Business Writing That Works

Module One: Why Write?

Whether we want to or not, most of us must write. We write to explain things, to smooth relationships,
and/or to convince others of the value of some course of action. Such writing must be clear, concise,
complete, and correct. In some instances, you will want to express yourself in very concrete terms using
indirect language, but your work will always be courteous. This workshop will help you to identify the
forms that are used in business and the techniques that good writing requires.

Many writers are defeated by the attitude that writing is an awesome task, so they do whatever they
can to avoid it. These people do not have confidence in their skills and have not learned to trust
themselves with language. Sometimes they go to their files to see what has been done in the past. To
overcome their insecurity, they may try to write to impress. They hunt for big words to sound like an
authority on the subject. They pad their reports to indicate thoroughness. But they leave their readers
wanting for more: readers want to mean.

Our aim is to teach the habits of good writing. With the proper attitude, a respect for how words work
together, and knowledge of usage conventions, your writing can be clear, concise, complete, and
correct, and easy to read.

Trust yourself. Say what you mean in the simple language you would use with a friend. Make
adjustments in your wording until you are sure you are saying what you want to say, and then read it
again to make a reader will understand what you are saying.

If you want to be a better writer, there are four things you can do to help yourself.

1. You must read. If the only writing you ever read is your own, you will have no standards to judge
your writing against. Read like a spectator, if you must, but try to read like an apprentice.

2. You must write. No matter how many rules you know, it takes practice to write well. Your tenth
letter to a disgruntled client will be easier to write than the first one, and believe it or not; the tenth
report will be easier to write too.

3. You should want to write. Find personal reasons for wanting to write well and for wanting to
communicate with others. Then, turn off the language cop that’s slowing you down and get writing.
4. You need a feedback system to tell you how you're doing. You need to know if your writing works.
People don't learn to write well from being corrected; they learn not to write. Look at feedback as
an opportunity to find better solutions, not as an opportunity to correct errors.

You are already very familiar with the English language. You already talk easily and well. People
generally understand you. So the leap from talking to writing doesn’t need to be difficult if we think
about what we’re writing and what kind of message that we want to share in those terms.

However, before putting pen to paper, or turning on the computer, there are several things to think
about; things we think about whether we are talking or writing. They are what we call the four C’s of
communication and writing: clear, concise, complete, and correct.
 Module Two: Be Clear

This Module Will Cover:

 Writing Clearly
 Individual Exercise

Writing Clearly

Writing is like other forms of communication. You want people who receive your letters, e-mails,
reports, memos, or proposals to understand what you are saying.

People are inundated with things to read. If you tend to pad your writing with extra words and fluff, they
will probably feel that their time is being wasted. Poorly written documents will go to the bottom of the
pile and may not be read at all.

The Power of the Human Mind

According to research at Cambridge University, it doesn’t matter what order the letters in a word are.
The only important thing is that the first and last letter is in the right place. The rest can be a total mess,
and you can still read it without a problem. This is because the human mind does not read every letter
by itself, but the word as a whole.

Amazing huh?

Why Write Well?

When we write well, we are saying that we have thought about our message, we have taken the time to
understand the reader, and we want to send a positive image of ourselves.

Finally, when we write well, we improve the bottom line. Why? We save time, frustration, and
inconvenience; all of which represent costs.

Out of these pairs, which word will be more likely understood?

 Elected or decided? ___________________
 Imbibed or drank? ___________________
Choosing What to Say

People who think that it’s easy to select words that sound natural are mistaken. Good writing, just like
good anything, is hard work, and the better you want to be, the harder it is. Good writers labour over
word choice, sentence creation, and paragraphing, even such seemingly simple considerations as the
word “up.”

Avoiding Up
 She was chosen to head up the department.
 The perpetrator must face up to the situation.
 The police must rise up to the occasion.

None of these sentences needs the word “up,” which is a preposition. Up doesn’t add meaning to these
verbs; it takes away from their sharpness. While this may seem like a small point, it is where the basics
of good writing begin. To strengthen those sentences, you can remove the word up.
 She was chosen to head the department.
 The perpetrator must face the situation.
 The police must rise to the occasion.

In business writing, the words we choose exactly have to communicate what we mean, and with
maximum power. Resist the urge to have your writing sound the way you speak. When we talk, we often
insert meaningless noise to fill in silence or to give us time to think of the right word. If you use phrases
like a kind of, in terms of, a type of, or repeatedly use the word like, make sure they do not make it into
your writing! The solution is to edit, edit, edit.
The following sentences are clearer to a reader after rewrite.

Original Rewritten

Theo Walters is the only assistant to Jean Theo Walters is the assistant of Jean Rushmore.
Rushmore.

Report any other defects or mechanical Report to the supervisor for any defects or
damage to the supervisor in the finished mechanical damage in the finished product.
product.

Arriving early for my interview, the human The human resources office was not open I
resources office was not open. arrived early for my interview

Kaye’s job does not because it causes great Kaye’s job is not worth keeping because it is
stress, seem worth keeping. stressful.
 Module Three: Be Concise

This Module Will Cover:

 Writing Concisely

Writing Concisely

Before you start writing, ask yourself a few questions to help you focus your writing on what’s
important.

Consider that we read most information on a computer screen. Many people use an even smaller
screen like a smartphone or e-reader. The more scrolling you make your reader do, the less likely they
will read your entire e-mail or letter or report.

For people reading on a regular computer screen or paper, they will naturally want to read things that
are attractive. Think about having a blend of white space and text, using easily readable fonts in a
reasonable size, and making your work look good.

Ask yourself:
 Who is your reader?
 What do they already know?
 What do they need to know?
 What do they not need to know?
 How and where will they read this?
 What results do I want?
 What can I put in an appendix for people who want more detail?
“There really are no true synonyms.”

Do you agree with that statement or not? Is there a difference between “daring” and “reckless”?
Between “famous” and “notorious”? While we do want to use words that others understand, if the
word you want to use is more precise, your writing might be clearer if you choose to use that word. It
might be better than substituting something more readily understood but less precise.

