Basic Laser Principles: Leon Mupa

36ch_LaserGuide_f_v3.qxd 6/8/2005 11:16 AM Page 36.
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Basic Laser Principles
Lasers are devices that produce intense beams of light which For an electron to jump to a higher quantum state, the atom
are monochromatic, coherent, and highly collimated. The wavelength must receive energy from the outside world. This can happen through
(color) of laser light is extremely pure (monochromatic) when com- a variety of mechanisms such as inelastic or semielastic collisions
pared to other sources of light, and all of the photons (energy) that with other atoms and absorption of energy in the form of electro-
make up the laser beam have a fixed phase relationship (coherence) magnetic radiation (e.g., light). Likewise, when an electron drops
with respect to one another. Light from a laser typically has very from a higher state to a lower state, the atom must give off energy,
low divergence. It can travel over great distances or can be focused either as kinetic activity (nonradiative transitions) or as electro-
to a very small spot with a brightness which exceeds that of the magnetic radiation (radiative transitions). For the remainder of
sun. Because of these properties, lasers are used in a wide variety this discussion we will consider only radiative transitions.
of applications in all walks of life.
The basic operating principles of the laser were put forth PHOTONS AND ENERGY
by Charles Townes and Arthur Schalow from the Bell Telephone In the 1600s and 1700s, early in the modern study of light, there
Laboratories in 1958, and the first actual laser, based on a pink was a great controversy about light’s nature. Some thought that
ruby crystal, was demonstrated in 1960 by Theodor Maiman at light was made up of particles, while others thought that it was
Hughes Research Laboratories. Since that time, literally thousands made up of waves. Both concepts explained some of the behavior
of lasers have been invented (including the edible “Jello” laser), but of light, but not all. It was finally determined that light is made up
only a much smaller number have found practical applications in of particles called “photons” which exhibit both particle-like and
scientific, industrial, commercial, and military applications. The wave-like properties. Each photon has an intrinsic energy deter-
helium neon laser (the first continuous-wave laser), the semicon- mined by the equation
Introduction to Laser Technology
ductor diode laser, and air-cooled ion lasers have found broad OEM
application. In recent years the use of diode-pumped solid-state E = hn (36.1)
(DPSS) lasers in OEM applications has been growing rapidly.
The term “laser” is an acronym for (L)ight (A)mplification by where n is the frequency of the light and h is Planck’s constant.
(S)timulated (E)mission of (R)adiation. To understand the laser, one Since, for a wave, the frequency and wavelength are related by the
needs to understand the meaning of these terms. The term “light” equation
is generally accepted to be electromagnetic radiation ranging from
1 nm to 1000 mm in wavelength. The visible spectrum (what we see) ln = c (36.2)
Leon mupa
ranges from approximately 400 to 700 nm. The wavelength range
from 700 nm to 10 mm is considered the near infrared (NIR), and where l is the wavelength of the light and c is the speed of light in
anything beyond that is the far infrared (FIR). Conversely, 200 to a vacuum, equation 36.1 can be rewritten as
400 nm is called ultraviolet (UV); below 200 nm is the deep ultra-
hc
violet (DUV). E= . (36.3)
To understand stimulated emission, we start with the Bohr atom. l
THE BOHR ATOM

In 1915, Neils Bohr proposed a model of the atom that explained
a wide variety of phenomena that were puzzling scientists in the
late 19th century. This simple model became the basis for the field
of quantum mechanics and, although not fully accurate by today’s 15 ionized continuum
understanding, still is useful for demonstrating laser principles. -
n=3
Energy (eV)
In Bohr’s model, shown in figure 36.1, electrons orbit the nucleus 10 1st excited state n=2
+ E1 E2 E3
of an atom. Unlike earlier “planetary” models, the Bohr atom has
a limited number of fixed orbits that are available to the electrons. 5
Under the right circumstances an electron can go from its ground
ground state
state (lowest-energy orbit) to a higher (excited) state, or it can decay 0 n=1
from a higher state to a lower state, but it cannot remain between
these states. The allowed energy states are called “quantum”
states and are referred to by the principal “quantum numbers” 1,
2, 3, etc. The quantum states are represented by an energy-level Figure 36.1 The Bohr atom and a simple energy-level
diagram. diagram
36.2 1 Introduction to Laser Technology OEM ASK ABOUT OUR CUSTOM CAPABILITIES
36ch_LaserGuide_f_v3.qxd 6/8/2005 11:16 AM Page 36.3
It is evident from this equation that the longer the wavelength

of the light, the lower the energy of the photon; consequently, ultra-
violet light is much more “energetic” than infrared light. -
Returning to the Bohr atom: for an atom to absorb light -
(i.e., for the light energy to cause an electron to move from a lower + E1 E2 + E1 E2
energy state En to a higher energy state Em), the energy of a single
photon must equal, almost exactly, the energy difference between
the two states. Too much energy or too little energy and the pho-
ton will not be absorbed. Consequently, the wavelength of that absorption
photon must be -
hc -
l=
DE + E1 E2 + E1 E2
where (36.4)
DE = E m − E n .
Likewise, when an electron decays to a lower energy level in a spontaneous emission

radiative transition, the photon of light given off by the atom must
also have an energy equal to the energy difference between the two -
states. -

+ E1 E2 + E1 E2
SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSION
In general, when an electron is in an excited energy state, it must
eventually decay to a lower level, giving off a photon of radiation.
This event is called “spontaneous emission,” and the photon is stimulated emission
emitted in a random direction and a random phase. The average time
it takes for the electron to decay is called the time constant for spon-
taneous emission, and is represented by t. Figure 36.2 Spontaneous and stimulated emission
On the other hand, if an electron is in energy state E2, and its
decay path is to E1, but, before it has a chance to spontaneously
decay, a photon happens to pass by whose energy is approximately
E24E1, there is a probability that the passing photon will cause the
electron to decay in such a manner that a photon is emitted at
exactly the same wavelength, in exactly the same direction, and
with exactly the same phase as the passing photon. This process is ne
n zo
ssio
called “stimulated emission.” Absorption, spontaneous emission,
ed emi
and stimulated emission are illustrated in figure 36.2. ulat
stim
Now consider the group of atoms shown in figure 36.3: all begin
in exactly the same excited state, and most are effectively within
the stimulation range of a passing photon. We also will assume
that t is very long, and that the probability for stimulated emission
is 100 percent. The incoming (stimulating) photon interacts with the
stim
first atom, causing stimulated emission of a coherent photon; these ulat
ed e
two photons then interact with the next two atoms in line, and the mis
sion
zon
result is four coherent photons, on down the line. At the end of the e
process, we will have eleven coherent photons, all with identical TIME
phases and all traveling in the same direction. In other words, the
initial photon has been “amplified” by a factor of eleven. Note that excited decayed via decayed via
the energy to put these atoms in excited states is provided exter- spontaneous emission stimulated emission
nally by some energy source which is usually referred to as the
“pump” source.
Figure 36.3 Amplification by stimulated emission
OEM ASK ABOUT OUR CUSTOM CAPABILITIES Introduction to Laser Technology 1 36.3
Of course, in any real population of atoms, the probability

for stimulated emission is quite small. Furthermore, not all of the pumping process
atoms are usually in an excited state; in fact, the opposite is true.
Boltzmann’s principle, a fundamental law of thermodynamics,
states that, when a collection of atoms is at thermal equilibrium, the E4
relative population of any two energy levels is given by
quantum energy levels

N2 ⎛ E − E1 ⎞
= exp ⎜ − 2 ⎟ (36.5)
}
N1 ⎝ kT ⎠ E3
laser
action population
where N2 and N1 are the populations of the upper and lower
inversion
energy states, respectively, T is the equilibrium temperature, and k
E2
is Boltzmann’s constant. Substituting hn for E24E1 yields
DN ≡ N1 − N 2 = (1 − e − hv / kT ) N1. (36.6)
For a normal population of atoms, there will always be more

atoms in the lower energy levels than in the upper ones. Since the ground
probability for an individual atom to absorb a photon is the same as energy level
E1
the probability for an excited atom to emit a photon via stimulated
emission, the collection of real atoms will be a net absorber, not a

net emitter, and amplification will not be possible. Consequently,
level populations
to make a laser, we have to create a “population inversion.”
Figure 36.4 A four-level laser pumping system
POPULATION INVERSION
Atomic energy states are much more complex than indicated
by the description above. There are many more energy levels, and
each one has its own time constants for decay. The four-level energy
diagram shown in figure 36.4 is representative of some real lasers.
The electron is pumped (excited) into an upper level E4 by some
mechanism (for example, a collision with another atom or absorp- excitation
tion of high-energy radiation). It then decays to E3, then to E2, and mechanism
finally to the ground state E1. Let us assume that the time it takes
to decay from E2 to E1 is much longer than the time it takes to
decay from E2 to E1. In a large population of such atoms, at equi- partial high
lasing medium
librium and with a continuous pumping process, a population inver- reflector reflector
sion will occur between the E3 and E2 energy states, and a photon
entering the population will be amplified coherently. resonator support structure
THE RESONATOR
Although with a population inversion we have the ability to
amplify a signal via stimulated emission, the overall single-pass
Figure 36.5 Schematic diagram of a basic laser
gain is quite small, and most of the excited atoms in the population
emit spontaneously and do not contribute to the overall output. To
turn this system into a laser, we need a positive feedback mechanism Now consider the laser system shown in figure 36.5. The lasing
that will cause the majority of the atoms in the population to con- medium is pumped continuously to create a population inversion
tribute to the coherent output. This is the resonator, a system of at the lasing wavelength. As the excited atoms start to decay, they
mirrors that reflects undesirable (off-axis) photons out of the sys- emit photons spontaneously in all directions. Some of the photons
tem and reflects the desirable (on-axis) photons back into the excited travel along the axis of the lasing medium, but most of the pho-
population where they can continue to be amplified. tons are directed out the sides. The photons traveling along the axis
have an opportunity to stimulate atoms they encounter to emit Finally, to get the light out of the system, one of the mirrors is
photons, but the ones radiating out the sides do not. Furthermore, has a partially transmitting coating that couples out a small per-
the photons traveling parallel to the axis will be reflected back into centage of the circulating photons. The amount of coupling depends
the lasing medium and given the opportunity to stimulate more on the characteristics of the laser system and varies from a frac-
excited atoms. As the on-axis photons are reflected back and forth tion of a percent for helium neon lasers to 50 percent or more for
interacting with more and more atoms, spontaneous emission high-power lasers.
decreases, stimulated emission along the axis predominates, and
we have a laser.
Practical Optical Coatings

In the design of a real-world laser, the optical res- availability of “super-polished” mirror substrates has
onator is often the most critical component, and, led to significant gains in laser performance. Like-
particularly for low-gain lasers, the most critical com- wise, ion-beam sputtering and next-generation
ponents of the resonator are the mirrors themselves. ion-assisted ion deposition has increased the packing
The difference between a perfect mirror coating density of laser coatings, thereby reducing absorp-
(the optimum transmission and reflection with no tion, increasing damage thresholds, and enabling the
scatter or absorption losses) and a real-world coating, use of new and exotic coating materials.

capable of being produced in volume, can mean a
50-percent (or greater) drop in output power from
the theoretical maximum. Consider the 543-nm
green helium neon laser line. It was first observed in
the laboratory in 1970, but, owing to its extremely
low gain, the mirror fabrication and coating technol-
ogy of the day was incapable of producing a suffi-
ciently loss-free mirror that was also durable. Not
until the late 1990s had the mirror coating technol-
ogy improved sufficiently that these lasers could be
offered commercially in large volumes.
The critical factors for a mirror, other than transmis-

sion and reflection, are scatter, absorption, stress, sur-
face figure, and damage resistance. Coatings with
low damage thresholds can degrade over time and
cause output power to drop significantly. Coatings
with too much mechanical stress not only can cause
significant power loss, but can also induce stress bire-
fringence, which can result in altered polarization
and phase relationships. The optical designer must
take great care when selecting the materials for the
coating layers and the substrate to ensure that the
mechanical, optical, and environmental characteris-
tics are suitable for the application.
The equipment used for both substrate polishing and

