Bahir Dar University

Institute of Technology

Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Advanced Electrical Machines (Eeng 4183)

CHAPTER ONE
Principle of Electromechanical Energy Conversion

By: Abdulkerim Ali

abduali548@gmail.com

April 3, 2022 1
 Outlines

 Introduction

 Energy conversion process

 Singly excited and doubly excited systems

April 3, 2022 2
Introduction

 Electromechanical Energy Conversions – use a magnetic field as the

medium of energy conversion

Electromechanical energy conversion device:

 Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy- Motors

 Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy- Generators

Cont…

Three categories of electromechanical energy conversion devices:

 Measurement and control device /Transducers:- small motion

Transform the signals of different forms.

Example: microphones, sensors and speakers.

 Force producing devices /translational force:- limited mechanical

motion. Produce forces mostly for linear motion drives,
Example: Actuators - relays, solenoids and electromagnets.

 Continuous energy conversion equipment:

Operate in rotating mode.

Example: motors and generators

 Energy Conversion Process

The principle of conservation of energy:

 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
 It can only be changed from one form to another. Therefore total energy
in a system is constant
An electromechanical converter system has three essential parts:
 An electrical system (electric circuits such as windings)
 A magnetic system (magnetic field in the magnetic cores and air gaps)
 A mechanical system (mechanically movable parts such as a rotor in an
electrical machine).
Cont…
 Cont…
• EM Energy Conversion: Analogy

Electrical
Energy
(input) Thermal
Energy
(losses)

Mechanical
Energy
(output)
 Cont…

Electrical system Magnetic system Mechanical system

P mech

Electrical Field loss Mechanical

loss loss

The energy transfer equation is as follows: Motor

 Electrical   Mechanical   Increase in 

       Energy 
 energy input    energy    stored energy in    
 from sources   output   magnetic field   losses 
     

What will be the Energy flow in generators?

8
 In a generator the Direction of energy flow is reversed. i.e.
 The Input energy has 3 parts
1. Transformed energy
2. Energy loss/dissipated
3. Stored energy

 Mechanical 
   Electrical 
 enrgyinput     Change in 
 from   transformed     Energy 
   energy

  stored energy in    
  magnetic field  
losses 
 mechanical   
 system   output 
 
Cont…

The energy balance can therefore be written as:

 Electricalenergy   Mechanicalenergy   Increasein 

     
 input from sources    output  friction    stored field 
  resis tan celoss   and windageloss   energy coreloss 
     

For the lossless magnetic energy storage system in differential form,

dWe  dWm  dW f

dWe = i d  = differential change in electric energy input

dWm = fm dx = differential change in mechanical energy output
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy
10
 Energy Conversion Process

We can write dλ
dWe  ei dt; e
dt
dλ
dWe  idt  idλ
dt

Here e is the voltage induced in the electric terminals by changing magnetic stored
energy.

dWe  ei dt  dWm  dWf

Together with Faraday’s law for induced voltage, form the basis for the energy
method.

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 Since the permeability of ferromagnetic materials are much larger than
the permittivity of dielectric materials,

 It is more advantageous to use electromagnetic field as the medium for

electromechanical energy conversion.

 The product of the torque and speed (the mechanical power) equals the
active component of the product of the emf and current.
𝑻𝟂 = 𝒆𝒊
Singly and Doubly Excited Systems

 Single excited - only stator is fed with 1/3 ph balanced supply, the
stator field starts rotating with synchronous speed inducing a
rotating field in rotor. And as rotor is shorted it starts rotating in the
same direction following Lenz's law. Eg. relay, loudspeaker, motor
 Doubly excited - Both stator and rotor are fed with 1/3 ph supply.
Eg. DC/AC machine, transformer
– When both fields are rotating in same direction
• Rotor speed = stator speed - rotor speed
– When both fields are in opposite direction
• Rotor speed = Stator speed + rotor speed
• Both speeds are the speed of their fields by
120∗𝑓
𝑁𝑠 =
𝑃
 Force and Torque Calculation from Energy and Coenergy

A Singly Excited Linear Actuator

 Consider a singly excited linear actuator as shown below. The winding
resistance is R. At a certain time instant t,

 we record that the terminal voltage applied to the excitation winding is

v, the excitation winding current i, the position of the movable plunger
x, and

 the force acting on the plunger F with the reference direction chosen in
the positive direction of the x axis, as shown in the diagram.
 A singly excited linear actuator