Concise writing strikes a balance between:

 Abstract words that imply qualities (like beauty and inflation)
 General words (like management, team, and culture)
 Concrete words (such as duck, lamp, lighting, and water, which we know by our five senses)
 Specific words that limit a general class (the building is a general word while a skyscraper is a
specific type of building)
 Module Four: Be Complete

This Module Will Cover:

 Making Your Writing Complete

Making Your Writing Complete

The third C in this series is Complete. Your message is complete when all the information needed for a
receiver to understand is included. While the writing situation and knowing your audience will help you
decide what information to include, you can also refer to the following list.

 Use the 5 W's and an H. Answer the questions: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
 Make a checklist of all the important points you want to cover, and then check them off when
the letter/memo/e-mail is done.
 Empathize with the reader. Ask yourself if you have told him/her everything he/she needs to
know.
 Restate for effectiveness. You will state the problem or objective clearly at the beginning of your
writing so that your reader understands what is important. Since readers are most likely to
remember what is at the beginning and at the end, you will need to restate it using slightly
different wording to add emphasis.
 Give something extra when appropriate, such as an example, a visual, or a supporting reference.

Try to put yourself in your reader’s shoes (applying empathy), and ask yourself if your writing is going to
appeal to your reader. Sometimes in our efforts to get everything into a document, we create something
that is too long, too dry, too wordy, or too complicated. Put on your flexibility hat and ask yourself:

 Does the reader need all of this information?

 Are there things that I can edit out of the document, still giving enough?
Always try to give your reader what they need and want, while being flexible in the way that you
organize that information. One technique is to pretend that you are a news editor preparing this piece
for two different audiences. One audience wants every scrap of detail as if they would be getting the
information in a 90-minute conference session. The second audience needs all the important elements,
but is going to read your document within a blog post, where the maximum length allowed is 500 words.
 Module Five: Be Correct

Let’s talk about some common errors in writing and how you can correct them.

Subjects and verbs should agree in number. For example, if the subject (noun or pronoun) is singular,
the verb should be singular too. Most of the time, we will have no trouble, but occasionally things get a
bit sticky.

Allow meaning to determine whether collective nouns (jury, team, family, etc.) are singular or plural.
When they function as a unit, as is usually the case, treat them as singular.
 The Board is pleased to announce the promotion of Ashley Smith to Acting Manager.
 The committee made the decision to move forward.
 The jury has reached its decision.

However, if the members of the group function individually, treat the collective noun is plural. “The
Board was split on the need for budget cuts,” is an instance of a plural collective noun. The Board
represents several voices or points of view, so a plural verb was needed.

Don’t let additional words in a sentence muddy the waters when they come between a subject and its
verb.
 The documents need shredding.
 The documents in the brown box in the filing room need shredding.

Words such as athletes, economics, scissors, statistics, and news are usually considered singular despite
their plural form.
 Module Six: Word Agreement

This Module Will Cover:

 Making Words Agree

Making Words Agree

“Which” and “that” are relative pronouns that refer to other nouns or pronouns (antecedents) and the
verb should agree with the noun or pronoun it refers to. For example, in the sentence, “Take a suit that
travels well,” “that” refers to the suit, and since “suit” is considered one outfit, the verb is the singular
verb “travels.”

Make pronouns, and their antecedents (the word the pronoun refers to) agree.
 The doctor finished her rounds.
 The doctors finished their rounds.

Anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everything, none, no one, someone, and something are all
considered singular. In a sentence using both “neither” and “nor,” the verb agrees with the final noun as
in, “Neither Roger nor the twins are here today.”

Place modifiers or describers as close to the word they modify as possible, so the relationship is clear to
the reader. Putting modifiers in their proper place is not always easy, especially if you like to squeeze as
many words as you can into a sentence. The mistakes can be funny for everyone except the poor writer.

For example, in the sentence, “Opening the presentation with a request for a large donation, the first
slide had misspelt the executive director’s name,” the sentence falsely suggests that the slide had
created the misspelling. (A slide cannot write itself; the presenter made the error.)

To repair the sentence, it can be revised like this, “As the presenter displayed the first slide, a request
for large donations, I noticed that the executive director’s name was misspelt,” OR “When I displayed
the first slide, a request for large donations, I realized that I had misspelt my executive director’s name.”

Another example: “While reading the executive director’s report, John’s phone rang,” can be changed
to, “While John was reading the executive director’s report, his phone rang.”
 Module Seven: Active and Passive Voice

Most people prefer to read writing that is in the active voice, especially when you are writing about
people. It is easier to read, “Robert Green developed a process for constructing new solar homes,” than
it is to read, “A new process for developing solar homes was developed by Robert Green.”

In the active voice, the subject of a sentence is the doer of the action. For active sentences, follow the
usual word order in your sentences: subject, verb, object. Your sentences will be more interesting and
easier to understand.

Examples

Passive Active

The exam was thought to be unfair. We thought the exam was unfair.

Every shred of evidence to be found was The detectives investigated every shred of
investigated by the detectives. evidence they could find.

The ground was littered after the concert. Garbage littered the grounds after the concert.

Many government documents and large organizations use the passive voice, which sounds quite
impersonal. Talking directly to your readers with words like, “I, you, we, us, our,” makes your document
more personal.

For example, rather than write: “The client can make applications to the Department of Motor Vehicles
for licensing before June 1,” try, “You can apply to the Department of Motor Vehicles for your license
before June 1.”
Passive Voice

There are times when the passive voice is useful. Some scenarios include:
 When you must deliver bad news. “The decision to terminate your lease was agreed upon by all
members of the committee.”
 When the subject is not important, or you don’t know the subject. “The children were delighted
by the sudden appearance of a clown.”
 When you aren’t sure who or what is responsible for an action. “Their house was broken into
last night.”
 When you want to focus attention on the action, not the doer of the action. “When harvest time
approaches, the potato plants are sprayed with a chemical to keep them from sprouting.”
 Module Eight: Sentences and Sentence Types

This Module Will Cover:

 Sentences and Paragraphs

Sentences and Paragraphs

The Sentence

A sentence is a complete unit of thought. Sentences can be classified by their structure.

A simple sentence has one idea expressed by one subject and one verb: “Billy ran.” Adding additional
descriptors to those two words does not change the main idea: “Billy ran into the schoolyard.”

A compound sentence has at least two main ideas, or clauses joined together. “Billy ran into the
schoolyard and started crying for his mother.”

A complex sentence has one main idea and a second idea that is subordinate but tied to it. “Billy ran
into the schoolyard when the school bus pulled away.”

