4.

10 Resistance Temperature Detectors TI

T. J. CLAGGETT, R. W. WORRALL (1969) W. A. CLAYTON (1982)

RTD
B. G. LIPTÁK (1993, 2003)
Flow Sheet Symbol

Applications: Industrial and laboratory thermometry including the definition of the International
Temperature Scale between the oxygen and antimony points, from −297 to 1167°F
(−183 to 631°C)

Alpha Curve: The relationship between the resistance change of a resistance temperature detector
(RTD) vs. temperature. In the European alpha curves, the alpha value is 0.00385
Ω/°C; in American curves it is 0.00392.

Ranges: −328 to 1532°F (−200 to 850°C) is IEC standard for platinum RTDs and −330 to
600°F (−200 to 320°C) for nickel RTDs, Practical applications are usually limited to
−328 to 1000°F (−200 to 537°C) (refer to Tables 4.10b and 4.1c).

Spans: 10 and 1100°F (6 and 610°C) for platinum, and 20 and 600°F (12 and 340°C) for
nickel. For differential temperature transmitters: 10 and 50°F (6 and 28°C) for plat-
inum, and 20 and 100°F (12 and 56°C) for nickel.

Stability: Zero and span drift is usually within 0.1% of span for a 6-month period (and frequently
longer).

Standard Resistances: 100 Ω at 32°F (0°C) is most common, but elements are available from 10 to 1000 Ω.
TM
Linearity: Platinum and copper are more linear; nickel and nickel/iron (Balco ) are less so.
The use of gold and silver RTDs is limited to cryogenic temperatures.

Sensitivity: 0.1 to 10 Ω/degree

Inaccuracy: The error just for a Class A sensors is from ±0.06°F (±0.03°C) or 0.01% of span and
for a Class B sensor it is from ±0.6°F (±0.3°C) or 0.12%. In determining the total
system error, one must also consider the error contribution of the signal conditioning
electronics. The total system error is usually 0.15% of span for platinum and 0.25%
of span for nickel RTD elements in standard transmitters. Intelligent transmitters
reduce that to 0.05% of span or to about 0.18°F (0.1°C), whichever is higher.

Costs: Elements alone range from about $35 to $80; RTD assemblies, including thermowells,
are from $100 to $250. An RTD sensor with an integral temperature transmitter may
cost anywhere from $300 to $2000 depending on its level of intelligence and other
features.

Partial List of Suppliers of ABB (www.abb.com)

Intelligent Transmitters: Foxboro/Invensys (www.foxboro.com/temp/)
Honeywell (www.iac.honeywell.com/ichome)
Kamstrup (www.kamstrup-process.com)
Moore Industries-International, Inc. (www.miinet.com/products/ca)
Rosemount/Emerson (www.rosemount.com/products)
Siemens (www.sea.siemens.com)
Yokogawa (www.yokogawa.com)

645
© 2003 by Béla Lipták
646 Temperature Measurement

Partial List of Suppliers: 4B Components Ltd. (www.go4b.com)

ABB Inc. Instrumentation (www.abb.com/us/instrumentation)
Accutech (www.savewithaccutech.com)
Altech Industries Corp. (www.altekcalibrators.com)
Analab LLC (www.analab1.com)
Analogic Corp. (www.analogic.com)
Anderson Instrument Co. (www.andinst.com)
APT Instruments (www.aptinstruments.com)
ARI Industries (www.ariindustries.com)
Athena Controls (www.athenacontrols.com)
Barber Colman (www.barber-colman.com)
Barnant Co. (www.barnant.com)
Bently Nevada Corp. (www.bently.com)
Bristol Babcock (www.bristolbabcock.com)
Burns Engineering (www.burnsrtd.com)
Chino Works America (www.chinoamerica.com)
CMI Inc. (www.cmi-temp.com)
Conax Buffalo (www.conaxbuffalo.com)
Dickson (www.dicksonweb.com)
Durex Industries (www.durexindustries.com)
Dwyer Instruments (www.dwyer-inst.com)
Ecom Instruments (www.ecom-ex.com)
Endevco Corp. (www.endevco.com)
Enraf Inc. (www.enrafinc.com)
Eurotherm Controls (www.eurotherm.com)
Flow Research (www.flowresearch.com)
Flow-Tech Inc. (www.flowtechonline.com)
Fluid Components (www.fluidcomponents.com)
FMC Blending & Transfer (www.fmcblending.com)
Foxboro-Invensys (www.foxboro.com)
Gaumer Process (www.gaumer.com)
General Eastern (www.geinet.com)
GMC Instruments (www.gmcinc.com)
Graybar Electric (www.graybar.com)
Honeywell Sensing and Control (www.honeywell.com/sensing)
Ice Qube Inc. (www.iceqube.com)
ifm efector (www.ifmefector.com)
Instrumentation Group (www.instrumentationgroup.com)
iSensors Corp. (www.isensors.com)
JMS Southeast (www.jms-se.com)
Jumo Process Control (www.jumousa.com)
Kobold Instruments (www.koboldusa.com)
Lake Shore Cryotronocs (www.lakeshore.com)
Love Controls (www.love-controls.com)
Marsh Bellofram (www.marshbellofram.com)
Martel Electronics (www.martelcorp.com)
Minco (www.minco.com)
Moore Industries-International, Inc. (www.miinet.com)
MTI (www.mtisensors.com)
National Basic Sensor (www.nationalbasicsensor.com)
Newport Electronics (www.newportusa.com)
Omega (www.omega.com)
Pyromation (www.pyromation.com)
Pyrometer Instrument (www.pyrometer.com)
RDF Corp. (www.rdfcorp.com)
Ronan Engineering (www.ronan.com)
Rosemount Inc., Div. of Emerson (www.rosemount.com)
Sandelius Instruments (www.sandelius.com)
Selco Products (www.selcoproducts.com)
Senso-Metrics (www.senso-metrics.com)
Spence Engineering (www.spenceengineering.com)