After a time interval dt, we notice that the plunger has moved for a
distance dx under the action of the force F.
The mechanical done by the force acting on the plunger during this
time interval is thus
𝑑𝑊𝑚 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
 From the above equation, we know that the energy stored in the
magnetic field is a function of the flux linkage of the excitation
winding and the position of the plunger.
 Mathematically, we can also write

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (𝜆, 𝑥) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (𝜆, 𝑥)

𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥 = 𝑑𝜆 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑥
 Therefore, by comparing the above two equations, we
conclude

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (𝜆, 𝑥) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (𝜆, 𝑥)

𝑖= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 = −
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑥
 From the knowledge of electromagnetics, the energy stored in a
magnetic field can be expressed as

𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥 = 𝑖 𝜆, 𝑥 𝑑𝜆
0
Cont’d……

 The amount of electrical energy that has been transferred into the magnetic
field and converted into the mechanical work.
 during this time interval can be calculated by subtracting the power loss
dissipated in the winding resistance from the total power fed into the
excitation winding as:

𝑑𝑊𝑒 = 𝑑𝑊𝑓 + 𝑑𝑊𝑚 = 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑡 − 𝑅𝑖 2

Because
𝑑𝜆
𝑒= = 𝑣 − 𝑅𝑖
𝑑𝑡
we can write
𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑑𝑊𝑒 − 𝑑𝑊𝑚 = 𝑒𝑖𝑑𝑡 − 𝐹𝑑𝑥
= 𝑖𝑑𝜆 − 𝐹𝑑𝑥
 For a magnetically linear (with a constant permeability or a
straight line magnetization curve such that the inductance of
the coil is independent of the excitation current) system.
 the above expression becomes

1 𝜆2
𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥 = 2 𝐿(𝑥)

and the force acting on the plunger is then

2
𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥 1 𝜆 𝑑𝐿 𝑥 1 𝑑𝐿(𝑥)
𝐹=− = = 𝑖2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐿 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
 From the equivalent magnetic circuit of the actuator shown in figure (c) above,
one can readily find the self inductance of the excitation winding as
N2 µo N2 l(d−x) g
L x =
2ℜ
=
2g
where, ℜg =
µ A
, A = l(d − x)
g o
Therefore, the force acting on the plunger is
1 i2 dL(x) −µo l(Ni)2
F= =
2 d(x) 4g
 The minus sign of the force indicates that the direction of the force is to reduce
the displacement so as to reduce the reluctance of the air gaps.
 In the diagram below, it is shown that the magnetic energy is equivalent
to the area above the magnetization or 𝜆 -i curve.
 Mathematically, if we define the area underneath the magnetization
curve as the coenergy (which does not exist physically), i.e.

𝑊𝑓 ′ 𝑖, 𝑥 = 𝑖𝜆 − 𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥
We can obtain

𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′ 𝑖, 𝑥 = 𝜆𝑑𝑖 + 𝑖𝑑𝜆 − 𝑑𝑊𝑓 𝜆, 𝑥

= 𝜆𝑑𝑖 + 𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖, 𝑥) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖, 𝑥)
= 𝑑𝑖 + 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖,𝑥) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖,𝑥)
Therefore, 𝜆= and F = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑥
Energy and coenergy
 From the above diagram, the coenergy or the area underneath the
magnetization curve can be calculated by

𝑊𝑓 ′ 𝑖, 𝑥 = 𝜆 𝑖, 𝑥 𝑑𝑖
0
For a magnetically linear system, the above expression becomes

1 2
𝑊𝑓 ′ 𝑖, 𝑥 = 𝑖 𝐿 𝑥
2
and the force acting on the plunger is then

𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖, 𝑥) 1 2 𝑑𝐿 𝑥
F= = 𝑖
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Singly Excited Rotating Actuator
 The singly excited linear actuator mentioned above becomes a singly
excited rotating actuator if the linearly movable plunger is replaced by a
rotor, as illustrated
 In the diagram on the right hand side. Through a derivation similar to
that for a singly excited linear actuator,
 one can readily obtain that the torque acting on the rotor can be
expressed as the negative partial derivative of the energy stored in the
magnetic field against the angular displacement or as the positive partial
derivative of the coenergy against the angular displacement,

