UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FCE 165: COMPUTER SCIENCE I

FGE 177: INFORMATICS A

1. What is a computer?-In information based system

A computer is an information-processing machine. It may also be defined as a device that works
under the control of stored programs automatically accepting, storing and processing data to
produce information that is the result of that processing.

The forms of information processed include:

 Data – e.g. invoices, sales ledger and purchase ledger, payroll, stock controls etc.
 Text – widely available in many offices with microcomputers
 Graphics – e.g. business graphs, symbols
 Images – e.g. pictures
 Voice – e.g. telephone
Processing includes creating, manipulating, storing, accessing and transmitting.
DATA
 Groups of non-random symbols that represent quantities, actions, objects etc.
 Data items are formed from characters that may be alphabetical, numeric, or special
symbols.

 Data items are organized for processing purposes into data structures, file structures and
databases.
 Data relevant to information processing and decision-making may also be in the form of
text, images or voice.

INFORMATION

 Data that has been processed into a form that is meaningful to the recipient and is of real or
perceived value.
 Data for one level of an information system may be information for another. For example,
data input to the management level is information output of a lower level of the system
such as operations level.

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Desirable qualities of information

1. Availability – Information should be available and accessible to those who need it.
2. Comprehensible – Information should be understandable to those who use it.
3. Relevance – Information should be applicable to the situations and performance of
organizational functions. Relevant information is important to the decision maker.
4. Secure – Information should be secure from access by unauthorized users.
5. Usefulness – Information should be available in a form that is usable.
6. Timeliness - Information should be available when it is needed.
7. Reliability – Reliable information can be depended on. In many cases, reliability of
information depends on the reliability of the data collection method. In other instances,
reliability depends on the source of information.

2. Functional/Logical parts of a digital computer

The system unit houses the processing components of the computer system. All other computer
system devices are called peripherals, and are connected directly or indirectly into the system unit.
Communication
Computer system Devices

CPU
System Unit
Control Arithmetic &
Unit Logic Unit
Input Registers (storage area) Output
Devices Devices

Main Memory
(Primary storage)

 Input devices – Enters program and data into computer system.

Secondary

Storage Devices

 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the computer that processes data. Consists
of main memory, the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit.
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data during execution/ processing.
 Control Unit – Controls execution of programs.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of data using program instructions.
 Output devices – Displays information processed by the computer system.
 Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is processed by
the computer system.
 Communication devices – Enable communication with other computers.

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3. Why use computers?
Use of computers has become a necessity in many fields. Computers have revolutionized the way
businesses are conducted. This is due to the advantages that computer systems offer over manual
systems.

The advantages include:

 Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing,
measured as number of instructions executed per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they
will always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the
inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected
and their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce
exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure
of one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
 Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.
 Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of instructions per
second.
4. Computer application areas
Some of the areas that computers are used include:
 Communication – digital communication using computers is popular and is being adopted
worldwide as opposed to analogue communication using the telephony system. Computers
have also enhanced communication through email communication, electronic data
interchange, electronic funds transfer, Internet etc. More specific examples include:

 Banking – the banking sector has incorporated computer systems in such areas as credit
analysis, fund transfers, customer relations, automated teller machines, home banking, and
online banking.

 Organizational management – the proliferation of management information systems

have aided greatly the processes of managerial planning, controlling, directing as well as
decision-making. Computers are used in organization for transaction processing,
managerial control as well as decision-support. Other specific areas where computer
systems have been incorporated include sales and marketing, accounting, customer service
etc.

 Science, research and engineering – computers used

o as research tools, complex computations
o for simulation e.g. outer-space simulations, flight simulations
o as diagnostic and monitoring tools,
o computerized maps using global positioning satellite (GPS) technology
o for modern mass production methods in the auto industry using computer driven
technology

 Education– computers incorporate databases of information that are useful in organizing

and disseminating educational resources. Such E-learning and virtual or distributed
classrooms have enabled the teaching industry to have a global reach to the students.

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 Computers are also used for test scoring uniform tests done in schools, school
administration and computer aided instructions.

 Management of information materials- The Internet has massive reference material on

virtually every learning area. Computer systems have enabled the efficient running of
libraries for information storage and retrieval.

 Manufacturing and production – computer aided design (CAD), computer integrated

manufacturing (CIM), process control systems among other technologies are computer
systems that have revolutionized the production industry.