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors 647

Thermo Electric (www.thermo-electric.com)

Transcat (www.transcat.com)
Transmation (www.transmation.com)
TSI Inc. (www.tsi.com)
TTI (www.ttiglobal.com)
Truck (www.truck.com)
United Electric Controls (www.ueonline.com)
Validyne (www.validyne.com)
Watlow (www.watlow.com)
Weed Instrument (www.weedinstrument.com)
Wilkerson Instrument (www.wici.com)
Winters Instruments (www.winters.com)
Yokogawa Corp. of America (www.yca.com)
Vendor list: (www.temperatures.com/rtdvendors.html)
Most popular: Rosemount-Emerson, Pyromation, Omega

In 1821 Sir Humphry Davy discovered that the resistivity of Detectors and Their Applications
metals depends on their temperature. The application of this
property using platinum was first described by Sir William The conductors used for resistance thermometry include
Siemens at the Bakerian Lecture of 1871 before the Royal platinum, nickel of various purities, 70% nickel/30% iron
Society in Great Britain. The necessary temperature limita- (Balco), and copper, listed in order of their decreasing tem-
tions and methods of construction were established by Cal- perature range (Tables 4.10b and 4.1c). These conductors
lendar, Griffiths, Holborn, and Wein between 1885 and 1900. are all available as fine wire for sensor winding. For many
years wire-wound construction, where a fine highly purified
platinum wire was wound around a ceramic mandrel to

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR BASICS Ω/Ω

8
Resistance thermometry is based upon the increasing electri-
cal resistance of conductors with increasing temperature 6 kel
Nic per
(Figure 4.10a). Resistance temperature detector (RTDs) are Cop
4
constructed of a resistive material with leads attached and
num
usually placed into a protective sheath. The resistive material Plati
2
may be platinum, nickel, or copper, with the most common
by far being platinum. Platinum resistance thermometers are
now the international standard for temperature measurements −200 0 200 400 600 800 °C
between the triple point of hydrogen at 24.86°R (13.81 K)
FIG. 4.10a
and the freezing point of antimony at 1167.35°F (630.75°C).
The temperature coefficient of platinum is 0.00392 ohms/ohms°C at
The laboratory application of platinum resistance thermom- 0°C (the alpha value in the USA) and 0.00293 at 800°C. The alpha
eters recognizes the unsurpassed stability and repeatability value used in Europe is the average value between 0 and 100°C,
of this noble metal sensor. Platinum resistance thermometers which is 0.00385. Therefore (as shown), a platinum element of 1
for rugged industrial applications also retain their advantage ohm resistance at −200°C will increase its resistance to approxi-
over other conductors. mately 4.0 ohm as the temperature rises to 800°C.

TABLE 4.10b
RTD Material Properties of 0°C and Available Temperature Ranges
Temperature Coefficient of Electrical Resistance Per Commercially Available
Metal Resistance (Ohms/Ohm°C) Circular Mil Foot (Ohms) Temperature Ranges °F (°C)
Platinum 0.00392 59.00 −328 to 1532 (− 200 to 850)
Nickel 0.00672 36.00 −330 to 600 (−196 to 316)
Copper 0.0038 9.26 −320 to 250 (−196 to 120)
Tungsten 0.0045 30.00 —
Gold 0.0040 13.00 —
Silver 0.0041 8.80 —

