Full Text o Module in Ge 14 M. Nacino

PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE

MELISSA GRACE P. NACINO
INTRODUCTION
Everyday, we consume different things. As we consume, we also create new

possibilities and cultural practices that changes the society we live in. However, not
all of us recognize how we are being deprived of the truth, how we are constantly
marginalized and labelled as the “other” by the very same society that has “shaped”
us into who we are today.
Popular culture is an effective tool of capitalism to control the masses but

we, as consumers, also have the power to use it in our own ways to challenge those
above us. The Philippines is not foreign to this and has its own cultural influences
introduced to its own popular culture. The youth today are the most active
consumers of Philippine popular culture especially the new art forms in literature,
music, film, architecture, fashion, etc. However, it is not enough for the youth to
engage in the production of culture but they must also be active in the meaning-
making process.
This module is an attempt to make the ASCOTians cognizant of their roles in

the consumption and production of cultures, to awaken their interest in analysing
political conflicts surrounding their favourite popular culture products, services, and
art. Hopefully, the lessons in this module will help them look at their own situations
and conditions as part of the society, and how they can help in further shaping the
culture of the masses.
Disclaimer: No part of this module may be reproduced in any form without prior
permission from the Author.
Cover Image:
De Veyra, L. (2010). 10 terrifying things in contemporary Pinoy pop
culture plus one [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.spot.ph/this-is-
a-crazy-planets/46855/10-terrifying-things-in-contemporary-pinoy-pop-
culture
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COURSE OUTLINE
Philippine Popular Culture
1st Semester S.Y 2020-2021
VISION: ASCOT envisions to become a globally-recognized scientific and

technological university in Aurora by 2027.
MISSION:
ASCOT shall produce globally-competitive, ethnically-upright, and gender

sensitive graduates in the fields of arts and sciences, forestry, agriculture, education,
information technology, industrial technology, engineering, marine and environmental
sciences by promoting quality and gender –responsive instruction, research,
extension, and production towards sustainable development.
Course Code: GE 14 Credit Units: 3

Pre-requisite/s: None Co-requisite/s: None
Lecture Hours: 3 hours/week Laboratory Hours: N/A
Course Description:
New forms in art, music, and literature arising from opportunities and
demands of mass audiences, markets, and mass media, and their social, economic,
and political contexts.
Course Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
Knowledge
1. explain the concepts relating to cultural studies and popular culture as

contextualized in the Philippine setting
2. discuss everyday contexts of power, mode of production, representations, and
subjectivity as critical tropes
Skills
1. analyze certain texts on the ‘popular’ by relating them to different sociological
concepts
2. investigate the workings of hegemony and globalization in real world and local
applications
Values
1. appreciate how the popular texts can be an avenue of conflicting societal forces
and an agency of change
2. develop a critical mindset towards everyday activities especially in terms of
consumption
Number of Hours: 3 hours per week for 18 weeks
2
Timeframe
WEEK TOPICS
1 ASCOT’s Mission and Vision
Orientation to the course
Cultural Studies and Popular Culture: An Introduction
 What is Cultural Studies?
 Relationship Between Culture and Cultural Studies
 Cultural Ideology and the Popular
Philippine Popular Culture: A Historical Perspective
2-3 Consumption in Everyday Life
Consumption and Cultural Studies
 Relationship Between Cultural Studies and Consumption
 Subcultural Consumption
4-5 Globalization, Hegemony, and Popular Culture
 What is Globalization?
 Globalization as Cultural Americanization
 What is Glocalization?
 The Gramscian Theory of Hegemony
 Hegemony and Globalization
6-7 Reading the Popular:
 Semiotics and the Process of Signification
 Fallacies in Interpretation
 Defamiliarization
8-9 Philippine Popular Literature
 Literature: Its Description and Politics
 Popular Literature and Consumption
 Contexts of Philippine Popular Literature
10-11 Philippine Popular Music
 Brief History of Philippine Popular Music
 The OPM Icons
 Contexts of Philippine Popular Music
11-13 Popular Film and the Philippine Cinema
 Visual Pleasure and Film
 History of Philippine Cinema
 Popular Film Versus Alternative Film
 Contexts of Philippine Popular Films
14-18 Other Readings in Philippine Popular Culture and Art
CLASS POLICIES AND COURSE REQUIREMENTS:
1. Class Performance—Students are expected to read the lessons in the

module and to answer ALL exercises and activities in it. Video lectures
will be uploaded in the FB group to supplement comprehension and
retention of ideas and concepts.
2. Submission of requirements—There are two (2) modes of
submission for this semester. First, you may submit your accomplished
activities online through your block’s Google Classroom for GE 14.
Your instructor will give further instructions for each requirement.
Another mode is by submitting your documents in a long brown
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envelope labeled PHILPOP PRELIM/ MIDTERM/ FINALS during a

scheduled submission of papers.
3. Plagiarism—This should be avoided by the students especially in their
papers. Students caught plagiarizing once will be given a failing grade
in the plagiarized activity. However, multiple cases of plagiarism will
lead to a final grade of 5.00.
4. Deadlines— Requirements must be submitted until the stipulated time.
Extension of the deadline may be granted depending on the condition
and validity of reasons.
5. Consultations—Students may only consult with the instructor during
office hours (8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M.). When sending your instructor a
message, make sure that you state your name and section. Please
DO NOT chat, text, or call your instructor beyond the stipulated time.
6. Follow other guidelines stated in the Student Handbook.
GRADING SYSTEM
Course Requirements Percentile
Activities/Quizzes/Minute Paper 40%

Term Examinations 30%
Project 20%
Values 10%__
100%
MAJOR REFERENCES:
George Mason University. 2019. About cultural studies. In

culturalstudies.gmu.edu/about.
Tolentino, Rolando B. 2016. Kabataang kulturang popular at mga sanaysay sa

kartograpiya ng disaster at aktibismo sa Filipinas. Quezon City: University of
Santo Tomas Publishing House.
Tolentino, Rolando B. & Devilles, Gary C. 2015. Kritikal na espasyo ng kulturang

popular. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.
Storey, John. 2011. Cultural studies and the study of popular culture. 3rd ed.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh Press.
Storey, John. 2009. Critical theory and popular culture. 5th ed. Harlow: Pearson
Longman.
For consultations and further inquiries, you may contact your instructor in any of the
following:
MELISSA GRACE P. NACINO, MA LL

0908-321-0788 (Smart)
Email Address: melissanacino@ascot.edu.ph
FB Messenger: Melissa Nacino
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
UNIT 1
MODULE 1. CULTURAL STUDIES AND POPULAR CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION 7
Lesson 1.1 What is Cultural Studies?
Lesson 1.2 Relationship Between Culture and Cultural Studies
Lesson 1.3 Culture, Ideology, and the Popular
MODULE 2. PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE STUDIES:

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 13
MODULE 3. CONSUMPTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE 17
MODULE 4. CONSUMPTION AND CULTURAL STUDIES 25

Lesson 4.1. Relationship Between Cultural Studies and Consumption
Lesson 4.2. Subcultural Consumption
UNIT QUIZ 30
UNIT 2
MODULE 5. GLOBALIZATION, HEGEMONY, AND POPULAR CULTURE 31
Lesson 5.1. What is Globalization?
Lesson 5.2. Globalization as Cultural Americanization
Lesson 5.3. What is Glocalization?
Lesson 5.4.The Gramscian Theory of Hegemony
Lesson 5.5 Hegemony and Globalization
MODULE 6. READING THE POPULAR 37

Lesson 6.1. Semiotics and the Process of Signification
Lesson 6.2. Fallacies in Interpretation
Lesson. 6.3 What is defamiliarization?
UNIT QUIZ 44
UNIT 3
MODULE 7. PHILIPPINE POPULAR LITERATURE 45
Lesson 7.1 Literature: Its Description and Politics
Lesson 7.2. Popular Literature and Consumption
Lesson 7.3. Contexts of Philippine Popular Literature
MODULE 8. POPULAR FILM AND THE PHILIPPINE CINEMA 53

Lesson 8.1. Visual Pleasure and Film
Lesson 8.2. History of Philippine Cinema
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Lesson 8.3. Popular Film Versus Alternative Film

Lesson 8.4. Contexts of Philippine Popular Films
UNIT QUIZ 65
UNIT 4
MODULE 9. PHILIPPINE POPULAR MUSIC 66
Lesson 9.1. Brief History of Philippine Popular Music
Lesson 9.2. The OPM Icons
Lesson 9.3. Contexts of Philippine Popular Music
MODULE 10. OTHER READINGS IN PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE & ART 73
REFERENCE LIST
APPENDIX
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MODULE 1.
Duration: 2 hours
CULTURAL STUDIES AND POPULAR CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
a. define Cultural Studies and Popular Culture;

b. explain the relationship between Cultural Studies and the study of Popular Culture;
c. differentiate the ‘popular’ from the high-brow culture; and
d. appreciate the importance of popular culture in societal development.
What is Cultural Studies?
Cultural Studies is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the role of social

institutions in the shaping of culture. Cultural studies emerged in Britain in the late
1950s and subsequently spread internationally, notably to the United States
and Australia. Originally identified with the Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies
at the University of Birmingham (founded 1964) and with such scholars as Richard
Hoggart, Stuart Hall, and Raymond Williams, Cultural Studies later became a well-
established field in many academic institutions, and it has since had broad influence
in sociology, anthropology, historiography, literary criticism, philosophy, and art
criticism. Among its central concerns are the place of race or ethnicity, class,
and gender in the production of cultural knowledge.
Stuart Hall (1992) pointed out that:
Cultural Studies has multiple discourses; it has a number of different histories.

It is a whole set of formations; it has its own different conjunctures and
moments of the past. It included many different kinds of work . . .It always
was a set of unstable formations . . .It had many trajectories, many people
had and have different theoretical positions, all of them in contention. (Storey
2010, p. 2)
In other words, Cultural Studies offer an avenue for academic discourses that
derive concepts and arguments from different domains: anthropology, history, literary
studies, philosophy, political economy, and sociology (George Mason University,
para. 1). It strives to comprehend, analyze, and revolutionize certain cultural
practices (George Mason University, para. 5). Researches within Cultural Studies
place cultural objects under circumstances that account for power, conflict, and
change (George Mason University, para. 1).
Relationship Between Culture and Cultural Studies
Cultural Studies is concerned not only with one definition of culture. Instead, it
encompasses Culture and culture. The former pertains to what Matthew Arnold
(2009) called ‘the best which has been thought and said.’ Hence, written with a
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capital letter “C.” On the other hand, culture written with a small “c” is something that
is not classifiable in the former—that which is popular among the masses.
To simplify, Cultural Studies recognizes all types of culture (but most studies
have greatly focused on the ‘popular’). For this field of study, it treats culture as a
meaning-making entity. It pertains to how people live within nature (including
people’s own biology); it is the ‘shared meanings’ people develop and come across in
their everyday lives. Furthermore, the meaning-making process happens with the
texts and from the texts that people encounter. In this manner, cultures are derived
from the ‘production, circulation, and consumption of meanings.’ Therefore, ‘to
share a culture is to interpret the world in recognizably similar ways’ (Storey 2011,
pp. 2-3).
However, this does not mean that Cultural Studies treat culture as a
harmonious and organic whole. Instead, it recognizes that meanings across cultures
are negotiated, meaning, they can mean different things. It is in this negotiation
between cultures and the role of power where the core of Cultural Studies lies
(Storey 2011, p. 3).
Culture, Ideology, and the Popular
Brain Tickler!
Write a word in each box that you can relate with the word below.
Image Source: https://hro-partners.com
Before dealing with the definition of popular culture, it is important to define

first the concepts related to it which are essential in the discussion of the ‘popular.’
The first key concept is culture. Some definitions of culture have already
been discussed earlier. Let us see if the words you have written in the illustration
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above will fall under any one of the following additional definitions by Raymond
Williams (1983):
 Culture can be used to refer to ‘a general

process of intellectual, spiritual and aesthetic
development. ’
Notes:
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
Image source: www.goethe.de
 Culture suggests ‘a particular

way of life, whether of a people,
a period or a group.’
Notes:
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________ Image source: theculturetrip.com
 Culture can be used to refer to ‘the works

and practices of intellectual and especially
artistic activity.’
Notes:
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
Image source: www.tourism.gov.ph
Another essential term in popular culture studies is ideology. Graeme Turner