optical coating is a critical factor in the end result.
Coating scatter is a major contributor to power loss.
Scatter arises primarily from imperfections and inclu-
sions in the coating, but also from minute imperfec-
tions in the substrate. Over the last few years, the
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Propagation Characteristics
of Laser Beams
BEAM WAIST AND DIVERGENCE This value is the far-field angular radius (half-angle divergence)
Diffraction causes light waves to spread transversely as they of the Gaussian TEM00 beam. The vertex of the cone lies at the
propagate, and it is therefore impossible to have a perfectly collimated center of the waist (see figure 36.6).
beam. The spreading of a laser beam is in accord with the predic- It is important to note that, for a given value of l, variations of
tions of diffraction theory. Under ordinary circumstances, the beam beam diameter and divergence with distance z are functions of a sin-
spreading can be so small it can go unnoticed. The following for- gle parameter, w0, the beam waist radius.
mulas accurately describe beam spreading, making it easy to see the
capabilities and limitations of laser beams. The notation is consis- NEAR-FIELD VS. FAR-FIELD DIVERGENCE
tent with much of the laser literature, particularly with Siegman’s Unlike conventional light beams, Gaussian beams do not diverge
excellent Lasers (University Science Books). linearly, as can be seen in figure 36.6. Near the laser, the divergence
Even if a Gaussian TEM00 laser-beam wavefront were made angle is extremely small; far from the laser, the divergence angle
perfectly flat at some plane, with all rays there moving in precisely approaches the asymptotic limit described in equation 36.11 above.
parallel directions, it would acquire curvature and begin spread- The Raleigh range (zR), defined as _the distance over which the
ing in accordance with beam radius spreads by a factor of √2, is given by
⎡ ⎛ pw2 ⎞ 2 ⎤ pw02
R ( z ) = z ⎢1 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎥ zR = . (36.12)
⎢ ⎝ lz ⎠ ⎥ (36.7) l
⎣ ⎦
The Raleigh range is the dividing line between near-field diver-
and
gence and mid-range divergence. Far-field divergence (the number
1/ 2
⎡ ⎛ lz ⎞ 2⎤ quoted in laser specifications) must be measured at a point >zR
w ( z ) = w0 ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎥ (36.8)
⎢ ⎝ p w02 ⎟⎠ ⎥
(usually 10zR will suffice). This is a very important distinction
⎣ ⎦ because calculations for spot size and other parameters in an opti-
cal train will be inaccurate if near- or mid-field divergence values
where z is the distance propagated from the plane where the wave- are used. For a tightly focused beam, the distance from the waist
front is flat, l is the wavelength of light, w0 is the radius of the 1/e2 (the focal point) to the far field can be a few millimeters or less. For
irradiance contour at the plane where the wavefront is flat, w(z) is beams coming directly from the laser, the far-field distance can be
the radius of the 1/e2 contour after the wave has propagated a dis- measured in meters.
tance z, and R(z) is the wavefront radius of curvature after propa-
gating a distance z. R(z) is infinite at z = 0, passes through a minimum
at some finite z, and rises again toward infinity as z is further
increased, asymptotically approaching the value of z itself.
The plane z = 0 marks the location of a beam waist, or a place
1
where the wavefront is flat, and w0 is called the beam waist radius. w e2
irradiance surface
The irradiance distribution of the Gaussian TEM00 beam, w0 cone
p totic
namely, asym
w0 v
−2 r 2 / w 2 2P −2r 2 / w 2
I ( r ) = I 0e = e , (36.9) z
pw 2 w0
where w = w(z) and P is the total power in the beam, is the same at
all cross sections of the beam. The invariance of the form of the
Figure 36.6 Growth in beam diameter as a function of
distribution is a special consequence of the presumed Gaussian
distance from the beam waist
distribution at z = 0. Simultaneously, as R(z) asymptotically
approaches z for large z, w(z) asymptotically approaches the value
lz LOCATING THE BEAM WAIST
w (z) = (36.10)
p w0 For a Gaussian laser beam, the location (and radius) of the
beam waist is determined uniquely by the radius of curvature
where z is presumed to be much larger than pw02/l so that the 1/e2
and optical spacing of the laser cavity mirrors because, at the reflect-
irradiance contours asymptotically approach a cone of angular
ing surfaces of the cavity mirrors, the radius of curvature of the
radius
propagating beam is exactly the same as that of the mirrors. Con-
w (z) l
v= = . (36.11) sequently, for the flat/curved cavity shown in figure 36.7 (a), the
z p w0
beam waist is located at the surface of the flat mirror. For a sym- are considered positive, while those that are convex are considered
metric cavity (b), the beam waist is halfway between the mirrors; for negative.)
non-symmetric cavities (c and d), the beam waist is located by using In any case but that of a flat output mirror, the beam waist is
the equation refracted as it passes through the mirror substrate. If the output
coupler’s second surface is flat, the effective waist of the refracted
L (R2 − L )
z1 = beam is moved toward the output coupler and is reduced in diam-
R1 + R2 − 2L eter. However, by applying a spherical correction to the second sur-
(36.13)
and face of the output coupler, the location of the beam waist can be
z1 + z2 = L moved to the output coupler itself, increasing the beam waist diam-
eter and reducing far-field divergence. (See Calculating a Correct-
where L is the effective mirror spacing, R1 and R2 are the radii of ing Surface.)
curvature of the cavity mirrors, and z1 and z2 are the distances from It is useful, particularly when designing laser cavities, to under-
the beam waist of mirrors 1 and 2, respectively. (Note that dis- stand the effect that mirror spacing has on the beam radius, both
tances are measured from the beam waist, and that, by conven- at the waist and at the curved mirror. Figure 36.8 plots equations
tion, mirror curvatures that are concave when viewed from the waist 36.7 and 36.8 as a function of R/z (curved mirror radius divided by
the mirror spacing). As the mirror spacing approaches the radius
of curvature of the mirror (R/z = 1), the beam waist decreases dra-
matically, and the beam radius at the curved mirror becomes very
250 large. On the other hand, as R/z becomes large, the beam radius at

R2 = ∞ R1 = 300
the waist and at the curved mirror are approximately the same.
a. CALCULATING A CORRECTING SURFACE

w0 = 0.15
w300 = 0.37 A laser beam is refracted as it passes through a curved output
mirror. If the mirror has a flat second surface, the waist of the
125 refracted beam moves closer to the mirror, and the divergence is
increased. To counteract this, laser manufacturers often put a radius
R2 = 300 R1 = 300 on the output coupler’s second surface to collimate the beam by mak-
ing a waist at the output coupler. This is illustrated by the case of
b. a typical helium neon laser cavity consisting of a flat high reflector
w0 = 0.17
w300 = 0.23
219 12
R2 = 600 R1 = 300
10
c.
w0 = 0.16
8
w300 = 0.31 curved mirror (wz)
w600 = 0.17 pw
lz 6
291 4
R2 = -100 flat mirror (w0)
R1 = 300 2
d.
w0 = 0.10 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
w-100 = 0.16
w600 = 0.59 Radius of Curved Mirror/Mirror Spacing (R/z)
dimensions in mm
Figure 36.7 Location of beam waist for common cavity Figure 36.8 Beam waist and output diameter as a func-
geometries tion of mirror radius and separation
and an output mirror with a radius of curvature of 20 cm sepa- It is important to note that this product is an invariant for trans-
rated by 15 cm. If the laser is operating at 633 nm, the beam waist mission of a beam through any normal, high-quality optical system
radius, beam radius at the output coupler, and beam half-angle (one that does not add aberrations to the beam wavefront). That is,
divergence are if a lens focuses the single mode beam to a smaller waist radius, the
convergence angle coming into the focus (and the divergence angle
w0 = 0.13 mm, w200 = 0.26 mm, and v = 1.5 mrad, emerging from it) will be larger than that of the unfocused beam in
the same ratio that the focal spot diameter is smaller: the product
respectively; however, with a flat second surface, the divergence is invariant.
nearly doubles to 2.8 mrad. Geometrical optics would give the focal For a real laser beam, we have
length of the lens formed by the correcting output coupler as 15 cm;
W0V = M 2l / p (36.16)
a rigorous calculation using Gaussian beam optics shows it should
be 15.1 cm. Using the lens-makers formula where W0 and V are the 1/e2 intensity waist radius and the far-field
half-divergence angle of the real laser beam, respectively. Here we
1 ⎛ 1 1⎞
= ( n − 1) ⎜ − ⎟ (36.14) have introduced the convention that upper case symbols are used
f ⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
for the mixed mode and lower case symbols for the fundamental
with the appropriate sign convention and assuming that n = 1.5, mode beam coming from the same resonator. The mixed-mode
we get a convex correcting curvature of approximately 5.5 cm. At beam radius W is M times larger than the fundamental mode
this point, the beam waist has been transferred to the output cou- radius at all propagation distances. Thus the waist radius is that
pler, with a radius of 0.26 mm, and the far-field half-angle divergence much larger, contributing the first factor of M in equation 36.16.
is reduced to 0.76 mrad, a factor of nearly 4. The second factor of M comes from the half-angle divergence,
Correcting surfaces are used primarily on output couplers whose which is also M times larger. The waist radius–divergence half-angle
radius of curvature is a meter or less. For longer radius output cou- product for the mixed mode beam also is an invariant, but is M2
plers, the refraction effects are less dramatic, and a correcting sec- larger. The fundamental mode beam has the smallest divergence
ond surface radius is unnecessary. allowed by diffraction for a beam of that waist radius. The factor
M2 is called the “times-diffraction-limit” number or (inverse) beam
HIGHER ORDER GAUSSIAN LASER BEAMS quality; a diffraction-limited beam has an M2 of unity.
In the real world, the truly 100-percent, single transverse mode, For a typical helium neon laser operating in TEM00 mode,
Gaussian laser beam (also called a pure or fundamental mode M2 < 1.05. Ion lasers typically have an M2 factor ranging from
beam) described by equations 36.7 and 36.8 is very hard to find. 1.1 to 1.7. For high-energy multimode lasers, the M2 factor can be
Low-power beams from helium neon lasers can be a close approx- as high as 30 or 40. The M2 factor describes the propagation char-
imation, but the higher the power of the laser, and the more com- acteristics (spreading rate) of the laser beam. It cannot be neglected
plex the excitation mechanism (e.g., transverse discharges, flash-lamp in the design of an optical train to be used with the beam. Trunca-
pumping), or the higher the order of the mode, the more the beam tion (aperturing) by an optic, in general, increases the M2 factor of
deviates from the ideal. the beam.
To address the issue of higher order Gaussian beams and mixed The propagation equations (analogous to equations 36.7 and
mode beams, a beam quality factor, M2, has come into general use. 36.8) for the mixed-mode beam W(z) and R(z) are as follows:
A mixed mode is one where several modes are oscillating in the res-
1/ 2
onator at the same time. A common example is the mixture of the ⎡ ⎛ zM 2l ⎞ 2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ z ⎞ 2⎤
W ( z ) = W0 ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎥ = W0 ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎥ (36.17)
⎢ ⎝ pW02 ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ZR ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
lowest order single transverse mode with the doughnut mode, before
the intracavity mode limiting aperture is critically set to select just ⎣ ⎦
the fundamental mode. Because all beams have some wavefront and
defects, which implies they contain at least a small admixture of ⎡ ⎛ pW 2 ⎞ 2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ Z ⎞ 2⎤
some higher order modes, a mixed mode beam is also called a “real” R ( z ) = z ⎢1 + ⎜ 0
⎟ ⎥ = z ⎢1 + ⎜ R ⎟ ⎥ . (36.18)
⎢⎣ ⎝ zM l ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎥⎦
2
laser beam.
For a theoretical single transverse mode Gaussian beam,
the value of the waist radius–divergence product is (from The Rayleigh range remains the same for a mixed mode laser
equation 36.11): beam:
pW02 pw02
w0v = l / p. (36.15) ZR = = = zR . (36.19)
M 2l l
Now consider the consequences in coupling a high M2 beam

into a fiber. Fiber coupling is a task controlled by the product of APPLICATION NOTE
the focal diameter (2Wf) and the focal convergence angle (vf). In the
tight focusing limit, the focal diameter is proportional to the focal
Stable vs Unstable Resonator Cavities
length f of the lens, and is inversely proportional to the diameter of A stable resonator cavity is defined as one that
the beam at the lens (i.e., 2Wf ∝ f/Dlens). self-focuses energy within the cavity back upon
The lens-to-focus distance is f, and, since f#vf is the beam itself to create the typical Gaussian modes found
diameter at distance f in the far field of the focus, Dlens ∝ fvf. Com- in most traditional lasers. The criterion for a stable
bining these proportionalities yields cavity is that
0 ≤ g1g2 ≤ 1
Wf vf = constant
where
L L
for the fiber-coupling problem as stated above. The diameter- g1 = 1 − and g2 = 1 −
divergence product for the mixed-mode beam is M2 larger than R1 R2
the fundamental mode beam in accordance with equations 36.15
and 36.16. where R1 and R2 are the radii of the cavity mirrors
There is a threefold penalty associated with coupling a beam and L is the mirror separation.
with a high M2 into a fiber: 1) the focal length of the focusing lens
The mode volumes of stable resonator cavities
must be a factor of 1/M2 shorter than that used with a fundamen-

