UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

School of Mathematics

CCS 008: Intro to Ethics

[2016]

George Nyongesa -0720451235

Previous classes we dealt with definition of philosophy and elements of philosophy including
Epistemology and Metaphysics. It is now time to learn about another element called Ethics.

Ethics is an element of philosophy that is concerned with what is morally good and bad or what
is morally right and wrong.

Ethics is interested in human behavior and how human beings decide what is good or bad; what
is right or wrong.

To start our study in ethics we shall define some terms/concepts in ethics. After which we shall
look at the theories in ethics. For your study understand a theory as a statement that seeks to
explain why things are the way they are not any other way.

Since this is introductory course we shall just in summary look at teleological and deontological
theories as well as Plato’s moral theory and Aristotle’s moral theory.

The course expects you to understand what the terms mean and how the theories are used in
ethics.

Definitions of Ethical terms

Morality
A System of rules, ideals, beliefs and practices in a society, which allow and forbid selected
types of behavior
A system of guidance designed to help human beings live a better life

Ethical Term
Value laden term that elicits approval or disapproval for any given or possible action
Examples: good, right, bad, wrong, duty, obligation, trustworthy, beautiful etc

Ethical Judgment
A statement containing an ethical term e.g. Otieno is a good person & Kamau is dutiful

Ethical Action
A human action which elicits approval or disapproval from others
Any or all human behavior that is subject to moral valuation-can be judged as right or wrong

Conditions for an Ethical Action

1. Rationality
2. Freedom of the will
3. Knowledge of consequences

Moral Agent
A person capable of being held responsible for their actions
One who is capable of moral action
Is subject to moral valuation

Subject to
Normal senses and rational
Acts out of freewill
Has knowledge of consequences
actions should be respected

Moral Dilemma
Situation where one has to make a choice between two alternative courses of actions that require
moral considerations
Seems choice of one is neglect for the other

Ethical Theory
 A formulation or principles that attempt to examine and explain why people act the way
they do
 Principles that explain why and how people ought to act and live

Value
1. Concept that determines and represents the color of our attitude i.e. what we think as
ethical or aesthetical
E g reading is valuable
Drugging is invaluable

2. Is an expression of the worth of an object or action

It could be valuable if war was abolished

John is a valuable friend
It is valuable to treat human beings humanely
3. A concept that describes or affirms as negative or positive

As positive: thinking actions or things to be good or right e.g.

What is valuable=what is good, right, correct, worthy, should be promoted and supported

As negative: Thinking states of affairs to be wrong, evil, unworthy, etc

Invaluable=unimportant, worthless, bad, wrong, is to be discouraged
 4. An object or state of affairs that satisfies desire or is pleasurable
Eating healthy is valuable
Drugging is invaluable

Teleological Theories
Derived from teleos= purpose or end
Is a set of theories that base moral decisions on the consequences derived from a particular action
Thus, the ultimate criterion/standard for what is morally right or wrong is the end results derived
from a given action [consequences]

An action is right only if it brings forth some desirable results

Conversely, an action is wrong if it brings about some undesired results [Examples:
Utilitarianism & Ethical egoism]

Utilitarianism
Also known as, the greatest happiness principle
Right action=consequences benefit the GREASTEST number of people
Wrong action=benefits only a few [it brings pain to the majority]
Moral action measured by production [or is intended] of greater balance of good over evil than
any available alternative
Good is measured in terms of pleasure over pain [g/e]
The principle: utility of an action [its usefulness, production of desirable results, its efficiency,
good results etc]
Bad action=pain exceeds pleasure
Good action=pleasure exceeds pain

Names associated with utilitarianism: James Stuart Mill; Jeremy Bentham; John Stuart Mill;
Adam Smith; John Rawls; Epicurus etc

Ethical Egoism
An egoist: Individuals concerned with their own interest sometimes to the exclusion and expense
of the interests of others [Is an ethics of self love]
Egoism: theory of systematic selfishness
Principle: the standard for morality is self interest
Formulation: to act ethically, moral agents should act in their own interest and maximize benefit
for themselves
Good action: promotes an individual’s welfare and happiness
Bad action: fails to promote the well being of an individual
That, an individuals’ one and only basic obligation is to promote for oneself the greatest possible
balance of good over evil

That, no human action is performed without seeking to benefit the actor [NB. an individual will
only do what will promote his greatness, even when in the process others are harmed]

Deontological Theories
Deny that rightness or otherwise of an action lies in the consequences
Hold that the morality of an action is inherent in the action itself