(1996) proclaims it to be ‘the most important conceptual category in cultural studies’
(Storey, p. 2). Just like culture, the term ideology also has competing definitions.
Examine the following meanings of ideology and try to understand each.
Ideology can refer to a systematic body of ideas articulated by a particular

group of people. Think about the different political groups in the country. Why do you
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think certain arguments arise when it comes to making decisions for the welfare of
the Filipino citizens?
A second definition suggests a certain

masking, distortion, or concealment (as
in the capitalist ideology). Ideology is
used here to indicate how some texts
and practices present distorted images
of reality. They produce what is
sometimes called ‘false consciousness.’
Such distortions, it is argued, work in
the interests of the powerful against the
interests of the powerless. For instance,
why do you think does the capitalist Image source: www.youtube.com
society keep on producing strong and
persuasive advertisements even if some products being released in the market are
not really effective or have devastating effects to the environment?
A third definition of
ideology (closely related to, and in
some ways dependent on, the
second definition) uses the term to
refer to ‘ideological forms.’ This
usage is intended to draw
attention to the way in which texts
(television fiction, pop songs,
novels, feature films, etc.) always
present a particular image of the
world. This definition depends on
a notion of society as conflicting
rather than consensual, structured
around inequality, exploitation and Image source: www.smokeytours.com
oppression. Texts are said to take
sides, consciously or unconsciously, in this conflict. For instance, when you watch a
certain documentary, it presents a particular reality (i.e. condition of people living in
the slums) in a way that it wants to invoke a certain reaction from the audience (i.e.
people may show empathy towards the oppressed or they may feel anger towards
the system).
A fourth definition is one that was very

influential in the 1970s and early 1980s. It is the
definition of ideology developed by the French
Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser. For him,
ideology is not simply a body of ideas, but a
material practice. Principally, what Althusser has in
mind is the way in which certain rituals and
customs have the effect of binding us to the social
order: a social order that is marked by enormous
inequalities of wealth, status and power. Image source:
throughthelensofmybrowneyes.blogspot.com
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For example, if you live a lavish life, your daily practices would differ greatly
from the practices of the poor. In what ways do you think would inequalities arise
from this societal difference?
Now that the meanings of the key concepts have been laid out, we can now
establish how to interpret the term popular in Popular Culture. Before proceeding,
study the image below. How many figures in the image do you recognize?
Image source: manilatoday.net
Williams (1983) suggests four current meanings of the word popular: ‘well-
liked by many people’; ‘inferior kinds of work’; ‘work deliberately setting out to win
favour with the people’; and ‘culture actually made by the people for themselves’
(Storey, p.5).
To better understand the concept, the term popular must be juxtaposed with
the term high culture or highbrow culture. Traditionally, highbrow culture pertains
to the culture of the intellectuals, the rich, or the elitist. Using this idea, popular
culture can be identified as the culture that is left over after we have decided what is
high culture. This definition of popular culture is often supported by claims that
popular culture is mass-produced commercial culture, whereas high culture is the
result of an individual act of creation. Hence, popular culture explores the relationship
and the tension that arises between the two in terms of their cultural practices and
ideological differences. Furthermore, it focuses on how the popular or the masses
use their own power to challenge the high class society including the capitalist one.
One example of this power struggle is observed in the production of popular

products (e.g. fake counterparts) such as in the image below.
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Image source: www.youtube.com
The highbrow culture and the capitalist society produce the ‘original’ products
while the lowbrow produces their replica for the consumption of the masses. In this
case, the original products, which are usually overpriced, only cater to those who can
afford them while the lowbrow finds ways to come up with products that are similar
but uses cheaper and more affordable materials. In this case, the lowbrow trying to
come at par with the highbrow society is a challenge in itself as it poses threats to
power of the latter.
ACTIVITY:
Study the following table and answer the following question on a ¼

sheet of paper.
Popular Culture High Culture

Popular press (tabloids such as Quality Press (highly recognized
Bulgar and Abante) press releases like Philippine Daily
Inquirer and Manila Bulletin)
Popular films (i.e. Praybeyt Benjamin, Art films (i.e. Himala and Tinimbang
Enteng Kabisote) Ka Ngunit Kulang)
Popular entertainment (i.e. comics, High entertainment (i.e. traditional
perya, Youtube) arts, casinos, classical literature)
Based on the table, write two (2) differences between popular culture
and high culture.
Answer:
1.
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2.
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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MODULE 2.
Duration: 1 hour
PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE STUDIES: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

a. trace the history of studies on Philippine Popular Culture
b. identify the pillars of Philippine Popular Culture
c. appreciate the developments in reading Philippine Popular Culture
Read the following introduction by Gary C. Devilles from the book, “Kritikal na
Espasyo ng Kulturang Popular.”
Isang Pagdalumat sa Espasyo at mga Araling Pangkultura
Hindi nalalayo sa isang pulong ang paghahain ng isang antolohiya ng mga

aralin sa Kulturang Popular. Kung dadalumatin ang kahulugan ng “pulong” hindi
lamang bilang pagtatagpo, pagkikita, o pakikipanayam, kundi ang mismong “pulo” na
tumutukoy sa anyo at hugis ng lupain na pinagdadausan nito, masasabing isang
pagtatagpo at sabay na tagpuan ang antolohiyang ito.
Isang pagtatagpo ito dahil may pangangailangan na rin na magkaroon ng

malinaw na pagtalunton sa Kulturang Popular, mula pa sa mga pag-aaral nina
Bienvenido Lumbera, Nicanor Tiongson at Soledad Reyes tungo kina Rolando
Tolentino at sa bagong henerasyon sa larangang ito.
Bienvenido Lumbera Soledad Reyes Nicanor Tiongson Rolando Tolentino

Image sources: www.rmaward.asia (Lumbera), www.goodreads.com (Reyes), rappler.com (Tiongson), &
es-la.facebook.com( Tolentino)
Sinasabi na nakaugat sa mga aralin nina Raymond Williams, Richard Hogart

at Stuart Hall ng University of Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies
ang mga araling pakikipagtalastasan at pang-media noong dekada 80 kung kailan
namutawi ang araling ito sa akademya ng Pilipinas. Bago nito, nakaangkla ang
araling pang-media sa US, sa ideolohiyang liberal kung saan tinitingnan ang lipunan
sa optimistikong pananaw, kung saan nagkakasundo ang lahat, umiiral ang
nakararami at pragmatiko. Dala ng ganitong pananaw, nakatuon lamang ang pag-
aaral sa media sa idinudulot nito sa gawi at kilos ng tagapagtangkilik, ang masama at
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mabuting bias ng media. Simplistiko kung gayon ang ugnayang itinatakda ng media
at tagapagtangkilik at hindi itinatanong ang mismong pinagmulan ng media at ang
pwersang sangkot at kinasasangkutan mismo sa buong produksyon. Lumabas na
ang halos lahat ng araling pang-media ay nag-aanyong tagapagsulong ng mga
pagpapahalagang indibidwal, demokrasya at ang mismong pangarap ng sinumang
Amerikano.
Noong dekada 70, unti-unting nilansag ang ganitong pakiwari sa araling
pang-media nina Adorno, Horkheimer, Marcuse, at Habermas at naghain sila ng
ibang pananaw sa pagsusuri ng kapangyarihan, pagbabago at tunguhin ng lipunan at
media. Dito na rin pumapasok sa US ang mga pag-aaral nina Hogart at Hall mula sa
Britanya at sinasabing malaking impluwensya rito ang pagkadismaya sa ideolohiyang
liberal na namumutawi sa Humanidades at mga Agham Panlipunan.
Sa Pilipinas, nagmula sa araling panitikan at hindi sa araling pang-media ang

araling kultural. Bagaman ang nagsusulat na sina Bienvenido Lumbera sa pelikula,
Doreen Fernandez hinggil sa pagkaing Pilipino, at Valerio Nofuente tungkol sa dyip,
si Soledad Reyes ang unang masinop na nagtaguyod ng Kulturang Popular sa
Pilipinas. Mula sa kanyang pag-aaral ng nobelang Tagalog at sa pagtalunton niya sa
genre na ito sa popular na babasahin na komiks, naging pangunahing tanong ni
Reyes ang usapin ng panlasa at kung paano ang panlasa o estetika ay nakapaloob
sa malawak na usapin ng tunggalian ng uri, mga tanong na ginagalugad din sa mga
araling kultural sa US at Inglatera noon. Mula sa pag-aaral ni Reyes nagkaroon ng
mga serye ng panayam at palihan sa Kulturang Popular noong 1988, na nagbunga
ng mga babasahin na pinamatnugutan din ni Reyes, ang Reading Popular Culture na
inilimbag ng Pamantasang Ateneo noong 1991. Tampok sa Antolohiyang ito ang
mga sanaysay hinggil sa dyip, komiks, soap opera, pelikula o Original Pilipino Music.
Layunin ng antolohiya ayon kay Reyes na maglaan ng puwang sa akademikong pag-
aaral ang mga bagay na ito at ilantad ang mala-burgis na oryentasyon ng pag-aaral
ng panitikan at kultura.
Doreen Fernandez Valerio Nofuente

Image source: www.goodreads.com
Sa Kanluran, nagmula rin sa mga panayam at palihan ang pagkakaroon ng

mga antolohiya sa Kulturang Popular. Isa na rito ang The Cultural Studies Reader ni
Simon During na nailathala noong 1999 at ang Cultural Studies na pinamatnugutan
nina Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson at Paula Treichler, at batay sa palihan na
naganap sa Pamantasan ng Illinois Urbana-Champaign noong 1990. Sa pagsusuri ni
Ien Ang, malaking suliranin ng mga antolohiyang ito ang balintuna ng pagkalat ng
Kulturang Popular. Sa isang banda, nagkakaroon ng puwang ang diskursong kritikal
sa mga akademya, na may kakayanan na suriin ang usapin ng kapangyarihan, uri at
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panlasa. Subalit kapansin-pansin din ang tila pagiging unibersal ng ganitong diskurso
na sa halip na maging mapagpalaya ay lalo pang nagpapatibay sa mala-kolonyal na
bias ng kaalaman.
Sa ganitong konsepto ng pagtatagpo nais naming ipaliwanang ang espasyo

ng Kulturang Popular sa Pilipinas. Una, tila may pagkakahawig sa mga suliraning
kinakaharap ng akademya dito sa Pilipinas at maging sa US kaya hindi
nakapagtataka kung isang puwersa ang papel ng kasaysayan ng pananakop ng US
sa Pilipinas at ang patuloy na pagiging dominante ng kulturang Amerikano dulot ng
globalisasyon. Kung tinurol na nina Soledad Reyes at Bienvenido Lumbera ang
usapin ng panlasa at ang kaakibat na tunggalian ng uri dito, ginalugad din sa US at
Inglatera ang mga usaping ito. Ayon kay Simon During, paksa na ang tunggalian ng
uri sa araling kultural sa Inglatera noong katapusan ng digmaang pandaigdig, batay
sa pag-aaral ni FR Leavis. Ayon kay Leavis, hindi lamang isang anyo ng libangan
ang kultura, kundi isang tunggalian ng naghaharing uri laban sa masa. Sinusugan
nina Richard Hogart at Raymond Williams ang ganitong mga pag-aaral ni Leavis at
kung titingnan ang kalipunan na mga pag-aaral na ito tila nagkakaroon ng “mala-
pagtatagpo” ang mga kritiko sa iba’t ibang lupalop ng mundo.
Subalit kailangan ding idiin na hindi lamang pagtatagpo ang umusbong na

