Bahir Dar University

Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Electrical Machines and Drives (EEng 3202)

CHAPTER ONE
1.2 Process of Energy Conversion

By: Abdulkerim Ali

February 22, 2021 abduali548@gmail.com

1
 Outlines

 Introduction

 Energy conversion process

 Singly Excited and Doubly Excited systems

February 22, 2021

2
Introduction
 Electromechanical energy conversions – use a magnetic field
as the medium of energy conversion

Electromechanical energy conversion device:

 Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy- Motors

 Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy- Generators

Three categories of Electromechanical energy conversion devices:
 Transducers (for measurement and control)- small motion
Transform the signals of different forms.
Eg. microphones, sensors and speakers.
 Force producing devices (translational force)- limited mechanical
motion.
Produce forces mostly for linear motion drives,
Eg. Actuators - relays, solenoids and electromagnets.

 Continuous energy conversion equipment :Operate in rotating

mode. Eg: motors and generators.
Energy Conversion Process
The principle of conservation of energy:
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
 It can only be changed from one form to another. Therefore total
energy in a system is constant

An Electromechanical converter system has three essential parts:

 An electrical system (electric circuits such as windings)

 A magnetic system (magnetic field in the magnetic cores and air
gaps).
 A mechanical system (mechanically movable parts such as a rotor
in an electrical machine).
CONT…
 Electrical system Magnetic system Mechanical system
P mech

Electrical Field loss Mechanical

loss loss

The energy transfer equation is as follows:

 Electrical   Mechanical   Increase in 

       Energy 
 energy input    energy    stored energy in    
 from sources   output   magnetic field   losses 
     

What will be the Energy flow in generators?

7
 In a generator the Direction of energy flow is reversed. i.e
The Input energy has 3 parts
1. Transformed energy
2. Energy loss
3. Stored energy

 Mechanical 
   Electrical 
 enrgyinput     Change in 
 from  transformed     Energy 
   energy    stored energy in    losses 
 mechanical     magnetic field   

 system   output 
 
  The energy balance can therefore be written as (motor):

Electricalenergy  Mechanical energy  Increase in 

     
input
 from sources  output
  friction 
 stored field 
     
resistance loss  and windage loss  energy core loss

For the lossless magnetic energy storage system in differential form,


dWe  dWm  dW f

dWe = i d = differential change in electric energy input

dWm = fm dx = differential change in mechanical energy output
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy

9
 Force and Torque Calculation From Energy
and Coenergy
A Singly Excited Linear Actuator

 Only stator is fed with 3 ph balanced supply,

 we record that the terminal voltage applied to the excitation

winding is v, the excitation winding current i, the position of the
movable plunger x, and

 the force acting on the plunger F with the reference direction

chosen in the positive direction of the x axis, as shown in the
diagram.
 A singly excited linear actuator

 After a time interval dt, we notice that the plunger has moved for
a distance dx under the action of the force F.
 The mechanical done by the force acting on the plunger during
this time interval is thus
𝑑𝑊𝑚 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
 The amount of electrical energy that has been transferred into the
magnetic field and converted into the mechanical work

 during this time interval can be calculated by subtracting the

power loss dissipated in the winding resistance from the total
power fed into the excitation winding as

𝑑𝑊𝑒 = 𝑑𝑊𝑓 + 𝑑𝑊𝑚 = 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡 − 𝑅𝑖 2

Because
𝑑𝜆
𝑒= = 𝑣 − 𝑅𝑖
𝑑𝑡

we can write
𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑑𝑊𝑒 − 𝑑𝑊𝑚 = 𝑒𝑖𝑑𝑡 − 𝐹𝑑𝑥
= 𝑖𝑑𝜆 − 𝐹𝑑𝑥
 From the above equation, we know that the energy stored in the
magnetic field is a function of the flux linkage of the excitation
winding and the position of the plunger.
 Mathematically, we can also write

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (𝜆, 𝑥) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (𝜆, 𝑥)

𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥 = 𝑑𝜆 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑥
 Therefore, by comparing the above two equations, we conclude

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (𝜆, 𝑥) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (𝜆, 𝑥)

𝑖= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 = −
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑥
 From the knowledge of electromagnetics, the energy stored in a
magnetic field can be expressed as

𝜆
1 2
𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥 = 𝑖 𝜆, 𝑥 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑖 𝐿(𝑥)
2
0
 For a magnetically linear (with a constant permeability or a
straight line magnetization curve such that the inductance of
the coil is independent of the excitation current) system.
the above expression becomes

1 𝜆2
𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥 = 2 𝐿(𝑥)