 Entertainment – use of computers in the entertainment industry has increased

tremendously over the years. Computers enable high-quality storage of motion pictures
and music files using high-speed and efficient digital storage devices such as CDs, VCDs and
DVDs. The Internet is also a great source of entertainment resources. Computer games
have also become a major source of entertainment.

 Retailing – computers are used in point of sale systems and credit card payment systems
as well as stock inventories.

 Home appliances – computers (especially embedded computers or microprocessors) are

included in household items for reasons of economy and efficiency of such items. Major
appliances such as microwave ovens, clothes washers, refrigerators and sewing machines
are making regular use of microprocessors.

 Reservation systems – guest booking, accommodation and bills accounting using

computers in hotels have made the process to be more efficient and faster. Airline
computer reservation systems have also enhanced and streamlined air travel across major
airlines. Major players in the industry have also adopted online reservation systems.

 Health care and medicine – computers have played an important role in the growth and
improvement of health care that the use of computers in medicine has become a medical
specialty in itself. Computers are used in such areas as maintenance of patient records,
medical insurance systems, medical diagnosis, and patient monitoring.

5. History of Computers
The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then, a series of breakthroughs
in electronics have occurred leading to great improvements in the capacity, processing speed and
quality of computer resources.

The evolution of computerization in business may be summarised as:

 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier communication and less copying.
 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area Networks (WAN) and Local Area
Networks (LAN) communication in real time. This marks the beginning of telecommunication.
 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to analyse and rationalise.
 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II (operations research) are applied
to the decision making process.

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 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster document production, and the
(limited) introduction of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) speeds up large scale transaction
processing.
 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS) provides background within
which office automation can develop.
 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for distant communication between
computer systems. There is widespread use of word processors in text editing and formatting,
advancement in personal computing- emergence of PCs. Use of spreadsheets.
 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that combine data, text, graphics and
voice. Development of DSS, EIS and widespread use of personal productivity software.
 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining most of the office work- clerical,
operational as well as management.
 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology in many spheres of organisations
including electronic commerce (e-commerce), e-learning, e-health

Landmark Inventions
 ~500 B.C. - counting table with beads
 ~1150 in China - ABACUS - beads on wires
 1642 Adding machine - Pascal
 1822 Difference machine/Analytic Engine - design by Babbage
 1890 Holerith punched card machine - for U.S. census
 1944 Mark I (Harvard) - first stored program computer
 1947 ENIAC (Penn)- first electronic stored program computer
 1951 UNIVAC - first commercial computer; 1954 first installation
 1964 IBM - first all-purpose computer (business + scientific)
 1973 HP-65, hand-held, programmable ‘calculator’
 ~1975 Altair, Intel - first Micro-computer; CPU on a “chip”

6. Computer Generations
The view of computers into generations is based on the fundamental technology employed. Each
new generation is characterized by greater speed, larger memory capacity and smaller overall size
than the previous one.

 First Generation Computers (1946 – 1957)

 Used vacuum tubes to construct computers.
 These computers were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult.
 The following are major drawbacks of First generation computers.
o The operating speed was quite slow.
o Power consumption was very high.
o It required large space for installation.
o The programming capability was quite low.
o Cumbersome to operate – switching between programs, input and output

 Second Generation Computers (1958 - 1964)

 Replaced vacuum tubes with transistors.
 The transistor is smaller, cheaper and dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube.

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  The second generation also saw the introduction of more complex arithmetic and logic
units, the use of high – level programming languages and the provision of system
software with the computer.
 Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher operating speed. They have
no filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was also lower. Thus the size of
the computer got reduced considerably.
 It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU),
memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. The
programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period.

 Third Generation Computers (1965 - 1971)

 Had an integrated circuit.
 Although the transistor technology was a major improvement over vacuum tubes,
problems remained. The transistors were individually mounted in separate packages
and interconnected on printed circuit boards by separate wires. This was a complex,
time consuming and error-prone process.
 The early integrated circuits are referred to as small-scale integration (SSI). Computers
of this generation were smaller in size, lower cost, larger memory and processing speed
was much higher.

 Fourth Generation Computers (1972 - Present)

 Employ Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit
technology to construct computers. Over 1,000 components can be placed on a single
integrated-circuit chip.

 Fifth Generation Computers

 These are computers of 1990s
 Use Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit technology to build computers. Over
10,000 components can be incorporated on a single integrated chip.
 The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer. Apart from this it can
perform parallel processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced
to allow the computer to take its own decision.