espasyo ng kulturang popular sa akademya. Kailangan ding makita na isang tagpuan
din talaga ang espasyo ng kulturang popular. Pansinin na sa mga pag-aaral nina
Reyes malimit niyang ginalugad ang tunggalian ng kapangyarihan sa panlasa at
estetika at kadalasang madudukal sa laylayan gaya ng komiks ang artikulasyon nito.
Kaya para kay Reyes, isang espasyo kung tutuusin ang komiks kung saan umiiral
ang ideolohiya, panlasa ng naghaharing-uri, at maging ang kakaibang pagtanggap
ng mambabasa, na may sariling pakiwari at paggamit sa nasabing babasahin.
Pansinin din ang mga pagsusuri sa iba’t ibang media gaya ng telebisyon at pelikula
nina Lumbera, Tiongson, at Rolando Tolentino kung saan tinahak din nila ang
ahensya ng mambabasa, manonood at tagapagtangkilik nito at naghain ng
masalimuot na konsepto ng kaakuan o popular. Malimit mabatid sa mga akdang ito
ang kakaibang pagturing sa popular na hindi lamang isang uri ng tao sa lipunan
kundi isang dinamikong gawain o pakikipagtalaban ng teksto at mambabasa. Kung
pagbabatayan ang sinabi ni Derrida na walang nasa labas ng teksto o walang labas
ang teksto, masasabing ang kulturang popular ay nasa tumatangkilik nito, ang
patuloy na pagbabago nito ayon sa panlasa ng manonood, at ang paggigiit ng
kanilang mga hangarin sa konteksto ng umiiral na suliranin ng kanilang panahon at
lugar. Samakatuwid, isang espasyo ang mismong kulturang popular at sa ganitong
punto rin nagiging tagpuan ang pagtalunton sa kasaysayan ng kulturang popular at
ang iba’t ibang diskurso ukol dito. Hindi lamang pagbabalangkas ng panahon ang
pagsasakasaysayan ng kulturang popular. Higit na angkop na isang pagtawid,
pagtahak, o paglakbay sa mga lansangan at kalye ng kulturang popular. Naglalayag
ang sinumang kritiko at tagapagtangkilik ng kulturang popular at sa halip na
magmula ang isang pasya o pananaw tungkol sa pinanood o binasa sa isang atas o
pamantayan, may nagaganap lamang na isang uri ng pagtatagpo, isang uri ng pag-
amin na may angking bisa ang itinatanghal at sabay na pagtataya na mauunawaan
ng marami ang pagtatalaban ng mga teksto sa mambabasa ng mga sandaling iyon.
Batid ng kritiko o mambabasa na walang pamantayan ang isang paglalayag o
paggalugad. May kutob lamang siya, kinakapakapa lamang niya ang kanyang
pinanuod o binasa. Hindi nakapagtataka na sa ngayon dumarami ang mga espasyo
na gingalugad sa kulturang popular—nariyan ang pagtuunan ng pansin ang katawan
bilang espasyo mismo at ang mismong lunan gaya ng Maynila. Sa ganitong
15
konteksto nais naming ihain ang kahulugan ng Kritikal na Espasyo ng Kulturang

Popular. Kritikal na Espasyo ito dahil tumutukoy ito sa pagtatagpo ng mga aralin at
iba’t ibang tagpuang ginagalugad sa antolohiyang ito.
ACTIVITY:
Choose the letter of the best answer. Write your answers on a ¼ sheet
of paper only.
1. Based on the text, in what specific studies did cultural studies start in the
West?
a. Panitikan (literature)
b. Panayam at palihan (media and interviews)
c. None of the choices
2. Based on the text, in what specific studies did cultural studies start in the
Philippines?
a. Panitikan (literature)
b. Panayam at palihan (media and interviews)
c. None of the choices
3. Among the proponents of popular culture in the Philippines, who was the first
to promote it organizely in the country?
a. Bienvenido Lumbera
b. Doreen Fernandez
c. Soledad Reyes
4. According to Leavis, culture is not just for pleasure and entertainment but
___________________?
a. is an avenue for the existing conflicts within the social hierarchy

b. is an avenue for promoting propaganda to persuade the people
c. is an avenue of the changing values of the society
5. Why does the study of popular culture put an emphasis on the discourse on
taste?
a. Because it reflects the individual’s aesthetic choice

b. Because it reflects the distinctions among the different socio-economic
groups
c. Because it reflects the styles of consumer goods which individuals choose
according to their needs
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MODULE 3.
Duration: 1 ½ hours
CONSUMPTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE
a. explain the relationship between Cultural Studies and the study of consumption
b. describe capitalism’s role in molding a person’s life
c. value the importance of knowing popular culture’s extent of effect to the lives of
the people
Brain Tickler!
Fill out the table below with the ideas being asked. In the last
column, put a checkmark () on the things you think you really
need and a smiley () on those which you only wanted.
STAGE OF THINGS I AM/WAS  or 

DEVELOPMENT PROVIDED WITH/ I
BOUGHT FOR MYSELF
Infancy and Toddlerhood
(0 to 2 years)
Early and Middle

Childhood
(3 to 11 years)
Adolescence
(12 to 19 years)
Early Adulthood
(20 to 40 years)
*Fill out only if applicable to

you.
TOTAL: =
=
Question: Which of your wants and needs gained a higher total score? Why do
you think this is so?
___________________________________________________________________
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Now that you have identified some of the things that you have consumed
according to your stage development, let us explore how these play a role in popular
culture. Read the following excerpt from the epilogue by Rolando B. Tolentino for the
book, “Kritikal na Espasyo ng Kulturang Popular.”
Ang Popular at Kultural sa Kulturang Popular sa Espasyo ng Neoliberalismo

ni Rolando B. Tolentino
Ang kulturang popular ay malakihang

negosyo na nangangailangan ng malakihang
bilang ng mga individual na tumatangkilik.
Walang mabebenta—produkto, karanasan,
serbisyo, brand, kwento, sandali, o panahon—
kung walang bibili—literal, at figuratibo para sa
walang kapasidad na tumangkilik, ang idea pa
lamang na ang ibinebenta ay isang kanasa-
nasang bagay. Kahit pa sinasabi na ang Image source: www.doncooper.com
kulturang popular ay mga produkto at serbisyong ipinapataw ng mga nasa itaas—ng
mga negosyo at kapitalismo—ang paratihang challenge ay kung paano ito gagawing
katanggaptanggap sa mga nasa ibaba para ang want ay maging need, ang luho ay
maging batayang pangangailangan ng malaking bilang, at ang mga produkto at
serbisyo ay maging measure ng individual na fulfillment. Ang kapangyarihan ng
kulturang popular ay lumikha ng kultura na popular sa labas ng sakop ng loob ng
aktwal na produkto at serbisyo nito, o kung paano ang produkto at serbisyo ng
kulturang popular ay nagiging bahagi ng mga kolektibo ng individual-- nag-uusap,
nakikitungo, nakikipagkapwa sa aktwal at virtual na mundo, magkakilala man o
hindi—o sa madaling salita, kung paano ang kulturang popular ay nagiging vital sa
pagkanilalang (becoming, being) ng mga individual na tumatangkilik sa karanasan
nito.
Ang pagkanilalang ay nakabatay sa gitnang uring panuntunan na may global

na dimensyon: gitnang uri bilang tagpuan ng maykayang kayang bumaba sa popular
na panlasa at ng abang uri na abot-tanaw, abot-kaya (kahit sa sachet o
paminsanminsan lamang) na madanas; at global dahil sa yugto ng neoliberal na
globalisasyon, ang mga pangarap ay pawang nakapaloob lamang sa inaalok nito,
lalo na ng mga brand para sa global na hanay ng mga kabataan. Ang akses sa
cellphone na I-phone o Samsung Galaxy, Mac computer at Air Mac, kanluraning
fastfood at resto bars, 24/7 na establisyimento, portable wifi connection, at kulturang
mall, halimbawa, ay pangarap ng lahat ng mga kabataan sa lahat ng bansa at
teritoryo sa mundo. Ang ganitong panuntunan at peg ang siyang magbibigay-
substansya sa pagkanilalalang at ng pagdanas ng pagiging global na kabataan: kung
paano umibig, malaglag, mag-Valentine's date, lumigaya, gumimik sa barkada, at
tumanda, pati maging rebelde, magkaroon ng premarital at extramarital affairs,
magdroga, magpatiwakal, at magbagong buhay, o sa madaling salita, kung paano
hip, fashionable, young, at youthful na mabuhay at mamatay.
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Kabataan ang panuntunan ng kulturang popular, kaya intermittent, revivalist,

retrospektibo at may shelf life lang ang mga produkto at serbisyo ng kulturang
popular. Pabago-bago dahil tumatawid ang pangkalahatang nosyon ng kulturang
popular sa iba't ibang henerasyon ng mga kabataan. Pabago-bago kahit hindi naman
talaga (nag-uulit, nag-a-update, nanghihiram, kumukuha sa nakaraan, at iba pa) para
hindi magmukhang nauubusan ng maaring ihain na produkto at serbisyo. Nagbabago
dahil walang katiyakan na tatangkilikin ang mga variasyon ng global na kulturang
popular sa pagsapi nito sa mga pambansang kontexto—kahit na benchmark na ang
cellphone, iba-iba ang kalakaran sa pagdanas nito: sa Filipino, halimbawa, texting,
pagbili ng load sa suking tindahan o pwesto, siste ng pasa-load, G-cash o ang
kumbersyon ng load sa credit na makakabili ng produkto at serbisyo, at iba pa, na
nagpapatangi sa kontexto ng bansa kahit hindi naman talaga pangkalahatang naiiba
sa global na gamit at kontexto nito. Nagpapahintulot ng variasyon pero hindi
pwedeng ibang-iba, tulad ng lokal na offering sa standardisadong menu ng
McDonalds.
Ang kabataang pagkanilalang ay nakatuon sa pagdanas sa karanasan ng

kulturang popular sa isang sado-masokistang relasyon. Hindi kailanman may
paglapat sa ninanais ng individual sa inaalok na produkto at serbisyo ng kulturang
popular. Parating kulang, parating hindi nakakasapat kaya regular na dinadanas. Sa
ritwalisasyon naanigan ang kalidad ng pagkanilalang. Ang sine, halimbawa, kahit
naantig na ang damdamin sa isang napakamakabagbag-damdaming pelikula, hindi
ito nakakasapat. Manonood at manonood muli't muli ang individual. Sa ritwalisasyon
ng karanasan—mula pagkabata hanggang sa pagtanda—nabubuo ang
pangangailangang muli't muling gawin ang mga takdang gawain sa kulturang
popular. Pero sadlak ang pagkakasa sa kulturang popular dahil parating kulang at
hindi nakakasapat ang pagtimbang sa karanasan nito. Hindi mabibili ng mga
individual ang lahat ng modelong lumalabas sa I-phone at Samsung Galaxy, at sa
akto ng kanyang aktwal na pagbili, minamarkahan na ang produktong tinangkilik niya
bilang paluma na, pawalang-bisa na dahil ilang buwan at taon lamang, may mas
bagong ilalabas ang malalaking negosyo. Ang sado-masokismo ay ang relasyon ng
individual sa produkto at serbisyo ng kulturang popular. Self-flagellation na nakangiti
ang ginagawa ng individual sa pagtutumbas ng makakayanan para makasabay sa
global na panuntunan. Dinaranas niya ang karanasan sa ligaya (pleasure mode),
hindi sa aktwal na moda ng pasakit at pighati. Alam niyang nagdusa ang individual
para makasabay, na kahit na mabili na ay may peryodikong karagdagang halaga pa
na kailangang kitain at pagkagastusan (load at postpaid sa cellphone, at monthly sa
cable at wifi service, halimbawa) pero magpapaubaya na lamang ang individual sa
pagpaloob sa karanasan ng pagtangkilik. Sa pangako ng figuratibong pag-akyat,
kung mayroon man, sa maliliit na mundong kinapapalooban ng mga social ladder
nakatuon ang kanyang motibasyon na ipagpatuloy. May ngiti bilang artifice ng
nakatagong pagdurusa dahil sa artificial na negotiated na ligaya lamang
magkakaroon ng katuturan—ng kultural na lohika—kung bakit niya tinatangkilik ang
produkto at serbisyo.
Sadista ang individual dahil siya mismo ang nagbibigay ng latay sa kanyang
pagkanilalang, at natutuwa siya na ang kanyang subhetibismo ay may ngiti itong
tinatanggap. Tulad sa maraming sado-masokistang relasyon maliban sa hardcore,
walang aktwal na latay, wala namang namamatay sa pagtangkilik sa madalas (kahit
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pa marami ang biktima ng karahasan sa nakawan ng cellphone, date rapes, sex