A compound-complex sentence has two main ideas and at least one subordinate or secondary clause
with it. “Billy ran into the schoolyard when the school bus pulled away and began crying for his mother,
who was nowhere to be seen.”
The Paragraph

A paragraph is defined as a collection of sentences that may introduce, conclude, connect, and develop
some part of an idea. Paragraphs have a beginning (a statement of the theme), a middle (clearly and
logically develops the theme), and an end (concludes the discussion and sometimes provides a link to
the next paragraph).

Limit each paragraph to one idea, unless you are linking related thoughts. If you are comparing the old
and the new, for example, it makes sense to bring them together in one paragraph.

Ordering the middle of a paragraph is a challenge for many writers. However, ordering may be
chronological, in order of importance, move from general to specific (or vice versa), move from simple
to complex, from pro to con, or from question to answer.

Complicated information, or a discussion of several ideas, generally needs to be broken up into separate
paragraphs to be easily understood.

To avoid choppy paragraphs, use a variety of sentence types and sentence lengths. While the average
sentence should be about 17 words, vary the length of your sentences to make your writing more
interesting.

Keep paragraphs short when possible. While the length will vary depending on the content, remember
that the rules of being concise while you write do apply. Paragraph length, of course, depends on
content. Some topics are short, some are long, and others are in between. A good rule to follow is to
question the sensibility of paragraphs over 12 lines. An average length of nine lines makes for good
readability.
 Module Nine: Readability Index

This Module Will Cover:

 About the Index
 Using the Index

About the Index

Calculating the Index

Sometimes we make writing difficult for our readers. That may not be our intention, but if we use
unfamiliar words, use jargon or terms they don’t understand, and write long, complicated sentences,
the reader must work harder to understand your message—and sometimes they just don’t bother.

To figure out how readable your writing is, apply the readability test, sometimes called the Gunning Fog
Index, to a sample of your own writing.

1. Count out a sample of 100 words. Count to the end of the sentence nearest to the 100-word total.
Record that number. (Example: 104 words.)

2. Count the number of sentences in your sample. Record that number. (Example: 7 sentences.)

3. Divide the number of words in the sample by the number of sentences. This will give you the
average sentence length. (Example: 104 divided by 7 gives an average sentence length of
approximately 15 words.)

4. Go back through this sample and count/circle all words of three or more syllables (polysyllabic
words). Do not include proper nouns, compound words made up of short, easy words (like
“bookkeeper”) or words that made polysyllabic by an “es”, “ed,” or “ing” added to the end of the
word (such as “adapted”). (Example: 14 words of three syllables or more.)

5. Divide the number of polysyllabic words by the total words in the sample, and then multiply the
answer by 100 to find the percentage of words that are polysyllabic. (Example: 14 divided by 104
multiplied by 100 equals approximately 13.5% of the words are polysyllabic.)
6. Add the average sentence length (15) and the number of polysyllabic or "hard words" per hundred
(14) together. (Example: 14 plus 15 equals 29.)

7. Multiply this by the Fog Factor (0.4) to learn your Readability or Fog Index. (Example: 29 multiplied
by 0.4 equals 11.6.)
About Your Score

What does this mean? Very approximately, it means the number of years of schooling people would
need in order to read your writing. For most instances, a score between 8 and 12 is good. For some
readers, you will want to have a lower readability index. Occasionally you may be writing for readers
who will be comfortable with a higher readability index.

As a point of comparison, here is how some well-known publications stack up against the readability
index.
 The Economist: 13 (difficult)
 The Wall Street Journal: 11
 The New York Times: 10
 MacLean’s: 10
 Reader’s Digest: 8
 USA Today: 7
 People Magazine: 6
 Tabloid Newspapers: 6 (easy)

Robert Gunning, who designed this popular test, has said, “The Fog Index is a handy means for judging
readability. It is not a formula for how to write.”

Calculating the Index Automatically

When you are using Microsoft Word, you can set it to measure your readability score with an easy to
use and straightforward tool. Here is how you would set it up. (These steps may be slightly different
depending on the version you are using.)
 Click the Office button or File menu (top left-hand corner)
 Click Options
 Select the Proofing category
 Under the “When correcting spelling and grammar in Word” section, check the box “Show
readability statistics.”
 Click OK
You can then go through your document and not only check spelling and grammar, but at the conclusion
of the document, you can get a readability score. For example, this document scores at a 7.5 level.
Using the Index

Ichabod Crane

The Cognomen of Crane was not inapplicable to this person. He was tall but exceedingly lank with
narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves, feet that might have
served for shovels, and his whole frame hung most loosely together. His head was small and flat at the
top, with huge ears, glassy green eyes, and a long snipe nose, so that it looked like a weather-cock
placed on his spindle neck, to tell which way the wind blew. To see him striding along with the profile of
a hill on a windy day, with his clothes bagging and fluttering about him, one might have mistaken him for
the genius of famine, descending upon the earth, or some scarecrow eloped from a cornfield.

- Washington Irving, “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”

 Module Ten: Manners and Courtesy

This Module Will Cover:

 Courtesy
 What’s My Style?

Courtesy

If we step back and think about it, it can seem odd to have to remind people to be polite. However, we
know that people can struggle with making their mark while trying to be recognized as serious within
the business environment. We also know that some people are arrogant or rude and that they could
probably achieve much better results (and certainly develop more trusting relationships) if they would
apply good manners to their work.

When you consider what you write, these principles of courtesy will help you to respect, appreciate,
and acknowledge others:
 Be sincere, tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative.
 Don’t use words that could irritate, hurt, or belittle.
 Apologize with a good nature when required.
 Answer your mail promptly.
 Use a writing style that fits the topic you are writing about and your audience.
 Be aware of culturally sensitive issues, such as how you address mail to other countries, or how
you end your letters and e-mails, to have the greatest regard given to your work.

When writing letters, you should also make sure you:

 Use the appropriate company name.
 Address the letter correctly.
 Spell the person’s name correctly.
 Use the proper form of address. If you are unsure, use Mr. or Mrs If you are unsure of gender,
simply use the person’s name.
What’s My Style?

Sample One

Rating: ___________
Sample Two

Rating: ___________
Sample Three

Rating: ___________
 Module Eleven: Practical Language

When you are writing, always use language and punctuation in a practical manner. Remember that the
intent of your writing is to send a message to your reader. As your writing evolves, you will see that
breaking a rule from time to time can add emphasis or impact to your message.