Actions are intrinsically right or wrong [because they are in accord with some law: moral, legal,
divine, or otherwise]
Thus, the authority of the moral norm is found in the nature of the action itself [e.g.
Kantianism
From Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Divine Command theory

Immanuel Kant 1724-1804

His ethical theory is known variously as:
1. The Categorical Imperative
2. The golden command rule
3. The Universalist principle

Kant’s definition of morality

A system of commands that must be obeyed regardless of the consequences [In acting morally,
we are simply obeying a duty-I could not act otherwise than I have!]
All moral actions should be based on a principle that is categorical [as opposed to hypothetical]

Principle: the main motive of action is because the actions are necessary and obligatory and their
fulfillment is intrinsically right [I could not do otherwise!-We act in a certain way not because
the actions are a means to some good consequences]
For Kant, the essence of morality is to be found in the motive of the act
Moral act=performed from a sense of/respect [for] duty
A moral person=one who acts from duty [is under obligation to act from the dictates of duty]

What is obligation?
That which one ought to do in spite of his/her inclinations to act otherwise
It imposes on one a demand that must be fulfilled and obeyed
In the absence of obligation, we follow our taste, desires and inclinations
For Kant: human beings are rational beings and must act rationally all the time
The principle/maxim of morality should be absolute, unconditional, and capable of being
universalized [the principle of morality is categorical]

The Categorical Imperative

Is a principle that defines morality and should guide human beings in their behavior
It is a command of the rational will and must be obeyed

Two formulations
Always act in such a way that the principle of your action can be made universalized [let the
maxim of your action apply to anyone else in a similar situation]

Always treat others as ends in themselves, never as means to your end [Human beings are moral
agents with a will and desire e.g. X is good because he is good-don’t qualify his being good]
Meaning?
If an action is right, then it must be right for all without exception [Lying: undermines human
relations based on trust & Stealing: Undermines the principle of private property]

Analysis
It presents credible framework for morality but does not state how to act in actual moral
situations
Does not help where there is a conflict of duties [e.g. telling the truth is an absolute command
and protecting a friends is also a duty- what happens when a mad man with a gun seeks to harm
my friend?]

For Kant the only appropriate motive for moral action is the sense of duty [it ignores people’s
feelings, emotions and individual aspiration-concepts like moral emotions, compassion,
sympathy guilt, remorse lose meaning]

Kant ignores consequences of actions by foolish people who intent well but end up disastrous
[E.g. A person who does not know how to swim dives into a fast flowing river to save a
drowning person; A surgeon who incompetently operates on and in the process kills the patient]

Acting immorally at times is morally permitted [e.g. a captured soldier revealing the secrets of
his army]

Plato's Moral Theory

Plato’s moral theory is based on his theory of knowledge; that one either knows or does not. That
knowledge is one, absolute, and immutable. In his submission, if one knows what is good then he
will strive to do good. Remember knowledge is virtue. But complete virtue is impossible without
complete Knowledge. The assumption here is that if only one knew the nature of the good life,
then one would act in such away as to achieve it. So what is Plato's theory of knowledge?

It revolves around the question what is the nature of the good life? Conversely who can lead the
good life? Plato’s response is the just man. But this does not help matters. Because we are
confronted with another question: Who is the just man? Plato’s answer to this is: the man in
whom knowledge has produced some degree of harmony-this is a balanced personality. It is the
man who knows what promotes harmony. He is the rational and virtuous man. But who is the
rational and virtuous man? Plato’s answer is; the ideal man. Again we have a problem; who is
the ideal man?

4.2.2.3 Plato’s analogy

In answering this question, Plato proposes to look at the larger situation, society, since this works
in exactly the same way the individual works. It is thus difficult to see what goes on in the soul.
But it is pretty easy to see what goes on in the society. The state here provides the larger
(cosmos) universe, the macrocosm
Take Note
1. Macros means "large"
2. Micros means "small
 3. Kosmos means "universe"

The soul here is the microcosm, while the state is the macrocosm
In this analogy, Plato relates the soul and the state. The two are divided into three parts, with
each part corresponding to different kinds of interests, virtues, and personalities. The three parts
of the social of the soul are:
i. Rational
ii. Spirited
iii. Appetitive

And these correspond to the three social classes in society, namely;

i. The rulers: Philosophers-kings
ii. The soldiers: Warriors or guardians
iii. Artisans: Commoners
Below we have a diagram for ease of comparison between the soul and the state, and their respective
interests that they serve.
SOUL CLASS (IN STATE) INTEREST VIRTUE

Reason Philosophers Knowledge Wisdom

Spirit Warriors Honor Courage
Desire Commoners Pleasures Temperance

The table below shows the corresponding elements the host and the respective function.
Rational Philosopher Kings / Rulers
Spirited Soldiers/Warriors Guardians
Appetitive Artisans/Workers Producers

The Rational element

For Plato, the rational element is the seat of reason. Here, wisdom is the controlling element. It
guides the cognitive process. It also guides the desire to be rational and rids human behaviour of
inner contradictions. And finally, it harmonises varying the impulses into an ordered system of
behaviour.