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

648 Temperature Measurement

produce the element, was the most common type. Wire- while retaining the best stability and repeatability available
wound sensors are still the better choice for very high, very in industrial thermometers over a wide temperature range.
low, or widely cycling applications.
Platinum is also available as a deposited film sensor, which
INDUSTRIAL RTD CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
is much less expensive, and platinum, nickel, and Balco are all
available in foil-type sensors. Thin film construction uses a
All resistance thermometers require the following consider-
precision laser to cut the sensor elements from a layer of plat-
ations in their manufacture. Wire-wound sensors must be
inum deposited over a stable ceramic base material. The sensor
supported on mandrels closely matching the wire in thermal
has very low mass and is therefore highly resistant to vibration
expansion to minimize strain effects. Additional assembly
and has a much faster speed of response than a wire wound
materials, such as cements, should not introduce additional
sensor. All share in varying degrees the characteristics of repeat-
strain in the operating temperature range. The final assembly
ability, high temperature coefficient, long-term stability, and
must be in a stable, annealed condition, trimmed to the
linearity over a useful temperature range. While no sensor mate-
required resistance tolerance. Only high-purity materials and
rial surpasses platinum in overall performance, each has at least
clean assembly methods should be used to avoid sources of
one characteristic that may encourage its selection.
contamination that might degrade the sensor.
The application of the standard platinum RTD as a tem-
All internal connections should be welded, and connect-
perature standard (SPRT), differs considerably from industrial
1 ing leads should be chosen for the required temperature capa-
practice. The temperature standard is 25.5 Ω at the ice point
bility and avoidance of thermoelectric junctions. To realize
to stay within the range of practical Mueller bridges while
the ruggedness of fully supported elements in the total sensor
providing a nominal 0.1 Ω/°C sensitivity. Wire-type platinum
assembly, all internal connections should be anchored and
thermometers were constructed in a manner to be almost
isolated from effects of thermal and mechanical strains,
totally strain-free, using very lightly supported wire of larger
including shock and vibration. The same requirements apply
size (and cost) than typical in an industrial thermometer
when deposited film or foil-type resistance elements are used
(Figure 4.10c).
(Figure 4.10c).
Temperature coefficients near the theoretical maximum
For equivalent performance in their respective tempera-
for pure platinum and maximum thermal stability can be
ture ranges, base metal RTDs cost the same as 100 ohm
obtained at the expense of fragility and large size. The indus-
platinum RTDs. Construction requirements and materials cost
trial platinum RTD offers ruggedness at a negligible loss in
are similar. Base metal RTDs have a materials cost advantage
temperature coefficient compared to the standard SPRT,
at higher resistance values compared to wire-wound platinum
sensing elements. Thin film platinum elements erase this
advantage.

Platinum RTDs

In the case of platinum RTDs, the full supported rugged

construction using “reference grade” wire has a temperature
coefficient (alpha) over the interval 32 to 212°F (0 to 100°C
A of between 0.00387 and 0.003915 Ω/Ω°C, depending on the
Sealed Bifilar Winding manufacturer. Compared to 0.003927 Ω/Ω°C on a SPRT, the
reduction in sensitivity is insignificant. For best accuracy,
the user should be aware of or specify the actual temperature
coefficient. One common value available from most manu-
facturers is 0.003902 Ω/Ω°C. This is the result obtained for
windings on pure alumina mandrels.
The relationship between the resistance change of an RTD
vs. temperature is referred to as its alpha curve. The most com-
B
C monly used is the European curve that has an alpha of 0.00385
Helical RTD
Film RTD Ω/Ω°C. The American curve has an alpha of 0.00392 Ω/Ω°C.
The instrument used with the RTD must be configured to use
Fig. 4.10c the same alpha curve as the RTD or serious errors will occur.
RTD elements can be made by winding platinum wire on a glass or
Standard platinum industrial alpha curves (based on
ceramic bobbin and sealing with molten glass (A), by threading a
platinum helix through a ceramic mylinder (B), or by depositing a slightly doped platinum wire) have been adopted by most
platinum film on a ceramic substrate. (A) is limited by the strain European countries. These curves are all substantially based
induced at higher temperatures, (B) is not suited for extreme vibra- on an alpha of 0.00385 Ω/Ω°C. This result is reproducible
tion, and (C), while small, fast, and inexpensive, is also less stable by manufacturers everywhere, and the so-called interna-
than the others. tional grade platinum curve is the most widely used curve,