7. Classification of computers
Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by processing
This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.
a) Digital computers are computers which process data that is represented in the form of
discrete values by operating on it in steps. Digital computers process data represented in
the form of discrete values like 0, 1, 2. They are used for both business data processing and
scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater accuracy.
b) Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes.
Outputs are represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data

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 represented by physical variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of smooth
graphs.

c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog
computers. They offer an efficient and economical method of working out special problems
in science and various areas of engineering.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.
a) Special purpose computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine,
engineering, manufacturing.
b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word
processing

Classification by generation
This is a time-based classification coinciding with technological advances.
The computers are categorized as First generation through to Fifth generation.
a) First generation. Computers of the early 1940s. Used a circuitry of wires and vacuum
tubes. Produced a lot of heat, took a lot of space, were very slow and expensive. Examples
are LEO 1 and UNIVAC 1.
b) Second generation. Computers of the early 1950s. Made use of transistors and thus were
smaller and faster. (200KHz). Examples include the IBM system 1000.
c) Third generation. Computers of the 1960s. Made use of Integrated Circuits. Speeds of up to
1MHz. Examples include the IBM system 360.
d) Fourth generation. Computers of the 1970s and 1980s. Used Large Scale Integration (LSI)
technology. Speeds of up to 10MHz. Examples include the IBM 4000 series.
e) Fifth generation. Computers of the 1990s. Use Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
technology and have speeds up to 400MHz and above.

Classification by power and size/ configuration

a) Supercomputers. The largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of data
very quickly. Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include Cray
and Fujitsu.
b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a
carefully controlled environment and specialist staff to operate them used for centralized
processing for large commercial organizations. Manufacturers include International
Business Machine (IBM).
c) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes and
microcomputers. Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the main
computer in medium-sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and
International Computer Limited (ICL).
d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure
activities. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They include
desktops, laptops and palmtops.

MICROCOMPUTERS
The term “microcomputer” was introduced with the advent of single chip.A microcomputer is a
computer that is constructed around a microprocessor. A microprocessor is a central processing unit or a
processor fabricated on a single chip of silicon. A chip consists of a tiny circuit board etched on a small

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square of sand like material called silicon. Chips are also called semiconductors, silicon chips or
integrated circuits. The development of microcomputers is attributed to the realization that a general
purpose logic chip consisting of arithmetic-logic and control elements could be mass produced and
programmed in different ways to perform different tasks. This way, time wastage in processor
manufacturing and complex manufacturing problems could be avoided or at least reduced.
Microcomputers are the most important category of computer systems for end-users. They are divided
into workstations and personal computers (PCs). Workstations are expensive powerful machines used by
engineers, scientists etc to process a lot of data or run complex programs and display both work in
progress and results graphically. PCs include desktops, laptops, notebooks, palmtops, and Personal
Digital Assistants (PDAs) etc. PDAs are handheld devices designed for convenient mobile
communications and computing. They support a variety of personal information systems e.g. diaries,
schedules etc. They can have in-built cellular phones.

In another way, the computers include:

 Desktop computers – A case and a display, put under and on a desk.
 In-car computers (carputers”) – Built into a car, for entertainment navigation etc., etc.
 Game consoles – Fixed computers specialized for entertainment purposes (computer
games).
Yet in a separate class we talk of mobile devices and may include the following:
 Laptops, notebook computers and Palmtop computers – Portable and all in one case.
Varying sizes, but other than smartbooks expected to be “full” computers without limitations.
 Tablet PC - Like laptops, but with a touch- screen, sometimes entirely replacing the physical
keyboard. A tablet personal computer or tablet PC is a tablet sized computer that also has
the key features of a full-size PC. A tablet PC is essentially a small laptop computer,
equipped with a rotatable touch-screen as an additional input device, and running a standard
(or lightly adapted) PC operating system like Windows or Linux. The term was made popular
with the Microsoft Tablet PC concept presented by Microsoft in 2001.

The iPad is a line of tablet computers designed, developed and marketed by Apple Inc.,
primarily as a platform for audio-visual media including books, periodicals, movies, music,
games, and web content. Its size and weight fall between those of contemporary smartphones
and laptop computers.

The iPad is controlled by a multitouch display—a departure from most previous tablet
computers, which used a pressure-triggeredstylus—as well as a virtual onscreen keyboard in
lieu of a physical keyboard. The iPad uses a WiFi connection to access LAN and the Internet.

 Smartphone, smartbooks and PDA (personal digital assistants) – Small handheld

computers with limited hardware.