 And the force acting on the plunger is then

2
𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥 1 𝜆 𝑑𝐿 𝑥 1 𝑑𝐿(𝑥)
𝐹=− = = 𝑖2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
 From the equivalent magnetic circuit of the actuator shown in figure (c) above,
one can readily find the self inductance of the excitation winding as
𝑁2 µ𝑜 𝑁2 𝑙(𝑑−𝑥) 𝑔
𝐿 𝑥 =
2ℜ𝑔
=
2g
where, ℜg =
µ𝑜 𝐴
, A = 𝑙(𝑑 − 𝑥)

Therefore, the Force acting on the plunger is

1 𝑖 2 𝑑𝐿(𝑥) −µ𝑜 𝑙(𝑁𝑖)2
𝐹= =
2 𝑑(𝑥) 4g
 The minus sign of the force indicates that the direction of the force is to reduce
the displacement so as to reduce the reluctance of the air gaps.
 In the diagram below, it is shown that the magnetic energy is
equivalent to the area above the magnetization or 𝜆 -i curve.

 Mathematically, if we define the area underneath the

magnetization curve as the coenergy (which does not exist
physically), i.e.
d (i )  id  di

𝑊𝑓 ′ 𝑖, 𝑥 = 𝑖𝜆 − 𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥
We can obtain
𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′ 𝑖, 𝑥 = 𝜆𝑑𝑖 + 𝑖𝑑𝜆 − 𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥

= 𝜆𝑑𝑖 + 𝐹𝑑𝑥 Energy and coenergy

𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖, 𝑥) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖, 𝑥)

= 𝑑𝑖 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖,𝑥) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖,𝑥)
Therefore, 𝜆= and F = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑥
• From the above diagram, the coenergy or the area underneath the
magnetization curve can be calculated by

𝑊𝑓 ′ 𝑖, 𝑥 = 𝜆 𝑖, 𝑥 𝑑𝑖
0

• For a magnetically linear system, the above expression becomes

1 2
𝑊𝑓 ′ 𝑖, 𝑥 = 𝑖 𝐿 𝑥
2

• And the force acting on the plunger is then

𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖, 𝑥) 1 2 𝑑𝐿 𝑥
F= = 𝑖
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Singly Excited Rotating Actuator

 The singly excited linear actuator mentioned above becomes a

singly excited rotating actuator if the linearly movable plunger is
replaced by a rotor, as illustrated

A singly excited rotating actuator

Example 1:
• The relay shown in below is made from infinitely permeable magnetic material
with a movable plunger, also of infinitely permeable material. The height of the
plunger is much greater than the air gap length(h>>g). Calculate the magnetic
stored energy 𝑊𝑓 as a function of plunger position (0 < x <d) for N = 1000
turns, g = 2.0 mm, d = 0.15 m, l = 0.1 m, and i =10A.
Solution: 1 2 1 𝜆2
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑖 𝐿 𝑥 =
2 2 𝐿(𝑥)
The inductance is given by:
𝑁2 𝑔
𝐿 𝑥 = , 𝑅𝑔 =
2𝑅𝑔 µ𝑜𝐴𝑔
µ𝑜𝑁2 𝐴𝑔 𝑥
Then , 𝐿(𝑥) = 2𝑔
, 𝐴𝑔 = 𝑙 𝑑 − 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑑(1 − 𝑑)
2 𝑥
1 2 µ𝑜𝑁 𝑙𝑑(1−𝑑)
The Stored energy 𝑊𝑓 = 2
𝑖 2𝑔
𝑥
1 (4𝜋× 10−7 )(10002 )(0.1×0.15)(1−𝑑)
= 2 10 2
2(0.002)
𝑥
= 236(1 − 𝑑) J
The force can be:
1 2 𝑑𝐿 𝑥 1 2 µ𝑜𝑁 2 𝑙 𝑑
𝐹=− 𝑖 =− 𝑖 𝑑−𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑔 𝑑𝑥
1
= 4𝑔 𝑖 2 µ𝑜𝑁 2 𝑙
1
F= 4 0.002
102 4𝜋 × 10−7 10002 0.1 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝑵
Example 2:
 The magnetic circuit shown below is made of high permeability
electrical steel. The rotor is free to turn about a vertical axis. the
maximum flux density in the overlapping portion of the air gaps is to
be limited to approximately 1.65 T to avoid excessive saturation of the
steel.