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors 649

even in the United States. An exception is temperatures function. Historically 10 Ω copper RTDs were the norm, but
below −320°F (−196°C) (LN2), where only reference grade many users have now opted for 100 Ω or even 1000 Ω units
wire RTDs are well characterized. to get higher resolution. They have a useful range of −58 to
Platinum RTDs using thick or thin films are also avail- 482°F (−50 to 250°C).
able to the same curve as international grade wire-wound Copper’s temperature coefficient is almost the same as
sensors. Performance is often equivalent to wire-wound sen- platinum and it is very linear above the ice point. Copper in
sors except maximum temperature may be reduced. Wire- bifilar windings (Figure 4.10c) is used in electrical machin-
wound platinum RTDs are most common at 100 ice point ery due to very low inductive or capacitive reactance, but
resistance, with 200 and 500 Ω available at additional cost. platinum can also be used. Some traditional applications
Using thin films, ice point resistances of 100 and 1000 Ω have also exploited the linearity of copper sensors in making
are available at the same cost with slightly lower alpha narrow-range temperature-difference measurements where
specified at 1000 Ω. two sensors are connected on opposed arms of a bridge.
There is no internationally recognized standard curve for
Base-Metal RTDs copper, although some national standards do exist.
Relative performance of industrial temperature sensors
Second in usage to platinum is high-purity nickel, which of all types is shown in Table 4.10d. RTDs, especially
offers the highest temperature coefficient, second-highest platinum RTDs, are clearly superior for temperature mea-
temperature range, and lower assembled cost than wire- surement requirements below 1000°F (540°C).
wound platinum at high resistance values. Nickel RTDs have
declined in use over the years primarily due to their limited
range vs. the more popular platinum RTDs.
The useable range is −112 to 608°F (−80 to 320°C). Most MEASURING THE RTD RESISTANCE
transmitters and alarm trips still offer the capability to accept
nickel RTD inputs. The most common are 120 and 500 Ω By measuring the resistance of the RTD element one can
resistance, with 1000 Ω available. Nickel is not linear, because determine the process temperature if the change in total
it increases its temperature coefficient as temperature rises resistance measured is affected by nothing but the process
(Figure 4.10a). Nickel is also highly strain-sensitive and temperature. In actual installations, the RTD element is con-
requires great care by the manufacturer to obtain good inter- nected by two, three, or four lead wires to the readout or
changeability. The temperature coefficient of nickel is highly transmitting instrument.
influenced by both purity and state of anneal. In addition, lower
purity nickel, such as 99% nickel (no longer available) or ballast Two-Wire RTDs
nickel, has been used and provides a somewhat lower temper- There are very few applications for a two-wire RTD since
ature coefficient. the error introduced by the leads can cause significant error.
The maximum temperature of nickel sensors should not If a null-balance bridge is used, the circuit can be as shown
be much more than 500°F (260°C). There is no internation- in Figure 4.10e. Here the temperature coefficients of resis-
ally recognized standard curve for nickel sensors, although tors R1, R2, and R3 are nearly zero, and the value of R3 is
there are national standards, and several manufacturers in the adjusted until the current flow of G or the voltage read by
United States can provide sensors to a common curve char- a digital voltmeter (DVM) is zero. Under these conditions
acterized by an alpha temperature coefficient between 32 and the value of R3 equals the unknown resistance of the mea-
212°F (0 and 100°C) of 0.00672 Ω/Ω°C. suring leg (A + B + RTD).
Balco Third in usage is the 70% nickel/30% iron alloy trade Assuming that the resistance of the RTD (at 0°C) is 100
named Balco. The sole basis for its use is a very high specific Ω and assuming that the element is platinum, the resistance
resistance, which makes possible the production of very high of the 100 Ω RTD elements will change by 0.385 Ω/°C. If
resistance windings without increasing size. Ice point resis- 500 ft (152 m) of 20 gauge copper lead wire was used to
tances are commonly 200 or 10,000 Ω. It has the second- connect the RTD to the bridge, this adds 10 Ω to the total
highest temperature coefficient, third-highest temperature resistance (5 Ω/leg). At null balance R3 = A + B + RTD =
capability, and, like pure nickel, is nonlinear with an upward 10 Ω + RTD. With a temperature coefficient of 0.385/°C these
bending R vs. T curve. There is no recognized standard curve extra 10 Ω will contribute a measurement error (as an
for Balco sensors. increase in process temperature) of 10/0.385 = 26°C.
The previous example illustrates the relatively large lead-
Copper Last in usage is pure copper, which is generally wire error in a two-wire RTD installation, and for this reason
available only at 10 or 100 Ω ice point resistance values due such installations are not used if accurate temperature mea-
to the low specific resistance of the winding wire. Copper surement is desired and the length of the lead wires is more
RTDs are most commonly used to sense the winding tem- than a few inches. When the transmitter is mounted directly
perature of motors, generators, and turbines. Connecting on the thermowell (Figure 4.10f), the lead-wire length is so
them to an alarm trip provides an over-temperature shut down small that the resulting error is not very significant. Yet even