eyeballs, at iba pa, o kahit pa may namamatay sa aktwal na konstruksyon ng malls,
ipinaglalaho ito ng mismong negosyo at estado para manatiling wagas at dalisay ang
pagdanas). Sa isang banda, sinasaad na mahal ko ang produkto dahil mahal ko ang
sarili na nagpakahirap para makamit ang produkto, at para matumbas ang
pagmamahal sa ligaya, kailangan kong burahin ang mga bahid ng pasakit at pighati.
Sa kabilang banda, sinasaad din ng sarili na kinamumuhian ko ang produkto dahil
kinamumuhian ko ang sarili na pumayag na magpakahirap para makamit ang
produkto (hindi naman ikamamatay ng sarili kapag hindi), at para matumbas ang
pagkamuhi sa pasakit at pighati, kailang kong burahin ang mga bahid ng pasakit at
pighati. Sa madaling salita, walang KJ (kill joy) sa pagdanas ng kulturang popular
dahil hindi masaya—kaya nga KJ—na tumangkilik na nababalisa kung bakit nga ba
tumangkilik at patuloy na tumatangkilik. Para hindi mabalisa, voluntaryo man o hindi,
pinipilit ang sarili na iwaksi ang pasakit at pighati, at danasin lamang ang karanasan
sa modalidad ng ligaya.
Ang dialetiko ng ligaya at pasakit ay matagal

na pinanday ng individual sa kanyang sarili. Sa
pamamagitan ng panlipunan, pampamilya at
sariling pag-ako na sosyalisasyon natutunan niya
ang mekanismo ng pagsasabuhay ng
nekropolitika—dahil sa depolitisasyon ng
pagtangkilik at pagdanas, pinapatay ng neoliberal
na kapitalismo ang pagka-individual niya, ang
kanyang subhetibididad. Ang pagsasabuhay ay
Image source: www.flickr.com
nagsimula pa lamang sa konsepsyon sa individual, ang mga produktong tinangkilik,
ang karanasang dinanas, ang syensya at kultura ng sex para mabuo ng magulang,
makapagdalangtao at maipanganak siya ng kanyang ina. Matapos, ang pag-alaga sa
kanya ng mga produkto ng negosyong unti-unting nagmamarka sa kanyang
pagkatao: baby books, diapers, powedered milk, Gerber baby food, anti-rash lotion,
bakuna, baby albums, at iba pa. Maraming sanggol ang dinadala na sa malls ng mga
buryong na magulang, kontraryo sa alituntunin na huwag munang i-expose ang
sanggol sa malalaking publikong espasyo.
Ang kanyang kamusmusan ay tatadtarin ng cartoon channels, Disney films,

fastfood, at iba pa. Sa katunayan, kahit pre-literate ang bata, marunong na itong
kumilala ng branded na pagkain, pati ng karakter ng mga palabas sa telebisyon at
pelikula. Sa fastfood, halimbawa, ang musmos ay daranasin sa ligaya ang pagpunta
rito bilang manifestasyon ng afeksyon ng magulang dahil sa maalat at mainit na
french fries, matamis na sundae at spaghetti, langhap sarap na Chicken Joy.
Maligaya ang pagbihis sa musmos, pagdala sa lugar na maari siyang maglaro sa
playground ng outlet, o mas maganda, makapag-birthday party rito, gusto man ng
sanggol o umiiyak ito sa takot sa pagdalaw ng at pagkarga sa kanya ng higanteng
maskot dahil inakala ng magulang na ito ang alaalang gusto nilang ipasa--sa
pamamagitan ng souvenir photos, video, at Skype (kung overseas contract worker
ang magulang)--sa anak bilang integral na bahagi ng imahinasyon ng nakakatanda
na childhood memory. Hanggang sa pagdadalaga't pagbibinata, mapapansin ng
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individual na regular niyang tinatangkilik ang fastfood kahit pa matutunan niya ang
deadly health issues na kaakibat ng pagtangkilik na ito.
At sa kanyang sariling pagtanda tungo sa pagiging magulang, siya naman
ang magbibigay-sosyalisasyon sa kanyang sanggol at musmos para sa pagsasaulit
ng life cycle ng kanyang kapamilya sa pagtangkilik sa global brand ng fastfood. Kahit
pa siya lolo at lola na, gaya ng pagtampok sa mga figurang ito sa komersyal ng
fastfood, dahil may kapasidad sila ng personal savings at kahit bawal na rin sa
kanilang edad, sila naman—bilang doting na lolo at lola—ang patuloy na
magsusustina ng ganitong taliwas na habit. Itong pagkatagos ng kulturang popular
sa iba't ibang yugto ng buhay ng individual, at ang sosyalisasyon sa kanya ng mga
entidad na malapit—familial at familiar—sa kanya ang nagtitiyak sa sustainabilidad
ng pagdanas ng individual at ng kita ng negosyo ng kulturang popular.
Ang personalisasyon ng pagdanas ang nagbibigay-preferensya at

paninindigan na pumapabor sa kulturang popular. Bakit naman hindi, ang sinimulan
paborableng alaala sa kanyang pagkasanggol at kamusmusan sa pagtangkilik ay
patuloy na sinusustina sa kanyang pagtanda? Sa tuwing dadalaw siya at muli't
muling makikibahagi ng pagtangkilik sa sityo ng kulturang popular—sa fastfood,
halimbawa—ay may impit na alaala ng ligaya ng kamusmusan, at sa kanyang
pagtanda, ang pagkawalay at pagkawala nito. May pangungulila na mabubuo ang
individual sa kanyang nawawalang kamusmusan bilang integral na kaganapan sa
naratibo ng individual na buhay sa kapitalismo. Nawawala kaya patuloy na
hinahanap, nawawala dahil mahalaga, nawawala pero hindi na muling matatagpuan,
permanenteng nawawala kaya permanente ang paghahanap: win-win sa mga global
na negosyo na sa kabuuan at bahabagi ng life cycles, may kitang mahihita sa mga
individual. Kung iisipin, personal ang relasyon ng individual sa mga produkto: Coke,
Disney cartoons, anime, sine, malling, fastfood, birthday party at gimik, debut at
kasal. Kahit pa may template ang mga ito, ang individual na pagdanas—kasama ang
residue ng pagdanas: litrato, video, Facebook posts and tweets, halimbawa—ay
nagmimistulang natatangi ang naging pagdanas kahit pa nga mass ang saklaw ng
mga produkto at serbisyo ng kulturang popular. Paano iisiping sa habit ng pag-inom
ng Coke simula musmos pa lang na ito ang isa sa mga dahilan kung bakit marami
ang nagkaka-diabetes? O ang maling pagtangkilik ng pagkaing fastfood na ito ang
simulain ng high blood na maaring dumiretso sa atake sa puso at stroke? Na wala
namang aktwal na pagbabagong nagaganap sa kinetisismo ng narsisistikong
paglahok sa mga platapormang Facebook at Twitter? Kung naging bff (best friend
forever) mo ang mga ito sa napakatagal na panahon, kahit pa sabihin ng liberal na
edukasyon at panlipunang aktibismo ang mga kakulangan at kalabisan ng mga ito,
hindi maiisip ng individual na masama ang nagpapaligaya sa kanya, ang mga bagay
na tinangkilik niya at ipinatangkilik ng mga mahal niya sa kanya. Na kahit pa nga
mass ang produkto't serbisyo ng kulturang popular, may personalisadong ritwal ang
individual na nasustina sa mahabang panahon ng pagtangkilik na nagtitiyak na ang
ritwalisasyon ng pagdanas ang parati kaysa madalang na magpapatagumpay sa
negosyo kaysa sa individual sa kulturang popular.
Figuratibong hawak sa leeg ng neoliberal na kapitalismo ang mamamayan at

konsumerista—ang dalawang pangunahing identidad ng individual bilang politikal at
ekonomikong nilalang ng estado. Hawak ang kaluluwa ng individual dahil kailangang
dumaan sa rigor ng pagdanas, primaryo sa kulturang popular, para madulas na
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ipatanggap ang kalakaran para sa substansasyon ng individual sa kaayusan ng

neoliberal na kapitalismo: kung paano maging tao, makipagkapwa tao (mga
panlipunang relasyon), at ang pagkatao (pagiging nilalang). Walang ligaya sa labas
ng inaalok ng neoliberal na kapitalismo ang inilalako mismo ng neoliberal na
kapitalismo. Ito ang parametro ng ligaya na efektibong iniaalok para sa publiko ng
individual at paghulma ng individual na publiko (na tulad sa social networks ay
nakakawing pa rin sa negosyong namamayagpag sa neoliberal na kapitalismo).
Kaya ang isinasaad ng neoliberal na kapitalismo, walang ligaya na hindi maaring
madanas dahil ang ligaya ay matutunghayan sa pagtangkilik—pangangarap, aktwal
sa bawat akto, ritwal sa pagsasaulit ng aktwal sa panahon—kundi man, walang
ligaya na hindi nabibili, walang hindi mabibili para makamit ang ligaya sa kulturang
popular. Ito ang hiwagang nakakapanghimok sa tumangkilik sa neoliberal na
kapitalismo kahit pa ang ligaya ay hindi naman talaga nakaugat sa anumang may
yamang-balon, o mga ligayang dulot ng instant gratifikasyon lamang, ang ligaya sa
sandali ng akto ng pagtangkilik na matapos ay kagyat na nawawalay at nawawala
rin.
Kagyat ang pagkawalay at pagkawala dahil kung matagalan ang sandali—

naging panahon—hindi na ito saklob ng kulturang popular na walang pangako na
aratihan itong available kahit pa sa habambuhay na pagkatagos nito sa individual:
una, kailangan ng aktwal na konsumo at partisipasyon, at kung gayon pag-ayon sa
referendum na bumobotong paborable sa pagdanas, para matiyak ang akses sa
ligaya; at ikalawa, kinakailangang maikli lang ang self-life—ang mismong sandali
lamang ng pagdanas—ang buhay para muli't muli itong hanapin para ala-tsamba na
mahagilap. Kaya naglalaho sa ere matapos ng sandali dahil mas may kita ang
negosyo at may kumpyansa sa estado ang individual sa ritwalisasyon ng
konsumpsyon. Sa panahon ng post-World War II na magulang, mabubuhay at
mamamatay sila na kakailanganin lang ng isang kotse, ref at iba pang appliances. Sa
kontemporaryong panahon, peryodiko ang pagpapalit ng gamit. Walang lifetime
guaranty ang binili maliban sa aktwal na shelf life ng mga bagay.
Ito ang kultura ng pagkalaos (obsolescence) sa kapitalismo, lalo na sa

neoliberal na yugto nito. Gaya nga ng isinasaad, ang sityo ng ligaya ay nasa sandali
ng gratifikasyon nito. Matapos nito, hindi na natin maalaala dahil nga winalay at
winala na ito para muling hanapin at tangkilikin. Ano ang ikatlo sa huling sine na
napanood mo? Ano ang ikalawang huling text at tawag na natanggap? May pause
muna bago masagot ito. Matapos ng pagdanas sa sandali, wala na itong halaga. Ang
ikalawa pang manifestasyon ng kultura ng pagkalaos sa kapitalismo na efisyenteng
pinapadaloy ng pinaka-epektibong galamay nito, ang kulturang popular, ay ang
rekisitong pagiging papalitpalit nito. Basta hindi na bebenta, laos na, luma kaya
kailangang palitan na ng iba. Kahit ano. Ang bawat paglabas ng bersyon ng
operating system ng kompyuter o cellphone ay may karagdagang feature lang
naman, hindi naman reimbensyon ng siste. Maging ang retail outlet sa mall ay
kinakailangang magpalit ng display window kada ilang buwan para kolektibong
makapanghimok ng patuloy na pangtangkilik.
At ito ang paradoxikong indikasyon ng pag-agnas ng kulturang popular sa

