3: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

H2S +CO2 ________ organic compounds

ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

STRUCTURE OF NATURAL ECOSYSTEM

 Ecosystems have various functions performed by the structural components to ensure

FOOD CHAIN AND TROPIC STRUCTURE

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD CHAIN

(C1) Food Web

 It is a network of Food chains where different types of organisms are connected

(C2) Ecological Pyramids

(C2a) Pyramid of Numbers

 It is a graphic representation of number of individual organisms at each trophic level,

(C2b) Pyramid of Biomass

 The amount of living matter present in an environment is called biomass.

UPRIGHT PYRAMID IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

Inverted Pyramid in Aquatic Ecosystems

INVERTED PYRAMID OF BIOMASS IN A POND

(C2c) Pyramid of Energy

 Example: Pond ecosystem

MODULE-4: FOOD CHAINS, BIO-DIVERSITY, THREATS AND

 Why there are more herbivores than carnivores?

Consumptive use value

Productive use value

 The products are commercially usable

 Biodiversity in India is related to our religious, cultural and spiritual uses.

Option values or unknown benefits

BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA AND TAMIL NADU

 In India biodiversity is rich due to favourable climate and natural environmental

Factors causing loss of biodiversity

 The enormous value of biodiversity emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity.

 There are two methods of conservation of biodiversity.

In-situ conservation of Biodiversity

Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity

MODULE-5: NATURAL RESOURCES - FOREST AND MINERAL -

Types of Natural resources