are relatively small. This is fine when the
tal-mode beam to obtain the same focal diameter at the fiber; 2) the
excitation regions of a laser are also relatively
numerical aperture (NA) of the focused beam will be higher than
small, as is the case with a HeNe or DPSS laser.
that of the fundamental beam (again by a factor of 1/M2) and may
However, for large-format high-energy industrial
exceed the NA of the fiber; and 3) the depth of focus will be smaller
lasers, particularly those with high single-pass
by 1/M2 requiring a higher degree of precision and stability in the
gain, stable resonators can limit the output. In
optical alignment.
these cases, unstable resonators, like the one
shown in the illustration below, can generate
higher output with better mode quality. In this
case, the output coupling is determined by the
ratio of the diameters of the output and
high-reflecting mirrors, not the coating
reflectivity. In the near field, the output looks
like a doughnut, because the center of the beam
is occluded by the output mirror. At a focus,
however, the beam has most of the propagation
characteristics of a fundamental-mode stable
laser.
lasing medium
UNSTABLE RESONATOR
Unstable Resonator Design
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Transverse Modes and
Mode Control
The fundamental TEM00 mode is only one of many transverse
modes that satisfies the condition that it be replicated each round-trip
in the cavity. Figure 36.9 shows examples of the primary lower-order
Hermite-Gaussian (rectangular) modes.
Note that the subscripts m and n in the mode designation
TEMmn are correlated to the number of nodes in the x and y direc-
tions. The propagation equation can also be written in cylindrical
form in terms of radius (r) and angle (f). The eigenmodes (Erf) for
this equation are a series of axially symmetric modes, which, for TEM00 TEM01* TEM10
stable resonators, are closely approximated by Laguerre-Gaussian
functions, denoted by TEMrf. For the lowest-order mode, TEM00, Figure 36.10 Low-order axisymmetric resonator modes
the Hermite-Gaussian and Laguerre-Gaussian functions are iden-
tical, but for higher-order modes, they differ significantly, as shown intensity profile, low divergence, and ability to be focused to a dif-
in figure 36.10. fraction-limited spot, it is usually desirable to operate in the low-
The mode, TEM01*, also known as the “bagel” or “doughnut” est-order mode possible, TEM00. Lasers, however, tend to operate
mode, is considered to be a superposition of the Hermite- at the highest-order mode possible, either in addition to, or instead
Gaussian TEM10 and TEM01 modes, locked in phase and space of, TEM00 because the larger beam diameter may allow them to
quadrature. (See W.W. Rigrod, “Isolation of Axi-Symmetric extract more energy from the lasing medium.
Optical-Resonator Modes,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 2 The primary method for reducing the order of the lasing mode
(1 Feb. ‘63), pages 51–53.) is to add sufficient loss to the higher-order modes so that they can-
In real-world lasers, the Hermite-Gaussian modes predominate not oscillate without significantly increasing the losses at the desired
since strain, slight misalignment, or contamination on the optics lower-order mode. In most lasers this is accomplished by placing
tends to drive the system toward rectangular coordinates. Nonethe- a fixed or variable aperture inside the laser cavity. Because of the sig-
less, the Laguerre-Gaussian TEM10 “target” or “bulls-eye” mode nificant differences in beam diameter, the aperture can cause sig-
is clearly observed in well-aligned gas-ion and helium neon lasers nificant diffraction losses for the higher-order modes without
with the appropriate limiting apertures. impacting the lower-order modes. As an example, consider the case
of a typical argon-ion laser with a long-radius cavity and a variable
MODE CONTROL mode-selecting aperture.
The transverse modes for a given stable resonator have differ- When the aperture is fully open, the laser oscillates in the axi-
ent beam diameters and divergences. The lower the order of the ally symmetric TEM10 target mode. As the aperture is slowly
mode is, the smaller the beam diameter, the narrower the far-field reduced, the output changes smoothly to the TEM01* doughnut
divergence, and the lower the M2 value. For example, the TEM01* mode, and finally to the TEM00 fundamental mode.
doughnut mode is approximately 1.5 times the diameter of the fun- In many lasers, the limiting aperture is provided by the geome-
damental TEM00 mode, and the Laguerre TEM10 target mode is try of the laser itself. For example, by designing the cavity of a
twice the diameter of the TEM00 mode. The theoretical M2 values helium neon laser so that the diameter of the fundamental mode at
for the TEM00, TEM01*, and TEM10 modes are 1.0, 2.3, and 3.6, the end of the laser bore is approximately 60 percent of the bore
respectively (R. J. Freiberg et al., “Properties of Low Order diameter, the laser will naturally operate in the TEM00 mode.
Transverse Modes in Argon Ion Lasers”). Because of its smooth
TEM00 TEM01 TEM10 TEM11 TEM02
Figure 36.9 Low-order Hermite-Gaussian resonator modes
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Single Axial Longitudinal
Mode Operation
THEORY OF LONGITUDINAL MODES the fringes. This has a significant impact on the performance of a
In a laser cavity, the requirement that the field exactly laser system because, as vibration and temperature changes cause
reproduce itself in relative amplitude and phase each round-trip small changes in the cavity length, modes sweep back and forth
means that the only allowable laser wavelengths or frequencies are through the gain. A laser operating with only two or three longi-
given by tudinal modes can experience power fluctuations of 10% or more,
whereas a laser with ten or more longitudinal modes will see
P Nc mode-sweeping fluctuations of 2 percent or less.
l= or n = (36.20)
N P
where l is the laser wavelength, n is the laser frequency, c is the SELECTING A SINGLE LONGITUDINAL MODE
speed of light in a vacuum, N is an integer whose value is deter- A laser that operates with a single longitudinal mode is called
mined by the lasing wavelength, and P is the effective perimeter a single-frequency laser. There are two ways to force a conventional
optical path length of the beam as it makes one round-trip, taking two-mirror laser to operate with a single longitudinal mode. The first
into account the effects of the index of refraction. For a conventional is to design the laser with a short enough cavity that only a single
two-mirror cavity in which the mirrors are separated by optical mode can be sustained. For example, in the helium neon laser
length L, these formulas revert to the familiar described above, a 10-cm cavity would allow only one mode to
oscillate. This is not a practical approach for most gas lasers because,
2L Nc
l= or n = . (36.21) with the cavity short enough to suppress additional modes, there
N 2L may be insufficient energy in the lasing medium to sustain any las-
These allowable frequencies are referred to as longitudinal ing action at all, and if there is lasing, the output will be very low.

modes. The frequency spacing between adjacent longitudinal The second method is to introduce a frequency-control ele-
modes is given by ment, typically a low-finesse Fabry-Perot etalon, into the laser cav-
ity. The free spectral range of the etalon should be several times
c
Dn = . (36.22) the width of the gain curve, and the reflectivity of the surfaces
P
should be sufficient to provide 10 percent or greater loss at fre-
As can be seen from equation 36.22, the shorter the laser cav- quencies half a longitudinal mode spacing away from the etalon
ity is, the greater the mode spacing will be. By differentiating the peak. The etalon is mounted at a slight angle to the optical axis of
expression for n with respect to P we arrive at the laser to prevent parasitic oscillations between the etalon surfaces
and the laser cavity.
Nc Nc
dn = − dP or dn = − 2 dL. (36.23) Once the mode is selected, the challenge is to optimize and main-
P2 2L
tain its output power. Since the laser mode moves if the cavity length
Consequently, for a helium neon laser operating at 632.8 nm, with changes slightly, and the etalon pass band shifts if the etalon spac-
a cavity length of 25 cm, the mode spacing is approximately ing varies slightly, it important that both be stabilized. Various
600 MHz, and a 100-nm change in cavity length will cause a given mechanisms are used. Etalons can be passively stabilized by using
longitudinal mode to shift by approximately 190 MHz. zero-expansion spacers and thermally stabilized designs, or they
The number of longitudinal laser modes that are present in a laser can be thermally stabilized by placing the etalon in a precisely con-
depends primarily on two factors: the length of the laser cavity trolled oven. Likewise, the overall laser cavity can be passively sta-
and the width of the gain envelope of the lasing medium. For exam- bilized, or, alternatively, the laser cavity can be actively stabilized
ple, the gain of the red helium neon laser is centered at 632.8 nm and by providing a servomechanism to control cavity length, as dis-
has a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of approximately cussed in Frequency Stabilization.
1.4 GHz, meaning that, with a 25-cm laser cavity, only two or three
longitudinal modes can be present simultaneously, and a change in The Ring Laser: The discussions above are limited to two-
cavity length of less than one micron will cause a given mode to mirror standing-wave cavities. Some lasers operate naturally in a
“sweep” completely through the gain. Doubling the cavity length single longitudinal mode. For example, a ring laser cavity, (used in
doubles the number of oscillating longitudinal modes that can fit many dye and Ti:Sapphire lasers as well as in gyroscopic lasers)
under the gain curve doubles. that has been constrained to oscillate in only one direction pro-
The gain of a gas-ion laser (e.g., argon or krypton) is approxi- duces a traveling wave without the fixed nodes of the standing-wave
mately five times broader than that of a helium neon laser, and the laser. The traveling wave sweeps through the laser gain, utilizing
cavity spacing is typically much greater, allowing many more modes all of the available energy and preventing the buildup of adjacent
to oscillate simultaneously. modes. Other lasers are “homogeneously broadened” allowing vir-
A mode oscillating at a frequency near the peak of the gain will tually instantaneous transfer of energy from one portion of the
extract more energy from the gain medium than one oscillating at gain curve to another.
FREQUENCY STABILIZATION figure. If the laser frequency increases, the ratio of attenuated power
The frequency output of a single-longitudinal-mode laser is sta- to reference power increases. If the laser frequency decreases, the
bilized by precisely controlling the laser cavity length. This can be ratio decreases. In other words, the etalon is used to create a fre-
accomplished passively by building an athermalized resonator quency discriminant that converts changes in frequency to changes
structure and carefully controlling the laser environment to elimi- in power. By “locking” the discriminant ratio at a specific value
nate expansion, contraction, and vibration, or actively by using a (e.g., 50 percent) and providing negative feedback to the device
mechanism to determine the frequency (either relatively or used to control cavity length, output frequency can be controlled.
absolutely) and quickly adjusting the laser cavity length to main- If the frequency increases from the preset value, the length of the
tain the frequency within the desired parameters. laser cavity is increased to drive the frequency back to the set point.
A typical stabilization scheme is shown in figure 36.11. A por- If the frequency decreases, the cavity length is decreased. The
tion of the laser output beam is directed into a low-finesse response time of the control electronics is determined by the char-
Fabry-Perot etalon and tuned to the side of the transmission band. acteristics of the laser system being stabilized.
The throughput is compared to a reference beam, as shown in the Other techniques can be used to provide a discriminant. One
common method used to provide an ultrastable, long-term refer-
ence is to replace the etalon with an absorption cell and stabilize the
system to the saturated center of an appropriate transition. Another
method, shown in figure 36.12, is used with commercial helium
reference neon lasers. It takes advantage of the fact that, for an internal mir-
detector
ror tube, the adjacent modes are orthogonally polarized. The cav-
ity length is designed so that two modes can oscillate under the
signal gain curve. The two modes are separated outside the laser by a
detector etalon
polarization-sensitive beamsplitter. Stabilizing the relative ampli-
tude of the two beams stabilizes the frequency of both beams.
The cavity length changes needed to stabilize the laser cavity
are very small. In principle, the maximum adjustment needed is
pick-off that required to sweep the frequency through one free spectral range
beamsplitter
of the laser cavity (the cavity mode spacing). For the helium neon
length-tunable laser laser cavity described earlier, the required change is only 320 nm,
cavity
length well within the capability of piezoelectric actuators.
control Commercially available systems can stabilize frequency output
to 1 MHz or less. Laboratory systems that stabilize the frequency
Figure 36.11 Laser frequency stabilization scheme to a few kilohertz have been developed.
comparator
control
electronics
horizontal vertical
polarization polarization
reference reference
beam beam
high reflecting
mirror HeNe laser discharge tube
adjustable cavity spacer output coupler
Figure 36.12 Frequency stabilization for a helium neon laser
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Frequency and Amplitude
Fluctuations
The output of a freely oscillating laser will fluctuate in both
amplitude and frequency. Fluctuations of less than 0.1 Hz are com-
monly referred to as “drift”; faster fluctuations are termed “noise” laser output
or, when talking about sudden frequency shifts, “jitter.” laser
The major sources of noise in a laser are fluctuations in the
pumping source and changes in length or alignment caused by
vibration, stress, and changes in temperature. For example, unfil-
tered line ripple can cause output fluctuations of 5 to 10 percent or
more. feedback circuit
Likewise, a 10-mrad change in alignment can cause a
10-percent variation in output power, and, depending upon the power circuit
laser, a 1-mm change in length can cause amplitude fluctuations
of up to 50 percent (or more) and frequency fluctuations of sev- power supply/controller
eral gigahertz.
High-frequency noise (>1 MHz) is caused primarily by “mode
beating.” Transverse Laguerre-Gaussian modes of adjacent order
Figure 36.13 Automatic current control schematic
are separated by a calculable fraction of the longitudinal mode
spacing, typically ~17 MHz in a 1-m resonator with long radius mir-
rors. If multiple transverse modes oscillate simultaneously, hetero- is diverted to a photodetector, as shown in figure 36.14, and the

dyne interference effects, or “beats,” will be observed at the difference voltage generated by the detector circuitry is compared to a refer-
frequencies. Likewise, mode beating can occur between longitudi- ence. As output power fluctuates, the sensing circuitry generates
nal modes at frequencies of an error signal that is used to make the appropriate corrections to
c c maintain constant output.
Dn longitudinal = = . (36.24)
2L 2P Automatic current control effectively reduces amplitude fluc-
tuations caused by the driving electronics, but it has no effect on
Mode beating can cause peak-to-peak power fluctuations of amplitude fluctuations caused by vibration or misalignment. Auto-
several percent. The only way to eliminate this noise component is matic power control can effectively reduce power fluctuations from
to limit the laser output to a single transverse and single longitu- all sources. Neither of these control mechanisms has a large impact
dinal mode. on frequency stability.
Finally, when all other sources of noise have been eliminated, we Not all continuous-wave lasers are amenable to APC as described
are left with quantum noise, the noise generated by the sponta- above. For the technique to be effective, there must be a monoto-
neous emission of photons from the upper laser level in the lasing nic relationship between output power and a controllable para-
medium. In most applications, this is inconsequential. meter (typically current or voltage). For example, throughout the
typical operating range of a gas-ion laser, an increase in current
METHODS FOR SUPPRESSING
will increase the output power and vice versa. This is not the case
AMPLITUDE NOISE AND DRIFT
for some lasers. The output of a helium neon laser is very insensi-
Two primary methods are used to stabilize amplitude fluctua- tive to discharge current, and an increase in current may increase
tions in commercial lasers: automatic current control (ACC), also or decrease laser output. In a helium cadmium laser, where elec-
known as current regulation, and automatic power control (APC), trophoresis determines the density and uniformity of cadmium
also known as light regulation. In ACC, the current driving the ions throughout the discharge, a slight change in discharge current
pumping process passes through a stable sensing resistor, as shown in either direction can effectively kill lasing action.
in figure 36.13, and the voltage across this resistor is monitored. If If traditional means of APC are not suitable, the same result
the current through the resistor increases, the voltage drop across can be obtained by placing an acousto-optic modulator inside the
the resistor increases proportionately. Sensing circuitry compares laser cavity and using the error signal to control the amount of cir-
this voltage to a reference and generates an error signal that causes culating power ejected from the cavity.
the power supply to reduce the output current appropriately. If the One consideration that is often overlooked in an APC system
current decreases, the inverse process occurs. ACC is an effective way is the geometry of the light pickoff mechanism itself. One’s first
to reduce noise generated by the power supply, including line rip- instinct is to insert the pickoff optic into the main beam at a 45-degree
ple and fluctuations. angle, so that the reference beam exits at a 90-degree angle. How-
With APC, instead of monitoring the voltage across a sens- ever, as shown in figure 36.15, for uncoated glass, there is almost a
ing resistor, a small portion of the output power in the beam 10-percent difference in reflectivity for s and p polarization.
APPLICATION NOTE
laser head Measuring Frequency Stability