ahensyang integral sa liberalismong pinag-ugatan nito: mas madalas lumahok at
tumangkilik, mas normalisado sa pang-araw-araw, mas wala nang pagtatanong sa
22
ritwal ng pagtunghay at partisipasyon, mas pinapaimbabaw ang modalidad ng ligaya,

at kung maligaya ang tampok na modalidad ng pagdanas, may pagtagos sa
individual na may ahensya sa ginawang pagpili, paglahok at pagtangkilik sa
kulturang popular. Samakatuwid, hindi narerealisa ng individual na sa depolisadong
akto ng pagtangkilik--kahit pa politisado naman ang aktong ito dahil hinakayat ng
negosyo at estado na maging docile ang katawan at tinig ng individual—siya ay
nawawalan ng ahensya ng sarili. Lahat ng pinili ay overdetermined na o inilatag na
ang posibilidad ng pagpipilian sa mismong pagpaloob sa mga diskurso ng produkto
at serbisyong tinatangkilik. Hindi pwedeng umorder ng adobo sa McDonalds o
banana split sa Jollibee, halimbawa, dahil hindi ka naman papasok sa mga
establisymentong ito kung malinaw, una pa man, na wala ito sa kanilang menu na
kinatatampukan ng burgers, fries at colas. Hindi individual ang mapagpasya dahil
maging ang kapasidad niyang pumili bilang individual ay nahimok nang umalinsabay
sa itinataguyod ng negosyo at estado. Paano iisipin na mapanupil sa manggagawa
ang kalakaran ng SM malls, ang pinakamalaking mall developer sa bansa, sa
subkontrakwalisasyon—na ang buhay ng manggagawa sa mall ay limang buwan
lamang para hindi ma-hire ito at makakamit ng benefisyo—kung ang alaalang
historikal ng pagkamulat sa malls at ng kasalukuyang patuloy na malling ay sa
modalidad nga ng ligaya dinanas? Paano iisiping racista at patriyarkal ang Disney
films kung nangarap ka noong bata ka at pinapatunghay pa ang mga pelikula sa
mismong mga anak ang mga imahen ng sirena, damsel in distress, prince charming,
pananakop sa Africa at Latin Amerika? Nilikha ang kulturang popular na exonerhado
ang lumikha at nagpapalaganap ng mga ito. Walang nagpipiket o mass action na
matutunghayan sa mall o theme park. Hindi maaring tukuyin si Henry Sy, mga
Gokongwei at Ayala Corporation bilang salarin sa depolitisasyon ng mga
nagmamalling sa kanilang mga establisymento. Sasabihan ka ng public relations ng
mga ito, may choice naman ang tumatangkilik kung tatangkilik ba sila o hindi. At kahit
pa sa masigabong konsumerist na boykot ang maaring gawin para semplangin ang
mga ito, walang mayorya na makikilahok. Kaya nga mahina rin ang kilusang
konsumerist sa bansa dahil walang bisa ang pagtatangkang magtaguyod ng
solidaridad sa mga naagrabyado sa pamamagitan ng pagboykot sa mga negosyong
simbolo at direktang salarin nito.
Ang tagumpay sa kapitalismo, kahit pa malinaw ang panlipunang

akawntabilidad ng mga negosyo sa mga akto at epekto ng depolitisasyon, hindi
krimeng maging tanga (mas krimen pa nga ang maging kritikal), at epektibo rin
nalikha ng mga negosyo ang sariling abstraksyon dahil hindi naman isinasaalang-
alang ng mga konsumerist ang moda ng produksyon. Tanging sa tail-end lang sila
lumalahok, kung saan nabura na ang lohika ng mapanupil na paggawa, at ang tapos
na produkto ay natransforma na sa mamahalin at mahikang komoditi.
Sa kalidad ng personal na investment at interes sa mga produkto at serbisyo

ng kulturang popular, walang ibang rekurso na iniaalok maliban sa sapilitang
pagtangkilik. Kahit pa, sa pamamagitan ng liberal na edukasyon, alam na ang
katiwalian at kahayupang pagmaniobra ng mga industriya ng kulturang popular, hindi
naman isusuko ang mga kalakaran ng pagtangkilik sa mga ito. Sino ang handang
itapon ang cellphone sa basuran, o manindigan na hindi na sila mag-a-update sa
mga bagong modelo hanggat hindi nasisira ang laos nilang gadget? O huwag nang
magmalling? Maging vegetarian na lamang dahil sa siste ng industrial na pagpaslang
23
sa mga hayop na pinagmumulan ng kinakaing karne? Sino ang makaka-afford na

kumain ng mamahalin na organikong pagkain? Sino ang handang hindi na kumain sa
fastfood? Ang individual na negasyon sa politikal—ang kapasidad ng individual na
magpasyang may alam, at makapili nang pinakamabuti sa kanyang interes—ay
isinagawa na mismo sa antas ng individualidad, sa naipatagos na individualismo at
individualista ng individual. Walang ligaya sa makitid na loob nito. Kung gustong
maging maligaya, piliin ang ligaya sa nagsisikipang loob ng kawalan-pagpili at aktwal
na kawalan-ligaya sa kawalan-pagpipilian naman talagang kalakaran sa kulturang
popular.
ACTIVITY:
Choose only one (1) of the following questions to answer based on the
excerpt. Write your answers on a ¼ sheet of paper in one (1) to three (3)
sentences only.
1. How does popular culture affect the collective being of the

people/consumers? (Paano naapektuhan ng kulturang popular ang kabuuang
pagkatao ng isang tao/consumer nito?)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Why is popular culture always being defamiliarized from time to time?

(Bakit madalas baguhin ang mukha ng kulturang popular?)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. How is sadomasochism being reflected in the ways we consume popular

culture? Give an example.
(Paano naipapakita ang sadomasokistang relasyon ng indibidwal sa
pagkonsumo nito ng kulturang popular? Magbigay ng isang halimbawa.)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
24
MODULE 4.
Duration: 1 ½ hours
CONSUMPTION AND CULTURAL STUDIES
a. explain the relationship between Cultural Studies and consumption

b. describe how subcultures are formed from the reigning culture; and
c. appreciate the value of subcultural practices in relation to the concepts of
resistance and power struggle
Relationship between Cultural Studies and Consumption
Cultural Studies is relevant to the study of consumption for different reasons.

One reason is theoretical in nature: “to know how texts are made to mean requires a
consideration of consumption.” This refers to giving attention to the possible variety
and extent of meaning a text makes including its ‘social’ meanings, how it is adopted
and utilized in relation to consumption in everyday life. This idea emphasizes that the
‘true’ meaning of a text is not to be sought; rather, the discovery of meanings, their
spread and how it is “embedded in the lived cultures of people’s everyday lives”
(Storey 2011, p. 138).
In the previous lesson, even if we have established that there exists a certain
conflict between the ruling class and the ruled and the capitalist society and the
masses, Amanda Vickery argues that consumption must be viewed ‘as a positive
contribution to the creation of culture and meaning.’ In her study, she focused on how
“the goods are used and the multitude of meanings invested in possessions over
time as they are placed in new contexts and in new relationships with other goods.”
Aside from the theoretical reason, the other reason cultural studies is relevant
to consumption is political in nature. As Storey (2011) suggests,
Although cultural studies recognizes that the capitalist culture industries are a
major site of ideological production, constructing powerful images,
descriptions, definitions, frames of reference for understanding the world,
cultural studies reject the view that to consume these productions is to
become the hopeless victim of ‘false consciousness.’ (p. 140)
Culture is not something that is already produced which is made for people to
consume. Instead, culture is what the people create in the different routines of
daily life, including consumption. As Miller (1987) put it, consumption involves the
making of culture (Storey 2011, p. 140).
25
Furthermore, it is important to look at the important roles of the consumers

beyond their economic function instead of just focusing on the means of production
or production itself. It is in the ‘production in use’ where “questions of meaning,
pleasure, ideological effect, incorporation or resistance, can be decided” (Storey
2011, p. 141). In other words, the consumption of the masses is vital in the
creation of new cultural practices.
Brain Tickler!
Using your creativity, in what other ways or functions (aside from
their original purpose) can you use the following ordinary items?
Write only one (1) creative function for each item.
Broom/Broomstick Old rug
Old tire Empty bottles
Based on the exercise and the discussion, identifying creative ways of using
ordinary things and habitually doing so is a meaning-making and culture-making
process in itself. The fact that the people use certain objects in such ways that defy
their original purpose is a sign that they are not just mere consumers of products
which are being subconsciously imposed by the capitalist society as a need.
Subcultural Consumption
Question: Have you ever undergone an emo phase? Or perhaps a time

when you thought jejemon fashion and habits were a thing? Why did you engage in
these kinds of practices? What do you think is their importance?
Subcultures are a group of people within a culture that differentiates itself

from the parent culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding
26
principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values regarding cultural,
political, and sexual matters.
It is in the studies on youth subcultures where the relationship between

cultural studies and consumption starts. According to Paul Cohen (1980), the
underlying function of subculture is to articulate and settle the unresolved conflicts in
the parent culture (Storey 2011, p. 141). Hence, subcultures denote ‘a compromise
solution to two contradictory needs: the need to create and express autonomy and
difference from parents and the need to maintain parental identifications (Storey
2011, p. 142).
Youth subcultures are coded significations of contradictions affecting the

working class in general. Hebdige (1979) shifts the focus from ‘class politics’ to the
‘politics of style.’ As he explains, “The challenge to hegemony which subcultures
represent is not issued directly by them. Rather, it is expressed obliquely, in style. . .
Youth subcultures communicate through acts of consumption” (Storey 2011, p. 143).
The “normal” style is the one which the parent culture identifies itself with
while the subcultural style is something that the youth are using to express their
deviation from what the parent culture dictates to be “acceptable.”
Brain Tickler!
Look at the following examples of other subcultures from other countries.
Based on their styles, which do you think is the Harajuku, Cutester,
Skatepunk or Sneakerhead, Scene, Gothic Lolita, Cybergoth, and Emo?
Image sources:
www.prettydesigns.com
www.pinterest.ph
www.rebelsmarket.com
27
Can you identify a subculture that can be observed in the Philippines? Paste a
sample picture below and write the subculture’s name below it.
________________________________________
According to Storey (2011), subcultural consumption is consumption at its

‘most discriminating.’ It is through a process called ‘bricolage’ where subcultures
‘appropriate’ for their own intentions and meanings the mass-produced goods
(meaning, they combine items coming from different sources to create a new whole).
It is through this appropriation where they show resistance to the meaning inscribed
to the product, therefore, resisting the dominant ideology. However, once resistance
has given way to incorporation, subcultural analysis stops, waiting for the next ‘great
refusal.’
ACTIVITY:
Fill out the following boxes with ideas about subculture. You may write in
full sentences or phrases only. Write your answers in a one whole sheet of
paper.
1. How subcultures start

2. How subcultures are embraced by the masses
3. How subcultures resist the parent culture
4. How subcultures stop and give way to a new one
28
1.
4. 2.
3.
29
UNIT QUIZ (MODULES 1-4)
Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper for submission.

I. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if the statement is
erroneous.
______________1. Cultural Studies is a field of inquiry that is ‘monolithic.’
______________2. Culture with a capital “C” pertains to the high brow culture or
the culture of the elites.
______________3. Culture with a small “c” refers to the low brow culture or the
culture of the masses.
______________4. Ideology is the set of beliefs of the people.
______________5. Culture is a meaning-making entity.
______________6. Cultural Studies treat culture as a harmonious and organic
whole.
______________7. Negotiation of meanings across cultures is possible.
______________8. Ideological distortions work in the interests of the powerless
against the powerful.
______________9. Cultures are derived from the production, circulation, and
consumption of meanings.
______________10. Cultural Studies involve multiple discourses.
II. Identify who/what is being asked in the following statements.