A singly excited rotating actuator

 Torque in a singly excited rotating actuator
Example 1:

The relay shown in below is made from infinitely permeable magnetic material
with a movable plunger, also of infinitely permeable material. The height of the
plunger is much greater than the air gap length(h>>g). Calculate the magnetic
stored energy 𝑊𝑓 as a function of plunger position (0 < x <d) for N = 1000 turns,
g = 2.0 mm, d = 0.15 m, L = 0.1 m, and i =10A.
Solution:
1 2 1 𝜆2
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑖 𝐿 𝑥 =
2 2 𝐿(𝑥)
The inductance is given by:
𝑁2 𝑔
𝐿 𝑥 = , 𝑅𝑔 =
2𝑅𝑔 µ𝑜𝐴𝑔

µ𝑜𝑁2 𝐴𝑔 𝑥
Then , 𝐿(𝑥) = , 𝐴𝑔 = 𝑙 𝑑 − 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑑(1 − )
2𝑔 𝑑

2 𝑥
1 2 µ𝑜𝑁 𝑙𝑑(1−𝑑)
And 𝑊𝑓 = 𝑖
2 2𝑔
𝑥
1 (4𝜋× 10−7 )(10002 )(0.1×0.15)(1−𝑑)
= 102
2 2(0.002)
𝑥
= 236(1 − ) J
𝑑
The force can be:
1 2 𝑑𝐿 𝑥 1 2 µ𝑜𝑁 2 𝑙 𝑑
𝐹=− 𝑖 =− 𝑖 𝑑−𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑔 𝑑𝑥
1 2
= 𝑖 µ𝑜𝑁 2 𝑙
4𝑔

1
F= 102 4𝜋 × 10−7 10002 0.1 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝑵
4 0.002
Example 2:
 The magnetic circuit shown below is made of high permeability
electrical steel. The rotor is free to turn about a vertical axis. the
maximum flux density in the overlapping portion of the air gaps is to
be limited to approximately 1.65 T to avoid excessive saturation of the
steel.
 Compute the maximum torque for r1=2.5 cm, h=1.8 cm and g = 3 mm.
Assume the reluctance of the steel to be negligible.
Solution:
There are two air gag in series, each of length 𝑔, and hence the air gap field
intensity 𝐻𝑎𝑔
𝑁𝑖
𝐻𝑎𝑔 =
2𝑔
The system coenergy is equal to that of the air gap. the coenergy density in the air
gap is µ𝑜𝐻𝑎𝑔 2 /2 and the volume of the two overlapping air gap is 2𝑔 h(r1+0.5𝑔)𝜃
Then the coenergy is equal to:
µ𝑜𝐻𝑎𝑔 2 µ𝑜(𝑁𝑖)2 h(𝑟1 +0.5g)𝜃
𝑊′𝑎𝑔 = (2gh(r1+0.5g)𝜃) =
2 4𝑔

And the torque is

𝑑𝑊′𝑎𝑔 µ𝑜(𝑁𝑖)2 h(𝑟1 +0.5g)
𝑇𝑓 = =
𝑑𝜃 4𝑔
Then
𝐵𝑎𝑔 1.65 6
𝐴
𝐻𝑎𝑔 = = = 1.31 × 10
µ𝑜 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑚
Ni = 2g𝐻𝑎𝑔 =2(3× 10−3 )1.31× 106 = 7860 A − turns
µ𝑜(𝑁𝑖)2 h(𝑟1 +0.5g)
𝑇𝑓 =
4𝑔
4𝜋 × 10−7 (7860)2 (1.8 × 10−2 (2.5 × 10−2 +0.5(2(3 × 10−3 ))
=
4(3 × 10−3 )
= 𝟑. 𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎
Doubly Excited Rotating Actuator
 The general principle for force and torque calculation discussed above is
equally applicable to multi-excited systems.
 Consider a doubly excited rotating actuator shown schematically in the
diagram below as an example.
 The differential energy and coenergy functions can be derived as
following:

𝑑𝑊𝑓 = 𝑑𝑊𝑒 − 𝑑𝑊𝑚

𝑑𝑊𝑒 = 𝑒1 𝑖1 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒2 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜆1 𝑑𝜆2
𝑒1 = , 𝑒2 = and
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑊𝑚 = 𝑇𝑑𝜃