laser output
laser The accepted method of measuring long-term
beam sampler frequency stability is to heterodyne the laser to
amplifier
lphotodetector be tested with another laser of equal or greater
stability. By observing the variation of the
resulting beat frequencies, the combined drift of
feedback circuit the two lasers can be measured. The results will
be no better than the sum of the two instabilities
power supply/controller and will, therefore, provide a conservative
measure of frequency drift.
In the charts below, a Melles Griot

frequency-stabilized HeNe was hetrodyned with
Figure 36.14 Automatic power control schematic the output from a Zeeman-stabilized laser. The
charts show the performance over one minute
and over an eight-hour typical workday. The laser
In a randomly polarized laser, the ratio of the s and p compo-
can be cycled over a 20°C temperature range

nents is not necessarily stable, and using a 90-degree reference beam without mode hopping.
can actually increase amplitude fluctuations. This is of much less
concern in a laser with a high degree of linear polarization (e.g.,
INTENSITY FREQUENCY
+1
500:1 or better), but even then there is a slight presence of the
(MHz)
0
orthogonal polarization. Good practice dictates that the pickoff ele- -1
ment be inserted at an angle of 25 degrees or less. 60 seconds
+0.2
(%)
0
-0.2
TIME
+1
FREQUENCY
(MHz)
100 0
-1
90
8 hours
INTENSITY
+0.2
80
(%)
0
-0.2
70 TIME
PERCENT REFLECTANCE
60
s-plane Short- and long-term frequency stability of an
50 05 STP 901 stabilized helium neon laser
p-plane
40
30
20
10 vp
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IN DEGREES
Figure 36.15 Reflectivity of a glass surface vs. incidence

angle for s and p polarization
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Tunable Operation
Many lasers can operate at more than one wavelength. Argon

and krypton lasers can operate at discrete wavelengths ranging
from the ultraviolet to the near infrared. Dye lasers can be con-
tinuously tuned over a spectrum of wavelengths determined by the
fluorescence bandwidths of the specific dyes (typically about
150 nm). Alexandrite and titanium sapphire lasers can be tuned output coupler
plasma tube
continuously over specific spectral regions. Littrow prism
To create a tunable laser, the cavity coatings must be sufficiently
broadband to accommodate the entire tuning range, and a vari-
able-wavelength tuning element must be introduced into the cavity, Figure 36.16 Littrow prism used to select a single wave-
either between the cavity optics or replacing the high-reflecting length
optic, to introduce loss at undesired wavelengths.
Three tuning mechanisms are in general use: Littrow prisms,
diffraction gratings, and birefringent filters. Littrow prisms (see
figure 36.16) and their close relative, the full-dispersing prism, are
used extensively with gas lasers that operate at discrete wavelengths.
In its simplest form, the Littrow prism is a 30-60-90-degree prism
with the surface opposite the 60-degree angle coated with a broad-
band high-reflecting coating. The prism is oriented so that the

desired wavelength is reflected back along the optical axis, and the
other wavelengths are dispersed off axis. By rotating the prism the
retroreflected wavelength can be changed. In laser applications,
the prism replaces the high-reflecting mirror, and the prism’s
angles are altered (typically to 34, 56, and 90 degrees) to minimize
intracavity losses by having the beam enter the prism exactly at
Brewster’s angle. For higher-power lasers which require greater
dispersion to separate closely spaced lines, the Littrow prism can
be replaced by a full-dispersing prism coupled with a high reflect-
ing mirror.
Prism-tunable-ion laser
Gratings are used for laser systems that require a higher degree
of dispersion than that of a full-dispersing prism.
Birefringent filters have come into general use for continuously
tunable dye and Ti:Sapphire lasers, since they introduce signifi-
cantly lower loss than do gratings. The filter is made from a thin,
crystalline-quartz plate with its fast axis oriented in the plane of
the plate. The filter, placed at Brewster’s angle in the laser beam, acts
like a weak etalon with a free spectral range wider than the gain curve
of the lasing medium. Rotating the filter around the normal to its
face shifts the transmission bands, tuning the laser. Since there are
no coatings and the filter is at Brewster’s angle (thereby polarizing
the laser), there are no inherent cavity reflection losses at the peak
of the transmission band. A single filter does not have as significant
a line-narrowing effect as does a grating, but this can be overcome
by stacking multiple filter plates together, with each successive plate
having a smaller free spectral range.
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Types of Lasers
Since the discovery of the laser, literally thousands of types of the mirrors are external to the container, and light enters and exits
lasers have been discovered. As Arthur Shawlow is purported to have the chamber through Brewster’s windows or extremely low-loss
said, “Hit it hard enough and anything will lase.” However, only a antireflection-coated normal windows. Because most gas-discharge
relative few of these lasers have found broadly based, practical lasers are operated at extremely low pressures, a getter is needed
applications. to remove the impurities generated by outgassing in the walls of
Lasers can be broadly classified into four categories: gas dis- the container or by erosion of the electrodes and bore caused by the
charge lasers, semiconductor diode lasers, optically pumped lasers, discharge. The Brewster’s window is used to linearly polarize the out-
and “other,” a category which includes chemical lasers, gas-dynam- put of the laser.
ics lasers, x-ray lasers, combustion lasers, and others developed pri- The most common types of gas-discharge lasers are helium neon
marily for military applications. These lasers are not discussed lasers, helium cadmium lasers (a metal-vapor laser), noble-gas ion
further here. lasers (argon, krypton), carbon-dioxide lasers, and the excimer-laser
family. Each of these will be discussed briefly below.
GAS-DISCHARGE LASERS
In principle, gas-discharge lasers are inherently simple—fill a Helium Neon Lasers
container with gas, put some mirrors around it, and strike a dis- The helium neon (HeNe) laser, shown in figure 36.17, the sec-
charge. In practice, they are much more complex because the gas ond laser to be discovered, was the first to be used in volume appli-
mix, discharge parameters, and container configuration must be cations. Today, millions of these lasers are in the field, and only
specifically and carefully designed to create the proper conditions semiconductor diode lasers are sold in greater quantity.
for a population inversion. Furthermore, careful consideration The HeNe laser operates in a high-voltage (kV), low-current
must be given to how the discharge will react with its container and (mA) glow discharge. Its most familiar output wavelength is 633 nm
with the laser optics. Finally, since the temperature of the gas can (red), but HeNe lasers are also available with output at 543 nm
affect the discharge conditions, questions of cooling must be (green), 594 nm (yellow), 612 nm (orange), and 1523 nm (near
addressed. infrared). Output power is low, ranging from a few tenths to tens
Figure 36.17 below shows a cutaway of a helium neon laser, one of milliwatts, depending on the wavelength and size of the laser
of the simplest gas-discharge lasers. An electrical discharge is struck tube.
between the anode and cathode. The laser bore confines the dis- Helium is the major constituent (85 percent) of the gas mixture,
charge, creating the current densities needed to create the inver- but it is the neon component that is the actual lasing medium. The
sion. In this example, the laser mirrors are mounted to the ends of glow discharge pumps the helium atoms to an excited state that
the tube and are effectively part of the gas container. In other cases, closely matches the upper energy levels of the neon atoms.
cathode connection through housing

precision mirror adjustment
metallic spider for bore centration
optional Brewster's window
for linear polarization
getter gas reservoir high-reflecting mirror
glass to metal seals bore current-regulated

power supply
collimating output mirror
output beam coaxial with short anode lead and potted ballast
cylindrical housing for low anode capacitance
Figure 36.17 Typical HeNe laser construction
This energy is then transferred to the neon atoms via collisions of Noble-Gas Ion Lasers
the second kind (i.e., exciting the neon to a higher energy level as The noble-gas ion lasers (argon-ion and krypton-ion), have been
opposed to transferring the energy as kinetic motion). One char- the mainstay of applications requiring high cw power in the visible,
acteristic of the glow discharge is its negative impedance (i.e., increas- ultraviolet, and near-infrared spectral regions. High-power
ing the voltage decreases the current); consequently, to function water-cooled systems can be found in research laboratories around
with a standard current-regulated power supply, a ballast resistor the world; lower-power air-cooled systems are used in a wide vari-
must be used in series with the laser to make the overall impedance ety of OEM applications. Argon-ion lasers are available with out-
positive. put up to 7 W in the ultraviolet (333–354 nm) and 25 W or more
The popularity (and longevity) of the HeNe laser is based on five in the visible regions (454–515 nm), with primary output at 488 nm
factors: they are (relative to other lasers) small and compact; they (blue) and 514 nm (green). Krypton-ion lasers have their primary
have the best inherent beam quality of any laser, producing a vir- output at 568 nm (yellow), 647 nm (red), and 752 nm (near infrared).
tually pure single transverse mode beam (M2 < 1.05); they are Mixed-gas lasers combine both argon and krypton to produce
extremely long lived, with many examples of an operating life of lasers with a wider spectral coverage.
50,000 hours or more; they generate relatively little heat and are Unlike the HeNe laser, ion lasers operate with a high-intensity
convection cooled easily in OEM packages; and they have a rela- low-pressure arc discharge (low voltage, high current). A 20-W vis-
tively low acquisition and operating cost. ible laser will require 10 kW or more power input, virtually all of
which is deposited in the laser head as heat which must be removed
Helium Cadmium Lasers from the system by some cooling mechanism. Furthermore, the
Helium cadmium (HeCd) lasers are, in many respects, similar current densities in the bore, which can be as high as 105A/cm2,

to the HeNe laser with the exception that cadmium metal, the las- place large stresses on the bore materials.
ing medium, is solid at room temperature. The HeCd laser is a rel- Ion lasers can be broken into two groups: high-power (1–20= W)
atively economical, cw source for violet (442 nm) and ultraviolet water-cooled lasers and low-power air-cooled lasers. Both are shown
(325 nm) output. Because of its excellent wavelength match to schematically in figure 36.19.
photopolymer and film sensitivity ranges, it is used extensively for The main features of both lasers are the same. Both use a coiled,
three-dimensional stereolithography and holographic applications. directly-heated dispenser cathode to supply the current; both have
As mentioned above, cadmium, a metal, is solid at room tem- a gas return path that counteracts gas pumping (non-uniform gas
perature. For lasing to occur, the metal must be evaporated from a
reservoir, as shown in figure 36.18, and then the vapor must be
distributed uniformly down the laser bore. This is accomplished fins for air cooling
solid BeO bore thermionic
through a process called electrophoresis. Because cadmium will
anode cathode
plate out on a cool surface, extreme care must be taken in the design
of the laser to contain the cadmium and to protect the optics and
windows from contamination, since even a slight film will intro-
duce sufficient losses to stop lasing. The end of life usually occurs internal
when cadmium is depleted from its reservoir. mirrors
AIR-COOLED ION LASER
brewster window external

cadmium reservoir cataphoretic anode mirrors
heater Brewster's
thermionic angle windows
cathode external solenoid
bore (electromagnet)
disc bore structure
anode
bore support cadmium
main anode water-cooling path thermionic
trap
cathode
helium pump
HIGH-POWER WATER-COOLED ION LASER
Figure 36.18 Construction of a HeCd laser Figure 36.19 Air-cooled and water-cooled ion lasers
pressure throughout the length of the tube caused by the charged

particles moving toward the electrodes).
The bore of an air-cooled system is always made of beryllium
oxide (BeO), a ceramic known for its ability to conduct heat. A fin electrode
structure is attached to the outside of the ceramic bore, and a blower laminar flow
removes the generated heat, typically less than 1 kW. discharge region
Water-cooled systems are available with either BeO bores or a electrode
construction wherein tungsten discs are attached to a thin-walled
ceramic tube surrounded by a water jacket. The heat from the discs
is conducted through the walls of the tube to the surrounding water.
The entire bore structure is surrounded by a solenoid electromag-
net, which compresses the discharge to increase current density
and minimize bore erosion.
The main life-limiting factors in ion lasers are cathode depletion
and gas consumption. The intense discharge drives atoms into the cooling coils
walls of the discharge tube where they are lost to the discharge.
Over time the tube pressure will decrease, causing the discharge to blower
become unstable. This is particularly a problem with krypton-ion
lasers. Water-cooled systems typically have some refill mechanism
to keep the pressure constant. Air-cooled systems typically do not,