______________1. Soledad Reyes focused on which aspect of cultural studies
that is also known as a marker of class?
______________2. Cultural Studies in the Philippines started in what field of study?
______________3. What concept refers to a particular way of life, whether of the
people, a period, or a group?
______________4. In what field of study did cultural studies start in the US?
______________5. Who among the proponents of pop culture study in the
Philippines is considered the one who mostly did the pioneering
of the field?
______________6. In cultural studies, what is considered as a marker of class?
______________7. According to Tolentino, which one between the upper class and
the middle class is able to meet the popular taste of the lower
class?
______________8. According to Tolentino, who are the major consumers of popular
culture?
______________9. According to Tolentino, what human experience from childhood
to adulthood causes the need for the people to repeatedly do
things within popular culture?
______________10. This is where youth subcultures express how they challenge
hegemony.
30
MODULE 5.
Duration: 6 hours
GLOBALIZATION, HEGEMONY, AND POPULAR CULTURE

a. relate the concept of globalization to popular culture
b. describe the role of glocalization in relation to consumption
c. define Gramsci’s concept of hegemony
d. describe the role of hegemony in consumption and popular culture
e. value the importance of knowing how globalization works in relation to the
thriving of popular culture in the Philippines
f. appreciate the complexities of hegemony and its workings in the contemporary
society dominated by the capitalist ideology
What is Globalization?
There are different definitions of the term ‘globalization.’ Its definitions mainly rely on
its socio-economic and political aspects. Study the following definitions and
descriptions of the word:
a. The term globalization refers to the emerging of international network,

belonging to an economical and social system.
b. After the Cold War, the term was used to describe the world becoming more
interdependent in its economical and informational dimension.
c. Roland Robertson, a professor of sociology at the University of Aberden, was

the first person who defined it as “the understanding of the world and the
increased perception of the world as a whole.”
d. Swedish journalist Thomas Larsson said that globalization is the process of

the “shrinking of the world, the shortening of distances, and the closeness of
things.”
e. According to John Storey (2011), globalization refers to the establishment of a

capitalist world economy, in which national borders are becoming less and
less important as transnational corporations, existing everywhere and
nowhere, do business in a global market.
f. In 2000, the International Monetary Fund has identified four basic aspects of
globalization: trade and transactions, capital movements and investment,
migration and movement of people and the spreading of knowledge.”
31
Question: How does globalization relate to the creation and development of

new cultural practices?
Globalization as Cultural Americanization
According to John Storey (2011),
A central view of globalization, specifically in terms of globalization and

popular culture, is to look at it as “the reduction of the world to an American
‘global village’: a global village in which everyone speaks English with an
American accent, wears Levi jeans and Wrangler shirts, drinks Cola-Cola,
eats at McDonalds, surfs the net on a computer overflowing with Microsoft
software, listens to rock or country music, watches a mixture of MTV and
CNN news broadcasts, Hollywood movies and reruns of Dallas, and then
discusses the prophetically named World Series, while drinking a bottle of
Budweiser or Miller and smoking Marlboro cigarettes. (p. 161)
Brain Tickler!
Do you agree that globalization is centered on the Americanization of
a culture? Write your opinion inside the box that suits your answer.
I AGREE BECAUSE I DISAGREE BECAUSE
The above scenario describes globalization as the lucrative worldwide

imposition of the culture in the US wherein the country’s capitalism ruins ‘indigenous
cultures’ and enforce the American culture on ‘local’ populations.
Arising problems with this model of globalization:
a. It assumes that ‘economic success’ is the same as cultural imposition. It

assumes that commodities are the same as culture.
b. It depends on the claim that commodities have inherent values and singular
meanings, which can be imposed on passive consumers.
c. Cultural Americanization has limited concept of the foreign. What is foreign

can equally be a question of class, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, generation, or
32
any other marker of social difference. The imported foreign may also be used
against the prevailing power relations of the local (i.e. hiphop culture).
d. Globalization as cultural Americanization assumes that America is the only

global power but the world is made up of many changing centers of power.
With these concepts, globalization can, therefore, “help confirm or help undo
local cultures; it can keep one in place and it can make one suddenly feel out of
place. . . Globalization involves the ebb and flow of both homogenizing and
heterogenizing forces; the meeting and mingling of the ‘local’ and the ‘global’ (Storey,
2011, p. 166).
What is Glocalization?
 Glocalization is the simultaneous occurrence of both universalizing and

particularizing tendencies in contemporary social, political, and economic
systems.
 It is reflecting or characterizing both local and global considerations.
 A glocal approach means presenting global knowledge within a local context

that respects human rights. It encapsulates the concept, “think globally, act
locally.”
Image sources: curiousnut.com, arabiangazette.com, sarakraf.com.my, spotify.com
33
As observed in the pictures, the global is being merged with the local. Why
does this happen? In the capitalist sense, since business owners/corporations want
to earn money as much as possible, they tend to use what is available in the local
scene to cater to the local taste. By using local ideas, global corporations will be able
to tap on the pride and identity of the people thereby making their brand seem to
acknowledge local heritage. However, even if glocalization might seem deceitful for
using local ideas, it also plays a role in the production of new cultures (e.g. the
Filipino-style spaghetti is now known globally through fastfood chains and the OFWs;
producing Pinoy rock music and other fusion genres are still patronized by Filipinos
today).
The Gramscian Theory of Hegemony
Hegemony is defined as the social, cultural,

ideological, or economic influence exerted by a dominant
group.
The concept of hegemony is used by Gramsci to

refer to a condition in process in which a dominant class (in
alliance with other classes or class fractions) does not
merely rule a society but leads it through the exercise of
‘intellectual and moral leadership.’ Hegemony involves a
specific kind of consensus: a social group seeks to present
its own particular interests as the general interests of the
society as a whole (Storey, 2009, p. 80).
Antonio Gramsci
Image source: www.britannica.com
An example of this view of hegemony is the involvement of the media in the

discussion of some important local issues. Specifically, the media sensationalizes the
issues that will sustain it and that will benefit the capitalist society by treating these
issues as if they address the interests and needs of the society as a whole.
Another example is the hegemony in colonialism. The colonial power or the

control of a nation over another is established through certain ways like the
introduction of religion (as in the case of the early Catholics in the Philippines during
Spanish exploration of the New World) or the teaching of a colonizer’s language to
an indigenous culture (as in the case of the Thomasites sent by the United States to
teach English in the Philippines).
Hegemony is ‘organized’ by those whom Gramsci designates as ‘organic

intellectuals’. According to Gramsci, intellectuals are distinguished by their social
function. That is to say, all men and women have the capacity for intellectual
endeavour, but only certain men and women have in society the function of
intellectuals as in the case of the ‘ideological state apparatuses’ (Storey, 2009, p.
81).
34
In terms of the power of the subordinate groups, the emergence of youth

subcultures, as discussed in the previous topic, is perhaps one of the best examples
of the process that men and women make from their active consumption of the texts
and practices of the culture industries. Products are combined or transformed in
ways not intended by their producers; commodities are rearticulated to produce
‘oppositional’ meanings. In this way, and through patterns of behaviour, ways of
speaking, taste in music, etc., youth subcultures engage in symbolic forms of
resistance to both dominant and parent cultures. Youth cultures, according to this
model, always move from originality and opposition to commercial incorporation and
ideological diffusion (Storey, 2009, p. 81). Such activities in popular culture are
considered as acts of counter-hegemony.
Hegemony and Globalization
It has been established in the previous lesson that globalization plays an

important role in the production and consumption of popular culture as well as in the
shifting relations of culture and power. Globalization is a complicated course and
practice and a way to comprehend this complexity is in terms of the appropriation of
Gramsci’s concept of hegemony.
Based on cultural studies in relation to hegemony:
Popular culture is neither an ‘authentic’ subordinate culture, nor a culture

imposed by the culture industries, but a ‘compromised equilibrium’ (Gramsci)
between the two; a contradictory mix of forces from both ‘below’ and ‘above’;
both ‘commercial’ and ‘authentic’; marked by ‘resistance’ and ‘incorporation’,
involving both ‘structure’ and ‘agency.’ (Storey, 2011, p.171)
Just like globalization, hegemony is also complex and conflicting. Although

there exists the imposition of ideas and ‘false consciousness’, hegemony in
globalization is not just about the power of the global but it also recognizes the power
of the local. Hence, there is always a dialogue between structure and agency. As
Marx popularly put it:
Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please; they
do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under
circumstances directly encountered, given, and transmitted from the past.
(Storey, 2011, p. 172)
In short, “we make culture and we are made by culture” (Storey, 2011, p.
172).
35
ACTIVITY:
Choose any Filipino short film or full length film to watch that shows
conflict among the opposing societal forces. Why did you choose that film?
What kind/s of conflict or tension did it show the audience? How would you
recommend the film to other people? Answer in 2-4 sentences only. For the
rubrics, please refer to the Appendix.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
36
MODULE 6.
Duration: 6 hours
READING THE POPULAR

a. explain semiotics and the different levels of meaning of a text
b. determine ways on how to avoid making invalid interpretations of texts
c. describe false consciousness, defamiliarization, and how they relate to popular
culture
d. appreciate the importance of making meanings at different levels of
significations
Brain Tickler!
Examine the following picture. What is your initial interpretation of the image?
What is it about? Write your answer on the blank.
Image source: iecn.com
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Let us find out if your initial interpretation can be taken into consideration
using the lessons in this module. To get an in-depth and sound interpretation, you
have to undergo a process. First, you have to recognize what kind of text you are
reading, what images you can observe, and what social, cultural, economic, or
political ideas you can identify with the images. To test your answer to the above
image, take into consideration the following lessons.
Semiotics and the Process of Signification
Semiotics is the study of signs and their meaning in society. A sign is

something which can stand for something else. In other words, a sign is anything that
can convey meaning. Signs can either be verbal or nonverbal. Roland Barthes, in his
discussion in his work, Mythologies, identified different levels of signification in his
semiological model that can be applied in reading popular culture. He took Ferdinand
de Saussure’s schema of signifier/signified = sign and adds to it a second level of
37
signification. He claims that it is at the level of secondary signification or connotation

that myth is produced for consumption. By myth he means ideology understood as a
body of ideas and practices, which by actively promoting the values and interests of
dominant groups in society, defend the prevailing structures of power. To understand
this aspect of his argument, we need to understand the polysemic nature of signs,
that is, that they have the potential to signify multiple meanings.
Denotation is the dictionary meaning of a word while connotation is the

meaning that arises from what people know based on their cultural practices. In other
words, connotation is the other meaning that goes beyond or has a deeper sense
than the denotative meaning.
What makes the move from denotation to connotation possible is the store of
social knowledge (a cultural repertoire) upon which the reader is able to draw when
he or she reads the image. Without access to this shared code (conscious or
unconscious) the operations of connotation would not be possible. And of course
such knowledge is always both historical and cultural. That is to say, it might differ
from one culture to another, and from one historical moment to another. Cultural
difference might also be marked by differences of class, race, gender, generation or
sexuality.
38
Take a look at the following instances that show how denotation differs from
connotation:
1. The word ‘rice’

Denotation: the starchy seeds of an annual Southeast Asian cereal grass that
are cooked and used for food; equate to different words in the Philippines
depending on the rice’s condition at a moment in time (bigas, kanin, bahaw,
tutong, etc)
Connotation: Culturally, rice is a symbol for prosperity, nourishment, health,
and life.
2. The word ‘stars’

Denotation: a natural luminous body visible in the sky especially at night
Connotation: In some cultures, they regard stars as gods that look down on
earth from the heavens. It is also believed that stars bring good luck and are
symbols of hope.
As an application, when you will read a

text, it is not enough to focus on the surface
meaning only. Just like in the Tip of the Iceberg
illustration, the denotation is just the surface
meaning of the text. On the other hand, the
connotation holds the larger portion of the
iceberg as it includes those which are not
always said blatantly or are not expressed
easily.
Image source: slidehunter.com
Going back to the illustration on the first page of this module, what meanings
did you assign to the following signifiers?
a. Color of the fingers

b. Facial expression of the fingers
c. Distance of the fingers from one another
If you answered racism or racial discrimination as your initial interpretation

then you are on the right track towards a valid interpretation. If you answered
bullying, you need to consider looking at the signifiers in the picture. First would be
the colors of the three fingers. You will notice that there are only two opposite colors
present in the image (not considering the background)—fair and dark colors. These
colors represent the color of the entirety of the person or his/her race. If you will
consider their expressions and proximity, the two fair-colored fingers are together
and looked as if they are whispering and making fun of the other one while trying to
move away from the dark-colored finger who has curly hair and a confused and hurt
expression. This scenario will bring us into the conclusion that the two-faired fingers
represent the white people while the dark-colored one represents a colored race,
much like the Africans or even Asians. In this society, it is known that colored races
are often victims of racial discrimination due to the so-called white privilege.
39
Did you make another meaning aside from the one presented above? Try to
test the validity of your interpretation by identifying whether you are committing a
false claim or not.
Fallacies in Interpretation
QUESTION: Are there wrong interpretations?