 Compute the maximum torque for r1=2.5 cm, h=1.8 cm and g = 3 mm.
Assume the reluctance of the steel to be negligible.
Solution:
There are two air gag in series, each of length g,and hence the air gap field
intensity 𝐻𝑎𝑔
𝑁𝑖
𝐻𝑎𝑔 =
2𝑔
The system coenergy is equal to that of the air gap. the coenergy density in the air
gap is µ𝑜𝐻𝑎𝑔 2 /2 and the volume of the two overlapping air gap is 2gh(r1+0.5g)𝜃
Then the coenergy is equal to:
µ𝑜𝐻𝑎𝑔 2 µ𝑜(𝑁𝑖)2 h(𝑟1 +0.5g)𝜃
𝑊′𝑎𝑔 = (2gh(r1+0.5g)𝜃) =
2 4𝑔

And the torque is

𝑑𝑊′𝑎𝑔 µ𝑜(𝑁𝑖)2 h(𝑟1 +0.5g)
𝑇𝑓 = =
𝑑𝜃 4𝑔
Then
𝐵𝑎𝑔 1.65 6
𝐴
𝐻𝑎𝑔 = = = 1.31 × 10
µ𝑜 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑚
Ni = 2g𝐻𝑎𝑔 =2(3× 10−3 )1.31× 106 = 7860 A − turns
µ𝑜(𝑁𝑖)2 h(𝑟1 +0.5g)
𝑇𝑓 =
4𝑔
4𝜋 × 10−7 (7860)2 (1.8 × 10−2 (2.5 × 10−2 +0.5(2(3 × 10−3 ))
=
4(3 × 10−3 )
= 𝟑. 𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎
Doubly Excited Rotating Actuator
 Both stator and rotor are fed with 3 ph supply.
 The general principle for force and torque calculation discussed
above is equally applicable to multi-excited systems.
 Consider a doubly excited rotating actuator shown schematically
in the diagram below as an example.
 The differential energy and coenergy functions can be derived as
following:

𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑑𝑊𝑒 − 𝑑𝑊𝑚

𝑑𝑊𝑒 = 𝑒1 𝑖1 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜆1 𝑑𝜆2
𝑒1 = , 𝑒2 = and
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑊𝑚 = 𝑇𝑑𝜃

A doubly excited actuator

Hence,

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃) = 𝑖1 𝑑ߣ1 + 𝑖2 𝑑ߣ2 − Td𝜃

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 )
=
𝑑 ߣ1
𝑑ߣ1 +
𝑑ߣ2
𝑑ߣ2 +
d𝜃 d𝜃
And
𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃) = 𝑑 𝑖1 ߣ1 + 𝑖2 ߣ2 −𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃)
= 𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2 + Td𝜃
𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃)
= 𝑑𝑖1
𝑑𝑖1 + 𝑑𝑖2
𝑑𝑖2 +
d𝜃 d𝜃

Therefore, comparing the corresponding differential terms, we

obtain

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃)

𝑇= or 𝑇 =
d𝜃 d𝜃
 For magnetically linear systems, currents and flux linkages can be
related by constant inductances as following

𝜆1 𝐿 𝐿12 𝑖1
= 11
𝜆2 𝐿21 𝐿22 𝑖2

𝑖1 𝛤 𝛤12 𝜆1
Or = 11
𝑖2 𝛤21 𝛤22 𝜆2

Where 𝐿12 = 𝛤21 , 𝛤11 = 𝐿22 /∆, 𝛤12 = 𝛤21 = −𝐿12 /∆, 𝛤22 = 𝐿11 /∆
And ∆ = 𝐿11 𝐿22 − 𝐿12 2
 The magnetic energy and coenergy can then be expressed as:
1 1
𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃) = 𝛤11 ߣ1 2 + 𝛤22 ߣ2 2 +𝛤12 ߣ1 ߣ2
2 2
1 1
𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃) = 𝐿11 𝑖1 2 + 𝐿22 𝑖2 2 +𝐿12 𝑖1 𝑖2
2 2

 Therefore, the torque acting on the rotor can be calculated as:

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃)

𝑇= =
d𝜃 d𝜃
1 𝑑𝐿11 (𝜃 ) 1 𝑑𝐿22 (𝜃 ) 𝑑𝐿 (𝜃)
= 𝑖1 2 + 𝑖2 2 + 𝑖1 𝑖2 12
2 𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

 Because of the salient (not round) structure of the rotor, the self inductance of the
stator is a function of the rotor position and the first term on the right hand side of
the above torque expression is nonzero for that 𝑑𝐿11 /𝑑𝜃 ≠ 0
 Similarly, the second term on the right hand side of the above torque express is
nonzero because of the salient structure of the stator. Therefore, these two terms are
known as the reluctance torque component.
 The last term in the torque expression, however, is only related to the relative
position of the stator and rotor and is independent of the shape of the stator and
rotor poles.

.
Example 3:
In the system shown below the inductance in henry are given as L11 = (3+cos 2
𝜃)× 10−3 ,L12 = 0.3cos𝜃, L22 = 30+10cos2𝜃. Find and plot the torque Tf(𝜃) for
current i1= 0.8A and i2 = 0.01A
 Exercise:
1. Find an expression for the energy and torque of a symmetrical two-winding
system whose inductances vary as L11 = L22 = 0.8+0.27cos4𝜃, L12 = 0.65cos2𝜃
For the condition that i1 = - i2 = 0.37 A, and also find the coenergy and torque at 30𝑜 .

2.