Chapter 8

The
Appendicular
Skeleton

Lecture slides prepared by Curtis DeFriez, Weber State University Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 The Appendicular Skeleton
➢ The 126 bones of the appendicular
skeleton are primarily concerned with
movement.
▪ As “appendages” to the central skeleton,

these bones include those of the upper

and lower limbs (including the girdles
that attach them to the axial skeleton).

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 The Upper Limb
➢ Based on the position of its major joints and component
bones, the upper limb is divided into the shoulder, arm,
forearm, and hand:
▪ The shoulder is the area of upper limb attachment to

the trunk.
▪ The arm is the part of the upper limb between the

shoulder and the elbow joint.

▪ The forearm is between the elbow and the wrist.

▪ The hand is distal to the wrist.

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 The Shoulder Girdle
➢ The bones of the shoulder
(pectoral) girdle include the
scapula and the clavicle.
▪ The shoulder joint also

incorporates the upper part of

the humerus.

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The Shoulder Girdle

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 The Shoulder Girdle
➢ The triangular shaped scapula is also called the shoulder
blade.
▪ Spine - a large process on the posterior of the scapula

▪ Acromion - the flattened lateral portion of the spine

▪ Coracoid process - a protruding projection on the

anterior surface just inferior to the lateral aspect of the

clavicle
▪ Glenoid cavity - shallow concavity that articulates

with the head of the humerus

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 The Shoulder Girdle

Right scapula (shoulder blade), posterior and lateral view

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 The Shoulder Girdle
➢ The clavicle is “S” shaped:
▪ The medial end articulates with the manubrium of the

sternum forming the sternoclavicular joint.

▪ The lateral end articulates with the acromion forming

the acromioclavicular joint.

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 The Arm
➢ The only bone in the arm is the humerus. The head of the
humerus has two projections:
▪ The greater tubercle lies more laterally.

▪ The lesser tubercle lies more anteriorly.

▪ Between the tubercles lies the

intertubercular groove or sulcus

(bicipital groove) where the long
head of the biceps brachii tendon
is located.
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 The Forearm
➢ The two bones of the forearm are
the radius and ulna:
▪ The radius is lateral (in anatomic

position) and widens distally.

▪ The more medial ulna widens

proximally into the Olecranon

process, a large prominence we
feel as the tip of the elbow.

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 The Forearm
➢ The diaphysis (shaft) of the radius and ulna are connected
by an interosseus membrane.
➢ There is a proximal radioulnar joint and a distal
radioulnar joint.
▪ Proximally, the head of the radius articulates with the

radial notch of the ulna.

▪ Distally, the head of the ulna articulates with the ulnar

notch of the radius.

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The Forearm

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The Forearm

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 The Hand
➢ The hand is composed of the
wrist, the palm, and the
fingers.
▪ The wrist, or carpus, is

made up of 8 carpal bones

arranged in two rows.
▪ The palm of the hand has

5 metacarpal bones .
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 The Hand
▪ Each finger, with the exception of the thumb or 1 st
digit, is composed of 3 phalanges:
• proximal phalanx
• middle phalanx
• distal phalanx
➢ The joints of the hand
include the carpometacarpal,
metacarpophalangeal, and
interphalangeal joints.
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The Hand

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 The Lower Limb
➢ The lower limb is directly anchored to the axial skeleton by a
sacroiliac joint which links the pelvic bone to the sacrum.
➢ Based on the position of its major joints and component
bones, the lower limb is divided into the gluteal region (the
major bones forming the hip girdle), thigh, leg, and foot.
▪ The gluteal region is between the iliac crest and hip joint.

▪ The thigh is between the hip and the knee joint.

▪ The leg is between the knee and the ankle.

▪ The foot is distal to the ankle.

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 The Pelvic Girdle
➢ In the gluteal region, the pelvic
girdle is made up of two os
coxae, or hip bones.
▪ Each coxal (hip) bone

consists of 3 bones that fuse

together:
• Ileum
• Ischium
• Pubis Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 The Pelvic Girdle
➢ On the right and left sides, the os coxae are joined
posteriorly to the sacrum, and anteriorly to one another at
the pubic symphysis (made of fibrocartilage).
▪ The free part of the lower

limb below the

hip joint is
composed of 30
different bones.