limiting their practical operating life to approximately 5000 oper-
Figure 36.20 Schematics of transverse flow CO2 laser
ating hours.
system
Carbon Dioxide Lasers
excited state. These lasers, which are available only as pulsed lasers,
Because of their ability to produce very high power with rela-
produce intense output in the ultraviolet and deep ultraviolet. The
tive efficiency, carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers are used primarily for
lasers in this family are XeFl (351 nm), XeCl (308 nm),
materials-processing applications. The standard output of these
KrF (248 nm), KrCl (222 nm), ArF (193 nm), and F2 (157 nm). They
lasers is at 10.6 mm, and output power can range from less than
are used extensively in photolithography, micromachining, and
1 W to more than 10 kW.
medical (refractive eye surgery) applications.
Unlike atomic lasers, CO2 lasers work with molecular transi-
At first glance, the construction of an excimer laser is very sim-
tions (vibrational and rotational states) which lie at low enough
ilar to that of a transverse-flow, pulsed CO2 laser. However, the
energy levels that they can be populated thermally, and an increase
major difference is that the gases in the system are extremely cor-
in the gas temperature, caused by the discharge, will cause a decrease
rosive and great care must be taken in the selection and passivation
in the inversion level, reducing output power. To counter this effect,
of materials to minimize their corrosive effects. A system built for
high-power cw CO2 lasers use flowing gas technology to remove hot
CO2 would fail in minutes, if not seconds.
gas from the discharge region and replace it with cooled (or cooler)
The principal advantage of an excimer laser is its very short
gas. With pulsed CO2 lasers that use transverse excitation, the prob-
wavelength. The excimer output beam can be focused to a spot
lem is even more severe, because, until the heated gas between the
diameter that is approximately 40 times smaller than the CO2 laser
electrodes is cooled, a new discharge pulse cannot form properly.
beam with the same beam quality. Furthermore, whereas the long
A variety of types of CO2 lasers are available. High-power pulsed
CO2 wavelength removes material thermally via evaporation (boil-
and cw lasers typically use a transverse gas flow with fans which
ing off material), the excimer lasers with wavelengths near 200 nm
move the gas through a laminar-flow discharge region, into a cool-
remove material via ablation (breaking molecules apart), without
ing region, and back again (see figure 36.20). Low-power lasers
any thermal damage to the surrounding material.
most often use waveguide structures, coupled with radio-frequency
excitation, to produce small, compact systems.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE LASERS
Excimer Lasers The means of generating optical gain in a diode laser, the recom-
The term excimer or “excited dimer” refers to a molecular com- bination of injected holes and electrons (and consequent emis-
plex of two atoms which is stable (bound) only in an electronically sion of photons) in a forward-biased semiconductor pn junction,
represents the direct conversion of electricity to light. This is a layers are made of an alloy of lower refractive index (larger band
very efficient process, and practical diode laser devices reach a gap) than the active junction region. This is then termed a dou-
50-percent electrical-to-optical power conversion rate, at least an ble-heterostructure (DH) laser. The output power of the laser is
order of magnitude larger than most other lasers. Over the past horizontally polarized because the reflectivity of the planar wave-
20 years, the trend has been one of a gradual replacement of other guide is higher for the polarization direction parallel to the junction
laser types by diode laser based–solutions, as the considerable chal- plane. Because the junction region is thin for efficient recombina-
lenges to engineering with diode lasers have been met. At the same tion (typically 0.1 mm), some light spreads into the cladding layers
time the compactness and the low power consumption of diode which are therefore made relatively thick (typically 1 mm) for ade-
lasers have enabled important new applications such as storing quate light confinement.
information in compact discs and DVDs, and the practical
high-speed, broadband transmission of information over optical
fibers, a central component of the Internet.
top
Construction of a double-heterostructure diode laser 0.25
contact
typical
In addition to a means to create optical gain, a laser requires a (1)
p-cladding
feedback mechanism, a pair of mirrors to repeatedly circulate the
light through the gain medium to build up the resulting beam by p-type active layer
oxide
stimulated emission. The stripe structures needed to make a laser insulator
and output facet
diode chip are formed on a single crystal wafer using the standard n-cladding

photolithographic patterning techniques of the semiconductor p-cladding
industry. The substrate crystal axes are first oriented relative to the Qx≅10º n-cladding
bottom
patterning such that, after fabrication, a natural cleavage plane is Pout contact
normal to the stripe direction, and cleaving both ends of the chip (5)
provides a pair of plane, aligned crystal surfaces that act as a 9y≅30º
Fabry-Perot resonator for optical feedback. These mirrors use either
dimensions in mm
the Fresnel reflectivity of the facet (often sufficient because of the
high gain of diode lasers), or they can be dielectric coated to other
Figure 36.21 Schematic of a double heterostructure
reflectivities. This might be desired, for instance, to protect against index-guided diode laser
damage from the high irradiance at the facets. This geometry gives
the familiar edge-emitting diode laser (see figure 36.21).
The semiconductor crystal must be defect free to avoid scatter-
ing of carriers and of light. To grow crystal layers without defects,
commercial semiconductor lasers use III-V compounds, elements
taken from those columns of the periodic table. These form vary-
ing alloys with the addition of dopants that can be lattice-matched
to each other and to the initial crystal substrate. The band gap of DPout
laser
the semiconductor chosen determines the lasing wavelength region. DI
output
There are three main families: GaN-based lasers with UV-blue out-
puts, GaAs-based lasers with red-near infrared outputs, and Pout , optical
output power spontaneous
InP-based lasers with infrared outputs. These base crystals are pre-
emission
cisely doped with Ga, Al, In, As, and P to precisely control the band
gap and index of refraction of the layers in the diode structure.
These compounds are direct band-gap semiconductors with
efficient recombination of injected holes and electrons because no
phonons (lattice vibrations) are required to conserve momentum Ith Imax
in the recombination interaction. The injection layers surround-
I, forward drive current
ing the junction, the cladding layers, can be indirect band-gap semi-
conductors (where phonons are involved).
To make a planar waveguide that concentrates the light Figure 36.22 Definition of threshold current, Ith, and
in the junction region (confinement between the top and bottom slope efficiency from the curve of light output, Pout vs
horizontal planes of the active region in figure 36.21), the cladding drive current I
Gain guiding and index guiding in diode lasers structures, discussed below, require very thin layers. The LPE process
To confine the light laterally (between planes perpendicular to is not appropriate for these devices; they are fabricated using the
the junction plane), two main methods (with many variants) are MOCVD or MBE process.
used. The first and simplest puts a narrow conductive stripe on the In the MOCVD process, gases transport the reactants to the
p-side of the device to limit the injected current to a line, giving a heated substrate, where they decompose and the epitaxial layer
gain-guided laser. There is some spreading of current under the slowly grows. In the high-vacuum MBE process, the reactants are
stripe, and the light is restricted only by absorption in the unpumped evaporated onto the substrate, giving a very slow, controlled epitaxial
regions of the junction. The transverse mode of the laser light is growth. The equipment for MBE is more expensive, and the process
therefore not tightly controlled. Many high-power diode lasers, is slower making this process most suitable for critical and com-
used for instance in side-pumping another solid-state laser (where plex devices of low production volume.
mode control is less critical), are gain guided. The emergence of the MOCVD and MBE processes made pos-
More efficient lateral laser mode control is achieved by fabri- sible improved diode lasers employing quantum well structures as
cating, with multiple photolithographic, epitaxial, and etching their active regions. A quantum well is a layer of semiconductor of
steps, regions of low index of refraction on either side of the lasing low electron (or hole) potential energy between two other layers of
stripe (the two lateral n-cladding regions in the upper half of fig- higher potential energy. The well layer is made thin enough, typi-
ure 36.21). This confines the light by waveguiding between planes cally less than 0.01 mm, to be comparable in size to the Bohr radius
perpendicular to the junction plane as well giving an index-guided of the electron (or hole) in the material. This brings in quantum
laser. These lasers produce a stable single transverse mode of low- effects—the confined carrier acts, in the direction perpendicular
est order, as required in data storage applications to read compact to the layer plane, as a one-dimensional particle in a potential well.
discs, and telecommunications applications where coupling into a In practical terms, the density of carriers is greatly increased in this
fiber optic is important. QW structure, and the laser threshold current decreases by an order
of magnitude. The laser’s active region is effectively an engineered,
Threshold current and slope efficiency definitions man-made material whose properties can be designed.
Output power from a diode laser increases linearly with the There is a disadvantage to QW lasers: the active region is too thin
drive current excess above the threshold current (see figure 36.22). to make a reasonable waveguide. This problem is solved by insert-
This steeply rising light output curve is extrapolated backward to ing intermediate layers of graded index between the QW and both
the zero light output intercept to define the threshold current; the cladding layers. This is termed the graded-index separate-
weak incoherent light emission for currents below threshold is due confinement heterostructure (GRINSCH) since the carriers are
to the spontaneous recombination of carriers such as occurs in confined to the QW while the laser mode is confined by the sur-
LEDs. rounding layers. The electrical and optical confinements are separate.
When divided by the drive voltage V, the slope of the output vs For higher output power, several QWs separated by buffer layers can
current curve yields the differential (above threshold) be stacked on top of one another,—a multiple quantum well (MQW)
electrical-to-optical power conversion efficiency (also termed the structure. A structure with only one quantum layer is designated a
slope or quantum efficiency) which ranges from 50 to 80 percent for single quantum well (SQL) to distinguish it from a MQW.
various devices. The lasing wavelength in QW lasers is determined by both the
bulk band gap and the first quantized energy levels; it can be tuned
DPout
Slope efficiency = . (36.25) by varying the QW thickness. Further adjustment of the wavelength
V DI
is possible with strained quantum QWs. If an epitaxial layer is kept
below a critical thickness, an alloy with a lattice mismatch to the sub-
Fabrication methods and quantum wells strate will distort its lattice (in the direction normal to the substrate)
Three types of epitaxial crystal growth are employed in fabri- to match the substrate lattice instead of causing misfit dislocations.
cating the layers of semiconductor alloys for diode laser chips: liq- The strain in the lattice of the resulting QW changes its band gap,
uid phase epitaxy (LPE), metal-organic chemical vapor deposition an effect taken advantage of to put the lasing wavelength into a
(MOCVD), and molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). desired region.
Most early diode lasers were made by the LPE process, and it
is still in use for many commercial diode lasers and LEDs. In this Wavelength stabilization with distributed,
process, a heated, saturated solution is placed in contact with the sub- surface-emitting output geometries
strate, and it is cooled, leaving an epitaxial film grown on the sub- The wavelength of a AlGaAs diode laser tunes with substrate
strate. High-quality crystal layers are readily produced by this temperature at a rate of about 0.07 nm/°C, a rapid enough rate that
technique, but it is hard to control alloy composition. Further- many applications require the baseplate of the device to be mounted
more, making thin layers is difficult. Because Quantum well (QW) on a temperature controlled thermoelectric cooler to maintain
wavelength stability. Wavelength, threshold current, and efficiency

Pout
are all sensitive to changes in temperature. If the laser baseplate
temperature is allowed to drift, in addition to this long-term shift top contact
HR
in wavelength, the output oscillation will jump between drifting
mirror stacks
longitudinal cavity modes and thus exhibit small, rapid, discon- (dielectric
tinuous changes in wavelength and/or output power which often are or DBRs)
undesirable.
To address this issue, gratings are fabricated into the laser, either
QW
at the ends of the gain stripe to create a distributed Bragg reflector
active layer
(DBR) structure, or along the whole length of the gain region to cre-
ate a distributed feedback (DFB) structure. The grating has a period
on the order of 200 nm and is fabricated using interferometric tech-
niques. (The beam from an argon or HeCd laser is split into two;
the beams are are then overlapped to create fringes, which in turn
are used to expose the photoresist in the photolythography process.)
The gratings work by providing a small reflected feedback at each substrate
index step. The single frequency whose multiple fed-back reflec- bottom
tions add up in phase determines the lasing wavelength and stabi- contact
lizes it against changes in drive current and baseplate temperature.
Figure 36.23 Schematic of the VCSEL structure, with