The answer is no. You have to remember that interpretation is not about what
is right or wrong. Rather, meaning-making is a matter of VALIDITY—whether your
interpretation is valid or invalid. For your claims to be valid, you should always back it
up with evidences from the text you are reading. Otherwise, you might be committing
a fallacious one.
According to the Merriam-Webster’s dictionary, a fallacy refers to (a) a false

or mistaken idea or even (b) a plausible argument using false or invalid inference. In
other words, a fallacy is a faulty reasoning. It is deceptive as it appears to be a valid
argument but upon scrutiny, there is lack of evidence to support it. Sometimes, the
faulty reasoning also stems from over-reading or going beyond the topic of the text.
There are different ways in which a person commits a faulty claim. The
following are just a few of these instances.
1. Emotional Fallacy
It is the use of emotions to win an argument but actually has no factual
evidence. Also, this fallacy pertains to the use of emotions as
“interpretation” of the text or its merit. For instance, by saying that a text is
comical or sad is purely just a reflection of one’s reaction or subjectivity
and not necessarily the meaning of the text.
2. Intentional Fallacy
This is particularly applicable when one is reading a written text (e.g.
book). This fallacy emphasizes the purpose of the author as the message
of the text. Whenever readers read, the intention of the author in writing
the piece should not be treated as the source of its meaning. Also, the
author’s life story must not be used in making claims about the
experiences of the characters within a story. As Roland Barthes, a French
critic, declared, “the author is dead” (meant to be figurative). This means
that once the piece has been published, it gains its own life—something
that is independent of the author’s.
Now that you know that an interpretation of a text is not supposed to be

hastily given and that fallacies must be avoided, it is better to establish why people
are easily deceived and are easily persuaded especially in terms of consumerism in
popular culture.
As an example, head over to the following link on Youtube

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o8Y2RbkvDD4. The commercial that you will see
there is the infamous Maxi Peel ad in 2019 as shown below.
40
Image source: ayeshaheart.com
When you watched this advertisement, did you empathize with the women?
Did you feel the same discrimination they felt because of their acne problem? If you
do not know the fallacies in interpretation, you will be easily fooled into buying their
product as this is an example of a campaign that appeals to emotions. It is not
enough to interpret the ad as something that shows discrimination against women
because of their skin problem. That is exactly what the commercial would want the
consumers to think so that people will buy the company’s product. In the end, the
capitalist earn the money while the consumer either rejoice or suffer. This
phenomenon is what the Marxists call ‘false consciousness.’
False consciousness refers to the thinking that prevents a person to

recognize how he/she is being exploited because the capitalist society conceals the
true nature of the person’s social or economic situation. The capitalist society lives
for the money and high social status and it preys on the easily deceived individuals.
This is essentially true in popular culture. However, it is also important to recognize
the power of the consumers in their ways of consuming or using what they bought
from the market.
Going back to the advertisement and applying your knowledge in false

consciousness, how are you now going to interpret the nature of the commercial
behind its deception?
One way to interpret it is by saying that although the commercial speaks of a

normal human experience (having acne), it is overly depicted and it was only limited
and portrayed as a woman’s problem. Also, it plays on the stereotypical idea that
women are more likely to be concerned with beauty and having physical
imperfections will leave them unfulfilled in life. Hence, the women saying things like,
“Hindi na daw ako makakapag-asawa”; “Wala na daw akong pag-asa”, etc.
Furthermore, if you will observe, the women in the video are career women.
They are already successful because of their jobs. However, the product highlights
their flaws instead of their own success. Hence, devaluing what women can achieve
without having to focus on their physical appearance. Maxi Peel, in this case, invests
in the insecurities of women, which have been imposed by the standards of the
society, making itself a need more than just a want. Therefore, when a woman, who
shares the same problem with the women in the video and who does not think twice
before buying, falls into the trap of capitalism through false consciousness.
This is just one way of looking at the commercial if the reader will try to avoid
committing fallacious conclusions. One has to remember that there is no such
thing as a single and ultimate interpretation to a text. This is because texts can
be read from different perspectives and interpretations will be subjected to test of
validity.
41
QUESTION: How come people still patronize products and other popular
culture items even if they know that they are just the so-called ‘milking cows’
of the capitalist society?
To answer the question, people must know one specific strategy that makes
everything the capitalist society does work—the process called defamiliarization.
What is defamiliarization?
Originally, the term is used in literature as proposed by the Russian

Formalists specifically Viktor Shklovsky in his Art as Technique. Defamiliarization, in
its original sense, refers to the use of language in such a way that ordinary and
familiar objects are made to look different.
In popular culture, defamiliarization refers to how the capitalist society

presents goods and services to the consumers in a seemingly new or different way
but, in reality, there is hardly any newness in it (e.g. a powdered juice product that
has been in the market for quite some time will have a “new face” or will have a new
packaging design but still contains the same product). The strategy’s goal is to make
sure that the consumers’ attention is always held, hence, the further instillation of
‘false consciousness.’
However, this does not mean that consumers have no control over this
invisible grip of capitalism. As established in the previous lessons, the consumers will
always devise a way on how to ‘recuperate’ or take back their power over capitalism.
This recuperation will then lead to production of new cultures which will eventually
challenge that of the high society (where capitalism resides).
ACTIVITY:
Study the following image that
shows young adults with milktea in their
hands. Milktea is one of the most popular
among the youth today and has put its
mark as a popular culture icon. Analyze
the image by answering the following
question and writing down your
interpretation of the picture considering
the following signifiers. Write your answer
on a ½ sheet of paper.
What does the image tell us about the emerging milktea youth culture today?
Image source: xiliumvirtual.com
Also focus on:
a. How the group posed for the picture
b. The facial expression of each person as they hold the milktea
c. The probable place where they are taking the picture
d. The need to take a picture of the milktea while also taking a group photo
42
Write your answer in paragraph form consists of 4-6 sentences.
__________________________________________
(Title)
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper for submission.

I. Choose the letter of the correct answer in the following items. Write
the letter and the word of your choice.
1. What level of signification pertains to the dictionary meaning of a word?

a. Connotation b. denotation c. conveyance
2. What level of signification refers to the deeper meaning of a word?

a. Connotation b. denotation c. conveyance
3. Interpretations are accepted according to their ___________.

a. importance b. correctness c. validity
4. What refers to a plausible argument using false or invalid inference?

a. fallacy b. claim c. reasoning
5. What technique in capitalism refers to how goods and services are presented
to the consumers in a seemingly new or different way?
a. defamiliarization b. marketing c. advertising
II. Match the items in column A with those in column B. Write only the
letter of your choice.
A B
1. The emerging of international network, a. Hegemony
belonging to an economical and social system b. Globalization
2. Process of the “shrinking of the world, c. Glocalization
the shortening of distances, and the d. Cultural
closeness of things” Americanization
3. This encapsulates the concept e. Counter-
“think globally, act locally” hegemony
4. This refers to the reduction of the world to
an American global village
5. The social, cultural, ideological, or economic
influence exerted by a dominant group
44
MODULE 7.
Duration: 6 hours
PHILIPPINE POPULAR LITERATURE

a. differentiate between Literature and literature
b. describe the relationship between popular literature and consumption
c. explain the social, economic, and political context of Philippine popular
literature; and
d. appreciate the importance of the development of popular literature in the
country
Literature: Its Description and Politics
Literature has always been an integral part of the lives of the people. It comes
in different forms—written or oral. Our ancestors have practiced the oral traditions
ever since time immemorial. Across various cultures, there are myths, legends,
songs, folktales, riddles, etc. that flourished and are still relevant today. On the other
hand, with the invention of printing, writing was developed and writers all over the
world have published their short stories, novels, plays, and poetry among others.
However, in terms of defining the art, it is difficult to identify one particular

definition that will encompass all characteristics of literature. Hence, no actual
definition can be made. Instead, only descriptions of literature can be determined as
descriptions include the form and content of literature. One particular description of
literature is the following:
“Literature is the highest form of expression of human thoughts and emotions

in words of truth and beauty.”
As observed, there are different key phrases in the abovementioned

description—‘highest form of expression’, and ‘in words of truth and beauty’. The
expression of human experiences in literature is said to be in the highest form
because writers write with careful thought and the words and descriptions they use
are in the most aesthetic manner. This is done through the utilization of the Figures
of Speech that aid in expressing mundane experiences into figurative or metaphorical
ones. The keywords truth and beauty, on the other hand, refers to how these
experiences are reflective of the realities of life, good or bad, but still provides
readers the pleasure of reading.
Aside from giving a general description of literature, it can also be discussed

in terms of its own politics in relation to consumption within the social order. Study
the following table:
45
Literature literature
Also called the canon or canonical Also called the popular or the non-
literature (meaning, they have stood the canonical literature (meaning, they are
test of time and they are still being well-liked by the many or the majority of
studied in the academe because of their the population)
socio-political relevance and value
judgment)
Deemed as the “classic” or regarded as Uses the type of language and touches
“the best” that have been written on themes that are easily understood by
the masses
Somehow has an intellectually elitist Does not necessarily follow the
form and content (meaning, only those traditional form of prose or poetry
who have higher education may
appreciate them and that they do not
have the same appeal to the masses as
the popular literature)
Examples of the classics are: Examples of popular literature today are:
“Florante at Laura” by Francisco Baltazar “Ligo na U, Lapit na Me” and other books
“Noli Me Tangere” and “El Filibusterismo” by Eros Atalia
by Jose Rizal “Alamat ng Gubat” and other books by
“Banaag at Sikat” by Lope K. Santos Bob Ong
“Mga Ibong Mandaragit” by Amado V. Comic book series by Manix Abrera or
Hernandez Carlo J. Caparas
Wattpad stories
Romance novels (Pocket books)
As observed in the table, the politics of literature revolves around who among
the members of the population reads them. Also, the merit of the work is a
determiner in choosing which literary piece must be considered by the academe as
an important work that will remain an authoritative example of this art or craft. To
better understand what popular literature is, observe the differences between the
following examples.
Example 1 (excerpt from “100 Tula Para Kay Stella” by Jason Paul
Laxamana):
TULA #20: Rosas TULA #28: Gusgusin
sa ilalim ng lipstick na itim Mapanghangad ba akong sadya

ay kulay rosas na mga labi para isiping may gusto ka rin sa
astig pa rin sya sa paningin akin?
patuloy na namumukod-tangi Isa lang akong gusgusing bata
at ikaw ang dalangin
Example 2 (excerpt from “Isang Dipang Langit” by Amado V. Hernandez):
Akoy ipiniit ng linsil na langi

hangad palibhasang diwa koy pilitin,
katawang marupo, aniya’y pagsuko,
damdami’y supil na;t maihiin ay supil
46
Ikinulong ako sa kutang malupit;