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

650 Temperature Measurement

TABLE 4.10d
Comparison Chart of Various Temperature Sensors
Platinum RTD
100 Ω Wire Platinum RTD Nickel RTD Balco RTD Semi-
Evaluation Wound and 1000 Ω 1000 Ω 2000 Ω conductor
Criteria Thin Film Thin Film Wire Wound Wire Wound Thermistor Thermocouple Devices
Cost-OEM
Quantity High Low* Medium Medium Low* Low* Low*
Temperature Wide −400°F Wide –320°F to Medium −350°F Short Short to Medium Very Wide Short −57°F
Range to +1200°F +1000°F to +600°F −100°F −100°F to −450°F to to +257°F
(−240°C to (−196°C (−212°C to to +400°F +500°F +4200°F (−49°C to
+649°C)* to +538°C)* +316°C) (−73°C to (−73°C to (−268°C to +125°C)
+204°C) +260°C) +2316°C)**
Interchange- Excellent* Excellent* Fair Fair Poor to Fair Good* Fair
ability
Long-Term Good* Good* Fair Fair Poor Poor to Fair Good to Fair
Stability
Accuracy High* High* Medium Low Medium Medium Medium
Repeatability Excellent** Excellent** Good* Fair Fair to Good Poor to Fair Good*
Sensitivity Medium High* High* Very High** Very High** Low High*
(Output)
Response Medium Medium to Medium Medium Medium to Medium to Medium to
Fast* Fast* Fast* Fast*
Linearity Good* Good* Fair Fair Poor Fair Good*
Self-Heating Very Low to Medium Medium Medium High N/A Very Low to
Low* Low*
Point (End) Fair Good* Poor Poor Good* Excellent** Good*
Sensitive
Lead Effect Medium Low* Low* Low* Very Low** High Low*
Physical Medium to Small to Large* Large Large Small to Small to Small to
Size/Packaging Small Medium Large* Medium

**Best Rating
*Good Rating

in these configurations most suppliers will provide a three- This is a major improvement in reducing the lead-wire
wire RTD to minimize the lead-wire error. error and is sufficient for the needs of most industrial appli-
cations where the lead-wire lengths are short. However, it is
Three-Wire RTDs not a complete solution because wire resistances are guaran-
teed only within a 10% tolerance; therefore, if A and B are
Measurement circuits that accept three-wire inputs minimize identical wires of identical lengths, their resistances can still
the effects of lead wire resistance as long as the outer legs differ within the 10% tolerance. So if nominally they both
are equal. However factors such as terminal corrosion and are 5 Ω, in reality one could be 4.5 and the other 5.5 Ω. If
loose connections can still create significant differences this were the case, the difference of 1 Ω would still introduce
between the lead resistances seen by the measurement circuit, an error. With a 100-Ω platinum RTD that error would cor-
because only one ohm of difference between the legs results respond to 1/0.385 = 2.6°C.
in an error of 4.7°F (2.6°C). If the purpose of the temperature measurement is to cal-
As shown in Figure 4.10g, the lead wire C acts as a culate the exothermic heat release of a batch reactor, this
sense lead and is part of both halves of the bridge and error might still be too much. In that application the temper-
therefore cancels out at balance. The lead wires A and B ature rise through the reactor jacket is about 5°F and the span
are in different halves of the bridge and therefore at null usually selected for the differential temperature transmitter
balance R3 = B − A + RTD. Therefore, now the lead-wire is 10°F (5.6°C). In order to identify the end point accurately,
error is no longer the total lead resistance (A + B), but only the total heat release must be determined to within 0.5%
the difference between their resistances (B − A). maximum error. Because the total heat release is calculated

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors 651

Wheatstone Bridges R1 R3
(R1= R2) DVM A
Vs
Vo = 0 C RTD
R1 R3 R2
Vs + G
A B
− RTD
R2 B When bridge is balanced: R1 + R3 + A + C = R2 + B + RTD + C
If R1 = R2 this becomes: R3 = RTD + B + A = RTD
Balanced Bridge: Galvanometer I = 0
R1 + R3 = R2 + A + B + RTD FIG. 4.10g
R3 = A + B + RTD In a three-wire null-balance bridge, the lead-wire effect is reduced
to the difference between the resistances of the two lead wires (B − A).
R1 R3
+ DVM A
− Vs RTD
Vo B
R2 R1 R3a
DVM A
Unbalanced Bridge = Digital Voltmeter Reads Vo
Vs C RTD
Vo = Vs(R3/R3 + A + B + RTD) - Vs/2 Vo = 0 D
R2
R3(Vs-2Vo)/(Vs+2Vo) = A + B + RTD
B
FIG. 4.10e Switch in Position “A”
Null-balance bridge-type two-wire RTD installations showing a R1 + R3a + A + C = R2 + B + RTD + C
galvanometric (G) readout in a balanced condition (left) and a DVM When R1 = R2:
readout in an unbalanced condition (right) where the DVM reads R3a + A = B + RTD
V0 volts.
R1 R3b
DVM A
mm Vs C RTD
Vo = 0 D
in R2
121 B
4.8 Allow 150 mm (6 in.) for
Cover Removal Switch in Position “B”
R1 + R3b + B + D = R2 + A + RTD + D
Basic Transmitter When R1 = R2:
Package R3b + B = A + RTD
267
10.5
FIG. 4.10h
If the leads of a four-wire null-balance bridge are switched as shown
1/2 NPT for Terminal and the resulting two equations are added up, the lead-wire effects
89
3.5
Connections. Two Holes are eliminated and the resistance of RTD = (R3a + R3b)/2.
180° Apart. Plug Unused Hole.