A smartphone is a high-end moblie that combines the functions of a PDA and a mobile
phone. Today's models typically also serve as portable media players andcamera phones
with high-resolution touch screens, web browsers that can access and properly display
standard web pages rather than only mobile-optimized sites, GPS navigation, WiFi and

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 mobile broadband access. The term smartphone is usually used to describe phones with more
advanced computing ability and connectivity than a contemporary phone.

Smartphones run mobile operating systems such as Google’s Android, Apple’s iOS,
Microsoft Windows Phone, Nokia’s Symbian, RIM’s BlackBerry OS etc

The iPhone is a line of Internet and multimedia-enabled smartphones marketed by Apple

Inc.. An iPhone can function as a video camera a portable media player, and an Internet
client with email and web browsing capabilities. The user interface user is built around the
device's screen, including a virtual keyboard rather than a physical one.

 Portable media players - iPod is a line of portable media players created and marketed by
Apple Inc. As with many other digital music players, iPods can also serve as external data
storage devices. Storage capacity varies by model, ranging from 2 GB for the iPod Shuffle to
160 GB for the iPod Classic.

iPhone and iPod Touch, are controlled by a multitouch display.

 Programmable calculator– Like small handhelds, but specialised on mathematical work.

 Handheld game consoles – The same as game consoles, but small and portable.
 A computer appliance is generally a separate and discrete hardware device with integrated
software (firmware), specifically designed to provide a specific computing resource. These
devices became known as "appliances" because of their similarity to home appliances, which
are generally "closed and sealed" – not serviceable by the owner. The hardware and software
are pre-integrated and pre-configured before delivery to customer.

 Information appliance - in general terms, an information appliance or information device

is any machine or device that is usable for the purposes of computing, telecommunicating,
reproducing, and presenting encoded information in myriad forms and applications. The
common technical usage of "information appliance" (IA) is more specific — i.e., an
appliance that is specially designed to perform a specific user-friendly function —such as
playing music, photography, or editing text.

Typical examples are smartphones and PDAs. Information appliances partially overlap in
definition with, or are sometimes referred to as smart devices, embedded systems, mobile
devices or wireless devices

 Internet appliance - an Internet appliance is a consumer device whose main function is

easy access to the Internet services such as WWW or e-mail. The term was popularized in the
1990s, but now it has fallen out of general use.

Internet appliance was contrasted with any general purpose computer. The basic design idea
behind Internet appliance is that it can be made cheaper and much more usable by narrowing
its functionality and limiting available configuration options. Modern smartphones and tablet

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 computers do approximately the same things, but are more powerful, more successful in the
market, and generally not classified as Internet appliances.

8. Computer Based information systems

 Information systems support different types of decisions at different levels of the
organizational hierarchy.

 Different types of information systems serve each of these levels.

Decision Support System Provide problem-specific support for non-routine, dynamic and often
complex decisions or problems. DSS users interact directly with the information systems, helping
to model the problem interactively. DSS basically provide support for non-routine decisions or
problems and an interactive environment in which decision makers can quickly manipulate data
and models of business operations.

Office Automation Systems Office automation systems support general office work for handling
and managing documents and facilitating communication. Text and image processing systems
evolved as from word processors to desktop publishing, enabling the creation of professional
documents with graphics and special layout features. Spreadsheets, presentation packages like
PowerPoint, personal database systems and note-taking systems (appointment book, notepad,
card file) are part of OAS. In addition OAS include communication systems for transmitting
messages and documents (e-mail) and teleconferencing capabilities.

Artificial Intelligence Systems Artificial intelligence is a broad field of research that focuses on
developing computer systems that simulate human behaviour, that is, systems with human
characteristics. These characteristics include, vision, reasoning, learning and natural language
processing. Examples: Expert systems, Neural Networks, Robotics.

Expert System (ES) It is an advanced DSS that provides expert advice by asking users a sequence
of questions dependent on prior answers that lead to a conclusion or recommendation. It is made
of a knowledge base (database of decision rules and outcomes), inference engine (search
algorithm), and a user interface.ES use artificial intelligence technology. It attempts to codify and
manipulate knowledge rather than information. ES may expand the capabilities of a DSS in support
of the initial phase of the decision making process. It can assist the second (design) phase of the
decision making process by suggesting alternative scenarios for "what if" evaluation.

Knowledge Based Systems/ Knowledge Work Systems (KWS). Knowledge Work Systems
support highly skilled knowledge workers in the creation and integration of new knowledge in the
company. Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems used by product designers not only allow them
to easily make modifications without having to redraw the entire object (just like word processors
for documents), but also enable them to test the product without having to build physical
prototypes.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Geographic information systems include digital mapping
technology used to store and manipulate data relative to locations on the earth. An example is a
marketing GIS database. A GIS is different from a Global Positioning System (GPS). The latter is a
satellite-based system that allows accurate location determination.