Because the laser operates in a single frequency, noise is also reduced.
light emitted perpendicular to the active layer
DBR and DFB lasers are used extensively as telecommunication
light sources.
The DFB laser is an edge emitter. In the second-order gratings index-guided laser shown in figure 36.21 might be as small as
fabricated in both DFB and DBR lasers, the first-order diffraction 3#1 mm, resulting in diverges of 10#30 degrees. The optics needed
is perpendicular to the surface of the grating. By providing an out- to collimate this beam or to focus it into a fiber must work at a high
put window on one of the gratings in a DBR laser, the output can numerical aperture, resulting in potential lens aberrations, and
be brought out through the surface of the chip, i.e., a surface-emit- requiring critical focusing because of short depth of field. Focal
ting laser. lengths must be kept short as well or the optics rapidly become
Recently, another surface-emitting structure, the vertical- large. The beam inself is elliptical and may be astigmatic. It is often
cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL), has come into use in telecom- desireable to first circularize the beam spot with an anamorphic
munication links. In this structure (see figure 36.23) multilayer prism pair or cylinder lens before coupling the laser output into an
mirrors are fabricated on the top and bottom of the QW gain region optical train. Higher-power lasers with high-order modes cause
to give feedback. Consequently, the laser output is perpendicular additional problems when coupling their beams into a fiber or opti-
to the active QW plane. cal system. A wide variety of specialized components are available
The epitaxial growth process of this structure is more difficult to address these issues, from molded miniature aspherical lenses
than that for edge emitters This is because provision must be made to hyperbolic profile fiber cylinder lenses, but all require critical
to channel current flow around the mirrors to reduce device resis- focusing adjustment in their mounting into the laser diode hous-
tance (for clarity, the bypass channels are omitted in figure 36.23) ing. For these reasons many diode lasers are offered with beam-
and because precise control of the mirror layer thicknesses is needed correcting optics built in by the manufacturer who has the appro-
to locate standing wave peaks at the QW active layer(s). Counter- priate tooling for the task. Typically these lasers are available as col-
ing these drawbacks, by having no facets to cleave, these lasers have limated units, or as fiber-coupled (“pigtailed”) devices.
a similar topology to LEDs. They can be tested at the wafer level
and packaged using similar low-cost manufacturing methods. In High-power diode lasers
addition, VCSELs have large-area circular beams (defined by the Single transverse mode diode lasers are limited to 200 mW or
circular limiting aperture of the mirrors) and low threshold cur- less of output power by their small emitting aperture. The facet
rents so they couple well into optical fibers and fit well in low-power area is so small (about 3#1 mm) that this power still represents a
(~1 mW) communication system applications. high irradiance (~7 MW/cm2). The output is limited to this level to
stay safely under the irradiance that would cause damage to the
Diode laser beam conditioning facet.
Because the emitting aperture is small on a typical diode laser, Enlarging the emitting area with an increase of the lateral width
beam divergences are large. For example, the emitting area for the of the active stripe is the most common method of increasing the
laser output power, but this also relaxes the single transverse mode with diode lasers: cotton gloves, conductive gowns, grounded wrist
constraint. Multiple transverse lateral modes, filaments, and lat- straps, work tables, soldering irons, and so on. Correspondingly,
eral mode instabilities arise as the stripe width increases. For exam- the drive current power supply should be filtered against surges
ple, in a GaAs laser running at 808 nm, the output power rises and include “slow starting” circuitry to avoid transients.
linearly from 500 mW to 4 W as the lateral width of the emitting Diode lasers degrade with high power and long operating hours
aperture increases from 50 to 500 mm. Howerer, the M2 value of the as crystal defects migrate and grow, causing dark lines or spots in
beam in this plane increases from 22 to 210. The M2 increase makes the output mode pattern and increases in threshold current or
it difficult to couple these devices to fibers, but they find consider- decreases in slope efficiency. The best way to prolong life is to keep
able application in pumping solid-state laser chips designed to the laser baseplate running cool. Remember that accelerated life
accept a high-numerical-aperture focus. tests are run by operating at high baseplate temperature. Expecta-
The pump diode lasers for even higher-power DPSS lasers are tions for the median life of a device are set from measurements
made as linear arrays of 20 or more stripe emitters integrated side of large populations—individual devices can still suddenly fail.
by side on a 1-cm-long semiconductor bar. The bar is mounted in Nevertheless, the industry expectations today for standard diode
a water-cooled housing to handle the heat load from the high drive lasers run within their ratings is ~105 hours of operation for
current. These diode laser arrays provide from 20 to 40 W of con- low-power diode lasers and perhaps an order of magnitude less for
tinuous output power at wavelengths matching the absorption the high-power versions.
bands of different laser crystals (e.g., 808 nm for pumping Nd:YAG
lasers). The individual stripe emissions are not coherently related, Summary of applications
but bars can be used to side pump a laser rod, just as the arc lamps The applications mentioned in the discussion above, and a few
they replace formerly did. Another common delivery geometry is others, are summarized in the following table and ordered by wave-
a bundle of multimode fibers, fanned into a line of fibers on one end length. The newer GaN lasers provide low power (10–100 mW)
with each fiber butted against an individual stripe on the bar, with blue and UV wavelengths finding applications as excitation sources
the other end of the bundle gathered into a circular grouping. This for biomedical fluorescence studies (DNA sequencing, confocal
converts the bar output into a round spot focusable onto the end microscopy). The dominant application for diode lasers is as read-
of the crystal to be pumped. outs for optical data storage, followed by growing numbers in use
Finally, for even more output, a few to a dozen bars are mounted in telecommunications. For high-power (>1 W) diode lasers, the
like a deck of cards one on top of another in a water-cooled pack- main application is as optical pumps for other solid state lasers.
age, connected in series electrically, and sold as a stacked array.
These can deliver in excess of 500W output power from one device. OPTICALLY PUMPED LASERS
Optically pumped lasers use photons of light to directly pump
Packaging, power supplies, and reliability the lasing medium to the upper energy levels. The very first laser,
For low-power lasers, the industry uses standard semiconduc- based on a synthetic ruby crystal, was optically pumped. Optically
tor device package designs, hermetically sealed with an output win- pumped lasers can be separated into two broad categories:
dow. Lasers with higher power dissipation come with a copper lamp-pumped and laser pumped. In a lamp-pumped laser, the las-
baseplate for attachment to a finned heat sink or thermoelectric ing medium, usually a solid-state crystal, is placed near a high-inten-
cooler (TEC). Many are offered coupled into a fiber at the manu- sity lamp and the two are surrounded by an elliptical reflector that
facturing plant in a pigtailed package (with an output fiber attached) focuses the light from the lamp into the crystal, as shown in figure
because of the criticality in mounting the coupling optics as men- 36.24. In laser-pumped systems, the light from another laser is
tioned above. focused into a crystal (or a stream of dye), as shown in figure 36.25.
Careful heat sinking is very important because all the major In general, ignoring the efficiency of the pump laser itself, laser
device parameters—wavelength, threshold current, slope efficiency, pumping is a much more efficient mechanism than lamp pumping
and lifetime—depend on device temperature (the cooler, the better). because the wavelength of the pump laser can be closely matched
Temperature-servoed TECs are preferred for stable operation with to specific absorption bands of the lasing medium, whereas most
the temperature sensor for feedback mounted close to the diode of the light from a broad-spectrum lamp is not usefully absorbed
laser. in the gain medium and merely results in heat that must be removed
Diode lasers are susceptible to permanent damage from static from the system. Furthermore, the size of the laser pump beam
electricity discharges or indeed any voltage transient. Their low can be tightly controlled, serving as a gain aperture for improving
operating voltage (~2 V) and ability to respond at high speed means the output mode characteristics of the pumped laser medium. On
that a static discharge transient can be a drive current spike above the the other hand, laser pumping is often not suitable for high-energy
maximum safe level and result in catastrophic facet damage. All the applications where large laser crystals are required.
usual antistatic electricity precautions should be taken in working
Diode Laser Applications

Wavelength Lattice
l (nm) Material* Application
375 GaN Biomedical fluorescence
405 GaN Biomedical fluorescence, DVD mastering
440 GaN Biomedical fluorescence, HeCd laser replacement
473 GaN Biomedical fluorescence
635 GaAs Pointers, alignment, HeNe laser replacement
650 GaAs DVD readouts
670 GaAs Barcode scanners, pointers, alignment
780 GaAs Audio CD readouts
785 GaAs Raman spectroscopy
808 GaAs Optical pumps for Nd:YAG lasers, thermal printing
940 InP Optical pumps for Yb:YAG lasers
980 InP Optical pumps for Er fiber telecom amplifiers
1310 InP Input source for telecom short-wavelength channels
1455 InP Optical pump for Raman gain in standard telecom fiber
1550 InP Input source for telecom long-wavelength channels

*Ga, Al, In, P dopants are added to form the required layered strutures
elliptical
reflector high reflector pump high reflector
laser (transmits pump wavelength)
lasing crystal
flashlamp
mode-matching output
optics coupler
lasing crystal
Figure 36.25 Schematic of a laser-pumped laser
output coupler
light sources. This concept, championed in the 1980s by a group at
Stanford University headed by Prof. Bob Byer, has been termed
the diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) laser revolution.
Figure 36.24 Schematic of a lamp-pumped laser
The logic is simple. The primary light source (the diode laser)
pumps another laser (an infrared crystal laser) to convert to a good
Diode-pumped solid-state (DPSS) lasers, a class of laser-pumped mode, the beam of which is wavelength converted (by nonlinear
lasers, will be discussed in detail below. optics techniques) to a visible output. The diode laser source replaces
the discharge lamp for optically pumping the gain crystal in a tra-
DIODE-PUMPED SOLID STATE LASERS ditional, high-efficiency, infrared laser. The infrared beam is gen-
erated in that independent resonator with a good mode, and
The DPSS laser revolution consequently it can be efficiently converted with an intracavity non-
The optical difficulties encountered with diode lasers—diffi- linear crystal to a visible beam with a good mode. Though
culty in coupling to the high divergence light, poor mode quality power is lost at each step, the result is still a single-mode visible beam
in the slow axis of wide-stripe lasers, low output power from sin- generated with a total electrical-to-optical conversion efficiency of
gle-transverse-mode lasers— led to a new philosophy (figure 36.26) several percent. These DPSS lasers are replacing the older visible
about how best to use these efficient, long-lived, compact gas lasers whose conversion efficiencies rarely reach 0.1 percent.
End- and side-pumping geometries End-pumping with bars

The first DPSS lasers were made by focusing the diode light With these two new degrees of freedom, laser designers real-
from a single laser diode emitter through the high-reflector coating ized they could create optical trains that would give them end-pump-
(at 1.06 mm) on the end of the Nd:YAG rod. This “end-pumping” ing system efficiencies (achieve good overlap between pump and
geometry provide good overlap between the pumped volume and lasing modes) with diode arrays as pump sources to obtain a lower
the lasing volume, but it limited the pump power to that available diode cost per watt in their systems. This produced an explosion
from single-mode diode emitters. of unique DPSS laser designs generically described as “end-pump-
In order to increase laser output and reduce cost (diode lasers ing with bars.”
suitable for end pumping are twice as expensive as diode laser Figure 36.27 shows the example previously mentioned, delivering
arrays), diode arrays were mounted along the length of the laser the array light through a fiber bundle, with the fibers at one end
rod. However, because of poor overlap of the pump beam with the spread out to butt align with the linear stripes of an array, and the
1.06 mm beam, the efficiency of this “side-pumping” technique was other end of the bundle gathered to an approximately circular spot.
only half that of end-pumping geometries. No pump diode cost Although the circular spot is large, its focal image, formed with
savings resulted. high numerical aperture (NA) optics, is small enough to satisfac-
Then in the late 1980s two advances were made. First, a variety torily overlap the IR cavity laser mode. The small depth of focus,
of new laser rod materials, better tailored to take advantage of from the high NA optics, is inconsequential here because of the
diode laser pumps, were introduced. Nd:YVO4 crystals have five short absorption depth in the Nd:YVO4 laser crystal. The laser
times the gain cross section of Nd:YAG, and the Nd can be doped head can be disconnected from the diode modules at the fiber cou-
into this crystal at much higher concentrations. This decreases the pler without loss of alignment.
absorption depths in the crystal from cm to mm, easing the colli- In another example, an even higher-NA optic (comprising a
mation or focusing quality required of the pump beam. This crys- cylinder lens and a molded aspheric lens) was used to directly focus
tal had been known, but could be grown only to small dimensions, the 1-cm width of a micro-lensed array bar onto the end of a
which is acceptable for diode-pumped crystals. Another crystal intro- Nd:YVO4 gain crystal. This produced an oblong pump spot, but
duced was Yb:YAG, pumped at 980 nm and lasing at 1.03 mm— good overlap with the IR cavity mode was achieved by altering the
leaving very little residual heat in the crystal per optical pumping infrared cavity (inserting two intracavity beam expansion prisms in
cycle and allowing small chips of this material to be pumped at that arm) to produce a 5:1 elliptical cavity mode in the gain crys-
high levels. tal. Another design used a nonimaging pyramidal “lens duct” to
Second, means were devised to make micro-cylindrical lenses bring in the pump light from a diode laser stack to the end of a
(focal lengths less than a mm) with the correct surfaces (one type gain crystal. Yet another brought light from several arrays into a
is a hyperbolic profile) for collimating or reducing the fast-axis lasing rod centered in a diffuse-reflecting cavity by means of several
divergence of the diode laser output. With good tooling and beam planar (glass-slide) waveguides, each piercing a different sector of
characterization these are correctly positioned in the diode beam the reflector sidewall. These are but a few of the design approaches
and bonded in place to the diode housing. This allows more con- that have been successfully taken.
ventional lenses, of smaller numerical aperture, to be used in sub-
sequent pump light manipulations.
primary light mode wavelength

source converter converter
pump diode IR laser nonlinear hT = hPhMhl

laser crystal crystal ≅ 3%
high eff., good eff., good eff.,

hP = 50% hM ≅ 12% hl ≅ 50%
poor mode, good mode, good mode,

M2 = 50 M2 = 1.5 M2 = 1
Figure 36.26 The logic for DPSS lasers
conditions (all met by the new laser designs) lead to this effect:
(1) the IR laser cavity is short (~10 cm or less) with only a few lon-
gitudinal modes oscillating, (2) nonlinear conversion efficiencies
output are high (20% or more), and (3) nonlinear phase-matching band-
Nd:YVO 4 HR
widths span several longitudinal mode spacings (true of the com-
fiber
bundle monly used KTP doubling crystal). Then the sum frequency mixing
output losses couple the longitudinal modes in relaxation oscilla-
focusing tions where the turn on of one mode turns off another.
optics
20 W 20 W Two early solutions to this problem emerged. The first is to
make the IR cavity long enough to give hundreds of oscillating
diode bar diode bar modes, so that the noise terms average to insignificance as in a long
gas laser. The second is to make the IR oscillation run on a single
longitudinal mode so that there are no SFM terms. This can be done
Figure 36.27 Schematic of an “end-pumping with bars”
by using intracavity frequency control elements such as an etalon,
geometry using fiber bundle delivery, one of many vari-
ants on the DPSS laser theme or by using a ring cavity (with a Faraday-effect biasing element to
maintain the direction of light travel around the ring). Ring cavi-
ties eliminate the standing-wave interference effect of linear cavities,
termed “spatial hole burning,” and the laser runs single frequency
Microchip lasers
when this is done. As more experience was gained with DPSS laser
Another procedure that can be used to make available potentially