If necessary, you may:

 Begin sentences with “and” or “but.”
 End sentences with prepositions (the most frequent prepositions we use are: at, by, for, from,
in, of, on, to, with)
 Use the same terms consistently

You can also use fewer punctuation marks, as long as the writing remains clear.

You should try not to start sentences with “it,” because there can be confusion about what “it” refers to.
Reread any sentences that you are inclined to start with the word “it” and see if there is a stronger word
that you can use.
Our lives are filled with jargon, and it is tempting to let acronyms and jargon fill our documents.
Remember to spell out acronyms the first time you use them in any document.

Word Usage

Fewer refers to number but less modifies a singular noun. “There were fewer volunteers, and they were
less eager to work.”

Anxious means worried. Eager means desirous. “I am anxious about the interview tomorrow, but I am
eager to begin earning some money.”

Almost means nearly. Most are the superlative form of much. “I have almost finished lunch. This was
the most delicious salad I’ve eaten in days.”

Numerous refers to a large but unknown number. Many is a large, indefinite number. “There are
numerous sales positions advertised, but many of them are for jobs in manufacturing.”

Who and whoever are always subjects of a clause. Whom and whoever are always objects of verbs or
prepositions.
 “The man who wanted to buy the miracle window cleaner stood in line for an hour.”
 “The fire-fighters rescued the children whom the police had been unable to reach.”
That and Which

“That” is used almost exclusively with restrictive clauses; those that limit or narrow the definition of an
item. The clause cannot be moved or changed without affecting the meaning of the sentence. For
example, “The clothes that Jamie wore to the party reeked of cigarette smoke.” The only clothes being
talked about here are those Jamie wore to the party.

“Which,” on the other hand, is used in a non-restrictive clause. It neither limits nor narrows meaning,
but tells more about an item. Example: “The Statue of Liberty, which is in New York, welcomed many,
many immigrants at the turn of the century.”

Playing with Language

Sometimes you have to read these statements two or three times to sort out what they are trying to
say!
 The bandage was wound around the wound.
 The farm was used to produce produce.
 The dump was so full that it had to refuse more refuse.
 We must polish the Polish furniture.
 He could lead if he got the lead out.
 The soldier decided to desert his dessert in the desert.
 Since there is no time like the present, he thought it was time to present the present.
 At the Army base, a bass was painted on the head of a bass drum.
 When shot at, the dove dove into the bushes.
 I did not object to the object, nor could I be objective about the objective.
 The insurance was invalid for the invalid.
 There was a row among the oarsmen about how to row.
 They were too close to the door to close it.
 The buck does funny things when the does are present.
 A seamstress and a sewer fell down into a sewer line.
 To help with planting, the farmer taught his sow to sow.
 The wind was too strong to wind the sail.
 After a number of Novocain injections, my jaw got number.
 Upon seeing the tear in the painting I shed a tear.
 I had to subject the subject to a series of tests.
 How can I intimate this to my most intimate friend?
 I spent last evening evening out a pile of dirt.
  If you have a rough cough, climbing can be tough when going through the bough on a tree!
 There is no egg in eggplant.
Some food for thought:
 Is it weird that when the stars are out, it means you can see them, but when the lights are out,
they are off?
 Does it make sense that boxing rings are really square?
 Am I the only one that laughs because people have noses that run and feet that smell?
 Module Twelve: Inclusive Language

Inclusive language is really about opening our minds and messages to the realities of life. We work,
live, and play among men and women of all ages and backgrounds. Our writing needs to reflect reality,
so we should ensure that our language is inclusive rather than restrictive; open rather than closed.

Don’t make all nurses and administrative professionals “she,” nor all doctors and senior executives “he.”
We can get very tangled up in gender and slow down reading when we write “he/she, s/he, he and/or
she” but we do need a way to reflect we are making a conscious decision to use language that is
inclusive.

One straightforward way to eliminate gender bias is to recast the sentence in the plural. Rather than,
“Each employee should shut off his computer before leaving,” write, “Employees should shut off their
computers before leaving.” Another possibility is to delete the personal pronoun. “If an employee is
late, notify his immediate supervisor,” becomes, “If an employee is late, notify the immediate
supervisor.”

Here are some common terms and inclusive alternatives.

Original Word/Phrase Alternative

Mankind Humankind, people

Man on the street People on the street

Manpower People power

Chairman Chair

Spokesman Spokesperson

Policeman Police officer

Stewardess Attendant

Salesman Salesperson or professional

Fisherman Fisher*

Fireman Fire-fighter
 Module Thirteen: Sentence Construction

The two basic rules for constructing sentences are: use construction that makes meaning clear and
keep construction parallel.

Parallel construction means that parts of a sentence that are parallel or balanced in meaning should be
parallel or balanced in structure. For example, if you write, “She likes swimming, running and to play the
piano,” to play the piano is a different construction from swimming and running. Write “She likes
swimming, running, and playing the piano,” to make the activities parallel in structure.

When Shakespeare has Hamlet say, “To die, to sleep, perchance to dream,” he is using parallel structure.
Parallelism refers to a series of like grammatical structures (words, phrases, and clauses) expressed in
repeated grammatical construction.
 Module Fourteen: Punctuation

This Module Will Cover:

 Introduction

Introduction

The Comma

Commas are the most common punctuation mark inside a sentence. However, the trend today is to use
them only when absolutely necessary, or when omitting the comma would cause confusion.

Use a comma after a long introductory phrase or clause: "After working all day at the office, I went
home for dinner." If the introductory material is short, forget the comma: "After work, I went home for
dinner."

Use a comma if the sentence would be confusing without it, like this: “The day before, I borrowed my
boss's calculator."

Use a comma to separate elements in a series, including numbers in a list: "I enjoy drinking orange
juice, tea, milk, and coffee." You also use it with numbers: “5, 7, and 9.” (There are some style guides
that omit the comma before “and,” but you’ll notice that we like it. The important thing is to make sure
that you are consistent, and that you use what your organization is using.)

Use a comma to separate independent clauses that are joined by and, but, or, nor, for, or yet. "We
shopped for three hours, but we didn't make a single purchase."