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 The Pelvic Girdle
➢ The ilium is the largest of the three hip bones - it forms
the superior lateral prominence of the pelvis (iliac crest):
▪ Consists of a superior ala and inferior body which

forms the acetabulum

(the socket for the head
of the femur)
▪ Greater sciatic notch

allows passage of the

sciatic nerve.
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 The Pelvic Girdle
➢ The ischium constitutes the inferior and posterior part of
the hip bone.
▪ Its most prominent feature is the ischial tuberosity -

the part that meets

the chair when
you are sitting.

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 The Pelvic Girdle
➢ The pubis is the anterior and inferior part of the hip
bone.
▪ It has superior and

inferior rami and

a body.

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 The Pelvic Girdle
➢ The pelvic brim is a line from the sacral promontory

to the upper part of the pubic symphysis.

▪ The false pelvis lies above this line. It contains no

pelvic organs except the urinary bladder (when

full) and the

uterus during

pregnancy.

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 The Pelvic Girdle
➢ The true pelvis is the bony pelvis inferior to the pelvic
brim. It has an inlet, an outlet and a cavity.
▪ The pelvic axis

is the path of
childbirth
during the first
and second
stages of labor.

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 The Male/Female Pelvis
➢ Compared to the female pelvis, the male pelvis:
▪ Is larger, heavier, and more narrow

▪ Has a smaller

inlet and outlet

▪ Has a pubic arch

angle of < 90o

Male Pelvis
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 The Male/Female Pelvis
➢ Compared to the male pelvis, the female pelvis:
▪ Is rounder, has a flared iliac crest, and a wider pelvic

opening to assist childbirth. It also has a pubic arch

angle of > 90o and
a more moveable
pubic symphysis.
▪ Has a more flexible

coccyx
Female Pelvis
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 The Thigh
➢ The femur is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in
the thigh, and in the entire body.
▪ Proximally, the head articulates with the acetabulum of

the hip bone forming the hip (coxal) joint.

▪ The neck (distal to head) is a common site of fracture.

▪ Distally, the medial and lateral femoral condyles

articulate with the tibia to form the knee joint.

• The femur also articulates with patella.

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 The Thigh
➢ The greater and lesser trochanters are projections where
large muscles attach.
➢ The gluteal tuberosity
and linea aspera are
attachment sites for the
large hip muscles.

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 The Thigh
➢ The femur has sites
for attachment of the
knee muscles at the
medial and lateral
epicondyles (above
the femoral
condyles).

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 The Thigh
➢ The patella (knee cap) is the largest and only
named sesamoid bone in the body.
▪ A thick articular cartilage lines the

posterior surface.

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 The Thigh
➢ At the distal femur, the patella forms the patellofemoral
joint where it functions to
increase the leverage of the
quadriceps muscles.
▪ Runner’s knee

(patellofemoral stress
syndrome) is a common
sports injury.

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 The Leg
➢ Of the two bones in the leg, the
tibia (always medial) is the largest
and bears all the weight.
▪ The lateral and medial condyles

at the proximal end articulate

with the femur.
▪ It articulates distally with the

talus of the ankle and the fibula.

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 The Leg
➢ The fibula is the smaller, laterally
placed bone of the leg:
▪ It is non-weight bearing.

▪ The head forms the proximal

tibiofibular joint.
▪ At the distal end, the lateral

malleolus articulates with the tibia

and the talus at the ankle.
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 The Leg
➢ Much like the forearm bones, the tibia and fibula are
joined by an interosseous membrane.
➢ The distal end of the leg bones
form the medial and lateral malleoli
of the ankle.

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 The Foot
➢ The tibia and fibula articulate with the talus bone of the
ankle to form the ankle “mortise” (ankle joint).

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 The Foot
➢ There are many similarities between the hand of the
upper limb and the foot of the lower limb:
▪ The ankle, or tarsus, is made up of 7 tarsal bones

arranged to form the ankle mortise, heel, and arches.

▪ The largest and strongest

tarsal bone, the

calcaneus, forms
the heel.

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 The Foot
➢ Like the palm of the hand, the
sole of the foot has 5 bones –
in this case called metatarsals.
▪ The metatarsals also

participate in forming
the arches of
the foot.

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 The Foot
▪ Each toe with the exception of the hallux (big toe) is
composed of 3 phalanges:
• proximal phalanx
• middle phalanx
• distal phalanx
➢ The joints of the foot
include the tarsometatarsal,
metatarsophalangeal, and
interphalangeal joints.

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 The Lower Limb
➢ The longitudinal and transverse foot arches support the
weight of the body while providing spring and leverage to
the foot when walking. Flatfeet occur when the arches
decrease or “fall”.

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 End of Chapter 8
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