design, other clever solutions to the “green problem” were found,
inexpensive, mass produced, low power, visible output DPSS lasers
tailored to each particular device and often held as trade secrets. It
is mimicking semiconductor chip processing methods. In the late
can be surmised that these involve precise control of wavelength, spa-
1980s, MIT Lincoln Labs took this approach and created the
tial hole burning, beam polarization, and cavity-element optical
“microchip” laser. A thin Nd:YVO4 plate is polished flat and then
path differences to reduce the strength of longitudinal mode SFM
diced into ~2-mm-square chips. Each of these chips is then optically
terms.
contacted to similar, flat, diced KTP doubling crystal plates to
make a cube. Prior to dicing, the surfaces that will become the
Uniqueness of DPSS laser designs and laser reliability
outer cube surfaces are coated for high reflectivity at 1.06 mm.
Unlike the gas lasers they replace, no universal approach is
When single-mode diode laser pump light is focused through one
applied in the details of different DPSS laser designs and laser mod-
mirrored end of the cube, the heat produced makes a
els. There is a large variety of solutions to the major problems,
thermally-induced waveguide that creates a stable cavity for IR las-
many solutions are unique, and many are held as proprietary. Major
ing. Since the KTP crystal is within this cavity, the IR lasing is con-
design differences are found in:
verted to a 532-nm (green) output beam with 10’s of milliwats of
$ the means for optically coupling the pumping light into the
output. The diode temperature must be controlled to maintain a sta-
gain medium,
ble pump wavelength and thermal waveguide. In addition, the cube
temperature should be stabilized. Because of the short cavity, the $ the management of the thermal lens produced by absorption
IR laser operates at a single longitudinal mode, and the cavity length of the pump light in the cavity,
must be thermally tuned to keep the mode at the peak of the gain $ the control of green noise,
curve. Laser operation in a single frequency suppresses “green $ the strain-free mounting, heat sinking, and placement of the
noise,” discussed next. small lasing and nonlinear crystals in the laser cavity, and
$ the hermetic sealing of the laser cavity to protect the often
The “green noise” problem
delicate crystals and critical alignments of components
As the early DPSS laser designs giving visible-output beams
were being introduced, it became apparent that there was a prob- Note that because the intracavity space must be hermetically
lem unique to this architecture. The visible output power, 532 nm sealed there usually is no field repair, maintenance, or adjustment
in the green spectrum, could break into high-frequency chaotic of a DPSS laser head. If it fails, it is returned to the manufacturer.
oscillations of nearly 100-percent peak-to-peak amplitude. This It is evident that DPSS lasers are a lot less generic than the gas
was named the “green problem” by Tom Baer (then at lasers they replace. For a problem with a particular laser model,
Spectra-Physics), who in 1986 showed the effect to be due to the dom- there may be no standard solution available in the technical liter-
inance of sum-frequency-mixing (SFM) terms coupling different lon- ature. With so many variables, there often are surprises when new
gitudinal modes over second-harmonic-generation (SHG) terms, designs are first manufactured and introduced. Under these cir-
in the nonlinear conversion step from IR to visible output. Several cumstances, the user is advised to pick a supplier with a record of
years of consistent manufacture, who has over time dealt with his is obtained by doubling the 1.064-mm Q-switched fundamental to
own unique set of component and assembly problems. If this advice green at 532 nm, and then mixing the green beam with the residual
is followed, then the expectation with current products is that a transmitted infrared to 355 nm. This process is straightforward in
new DPSS laser will operate reliably for 10,000 hours or more. a high-peak-power pulsed beam—just a matter of inserting the
appropriate doubling and tripling crystals. What is remarkable is
An example of a DPSS laser product line— that DPSS laser designs have matured sufficiently to make this pos-
the Melles Griot visible output lasers sible in a hands-off, long lived, system rugged enough to survive and
Figure 36.28 depicts the mix of laser crystals, laser operating be useful in an industrial environment.
wavelengths, and doubling crystals generating the four visible out- The double-clad fiber laser is shown in figure 36.29. Fiber lasers
put wavelengths of the present Melles Griot product line of con- work by optically pumping (with a diode laser) a doped fiber and
tinuous wave DPSS lasers. adding mirrors for feedback at either end of the fiber. In the dual-clad
fiber, the Yb-doped single-mode fiber core is surrounded by a large
Other notable DPSS lasers diameter cladding (with a corrugated star-shaped cross section in
A brief discussion of three other significant DPSS laser devel- the figure) that is itself clad by a low-index polymer coating. Diode
opments conclude this section. laser light at 940 nm is readily launched into and guided in the large
The Er-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) is not a laser, but it is an diameter outer cladding, and the corrugated cross-section of this
optically pumped amplifier for the 1550-nm long-wavelength fiber suppresses the helical ray modes of propagation that would have
long-haul fiberoptic channels that make the worldwide web possi- poor overlap with the inner core. Over the length of the fiber, the
ble. Pumping an Er-doped silica fiber with 980-nm diode laser light pump light is absorbed by the single-mode core, and high- power
inverts the populations of energy levels in the Er ions to provide lasing near 1.03 mm in a low- order mode is produced. The quan-
gain for optical telecommunication signals run through the same tum efficiency of the Yb lasing cycle (ratio of pump wavelength to
fiber. This optical amplifier is much simpler than the discrete elec- lasing wavelength) is 91 percent, which leaves little heat deposited
tronic repeaters it replaced. A Lucent Technologies executive in the fiber. Over 1 kW of output at 80-percent slope efficiency has
expressed the importance of this when he said: “What broke [wave- been produced in such a fiber laser. These will become important
length division multiplexing telecommunications] free was the inven- laser sources for industrial applications.
tion of the [EDFA] optical amplifier.”
The Q-switched industrial DPSS laser is a 1-W-average-power,
ultraviolet (355 nm), high-repetition-rate (30 kHz) system. Output
SHG
IR laser non-linear l
Crystal crystal output
pump diode coupling Nd:YVO4

LBO/KTP 532 nm
808 nm optics 1064 nm
Nd:YVO4
BBO 457 nm
914 nm
Nd:YAG
LBO 473 nm
946 nm
Nd:YAG
LBO 561 nm
1123 nm
Figure 36.28 Melles Griot DPSS laser optical trains for producing four different visible output wavelengths
561-nm DPSS Laser

single-mode The newest addition to the Melles Griot laser product
laser output line is a DPSS laser with yellow output at 561 nm,
an ideal excitation wavelength for biomedical
laser fluorescence.
diode array silica cladding
This 16.5-cm-long laser head delivers 10 mW of
single-mode core:Yb+3
output power, and consumes less than 10 W of
low-index polymer wall plug power.
The laser is pumped by a 1-W single stripe diode

laser. Frequency-selective elements in the cavity limit
Figure 36.29 Schematic diagram of the structure of a IR oscillation to the 1.123 mm Nd line (one of the
double-clad fiber, and the method of pumping the inner weaker lines in the 1.064 mm manifold) and constrain
core by direct illumination into the large diameter of the this oscillation to a single longitudinal mode. The
outer cladding output is low noise (0.5 percent rms) with excellent
mode quality (M2 < 1.2). Polarization is vertical with
respect to the mounting surface with an extinction
ratio of >100:1. Life tests predict an expected

20,000 hours of operation.
561-nm yellow diode pumped solid-state laser
Available Wavelengths
MAXIMUM POWER (mW)
10,000
1000
100
10
1
325 405 430 442 454 457 465 472 473 476 483 488 496 502 514 520 532 543 561 568 594 612 633 635 647 670 675 676 685 752 780 830 840 1064 1523
WAVELENGTHS (nm)
Wavelengths available from Melles Griot lasers.
www.mellesgriot.com
Laser Applications
Lasers have become so much a part of daily life that many peo- Photolithography
ple may not realize how ubiquitous they are. Every home with a CD Lasers are used throughout the manufacture of semiconductor
player has a laser; hardware stores are now selling a wide variety of devices, but nowhere are they more important than in exposing
laser levels; many, if not most, computers, printers, and copiers are photoresist through the masks used for creating the circuits them-
using laser technology. Laser applications are so numerous that it selves. Originally, ultraviolet mercury lamps were used as the light
would be fruitless to try to list them all; however; one can give some sources to expose the photoresist, but as features became smaller
illustrative examples of how lasers are used today. and more complex devices were put on a single wafer, the mercury
lamp’s wavelengths were too long to create the features. Approxi-
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS mately ten years ago, manufactures started to switch to ultraviolet
High-power lasers have long been used for cutting and welding lasers operating at approximately 300 nm to expose the photoresist.
materials. Today the frames of automobiles are assembled using Manufacturers are now using wavelengths as short as 193 nm to get
laser welding robots, complex cardboard boxes are made with the resolution needed for today’s semiconductor integrated circuit
laser-cut dies, and lasers are routinely used to engrave numbers applications.
and codes on a wide variety of products. Some less well-known
applications include three-dimensional stereolithography and Marking and Scribing
photolithography. Lasers are used extensively in production to apply indelible,
human and machine-readable marks and codes to a wide variety
Three-Dimensional Stereolithography of products and packaging. Typical applications include marking
Often a designer, having created a complex part on a CAD semiconductor wafers for identification and lot control, removing
machine, needs to make a prototype component to check out the the black overlay on numeric display pads, engraving gift items,
dimensions and fit. In many cases, it is not necessary for the pro- and scribing solar cells and semiconductor wafers.
totype to be made of the specified (final) material for this checking The basic marking system consists of a laser, a scanning head,
step, but having a part to check quickly is important. This is where a flat-field focusing lens, and computer control. The computer
rapid prototyping, i.e., three-dimensional stereolithography, comes turns the laser beam on and off (either directly of through a mod-
in. The stereolithography machine consists of a bath of liquid pho- ulator) as it is scanned over the surface to make the mark. Depend-
topolymer, an ultraviolet laser, beam-handling optics, and coming upon the application, scanning may occur in a raster pattern
puter control (see figure 36.30). When the laser beam is absorbed (typical for making dot-matrix marks) or in a cursive pattern, with
in the photopolymer, the polymer solidifies at the focal point of the the beam creating letters one at a time. The mark itself results either
beam. The component design is fed directly from the CAD pro- from ablation of the surface of the material, or by a photochemi-
gram to the stereolithography computer. The laser is scanned cally induced change in the color of the material. Another mark-
through the polymer, creating, layer by layer, a solid, three- ing technique, used with high-energy pulsed CO2 and excimer lasers,
dimensional model of the part. is to shine the light through a mask containing the marking pattern
and focusing the resulting image onto the marking surface.
Laser scribing is similar to laser marking, except that the scan
x-y scanning mirror pattern is typically rectilinear, and the goal is to create microscor-
ing along the scan lines so that the substrate can be easily broken
UV laser apart.
A wide variety of materials, including metal, wood, glass, sili-
flat-field con, and rubber, are amenable to laser marking and scribing. Each
focusing lens
material has different absorption and thermal characteristic, and
some even have directional preferences due to crystalline structure.
prototype part Consequently, the type of laser used depends, to some extent, on the
material to be marked (e.g., glass transmits the 1.06 mm output
from a YAG laser but absorbs the 10.6 mm output from a
CO2 laser). Other considerations are the size of the pattern, the
chemical bath moving vertical stage speed of the scan, cosmetic quality, and cost.
Currently, most volume marking applications are performed
with lamp-pumped YAG-based pulsed or Q-switched lasers. Pulsed
and cw CO2 lasers make up the bulk of the remainder. However,
DPSS and fiber lasers are encroaching on this field owing to their
Figure 36.30 A laser stereolithography system for rapid
prototyping of three-dimensional parts higher reliability and lower operating cost. Because of their very short
wavelengths (100–300 nm), excimer lasers are used in applications The measured phase change in the reflected beam is then corre-
requiring extremely high resolution, or whose materials would ter- lated to an optical phase thickness for that layer using the known
mally damage at longer wavelengths. index of refraction. This technique can also be used with a thicker
transparent media, such as glass, where changes in the polariza-
Noncontact measurement tion and phase state of a beam scanned across the substrate indi-
There are many types of laser-based noncontact measurement cate variations in index of refraction due to inclusions or
techniques in use today including scatter measurement, polarime- stress-induced birefringence. The most common lasers used in these
try and ellipsometry, and interferometric measurement. applications are violet, red and near infrared single-emitter laser
diodes and mid-visible diode-pumped solid-state lasers owing to their
Scatter Measurement: In the semiconductor industry, patterns of cw output, low noise, and compact sizes.
material are deposited on a wafer substrate using photolithographic
processes. Defects on the wafer can result in poor reliability, dis- Interferometric Measurement: Interferometric measurement can
connects in circuitry, or complete circuit failure. Consequently man- be used for high-resolution position measurement as well as for
ufacturers need to map the wafer to determine the defects’ location measuring waveform deformation of optical beams as they pass
and size so that they can either be eliminated or avoided. To do this, through a component or system.
they scan the wafer with a laser and measure backscatter with a The technique uses the wave periodicity of the light beam as a
very sensitive photodetector array. very fine ruler. The position of an object in the path of the beam is
Lasers used in this application have to have excellent pointing computed from the phase of the light reflected from it. Interfer-
stability, constant wavelength and power stability to calculate the ence between the object beam and a reference beam provides mea-