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Virtual Reality Systems Virtual reality systems include 3-dimensional simulation software, where
often the user is immersed in a simulated environment using special hardware (such as gloves,
data suits or head mounted displays). Sample applications include flight simulators, interior design
or surgical training using a virtual patient.

IN SUMMARY; COMPUTER GENERATIONS:-

Classification of computers into generations is based on fundamental technology. It provides a framework
for growth in the computer industry.

First generation computers

i) They were bulky in size and required a large space for installation
ii) Thousands of vacuum tubes were for processing which emitted large amounts of heat
iii) They consumed a lot of power
iv) Had frequent hardware failures
v) Operating speed was slow
vi) Commercial production was difficult and costly
vii) used machine language for programming making id difficult to program
Examples include:
ENIAC- electronic numerical integrator
UNIVAC- universal automatic computer
EDVAC- electronic discrete variable automatic computer

Second generation computers

A new electronic switching device called transistor was invented.
i) They were more reliable than first generation hence less prone to hardware failures
ii) It easier to program since assembly language was used for programming
iii) The memory of this computer was composed of magnetic cores.
iv) They were faster, smaller, consumed less power, and emitted less power than first generation computers.
Examples include:
IBM 3070, Honeywell 400

Third generation computers

The use of integrated circuit chip(IC) was introduced. IC’s means circuits consisting of several electronic
components such as transistors, capacitors, and resisters grown on a simple chip of silicon eliminating
wired integration between components.
i) They were more powerful, reliable, less expensive, smaller, and cooler to operate than the first
generation of computers,
ii) They were easier to upgrade
iii) They had faster and larger capacity secondary storage
iv) Mini computers became affordable even to small companies
v) Time sharing operating system allowed interactive usage, simultaneous use many users and online
systems.
vi) They have standardization of high level programming languages for programming
vii) They employed the use of small scale integration technology
Examples include:
IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-8

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Fourth generation computers
The average number of electronic components packed on a silicon chip doubled each year. They employed
the use of large scale integration where it is possible to integrate more than 30,000 electronic components
on a single chip.
i) They were more powerful,smaller,consumed less power, emitted less heat than the 1st, 2nd and 3rd
generation computers
ii) They were more reliable and less prone to hardware failures
iii) They had faster and larger primary and secondary storage compared to 3rd generation.
iv) Use of standard high-level programming languages allowed portability of programs
v) Graphical user interface made the systems easier for users to learn how to use
vi) Personal computers even more affordable to individuals

Fifth generation computers

This was followed by ultra large scale integration where it was possible to integrate about one million
electronic components in a single chip. This progress led to creation of a micro-processor. A micro-
processor contains all the circuits needed to perform arithmetic logic and control functions/core activities
of the computer on a single chip.
i) They employ the use of a large memory with a very fast access time. Hard disks used for secondary
storage are cheaper, smaller, and larger in capacity.
ii) Floppy disks, compact disks are used as portable medium for porting programs and data from one
computer to another.
iii) There is a spread of high speed computer networking which has enabled multiple computers to be
connected to enable them to communicate and share data.
iv) Companies have developed graphical user interfaces to enable individuals who are not computer
professionals to use them by making computers more user friendly.
v) Portable computers are more smaller allowing users to use computing facility while traveling
vi) They are more powerful, consume less power, more reliable than the earlier generations.
vii) Many types of computers , in all price ranges have come up

IN SUMMARY; CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

SYSTEMS:-
a) Super computers
Computers are classified according to size, processing speed, cost e.t.c they are classified as
They are very powerful (have high processing power). They are used for processing large amounts of data
related to a single complex problem. They are optimized for those applications that are beyond the reach
of the contemporary computers. They are used for scientific purposes, weather forecasting, space
missions, nuclear research and parallel computing. It has limited use because of the price tag. Mostly
research centre’s and government agencies with scientific/ engineering functions have them. Only a few
are operational.

b) Main frame computers

It is a large general purpose computer to which other computers can be connected to so that they can share
the facilities of the information processing facility e.g ATM’S they are designed to be used by hundred’s
of users simultaneously and handle vast amounts of data. It has a sophisticated operating system that can
run both batch and online processing programs. It allows multi user online use, multi tasking and multi
processing. The primary function of mainframes today is to support large databases. They are owned by
large businesses and government organisations that need a central depository of data that can be managed
and controlled centrally.