Use a comma(s) to set off nonessential elements in a sentence. Compare these two sentences:
 In this sentence: “At the podium stood a man wearing a green suit,” the phrase “wearing a
green suit” is essential to identify which man.
 However, in this sentence: “At the podium stood Frank, wearing a green suit,” the phrase
“wearing a green suit,” adds nonessential information about Frank.
You can also use a comma to:
 Separate a city or town from a state or province, as in Sarasota, Florida and Ferntree Gully,
Victoria.
 Set off the name in a direct address. “Jane, can I see you in my office please.”
 After dates, when a day, month and year are used. “He was born on August 12th, 1975.”
 Before degrees that come after a name, as in Joan Walker, PhD.
 Set off an informal quotation, as in Robert remarked, “My investment counsellor is very good.”
 After linking adverbs such as, however, therefore, etc. “The hike was several miles long;
however, the path was a good one.”
 Separate thousands in numbers for clarification, as in 18,239.

NOTE: Not all countries use commas and periods in the same way or for numbers over a thousand or
decimals. Make sure you know your audience!

When shouldn’t we use commas?

 Do not use commas between two independent sentences.
 Do not use commas after titles like Jr. or Sr.
 Do not use a comma after a month when only the month and the year are used.

Note: If you use words like however, moreover, therefore, consequently, nevertheless, or then between
two independent clauses (i.e., sentences by themselves), you must use one of the following:
 A period
 A semicolon
 A comma plus conjunction between the two clauses

NOT, "It looked difficult; therefore, we did not try."

 BUT, "It looked difficult. Therefore, we did not try."
 OR, "It looked difficult; therefore, we did not try."
 OR, "It looked difficult, and therefore we did not try."
The Semi-Colon

The semi-colon sometimes raises people’s blood pressure, but it is a very useful punctuation mark. A
semi-colon has three important features:
 It is considered a more defined pause that the pause required by a comma.
 It is used to separate major sentence elements of equal grammatical rank.
 It is used to separate sentences joined by logical conjunctions such as however, therefore, thus,
and nevertheless.

Example: “I learned all the rules and regulations; however, I never really learned to control the ball.”
It can also be used to separate two closely related sentences not joined by a conjunction. The semi-
colon in this instance is useful for showing contrast or balance.

Example: “Having more work to do is relatively easy to bear; what stings is having more to do than
everyone else.”

It should also be used to separate a series that is complicated or whose items containing internal
punctuation (such as commas).

Example: “Please direct your comments to one of these individuals: Pat Warner, chair of the committee;
Ross Ingram, public affairs; or Calvin Jenkins, promotions.”

The Colon

This punctuation mark is used primarily to call attention to the words that follow it. Here are some
common examples.
 Use a colon after the formal salutation in a business letter. (Dear Dr. Pomeroy:)
 Use a colon before a list. Example: Bring this equipment with you: a knapsack, thick socks,
gloves, etc.
 Use a colon to separate hours and minutes, as in 2:25. (This can differ by culture.)

The Apostrophe

Use an apostrophe when the meaning of “it’s” is “it is.” (Using it’s when the word does not mean “it is”
is one of the most common mistakes in the English language!)
Note that it’s never correct to use an apostrophe in a possessive version of its. This means that anytime
you see “its” with an apostrophe after the s, it is incorrect.

Use an apostrophe to show singular possession (“The doctor’s office was always busy”) and plural
possession (“The doctors’ offices were always busy”).

Note: The use of an apostrophe can be determined by inserting an of phrase, as in “The offices of the
doctors were busy.”
Use an apostrophe to show possession of two objects by two people. “Hilda’s and Janet’s cars were
crushed by the falling tree.”

Use only one apostrophe when possession is shared by two people. “Robert and Susan’s house sold in
five hours.”

Use an apostrophe to show possession in words that are already plural. “The women’s changing room
at the gym was being renovated.” Or, “The men’s changing room had been renovated last year.”

Use an apostrophe to show contractions. “They’re on vacation and can’t get back in time for the
meeting.”

Use an apostrophe to show the plural of lower case letters. “I made sure that I dotted all my i’s and
crossed all my t’s before I signed the contract.”

Use an apostrophe to show possession in a single compound noun. “We are living in my mother-in-
law’s house until ours is finished.”

Use an apostrophe to form the possessive case of indefinite pronouns. “This election could be anyone’s
win.”

Use an apostrophe in expressions of time or value: two weeks’ notice, two dollars’ worth of nuts.
 Module Fifteen: Writing Business Letters

This Module Will Cover:

 Steps to Writing Business Letters
 Parts of a Business Letter
 Types of Letters
 Dissecting Letters

Steps to Writing Business Letters

There are times when a telephone call cannot replace a letter. Perhaps you want a permanent, written
record of a transaction, a commitment, a complaint, or a congratulatory note. Perhaps you know it will
be difficult to catch busy people in the office and with time to talk on the phone. They are faced with
hundreds of e-mails a day and may pass them by. However, you know they read their paper mail.

Business letters represent direct communication between one person and another. You have an
opportunity to make a good impression for you and your company; to take the reader's needs into
account; and to be courteous, positive, and professional.

The following steps will help you to write more effective business letters.

Determine the Appropriate Length

Keep your letters short and efficient. Most things we send are only scanned because our reading piles
are so high. If you really want your letter read thoroughly, keep it short.

Assess the Situation and Your Objective(s)

Why are you writing? Assess your reader and your relationship with them. Then assess how you want to
appear to the reader and what you want to happen. Time spent on preparation is time saved later and
helps ensure a more effective letter.

There are three important parts to this step:

 Decide the purpose of the letter. What do you want to achieve? Have action taken about a
complaint? Has an instruction carried out by a deadline?
 Decide who to write to if it is not obvious, e.g., if you are initiating a complaint.
 Obtain all the information/facts you need before starting to write.
Decide What to Say
Only when it's clear in your mind can it be clear in the reader's mind. The reader might be tired, busy, or
distracted. Try dealing with one point at a time and in a logical order. Make sure that you give the letter
a structure. The beginning sets the scene for the reader (such as a reference to a previous letter and
explanation of the purpose of the letter); the body of the letter sets out the key points; and the end of
the letter indicates the next step that should be taken, by whom, and by when.