Coupler 104 three-wire RTD transmitters may not meet it (their usual error
4.1
Max. limit is about 10 times higher). For this reason, in laboratory
25
1.0 situations or for other high-precision measurements, one
3/4 NPT, 1 NPT, 25
R 3/4 or R1 1.0
might consider the use of four-wire systems, which com-
pletely eliminate the lead-wire effect.

Insertion 64 “U”
2.5 Four-Wire RTDs

Using a four-wire measuring circuit eliminates the above

11.1 mm (0.44 in.) OD with problem. The design engineer should consider any of the
6.60 mm (0.260 in.) Bore leading brands of temperature transmitters that accept four-
wire RTD inputs. Direct connection to remote devices with
FIG. 4.10f
three-wire extension cable will often produce errors that can
RTD transmitter mounted directly on thermowell. (Courtesy of The
Foxboro Co.)
be significant and will vary with environmental conditions.
Four-wire RTDs can be connected either to a null-balance
bridge or to a constant current source. Both will be described
by multiplying coolant flow with its temperature rise, the here. Figure 4.10h illustrates a four-wire null-balance bridge.
flowmeter itself will contribute 0.25% in error and therefore It operates by switching a triple-pole double-throw switch and
one must measure the temperature rise within 0.25%. making alternate null-balance measurements in the two con-
An error of 0.25% over an actual measurement of 5°F is figurations. In one configuration, lead A is measured together
0.0125°F (0.007°C). This is such a small error limit that even with the RTD resistance, while in the other configuration it is

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

652 Temperature Measurement

#1 SENSOR CONSTRUCTION
A
Figure 4.10c illustrates some of the RTD sensor elements.
i=0
The most popular industrial designs are fully encapsulated.
DVM
In these units a 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) diameter or smaller
Ic
CCS platinum wire is wound into a coil and is inserted in the
RTD
multiple bores of a ceramic tube or is wound directly on the
outside of a ceramic tube. The ceramic material is usually
B 99.7% pure aluminum oxide, and the winding is completely
embedded and fused onto or into the tube. The RTD ther-
#2
mometers are in direct competition with TCs and therefore
FIG. 4.10i are available with the same features.
Offset compensated four-wire RTD measurement using CCS and The elements are manufactured with a protective sheath
DVM as readout. that provides a hermetic seal to protect the sensor from mois-
ture and/or contamination. These protective sheaths are offered
in a variety of lengths to provide the proper insertion into the
lead B, so they cancel out completely and the actual value of
process to obtain a representative measurement. The sheathed
the RTD resistance is determined as (R3a + R3b)/2.
elements are often installed into a protective well to isolate the
Microprocessors and advanced electronics make it fea- sensor from the process. One manufacturer offers a universal
sible to provide this level of sophistication, but complexity model that has a 1-in.-long sheath but is provided with long
still costs money, so these designs are relatively expensive; leads within a spiraled spring (Figure 4.10j). The leads can be
in addition, they are still limited by contact resistance cut in the field to fit the length of the thermal well, reducing the
considerations. Even the best (gold-plated) switching con- requirement for stocking a variety of sensors in varying lengths.
tacts contribute some contact resistance. The difference
between these resistances does introduce some miniscule
errors whenever one uses a switching configuration to make
a resistance measurement.
Another way to eliminate the lead-wire error is to use a
constant current source (CCS) in a four-wire RTD configu-
ration. These miniaturized CCS packages are available at
relatively low costs and provide an accurately constant cur-
rent flow of about 2 mA or less to avoid self-heating errors.
As shown in Figure 4.10i, in this configuration the bridge
itself is replaced by a DVM, which measures the resistance
of only the RTD and is insensitive to lead-wire effects as
there is no current flow through the connecting wires. The
source lead resistances (A and B) contribute no error because
the voltage drop is not measured along them.
For the maximum in precision, it would be prudent to make
sure that the current flow (Ic) through the RTD is constant and
that the DVM does draw any current (i = 0), and also to cancel
out the thermocouple (TC) junction voltages at points #1 and
#2. This is necessary because as the two wires (platinum RTD
and copper lead) at #1 and #2 form TC junctions, the milli-
voltages they generate will also be registered by the DVM.
This effect is eliminated by offset compensation. The offset
voltage generated by the unintended TC junctions is measured
by the DVM when the CCS circuit is opened and, therefore,
Ic = 0. The smart RTD readout memorizes the voltage sensed
when no current is flowing and corrects the total reading by
that amount when the CCS is connected and Ic is about 2 mA.
In general, two-wire RTDs are only used in heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)-type secondary FIG. 4.10j
applications, three-wire RTDs are still used in some process- RTD transmitter with a 1 in.-long sheath element and with long
ing industries, and four-wire RTDs are used in most high- leads within a spiraled spring, which can be cut to match the ther-
precision services or in the laboratory. mowell length. (Courtesy of Moore Industries-International, Inc.)