c) Mini computers

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 Hardware components of these are often similar to those of mainframes in terms of functionality although
their features and capabilities are less powerful. Depending on the system design, a mini computer can
support a large number of terminals either attached locally or using communication lines. It is an
intermediate size computer that can run the same kinds of applications as mainframes but lack the speed
and storage capacity.

d) Micro computers
This is a computer whose C.P.U is a micro-processor. A micro processor is one whose components are on
a single integrated circuit chip. Hardware components are also similar to those of mainframes and mini
computers. However they are generally of a smaller scale e.g portable computer, embedded computers e.g
calculators, watches

Advantages of a Computer

Computer systems have many advantages, some of which are listed as follows:

1. Computers operate at high speed, hence there may be cost savings e.g. staff costs,
equipment costs etc.
2. Computers produce accurate results (information).
3. Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired.
4. Computers can work on voluminous data items.
5. Computers can work on any problem (solve any problem), provided a relevant instruction
set (program) are availed to them.
6. Computers are flexible, (i.e. they can adapt to any workload without much strain).
7. Computers produce reliable information.
8. Large volumes of data can be conveniently stored, assessed and altered.
9. Computers can provide useful information to management for control and decision
making.
10. Computers help to reduce paper work significant

11.Computer systems can reduce the number of persons required for performing various
organizational activities.
12.The use of computers for office activities reduces the requirements of office space.

Notes:
The above advantages may bring several benefits into the organization. Such benefits may be
classified as cost savings, improved data processing quality and better management information.

Disadvantages of Using a Computer

As much as we say that computers are useful to humans, they come with some disadvantages are
given as follows:

a) Computers are costly, if it is more efficient and effective to carry out the processing
tasks without employing the use of computers, then computerization is needless.
Computer prices have gone down tremendously, however, but they are still out of
reach for many poor people

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 b) Due to rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities
can become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
c) Changing from the old system, the manual system, to a computerized system is a
gradual process during which there is interruption in the normal working
environment.
d) There is usually the fear that installing the computer into an organization might result
in replacing some human employees.
e) In case the computer system fails, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the
old manual system. For this reason, stand by procedures are necessary, but expensive.
f) Controlling a computer file's contents is a difficult exercise due to the fact that the
contents of files of computer based systems are none-human sensible. There is further
fear that such contents may suffer from fraudulent acts by the people who know them.
g) Manual systems, though slow, are more flexible as compared to the computerized
systems.
h) Employees may resist the adoption of computers by organizations in which they work
Resistance from Employees

It is human nature to fear the unknown; we are always comfortable doing work the way we are
used to sometimes, there is resistance from employees/users to adopt new technology. The main
reasons for this resistance are:
 Fear of change: People are creatures of habit and hence are afraid of change
 Fear of losing their jobs: People usually associate the computer with loss of jobs
and hence they will be afraid that they might end up losing their jobs.
 Fear of failure: Since the computer is very new in a given working environment,
the people will be afraid that they might never adapt to it
 Loss of control: The management will be afraid that once a computer is implemented,
they might lose control of the organization.
 Lack of Understanding: The user may not understand the benefits of the computer
system in their jobs. Thus this will create resistance since the computer will be looked
upon as an intruder.

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Governments are increasingly including the integration of ICT in education, enhancing
infrastructure, and training human resources into national policies in order to develop their
educational systems.
As mentioned in this report, different types of ICT-assisted instruction have their own strengths
and weaknesses. Several factors can influence which ICT tools countries choose to emphasise
in their national planning. The share of schools that offer different ICT will also depend on
economic, infrastructural (e.g. availability of electricity and Internet connectivity) and human
factors, such as teacher training and preparedness.
To some degree, countries will increasingly adopt newer forms of ICT, including computerassisted instruction (CAI)
and Internet-assisted instruction (IAI) to keep pace with the evolving
information society. Whether or not countries discontinue use of older forms of ICT, such as
radio-assisted instruction (RAI) and television-assisted instruction (TAI), is another decision that
should be given careful consideration given their potential for filling gaps when newer tools are
unavailable (e.g. CAI and IAI). Undoubtedly a myriad of factors will influence national planning
for ICT in education, but it is also noteworthy that the ICT landscape is becoming increasingly
blurry, given the growing tendency towards the convergence of ICT where computers,
especially connected via broadband, can provide an ever-widening array of possibilities for both
learning and teaching.

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