Put Your Thoughts in Sequence

Divide your thoughts into groups, with a clear paragraph for each thought. This will tell the reader when
the writer has finished one thought before going on to the next. Long paragraphs are hard to read and
hard to digest. If you need to use a longer paragraph, consider using numbered subparagraphs to help
with clarity.

Identify Your Subject

Address the letter correctly. Whenever possible, use the person's name in both the address and the
salutation. That's one way of making your letter more personal.

End By Pointing the Way Ahead

Make it easy for the reader to comply with your request with a statement that's aimed at telling the
reader what comes next.

Ensure the complimentary close matches the salutation. For example, “Dear Dr Holt:” is formal so you
will want the end of the letter to end equally formally, as in, “Yours truly,” and your full name. However,
if you began your letter with, “Dear Ted,” you may close your letter with a more informal, “Sincerely,”
and your first name.
Parts of a Business Letter

Here is a sample business letter. Each number is identified on the following pages.
1. Letterhead: Most North American businesses use 8 ½ x11 inch paper, while European businesses
use 8.3 x 11.7-inch paper (known as A4). This is often printed with their own letterhead, which
includes the company logo, name, address, phone number, facsimile number, and Web site (if
applicable).

2. Dateline: Two lines below the letterhead. Alignment depends on the style used.

3. Addressee and delivery notations: Delivery notations such as FAX TRANSMISSION, OVERNIGHT
DELIVERY, CONFIDENTIAL, etc. are typed in all capital letters two line spaces above the inside
address.

4. Inside address: Type the inside address (the address of the person receiving the letter) single-
spaced, starting at the left margin, two lines below the dateline (or five lines below if there is an
addressee or delivery notation). It is there to help writers accurately file a copy of the message. Be
sure to include a courtesy title such as Mr. or Ms Avoid abbreviated company names unless they
appear in the printed letterhead of the document being answered.

5. Attention line: If you know the person’s complete name, it is always better to use it as the first line
of the inside address and avoid the attention line. If you do use an attention line, it may be typed in
all caps or with upper and lowercase letters. Place it one line below the inside address.

6. Subject and reference lines: Although experts suggest placing the subject line two spaces below the
salutation, many businesses actually place it above the salutation. Use whatever style your
organization prefers. Reference lines often show policy or file numbers. They generally appear two
lines above the salutation.

7. Salutation: For most letters place the salutation two lines below the last line of the inside address,
or the subject line if it is used. Even if you are on a first-name basis with the individual, add a colon
(not a comma or a semi-colon) after the salutation. (Do not use a person’s full name unless you are
unsure of their gender, as in “Dear Leslie Lenahan:”)

Note: Letters addressed to organizations pose certain problems. Formerly, “Gentlemen” was used
generically for all organizations. That no longer works today. As of yet, no universally acceptable
salutation has emerged, so you will probably be safest with “Ladies and Gentlemen.”

8. Body: Most business letters and memos are single-spaced, with double line spacing between
paragraphs. Very short messages may be double spaced with indented paragraphs.
9. Complimentary close: The close is typed two lines below the last line of the letter. It may be formal
(Very truly yours) or informal (Sincerely or Respectfully).
10. Signature block: Place the signature block two lines below the complimentary close. The
combination of name, title, and organization information should be arranged to achieve a balanced
look. Use commas to separate categories within the same line but not to conclude a line. Women
may choose to use a courtesy title, but men do not. Some organizations include their names in the
signature block. In such cases, the organization name appears in all caps, two lines below the
complimentary close.

11. Identification section:

 The writer’s name and title, or their initials, may appear three lines below the signature block,
left-aligned.
 Reference initials: If used, the name of the typist and the writer have typed two line spaces
below the writer’s name and title. Generally, the writer’s initials are capitalized, and the typists
are lowercase, but this format varies.
 When an attachment or enclosure accompanies a document, a notation to that effect appears
two lines below the reference initials. This notation reminds the typist to insert the enclosure in
the envelope and reminds the recipient to look for it. The notation may be spelt out or
abbreviated. Common formats include Enclosure, Attachment, Enc., and Att. It may also indicate
the number of attachments or enclosures, or it may identify a specific enclosure.
 Copy Notation: If you make copies of correspondence for other individuals, you may use cc or c
to indicate a copy. A colon following the initial(s) is optional.

12. Second-page heading (Not included in the image): When a letter extends beyond one page, use
plain paper of the same quality and colour as the first page. Identify the second and succeeding
pages with a heading consisting of the name of the addressee, the page number, and the date.
Separate this heading from the continuing text by two blank lines. If you have only one line of text or
the complimentary close to put on the page, rearrange your information to avoid that second page.
Types of Letters

We can use word choice to our advantage and create letters that have an impact. Persuasion techniques
are used when you want the reader to do something, but you need to convince them.

Another type of letter is where you need to say “no.” These letters are used so that you can clearly
convey your decision and ensure that the reader does not misunderstand your answer, or find room to
negotiate with you.

Let’s look at some guidelines for each type.

Persuasion Letters

 Rely heavily on the "you" attitude. It is crucial in the "please do something" letter to show the
reader what's in it for him/her.
 While you may want to use a delayed opening to strengthen your position, don't take too long
getting to the point.
 Give supporting reasons to justify your request.
 Avoid dwelling on explanations that tell the reader how his or her cooperation will solve your
problem.
 Make certain you include all the details, explaining what you want the reader to do or how she
should proceed.
 Since you are asking the reader to do something, make it convenient for him/her to comply.
 Be reassuring and cooperative. Avoid expressions of doubt like "If all goes well."
 In your eagerness to persuade, be careful not to make wild promises or unsubstantiated claims.
 Never beg or grovel.
 End by giving the reader a picture of himself or herself doing as you ask and benefiting from it.
Use words that assume he or she will comply (without, of course, sounding presumptuous).
“No” Letters