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors 653

RTD Sensing
RTD RTD Insulated Leads Element
Lead Seal Probe Sheath Packed in MgO Subassembly

Spring Loaded Thermowell

Mounting Fitting
Connection Terminal Removable
Head Block Retainer

FIG. 4.10k
Industrial RTD/thermowell assembly.

0.25" Platinum Resistance Wire

Tantalum Case
Coiled PT
Wire Element in Ceramic Core Lead Wires
Ceramic Case
Aluminum Oxide Heat Transfer
Encapsulation Epoxy
Bare 30 AWG Terminal Head
Platinum Leads

0.18"
Reactor
Baffle
Thin Film PT
0.31" Element in
Ceramic Case
RTD
Sensor
Insulated
28 AWG Stranded
FIG. 4.10m
Copper Leads
RTD sensor for glass-lined reactors. (Courtesy of Pfaudler.)

FIG. 4.10l One limitation of the early RTDs (relative to TCs) was
RTD surface temperature sensors. size. RTDs tended to be relatively bulky, because in order to
obtain the required resistance (usually 100 Ω), the length of
Thermowells the sensor wire must be relatively long, frequently several
feet. This limitation has been overcome by the film-type
Figure 4.10k illustrates a conventional industrial RTD sensor designs (Figure 4.10c), which are suited for miniaturization.
provided with a protective thermowell and fixed length leads. The 63.2% time constants of different RTDs (without
Figure 4.10l shows two designs of surface-temperature-sensing thermowells) are given in Figure 4.10n. One might approxi-
RTDs. Other surface mounting configurations are illustrated in mate the time constant of the final assembly by doubling the
Figures 4.1t and 4.1v. The packaging of the RTD sensor time constants for each layer of material added in the process
depends on the application. For example, the measurement of of installation.
temperature inside glass-lined chemical reactors requires spe-
cial configurations. Figure 4.10m shows an RTD element that Installation
can be installed either through the bottom discharge valve of
the reactor or at the tip of the reactor baffle. The 63.2% response In terms of installation, RTDs require the same precautions
time to a step change is about 7.5 s; the 95% response time is as TCs. The best installation practice is to place all electronics
about 28 s. directly on top of the thermowell (Figures 4.10f and 4.10j)

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors 654

20 sensors provide better accuracy and less span shift than do

nickel elements. Also, while intelligent transmitters give
b es
Pro better performance than do standard ones, they too are lim-
10
rature
mpe ited to a minimum error of about 0.18°F (0.1°C). Table 4.10o
8 h Te
Hig
also shows that the smart transmitters that have digital out-
63.2% in Water at 3 Ft/Sec

6
nts puts provide better performance.
me
Time Constant — Sec

4 Ele
lad
et al C
o rM
˚C Intelligent Transmitters
o 250
2 es T
rob
P In addition to having improved performance, intelligent trans-
mitters are capable of working with any one of eight types of
1 TC or two types of RTD elements. This increases their flex-
0.8 e nts
lem ibility and reduces the need for spare parts. The intelligent
dE
0.6 acla transmitters are also provided with continuous self-diagnositcs
ram
Ce
0.4 and with automatic three-point self-calibration, which is per-
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.32 formed every 5 s and does not interrupt the analog or digital
(2.0) (2.5) (3.0) (3.6) (4.0) (4.6) (5.1) (5.6) (6.1) (6.6) (7.1) (7.6) (8.1)
output of the unit.
Probe or Element Outside Diameter — in. (mm) A transmitter includes an input circuit referred to as an
FIG. 4.10n analog-to-digital (A/D) converter that converts the sensor
Response time of typical resistance temperature sensor. input signal from its analog form into a digital representation
for presentation to the microprocessor. The microprocessor
and thereby eliminate lead-wire and noise effects. If for some performs all of the mathematical manipulations of ranging,
reason this cannot be done, the lead wires should be twisted linearization, error checking, and conversion. The output
and shielded; the wires should also not be stressed, strained, stage accepts the resultant digital representation of the current
or made to go through steep gradients. The extension wire value of the measurement and converts the signal back to an
should be low resistance (large diameter), and the readout analog signal (D/A) that is typically a 4–20 mA DC current.
instrument should be guarded. For some special applications, 0–1 or 0–10 V DC signals
For further discussions on the general topics of surface may be used and in others the signal is transmitted digitally
and solids temperature measurement, refer to Section 4.1 and using either an open or proprietary protocol. Some countries
Figures 4.1t and 4.1v. have adopted 020 mA as the standard transmitted signal.
The intelligent RTD transmitter can also be furnished
with dual RTD elements that can be used to measure
TRANSMITTERS temperature differentials, averages, or high/low sensors,
or used as redundant backup elements. This capability also
The typical performance capabilities of different RTD trans- allows for automatic RTD sensor switchover if the primary
mitters are summarized in Table 4.10o. In general, platinum sensor fails in a redundant installation. Due to terminal