correct size of the defects through complex algorithms, and low sureable intensity variations which yield this phase information.
noise so the little scatter the defect makes can be distinguished from Distance and velocity measurement can be performed for moving
the background laser light. Blue 488-nm argon ion lasers have been objects as long as the fringe-recording mechanism is paced with it.
the laser of choice for many years. However; as lithography has Typical applications of this technique include positioning of
shifted to shorter and shorter ultraviolet wavelengths, however, we masks for the lithography process, mirror distance correlation within
are beginning to see the metrologic techniques for wafer defect an FTIR spectrometer, optical feedback in many high-resolution
measurement also moving to shorter wavelengths. Ultraviolet diode positioning systems, and determining the alignment and flatness of
and solid-state lasers are likely to replace the ion laser in the next hard disk drive heads.
generation of instruments. For applications requiring measurement over a long path length,
lasers with a single longitudinal mode and long coherence length
Polarimetry and Ellipsometry: The optical phase thickness of a thin are often required. In these cases, frequency-stabilized helium neon
film can be carefully measured using polarimetry or ellipsometry. lasers or a solid-state lasers with frequency selective elements are
A beam of known polarization and phase state enters the thin film used.
layer at an angle. The thin film has a known index of refraction.
HeNe laser
Twyman-Green
interferometer
HeNe
laser
receiver 2 receiver 1 surface of beamsplitter
interest
elliptically detector detector

polarized beam polarizing ratio amp
beamsplitter
surface film
CRT
Figure 36.31 Surface film thickness measurement Figure 36.32 Interferometric measurement
SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS techniques (see above). In many cases, the region of interest for flu-
Lasers are used extensively in the scientific laboratory for a orescence correlation spectroscopy is the first 100 to 200 nm of the
wide variety of spectroscopic and analytic tasks. Two interesting sample’s surface. However, the excitation depth (vertical resolu-
examples are confocal scanning microscopy and time-resolved tion) for conventional confocal spectroscopy is 1 to 1.5 mm, lead-
spectroscopy. ing to low signal-to-noise ratios and diminished accuracy.
One means of reducing the excitation volume is to use total
Time-resolved spectroscopy internal reflection (TIR) techniques. If a laser beam, passing through
Time-resolved spectroscopy is a technique used to observe phe- a high index material (e.g., glass at n≅1.5) strikes an interface with
nomena that occur on a very short time scale. This technique has a lower index sample material (e.g., an aqueous solution at n≅1.3)
been used extensively to understand biological processes such a at an oblique angle, there is an angle of incidence (the critical angle)
photosynthesis, which occur in picoseconds (10412 seconds) or at which all of the light will be completely reflected at the interface,
less. A fluorescing sample is excited by a laser whose pulse length and none will pass into the lower-index material. The critical angle
is much shorter than the time duration of the effect being observed. is given by
Then, using conventional fluorescence spectroscopy measurement ⎛n ⎞
techniques, the time domain of the fluorescence decay process can vc = arcsin ⎜ t ⎟ (36.26)
⎝ ni ⎠
be analyzed. Because of the speed of the processes, mode-locked
lasers are used as the exciting source, often with pulse compression where nt is the index of the transmitting (lower index) material and
schemes, to generate pulses of the femtosecond (10415 sec) time ni of the incident material.
scale, very much faster than can be generated by electronic circuitry. Because the beam is completely reflected at the interface, there
is no energy flux across the interface; there is, however, an electro-

Confocal scanning microscopy magnetic field generated in the lower index material, determined by
Scanning microscopy is used to build up a three-dimensional the boundary conditions on the electric and magnetic fields at the
image of a biological sample. In standard light microscopy, a rela- interface. This transmitted wave is evanescent, propagating along
tively large volume of the sample is illuminated, and the resultant the surface of the interface, but decaying in intensity exponentially
light gathered by the objective lens comes not only from the plane with depth, limiting excitation to a few hundred nanometers—five
in focus itself, but also from below and above the focal plane. This to ten times better resolution than with confocal techniques alone.
results in an image that contains not only the in-focus light, but Various techniques have been used to obtain TIR. Most com-
also the haze or blur resulting from the light from the out-of-focus monly, the laser beam is brought in through a prism, as shown in
planes. The basic principle of confocal microscopy is to eliminate figure 36.34. Another technique is to bring the beam in through
the out-of-focus light, thus producing a very accurate, sharp, and
high-resolution image. A schematic of a confocal microscope is
shown in figure 36.33. A visible laser is used as the light source to
produce a distinct and spatially constrained point source of illu- detector
mination. This light is then focused on the sample. A pinhole is
placed in front of the detector at an optical distance that is exactly confocal aperture
the same as the optical distance between the focus point and the illu- (position critical)
minating source point (the confocal condition). Consequently,
only the light generated at the illuminating point will, upon reflec- illuminating
aperture
tion or scattering from the sample, pass through the pinhole in
cw laser beamsplitter
front of the detector; out-of-focus light will be blocked by the pin-
hole. The signal from the detector is then digitized and passed to
a computer. The complete image is digitally built up by scanning scan engine
the sample in the x and y directions.
in-focus light
out-of-focus light
TIR and Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy measures the variation specimen stage
in fluorescence emission at the molecular level as fluorochromes
travel through a defined field. The data can then used to determine
binding and fusion constants for various molecular interactions. CONFOCAL SETUP
Because the measured volumes are so small, measurements are typ-
ically made using single-photon or two-photon confocal microscopy Figure 36.33 Optical schematic of a confocal microscope
genes and associated proteins that are part of the disease process,
it may be possible to synthesize a drug that would interact with the
microscope proteins and cure or reduce the effect of the disease.
objective The optical system for a typical microarray scanner is shown
fluorescence
in figure 36.35. The beam from a laser is focused onto a well (mol-
laser ecule) on the molecular matrix. If the appropriate fluorescent tag
beam prism is present, the resulting fluorescence is measured by a detector. A
filter in front of the detector separates the laser wavelength from the
focusing lens sample
fluorescence signal. The laser beam is then moved to the next well.
TIR for opaque sample Today’s microarray scanner systems use two or more cw lasers,
each with a different wavelength. Output power typically ranges
from 10 to 50 mW, a power level that allows scanning without dam-
aging or changing the material under test. Laser pointing stability
microscope is important as the microarray wells are quite small and repeatability
objective
is needed to relocate cells. Power stability and low noise are also
fluorescence extremely important due to the small sample size and the resulting
transmitting weak fluorescence signal.
sample The most common lasers in use today for excitation are the blue
solid-state (473–488 nm), green solid-state (532 nm) and red diode

laser (650–690 nm) lasers. Solid-state and semiconductor laser technol-
beam prism ogy is chosen primarily for its compact size, reliability, and power
efficiency. Other wavelengths, including violet (405 nm) and ultra-
focusing lens violet (375 nm) from diode lasers, are currently being tested for
application in microarray-reading applications.
TIR for transmitting sample
Figure 36.34 An example of TIR spectroscopy

red laser
the steeply curved edge of the observing microscope itself, and then
green laser
filtering out the returning beam with a dichroic mirror. dichroic filter
Microarray scanning blue laser

dichroic filter
In DNA research, a microarray is a matrix of individual DNA
molecules attached, in ordered sets of known sequence, to a sub-
strate which is approximately the size of a microscope slide. A sin-
focusing
gle array can contain thousands of molecules each tagged with a
objective
specific fluorochrome. The array is then put into a microarray lens
reader where each individual site of the matrix is individually probed
by a variety of laser wavelengths at, or near, the excitation band of
specific protein tags. The resulting fluorescence is measured and microarray
the fluorescence, position, and sequence data are stored in a com- plate
puter database for later analysis.
Microarrays and microarray readers have had a dramatic impact
on the speed by which data can be taken. Previously experiments detection dichroic
were conducted one or two molecules at a time; preparation and set- system filter(s)
ting up could take hours. With microarray readers, the raw data
lens
for analysis of thousands of molecules can be taken in minutes.
The main driver for microarrays is the pharmaceutical industry.
laser
If one can identify the differences in the way genes are expressed in light
a healthy organ and in a diseased organ, and then determine the
Figure 36.35 Microarray scanning
CLINICAL AND MEDICAL APPLICATIONS Surgical Applications

One of the earliest applications of lasers in medicine was pho- Lasers are used in a variety of surgical and dental procedures
tocoagulation, using an argon-ion laser to seal off ruptured blood from cutting tissue, vaporizing tumors, removing tattoos, remov-
vessels on the retina of the eye. The laser beam passed through the ing plaque, removing cavities, removing hair and follicles, resur-
lens and vitreous humor in the eye and focused on the retina, cre- facing of skin and of course, correcting vision. In many ways,
ating scar tissue that effectively sealed the rupture and staunched medical applications are like materials processing applications. In
the bleeding. Today, lasers are used extensively in analytical instru- some cases material is ablated. In others tissue is cut or welded,
mentation, ophthalmology, cellular sorting, and of course, to cor- and in yet others, photochemical changes are caused in blood ves-
rect vision. sels to encourage shrinkage and absorption. Understanding tissue
Many types of lasers are used in clinical applications including absorption characteristics and reaction to wavelength and power
CO2 , solid state, and diode lasers, as well as array of gas lasers cov- are key.
ering the spectrum from the ultraviolet to the infrared. Ultraviolet excimer lasers are used for vision correction because
they can ablate material from the lens of the eye without causing
Flow cytometry thermal damage which could blur vision or make the lens opaque.
Flow cytometry is a technique used for measuring single cells. Ruby lasers are used for tattoo removal because many of the dyes
Not only is it a key research tool for cancer and immunoassay dis- break down when exposed to 694-nm radiation, yet the skin tissue
ease research, but it is also used in the food industry for monitor- is left undamaged.
ing natural beverage drinks for bacterial content or other Cosmetic treatment of wrinkles, moles, warts, and discolorations
disease-causing microbes. (birth marks) is often accomplished with near infrared and infrared
In a basic cytometer, the cells flow, one at a time, through a cap- lasers. These procedures are often assisted by topical or injected
illary or flow cell where they are exposed to a focused beam of laser photosensitive chemicals that assist with selective absorption at
light (see figure 36.36). The cell then scatters the light energy onto specific sites.
a detector or array of detectors. The pattern and intensity of the scat- Lasers are also used to treat macular degeneration, an over-
tered energy helps to determine the cell size, and shape. In many cases growth of veins and scar tissue in the retinal region, a condition
the cells are tagged with a variety of fluorochromes designed to associated with advancing age. In this procedure, the patient is
selectively adhere to cells or cell components with specific charac- injected with a selective dye, which enhances the absorption of laser
teristics. When exposed to the laser light, only those with the tag flu- light by the blood in the blood vessels. When the blood vessels
oresce. This is used in many systems to assist with separation or absorb laser energy, they wither in size, uncovering the active retina.
sorting of cells or cellular components. A multiwatt green DPSS laser is most commonly used for this appli-
The most popular lasers used in flow cytometry are the 488-nm cation because the green wavelength is not absorbed by the lens or
(blue) argon-ion laser and the 632-nm (red) and 594-nm (yellow) aqueous portion of the eye, which allows the laser to affect only
HeNe lasers. However, new violet, blue and red diode lasers and a the targeted veins.
variety of new DPSS lasers are entering the field.
fluorescence
from marked cell
laser
blocking focusing
filter lens
detector
laser
128
counter 1353
separation field
marked unmarked
cells cells
Figure 36.36 Schematic of a laser cell sorter

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36ch_LaserGuide_f_v3.qxd 6/8/2005 11:16 AM Page 36.

THE BOHR ATOM

It is evident from this equation that the longer the wavelength

Likewise, when an electron decays to a lower energy level in a spontaneous emission

Introduction to Laser Technology

Of course, in any real population of atoms, the probability

quantum energy levels

For a normal population of atoms, there will always be more

emission, the collection of real atoms will be a net absorber, not a

Practical Optical Coatings

Introduction to Laser Technology

The critical factors for a mirror, other than transmis-

The equipment used for both substrate polishing and

Introduction to Laser Technology

a. CALCULATING A CORRECTING SURFACE

Now consider the consequences in coupling a high M2 beam

Introduction to Laser Technology

Unstable Resonator Design

TEM00 TEM01 TEM10 TEM11 TEM02

Figure 36.9 Low-order Hermite-Gaussian resonator modes

Introduction to Laser Technology

adjustable cavity spacer output coupler

Figure 36.12 Frequency stabilization for a helium neon laser

Introduction to Laser Technology

laser head Measuring Frequency Stability

In the charts below, a Melles Griot

can be cycled over a 20°C temperature range

Figure 36.15 Reflectivity of a glass surface vs. incidence

Many lasers can operate at more than one wavelength. Argon

Introduction to Laser Technology

cathode connection through housing

glass to metal seals bore current-regulated

Figure 36.17 Typical HeNe laser construction

Introduction to Laser Technology

brewster window external

pressure throughout the length of the tube caused by the charged

to keep the pressure constant. Air-cooled systems typically do not,

Introduction to Laser Technology

wavelength stability. Wavelength, threshold current, and efficiency

Introduction to Laser Technology

Diode Laser Applications

Introduction to Laser Technology

End- and side-pumping geometries End-pumping with bars

primary light mode wavelength

pump diode IR laser nonlinear hT = hPhMhl

high eff., good eff., good eff.,

poor mode, good mode, good mode,

Figure 36.26 The logic for DPSS lasers

Introduction to Laser Technology

pump diode coupling Nd:YVO4

561-nm DPSS Laser

The laser is pumped by a 1-W single stripe diode

Introduction to Laser Technology

561-nm yellow diode pumped solid-state laser

Wavelengths available from Melles Griot lasers.

Introduction to Laser Technology

elliptically detector detector

is no energy flux across the interface; there is, however, an electro-

Introduction to Laser Technology