 Read your correspondent's letter carefully to discover what you can do to get him or her to
understand your point of view.
 Adapt your letter in tone and content to the reader's level of understanding.
 Avoid talking down to the reader or snowing him with technical language.
 Delay your refusal. Open with an empathetic, soothing tone.
 Try to agree with the reader about something in the opening so that you can begin on common,
neutral ground. Don't, however, mislead the reader into thinking you'll change your mind.
 “You” is a word that can be easily overused and feels intimidating to a reader.
 Give a sensible, reasonable explanation for the refusal. Don't blame it on company policy or
some other impersonal mechanism.
 Whenever possible, avoid leading into the refusal with negative terms like "unfortunately."
 State the refusal as positively as possible. Tell the reader what you can do rather than what you
can't.
 Don't dwell on the bad news. Be clear, direct, and brief.
 Give helpful suggestions when you can. Is there any way the reader can remedy the situation
himself? Can you think of alternative courses he or she might explore?
 Never accuse. Avoid expressions like "you state" and "your mistake."
 Try to give the reader an alternative. Offer any assistance you are prepared to give.
 Don’t be sarcastic.
 Don't try to score points.
 Be well reasoned and courteous.
 Don't rub the reader's nose in his or her own mistakes or shortcomings. If the reader
mishandled a product or situation, say briefly what he or she should have done.
 End on a positive note whenever possible. Often you can express good wishes for future success
in a sincere way.
Dissecting Letters

Look at the samples on the next few pages. Identify the different parts of the letter and what type of
letter it is (to inform, persuade, say no, or recommend).

Sample One

Type of Letter: _____________________________

Sample Two

Type of Letter: _____________________________

Sample Three

Type of Letter: _____________________________

Sample Four

Type of Letter: _____________________________

 Module Sixteen: Writing Effective E-mails

This Module Will Cover:

 E-mail Basics
 Managing E-mail
 E-mail at Work

E-mail Basics

Virtually everyone today uses e-mail to communicate at work and at home. It’s fast, easy, and
convenient, especially when you can access it from your computer at work and home, and handheld
devices. Since we are using e-mail so frequently, and because we often read if off of very small screens,
even the way we write e-mails is changing.

The Subject Line

If you are replying to an e-mail and the topic changes, make sure that you update the subject line. If you
don’t, and someone has lost interest in the initial topic or thinks the replies no longer apply to them, and
they stop reading a particular thread, they may miss important information.

Keep your subject line concise and descriptive. Remember that some screens are only about 1 ½ inches
square. You want your subject line to be easily read so that someone also reads your message. Five to
eight words are all that will fit on a small screen.

Formatting

You’ll notice that various e-mail readers format messages differently. While you may be sending your e-
mails using HTML and formatting them sensibly, they can be received as plain text and reformatted. In
order for your message to remain clear to a reader, think about how they may be seeing it.

Attachments

Many handheld e-mail readers have restrictions about attachments. If you are sending attachments and
expect a reply, you may have to set yourself a reminder to prod the reader to reply to you just in case
they forget to check the attachments once they are back at their computer.
Use Spell Check!

Most e-mail programs have sophisticated spell check, so it is alarming to note the number of e-mails we
receive with errors. Make sure you set up your e-mail to spell check before you send every e-mail. (You
can usually find this in the program’s options section.) While spell check doesn’t catch every error, it can
help you reduce the number of mistakes in your messages.

Covering Your Bases?

Some of us tend to send e-mails to a whole bunch of people to cover our bases, thinking that the more
people who receive a message, the better it will be. However, we are inundated with e-mail and don’t
want to be bogged down. Rather than copying people, archive the message properly so that you can re-
send it if others need it.

Reply All

This is a mild irritation to some and an extreme annoyance to others. If you receive an e-mail as a part of
a group, do not reply to all unless you need to. Often people are included in a group e-mail just so that
they receive the information. They do not need to be interrupted with a string of replies that do not
apply to them personally.

Concise

Just like all business writing, make sure your messages are short. You need to convey meaning, naturally,
but you do not want people scrolling through something that is actually better delivered in a memo or
report. Keep your e-mails to one topic each.

Privacy

Remember that e-mail is not private and your message could be forwarded. If you are concerned about
confidentiality or who might read your message, you may want to consider a different medium.
Sometimes we can communicate much more information in a better way by making a phone call rather
than sending an e-mail.
Shorthand

There is a whole language developing for e-mail and texting shorthand. While acronyms are common in
business and pleasure usage, be cautious about work messages where you use shorthand or icons, and
avoid them as much as possible.

Sending customers or your boss a message that says, “WFHABAUM; BTW I was ROTFL at your msg!” may
not mean much to anyone but your closest friends. (Translation: Working from home; available by all
usual methods. By the way, I was rolling on the floor laughing at your message!)
Managing E-Mail

Although e-mail can be great, it can also be a huge time consumer, especially if you are someone who
interrupts your own flow of work to check your e-mail.

Here are some of our favourite tips for tackling the e-mail monster.

Check your email twice a day.

Try first thing in the morning and again after lunch, or find two periods that work for you. This will stop
your e-mail from interrupting you over and over again, and allow you to get more done. You can set
most e-mail programs up to check for new messages on your schedule and turn the notifications off
altogether so that you get to your mail when it makes sense for you to do so.

For those of you who are addicted to your e-mail, this can be a hard switch to make. If you have trained
people so that they know you answer e-mails 24/7, and always right away, you will have to adjust their
expectations so that they know your new schedule. Try it for a week and then see just how much more
relaxed your work pace becomes, and how much more you can accomplish.
Deal with each message right away.
Try to read an e-mail only one time, and decide what you want to do with it as you read it. Our rule of
thumb is that if it takes three minutes or less, reply immediately. Any longer than that means that you
need to set it up as a task or in your calendar or delegate it to someone else. Do not leave e-mails open
to answer when you get a chance. When we do this, we tend to have multiple messages open, and then
we have to re-read all those open e-mails to decide what to do with them.

Deal with it the right way.

Consider whether the e-mail is the best way to deal with something, or whether another method is
more efficient. E-mails that go to large groups of people have multiple strings of replies, or include a lot
of information are often best dealt with in a meeting or a conference call.
E-mail at Work

Create an e-mail that describes your experience in the workshop so far.

To: ________________________________________
Subject Line: _____________________________________________

Body

Closing

Module Seventeen: Spelling and Proofreading

This Module Will Cover:
 Spelling Tips
 Proofreading Tips

Spelling Tips

People classify themselves as being good spellers or poor spellers. Good spellers probably didn’t get that
way without some work and attention, and poor spellers can learn techniques to help make them better
spellers. Most of us have a few words that we regularly forget how to spell. However, that doesn't mean
we can't produce letters, memos and reports that are word perfect.