TABLE 4.10o
Performance Capabilities of Standard and “Smart” RTD Transmitters*
STANDARD SMART

Analog Output
Performance Criteria Platinum Element Nickel Element Digital Output (4−20 mA DC)
Inaccuracy ±0.15% or ±0.25% ±0.035% or ±0.05% or
±0.15°F (0.08°C) ±0.18°F (0.1°C) ±0.18°F (0.1°C)
Repeatability ±0.05% ±0.05% ±0.015% or ±0.025% or
±0.18°F (0.1°C) ±0.18°C (0.1°C)
Zero Shift/6 mo. ±0.1% ±0.2% ±0.06% R or ±0.1% R or 0.18°F
0.18°F (0.1°C) (0.1°C)
Span Shift/6 mo. ±0.1% ±0.4%
Supply Voltage Variation ±0.2% or 0.02°F (0.01°C) — (0.005%)/Volt
Ambient Effect (100°F or ±0.75% Included above ±0.1%
55°C)

*When two values are given the error is the higher of the two. When % is given it refers to % of span or % of calibrated span, except if %R is
shown, which means % of actual reading.

© 2003 by Béla Lipták

 4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors 655

limitations, these models can only accept dual three-wire Other advantages include their relatively good sensitivity
RTDs. Caution must be used to minimize lead resistance (0.1 to 10 Ω/°F) and their ability to use conventional copper
differences to reduce the error. Another convenient feature lead wire (instead of more expensive TC wire). An advantage
of smart transmitters is their remote reconfiguration capa- of copper RTDs is that since both the element material and
bility, which can change their zero, span, or many other the lead-wire material are the same, the TC effect is mini-
features without requiring rewiring. mized at their junction. Another advantage of RTDs is the
The common features of the leading temperature trans- convenience of using a single bridge to measure the temper-
mitter models are: universal inputs from any TC, RTD, mV, ature difference between two RTDs.
resistance or potentiometer; loop-powered with 0–20/4–20 A concern common to all RTDs is the error produced by
mA output; digital outputs; and configuration with push but- self-heating. Measuring the voltage across an RTD produced
tons, personal computer (PC) software, or a handheld con- by passing a precise current flow through the RTD produces
figurator. Choices must be made for which protocol is heat that will appear as a positive offset over the actual
required: Highway Addressable Remote Transducer (HART), process temperature. The size of this error rises with RTD
Foundation Fieldbus, Profibus, vendor proprietary, Ethernet, size and its resistance. It can be reduced by improving heat
or just 420 mA. transfer and by minimizing or eliminating (null-balance) the
current flow through the RTD. The lower is the measuring
current; the less is this self-heating effect. It is reduced by
A/D Converters, Digital Protocols good thermal contact with the process fluid and when mea-
Just as microprocessors have evolved in sophistication, so suring higher temperatures. Circuits in better transmitters use
have A/D converters. Eight-bit resolution devices common about 250 µA.
in the 1960s provided a resolution of about ±0.4%. In the Other disadvantages of RTDs include their higher cost,
year 2000 the first 21-bit resolution A/D was used in a tem- more fragile construction, and larger size, relative to TCs.
perature transmitter providing a resolution of ±0.00005%. Because of their size, their thermal response time is also
D/A converters have also evolved with resolutions increasing relatively slow (Figure 4.10n). Errors can be introduced if the
from 8-bit up to the 18-bit versions used in the better trans- RTD insulation resistance is affected by moisture being
mitters beginning in 2000. sealed in the sheath or by contact between element and
The result of combining these technologies is a univer- sheath. Some RTDs are more vibration-sensitive than others.
sal transmitter that accepts inputs from any TC, RTD, mV, RTDs are also dependable for their precision on stable (insen-
resistance or potentiometer signal; checks its own calibration sitive to temperature changes) and constant resistances and
on every measurement cycle; has minimal drift over a wide power supplies in the associated bridges.
ambient temperature range; incorporates self-diagnostics;
and is configured using push buttons or simple PC software.
The reconfiguration process is quick and convenient, and it Reference
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© 2003 by Béla Lipták