A doubly excited actuator

Hence,

𝑑𝑊𝑒 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃) = 𝑖1 𝑑ߣ1 + 𝑖2 𝑑ߣ2 − Td𝜃

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 )
=
𝑑 ߣ1
𝑑ߣ1 +
𝑑ߣ2
𝑑ߣ2 +
d𝜃 d𝜃
And
𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃) = 𝑑 𝑖1 ߣ1 + 𝑖2 ߣ2 −𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃)
= 𝑖1 𝑑𝑖1 + 𝑖2 𝑑𝑖2 + Td𝜃
𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃 )
= 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑖1 + 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑖 2 +
d𝜃 d𝜃
1 2

Therefore, comparing the corresponding differential terms, we

obtain

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃)

𝑇= or 𝑇=
d𝜃 d𝜃
 For magnetically linear systems, currents and flux linkages can be
related by constant inductances as following

𝜆1 𝐿 𝐿12 𝑖1
= 11
𝜆2 𝐿21 𝐿22 𝑖2

𝑖1 𝛤 𝛤12 𝜆1
Or = 11
𝑖2 𝛤21 𝛤22 𝜆2

Where 𝐿12 = 𝛤21 , 𝛤11 = 𝐿22 /∆, 𝛤12 = 𝛤21 = −𝐿12 /∆, 𝛤22 = 𝐿11 /∆
And ∆ = 𝐿11 𝐿22 − 𝐿12 2
 The magnetic energy and coenergy can then be expressed as:

1 1
𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃) = 2 𝛤11 ߣ1 2 + 2 𝛤22 ߣ2 2 +𝛤12 ߣ1 ߣ2
1 1
𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃) = 2 𝐿11 𝑖1 2 + 2 𝐿22 𝑖2 2+𝐿12 𝑖1 𝑖2

 Therefore, the torque acting on the rotor can be calculated as:

𝑑𝑊𝑓 (ߣ1 , ߣ2 , 𝜃 ) 𝑑𝑊𝑓 ′(𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , 𝜃)

𝑇= =
d𝜃 d𝜃

1 𝑑𝐿11 (𝜃) 1 2 𝑑𝐿22 (𝜃) 𝑑𝐿12 (𝜃)

= 2 𝑖1 2 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑖1 𝑖 2
𝑑𝜃 2 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

 Because of the salient (not round) structure of the rotor, the self
inductance of the stator is a function of the rotor position and the
first term on the right hand side of the above torque expression is
nonzero for that 𝑑𝐿11 /𝑑𝜃 ≠ 0
.
 Similarly, the second term on the right hand side of the above
torque express is nonzero because of the salient structure of the
stator. Therefore, these two terms are known as the reluctance
torque component.
 The last term in the torque expression, however, is only related to
the relative position of the stator and rotor and is independent of
the shape of the stator and rotor poles.
Example 3:
In the system shown below the inductance in henry are given as L11 = (3+cos 2
𝜃)× 10−3 ,L12 = 0.3cos𝜃, L22 = 30+10cos2𝜃. Find and plot the torque Tf(𝜃) for
current i1= 0.8A and i2 = 0.01A
Solution:
The Torque Can Be Determined:
1 𝑑𝐿11 (𝜃) 1 𝑑𝐿22 (𝜃) 𝑑𝐿12 (𝜃)
T = 2 𝑖1 2 +2 𝑖2 2 + 𝑖 𝑖
1 2 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1 𝑑(3+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) 1 𝑑(30+10𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) d(0.3cos𝜃

T = 2 0.82 𝑑𝜃
+2 0.012 𝑑𝜃
+ 0.8*0.01 𝑑𝜃

= −0.32* Sin2𝜃 − 0.1 Sin2𝜃−2.4∗10−3 Sin𝜃

= −1.64*10−3 Sin2𝜃 − 2.4∗10−3 Sin𝜃
Exercise:
• Find an expression for the energy and torque of a symmetrical two-
winding system whose inductances vary as
L11 = L22 = 0.8+0.27cos4𝜃
L12 = 0.65cos2𝜃
for the condition that i1 = - i2 = 0.37 A, and also find the coenergy
and torque at 30𝑜 .