Here are some tips for making your documents the best that they can be:
 Use a dictionary. It doesn’t matter which form you use, but it is important that you be
consistent.
 Use spell checks on your computer, but don’t rely on it totally since they often miss homonyms.
 Use the Internet or a telephone book to check the spelling of names and addresses. However,
there are sometimes errors in these sources, too. If you are not sure, simply call the office of the
person you are contacting and ask.
 Proofread your work, and when possible have someone else proofread your work.
 Learn some little tricks to help you remember words that you use frequently but still spell
incorrectly, like "i before e, except after c."
 Make a list of your most common spelling errors and learn how to spell those words correctly.
Keep that list posted so you can refer to it when you need to.
Proofreading Tips

Carelessly proofreading can spoil a writer's best efforts. Proofreading is classic evidence that writing
looks different to the writer and to the reader. Our brains really think that everything we do is correct,
so we have a hard time recognizing our own errors.

To the writer, typographical or spelling errors may not mean all that much. So your finger slipped, or you
always put two t's in "commitment." For the reader, an unfixed typo can transform the writer from a
smart person into a careless writer in the twinkling of an eye.

It is impossible to read about "first-class work" or "shot meetings" without interrupting the flow of what
you are reading. It may be unfair that proofreading matters so much, but it does.

If you can put yourself in the reader's position, you'll proofread obsessively, gripped by the fear that a
mistake will turn you into a laughingstock! Learning some specific techniques, however, will help
alleviate that problem as you become better at proofreading and create better documents.

Proofreading errors are different from punctuation or spelling or usage problems, and you fix them
differently. Punctuation, spelling, and usage are knowledge problems, and you fix them by learning.
Proofreading problems are usually a matter of seeing, and you fix them by learning to look.

The better you read, the worse you'll proofread, unless you are consciously aware of what you are
doing. Good readers and fast readers guess what the words are as they read the text, and they just
check in now and again to see if they are right. The more they can guess, the less they have to look and
the faster and more efficiently they read.
To be a good proof-reader, you have to go back to being a child again or pretend that you are just
learning to read in English. Look at every word as it comes along.
Here are some principles to guide you.

 Read through once and ignore the content. As soon as you start paying attention to what the
text is saying, you'll start assuming what the words are, and stop looking for errors.
 Assume there's at least one error so that you have something to find.
 Forget what you meant to say. Read the memo/letter as though you have never seen it before.
 Read backwards. This destroys comprehension, and your eyes can't trick you as easily.
 Don't try to do something else when you proofread. Stop tinkering with it and rewriting
sentences; look for errors.
 Take your time. When you hurry, you guess and skim, and that usually doesn't work.
 Proofread a second time, paying attention to content. This is where you find those things spell
check and reading backwards did not catch, such as, “The little cap pulls off it; you put enough
effort into it.”
 Leave it alone overnight, so that you come to it again having fresh eyes to look at it.
 Read it aloud. It is more difficult for your eyes to skip over errors when you read aloud because
you will hear something out of whack.
 Try to have someone else proofread your work, particularly if the document is important or
going to be released for the public.
 Make proofreading a game. Score points for yourself when you find an error!
 Module Eighteen: Writing Memos

This Module Will Cover:

 The Anatomy of a Memo
 Acme Funfest

The Anatomy of a Memo

Another item that you may have to write for your business is a memo. A memo (short for memorandum)
is the traditional way of relaying information through an office in a written form.

Let’s take a look at a sample memo:

This memo was created using a basic template from Microsoft Word. Here’s a look at the three parts:

1. Title identifying the document as a memo

2. Standard fields, including to, from, date, and subject
3. Body of the memo

When writing memos, the same rules that we have been discussing apply. In addition, memos should be
kept short (typically no longer than a page) and should not discuss extremely sensitive information or
information that is likely to change. (This type of information is better dealt with in person.) A memo
should also be kept to one topic.

Acme Funfest

Create a memo announcing the Acme Company’s annual Funfest; a summer picnic for employees and
their families.

Here is some basic information:

 Will be held July 21 at 10 am
 New location this year: Memorial Park
 Food and drinks provided
 Games for children and prizes for everyone
 Module Nineteen: Reviewing Your Writing

Checking Back

We’ve covered a good amount of material so far in this workshop, so let’s look back to the beginning
and apply what you’ve learned so far. This is the type of review that you can do overall your writing
projects to make sure that you are producing a document that meets the four C’s and is the best work
that you can do.

Scan

This is the technique that most readers use, so make sure you look at your document from this
perspective. You want to ensure that it looks appealing to read.

 Is there some balance between white space and text, or did you make the margins narrow and
fill the page with text?
 Have you used one (or at most two) fonts that are easy to read?
 Are diagrams and tables appealing?

Clear

 Did you say what you wanted to say?

 Did you eliminate ambiguous terms (many, less, etc.)?
 Are your paragraphs linked?
 Are your recommendations or conclusions easy to locate?

Concise

 Did you cut out all the fluff?

 Did you use an active voice as much as you could?
Complete

 Is all the necessary information there?

 Can you look at it and identify the five W’s and How?
 Will your readers know what is going to happen next/what they are responsible for?
 Are references included (if needed)?

Correct

 Did you check grammar, punctuation, and spelling?

 Are your facts and figures all correct?
 Are the reader’s name, title, company name, and address all correct?
Final Verdict

This Business Writing That Works course will provide you with a solid understanding of concise writing,
be clear and correct at your writing, a good understanding of sentences and paragraphs, manners and
courtesy, a good grip in practical language, inclusive language, ways to write business letters, writing and
managing e-mails, spelling and proofreading, writing memos and so on. We all know what good writing
is. It’s the novel we can’t put down, the poem we never forgot, and the speech that changes the way we
look at the world. Good writing is the memo that gets action and the letter that says what a phone call
can’t.

In business writing, the language is concrete, the point of view is clear, and the points are well
expressed. Good writing is hard work, and even the best writers get discouraged. However, with
practice, you can feel more confident about your own writing. This course will give you the tools to
become a better writer.

Throughout this Business Writing That Works course, you will learn the value of good written
communication as well as learn how to write and proofread your work, so it is clear, concise, complete,
and correct. This course will let you apply these skills in real-world situations, along with a good
understanding of the proper format for memos, letters, and e-mails. Overall, this course will give you the
opportunity to pursue a wide range of knowledge for a rewarding career or a scope to pursue more
courses at a higher level.