The spirited element

This is the seat of courage. It supports the rational element to suppress the uncontrolled human
appetites and irrational desires. It makes us defy danger, desire power, prestige and glory. But it
also makes us be led by ambition which leads us to feel angry, shame and stupid. Remember we
are on top of things until our ego is punctured! We feel so ashamed low that we always desire to
disappear in the nearest hole we come across.

Appetitive/desires
This is the seat of human uncontrolled desires, the physical desires which rests only when
fatigued. The desire to have sex, eat and quench our thirst all fall here. These are the
uncontrolled desires that they force us to act irrationally even when we know that what we are
doing is wrong and irrational.
So, who is the ideal man?
This is the individual in whom; the rational element is governing with the assistance of the
spirited element to control and direct physical desires in man. Only the ideal man is capable of
acting morality.

Aristotle’s Moral Theory

Aristotle emphasized the importance of developing excellence (virtue) of character (Greek ethikē
aretē), as the way to achieve what is finally more important, excellent conduct.

In his Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle argues that the man who possesses character
excellence does the right thing, at the right time, and in the right way.

Among its most outstanding features is Aristotle’s insistence that there are no known absolute
moral standards and that any ethical theory must be based in part on an understanding of
psychology and firmly grounded in the realities of human nature and daily life.

Aristotle explains that the origin, nature and development of virtues (excellent conduct) which
are essential for achieving human being’s ultimate goal: happiness (Greek: eudaimonia), which
must be desired for itself.

Aristotle proposes Golden Mean as his ethical theory.

Golden Mean

Aristotle - the golden mean. The golden mean represents a balance between extremes or vices.
Moral behavior is the mean between two extremes - at one end is excess, at the other deficiency.
Find a moderate position between those two extremes, and you will be acting morally.

Aristotle’s Concept of the

Golden Mean

Deficiency (-) Balance Excess(+)

Cowardice Courage Rashness

Humility Modesty Pride

Secrecy Honesty Loquacity

Quarrelsome Friendship Flattery

Stinginess Generosity Extravagance

Self-indulgence Temperance Insensibility

Indecisiveness Self Control Impulsiveness

Four Cardinal Virtues

Prudence, also known as practical wisdom, is the most important virtue for Aristotle. In war,
soldiers must fight with prudence by making judgments through practical wisdom. This virtue is
a must to obtain because courage requires judgments to be made.

Temperance, or self-control, simply means moderation. Soldiers must display moderation with
their enjoyment while at war in the midst of violent activities. Temperance concerning courage
gives one moderation in private which leads to moderation in public.

Courage, the one we will focus on in this article, is “moderation or observance of the mean with
respect to feelings of fear and confidence.” Courage is “observance of the mean with regard to
things that excite confidence or fear, under the circumstances which we have specified, and
chooses its course and sticks to its post because it is noble to do so, or because it is disgraceful
not to do so.”

Justice means giving the enemy what is due to them in the proper ways; being just toward them.
In other words, one must recognize what is good for the community and one must undertake a
good course of action.

Main Points of Aristotle's Ethical Philosophy

1. The highest good and the end toward which all human activity is directed is happiness,
which can be defined as continuous contemplation of eternal and universal truth.
2. One attains happiness by a virtuous life and the development of reason and the faculty of
theoretical wisdom. For this one requires sufficient external goods to ensure health,
leisure, and the opportunity for virtuous action.
3. Moral virtue is a relative mean between extremes of excess and deficiency, and in general
the moral life is one of moderation in all things except virtue. No human appetite or
desire is bad if it is controlled by reason according to a moral principle. Moral virtue is
acquired by a combination of knowledge, habituation, and self-discipline.
4. Virtuous acts require conscious choice and moral purpose or motivation. Man has
personal moral responsibility for his actions.
5. Moral virtue cannot be achieved abstractly — it requires moral action in a social
environment. Ethics and politics are closely related, for politics is the science of creating
a society in which men can live the good life and develop their full potential.