bato bakal punlo, balasik ng bantay:
lubos na tiwalag sa buong daigdig
at inaring kahit buhay man ay patay
Example 3 (excerpt from “It’s Not That Complicated: Kung Bakit Hindi pa Sasakupin
ng Alien ang Daigdig” by Eros Atalia):
“Di ko alam kung paano ie-explain, pero, para sa akin, ang bag ng babae ay
simbolo ng kanyang daigdig. The mere fact na nag-decide ang babae na yun ang
laman at bigat ng bag niya, 'yun ang personal nyang mundo. Kaya niya dinala yun
kasi yun ang kaya nyang dalhin. Anytime, anywhere. Nadadala niya yun from point A
to point B. Pero kapag nakakita na ng lalake, dapat lalake na ang magpatuloy ng
pagdadala from point B to point C? Kapag umalis ba ang babae mula sa kanyang
bahay, aware siya na may lalakeng magbibitbit ng bag niya? I don't think so. Even
without the guy, dadalhin pa rin naman ng babae yun kahit saan siya magpunta.
Kaya ako, hinahayaan ko lang bitbitin ng babae ang kanyang bag. Gusto kong
sabihin sa kanya na with or without me, or each other, tuloy lang ang pagbibitbit ng
mundo, ng kani-kaniyang daigdig.”
Example 4 (excerpt from “Ang Kalupi” by Benjamin P. Pascual):
Linggo ng umaga at ang palengke ay siksikan. Sa harapan niya pa piniling

magdaan. Ang lugar ng magmamanok ay nasa dulo ng pamilihan at sa panggitnang
lagusan siya daraan upang magdaan tuloy sa tindahan ng mga tuyong paninda at
bumili ng mantika. Nang dumating siya sa gitnang pasilyo at umakmang hahakbang
na papasok, ay siyang paglabas na humahangos ng isang batang lalaki, at ang
kanilang pagbabangga ay muntik na niyang ikabuwal. Ang siko ng bata ay tumama
sa kanyang dibdib. “Ano ka ba?” ang bulyaw ni Aling Marta. “Kaysikip na ng
daraanan ay patakbo ka pa kung lumabas!”
Ang bata ay nakapantalon ng maruming maong na sa kahabaan ay pinag-

ilang-lilis ang laylayan. Nakasuot ito ng libaging kamiseta, punit mula sa balikat
hanggang pusod, na ikinalitaw ng kanyang butuhan at maruming dibdib. Natiyak ni
Aling Marta na ang bata ay anak-mahirap.
“Pasensya na kayo, Ale” ang sabi ng bata. Hawak nito ang isang maliit na
bangos. Tigbebente, sa loob-loob ni Aling Marta. Ang bata ay takot na nakatingin sa
kanya, “Hindi ko ho kayo sinasadya. Nagmamadali ho ako e.”
“Pasensya!” – sabi ni Aling Marta. “Kung lahat ng kawalang-ingat mo’y

pagpapasensiyahan nang pagpapasensiyahan ay makakapatay ka ng tao.”
47
QUESTION: Can a popular literary piece or popular author become

canonical?
The answer is yes. For example, William Shakespeare used to be a popular
writer during his time as his plays were performed in public. However, when Queen
Elizabeth I heard of his plays and started coming to his productions, Shakespeare
started to become a big name in theater. Until now, the works of Shakespeare are
still being studied as he was able to establish his importance in history. The same
goes to Jose Rizal who penned two of the most influential novels in Philippine history
and literature—Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.
Popular Literature and Consumption
EXERCISE:
Read the following poem then try to answer the questions that follow.
Sa mga FB Online Store Owner

(O Tulang Nalikha Dahil Buwiset na Buwiset
na Akong Mag-delete ng mga Mensahe
sa Aking Pader/Poder)
by German Gervacio
Nakapagtatakang nalaman mo
Na pipis at tuyot ang dibdib ko
Katulad ng inaalok mong flat-TV
Kaya ipinantakaw
Ang herbal breast enhancer
Nakabibilib na naaninag
Ang magaspang-maitim kong balat
Kaya ipinaskil ang karatula
Ng amazing papaya at gluta
Malay ka rin na japeyk

Ang relong nagha-hang
Kaya ipinansilaw ang replika
Ng guess at monte blanc
Nakaakit namang talaga

Ang seksing bestida
Pang-japorms na seda
Na ibinandera
Kasama ng seda ring pajama
Hindi ko rin maubos-maisip

Kung paano nakapagsumbong
Ang matatabil na bilbil
Sa ilalim ng baba at gilid ng tiyan
Kaya ginarantiyahang lulusawin
48
Ang 12 lbs. ng taba at sebo

Sa loob lang ng dalawang linggo.
At ngayon nga’y bigla

Mo akong aalukin
Na i-enlarge ang sa akin
Pasalamat ka!
Mahaba
Ang aking pasencia
Mahabang-mahaba
Ang aking pasencia.
1. What is the poetic setting of the above piece?/ What is happening in the
poem?
2. Was the experience of the poem’s speaker about the advertisements on
Facebook relatable to you as a consumer of the same social media
application?
3. Why do you think social media apps like Facebook constantly bombard its
users with advertisements that seem to know what the person wants as if it
can read minds?
4. How does popular literature become a critique of capitalism but is also a form
and tool of consumption at the same time?
As you can see in the piece, the poem speaks about the experience of a
consumer—consumer of social media and consumer of products. As a consumer, the
speaker was irate as Facebook keeps on bombarding the speaker with messages
advertising certain products that are supposed to be “answers” to a person’s “needs.”
If you are going to look at the specific products being offered to the speaker, these
are all things that appeal to a person’s insecurities—being flat-chested, being dark-
skinned, not being able to afford original brands, the need to always appear
fashionable and “sexy”, and the need for a man to have a bigger penis.
To answer the last question, read on the following lesson.
Contexts of Philippine Popular Literature
Read the following excerpt from Rolando B. Tolentino’s article.
“Panitikan ng kulturang popular:

popular na anxiedad at ang arkipelagong espasyo”
. . . Ang panitikan, kung gayon, ay pagtatangkang representasyon o

pagbibigay porma-laman-substansya sa karanasan. Ang panitikan ay pagtatangkang
aproximasyon sa representasyon sa krisis ng lipunan at kasaysayan. O ang panitikan
ay pagtatangkang sumulat sa gitna ng krisis ng representasyon.
May tatlong antas ng krisis na sinasaad ang “panitikan ng kulturang popular”

o mga panitikan na gumagamit ng paksa, imahen, kumbensyon, stilo ng kulturang
popular. Una na nga, ang krisis sa panitikan, ang di lubos na kakayahan ng panitikan
49
na salaminin ang tunay at realidad, na ang kaya lang nitong gawin ay magbigay-
representasyon sa tunay at realidad, at maging itong tunay at realidad ay
niraragasaan ng krisis sa lipunan at kasaysayan.
Ikalawa, ang krisis sa mismong kulturang popular: nagmo-malling pero

walang nabibili, pinapagod lang ang sarili; na sa repetisyon at ligaya ng panonood ng
sine o pagtangkilik sa mga porma ng kulturang popular ay nagdudulot din ng umay at
pagkasawa pero muli’t muli pa ring manonood ng sine at tatangkilik sa kulturang
popular; na ang panuntunan mismo ng kulturang popular bilang porma-laman-
substansya ng libangan ay nagsasaad ng exclusiveness nito: kailangang magbayad
para maglibang (takutin ang sarili sa horror film, ma-excite na parang bata sa theme
park, kumain ng pangbatang pagkain tulad ng fastfood, at iba pa).
At ang ikatlong krisis, ang krisis ng mismong lipunan at kasaysayan: mga

presidenteng mandarambong, mag-ihitsurang kaawa-awa’t kapag ikukulong, pero
mayroon pa ring gagawa’t gagawa ng pandaraya sa eleksyon at mauulit at mauulit
pa rin ang pandarambong; ang pambansang kondisyon sa kahirapan at pandarahop,
na walang administrasyon na tunay na mag-a-address nito sa takot na wala nang
botong mabibili kung hindi nila ipagpatuloy ang paglikha ng mangmang at
naghihikahos na bulto ng mamamayan; ang sachet na economics para sa
mayoryang walang lubos na kapasidad na bumili kaya tingi-tingi na lamang ang
pagdanas ng gitnang uring panuntunan at produkto ng buhay.
Sa unang bahagi ng tulang “Sa mga FB Online Store Owner (O Tulang

Nalikha Dahil Buwiset na Buwiset na Akong Mag-delete ng mga Mensahe sa Aking
Pader/Poder)” ni German Gervacio, inihain ng persona ang bombardment ng
produktong binebenta sa laylayan ng wall sa kanyang Facebook account. . .
. . .Hindi mahalaga sa tula kung tunay o fake ang mga brand at ang branded
na karanasang binebenta nito. Ang punto ay lahat ito ay replica o fake na ang
generic ay nagiging mas mabenta kung matagumpay ang pagka-brand nito, kahit pa
ang branding ay ang tagumpay na apila sa pagkatao—o sa kakulangang pupunan sa
pagkatao—ng virtual na mamimili. Virtual na produkto para sa virtual na pag-antig sa
virtual na nagfe-Facebook pero potensyal na mamimili pa rin.
Matagumpay ang kapitalismo at ang reiterasyon nito sa bansa na ang pang-

araw-araw na sityo ng individualismo, tulad ng Facebook, ay nagiging sityo ng
pagbebenta at pamimili ng produkto’t serbisyo. O baka rin naman, nililikha ang
matagumpay na sityo ng individualismo—fashion brands, gadgets, malls, at palabas
sa telebisyon, halimbawa—para precisely ay makapagbenta, na siya namang
nangyari, nangyayari, at mangyayari pa.
Ang mismong panitikan, after all, ay isang produktong makakalakal. At sa

kalaunan, ang matagumpay na stilo ay nagiging mabentang libro; ang matagumpay
na manunulat ay nagiging matagumpay na brand.
Ang buhay ng manunulat sa arkipelagong espasyo ay hinuhulma ng mismong

pagdanas sa espasyong ito. Trahedya ang buhay sa espasyong ito, to say the very
least: nabubuhayan ng pag-asa ang mahihirap dahil sa pagbili sa lottong maghahatid
ng milyon-milyong pangarap o pagpila’t panonood kay Willie Revillame na
namumudmod ng tulong at charity para sa kanila; na sa kasalukuyang pagbabalita,
magkakapantay na ang news item ng Hacienda Luisita compensation para sa
Conjuangco’s, ang tantrum kay Kris Aquino na muli na naman silang inaapi’t
50
malalampasan ng angkan ang kaapihang ito, ang saga ng pagpapakulong kay

Arroyo, at ang hiwalayang KC Concepcion at Piolo Pascual; ang dobleng antas ng
anxiedad kapag magpapasko: kailangang maging masaya, at para maging masaya
mas higit na kumonsumo ng brands.
Ito ang krisis sa panitikan, lipunan, kasaysayan at pagkatao sa bansang may

arkipelagong espasyo. Ito ang nagbubunsod sa manunulat para magsulat, sa
mambabasa para basahin ang mga karanasan, lalo na sa pang-araw-araw ay
nagaganap naman sa lahat. Ito rin ang nagbubunsod para akdain ang mundo at
realidad na familiar naman pero sa ibang malikhain at kritikal na perspektiba: ang
pagsusulat ukol sa loob ng krisis na ina-afford lamang kapag ang manunulat ay
inilabas ang isang paa’t sinulat ang karanasan.
Ito ang krisis sa estado na krisis sa panitikan at representasyon. Kaya

nananatiling nagsusulat ang manunulat hindi sa ligaya dahil walang ligaya ang krisis
kundi sa ligayang napagtagumpayan, sa limitadong paraan, ang mabuhay kahit na
(inspite) at kahit pa (despite) may krisis.
Reference:
Tolentino, R. 2012. Panitikan ng kulturang popular: popular na anxiedad at ang arkipelagong espasyo. Accessed July
16, 2020 from https://www.bulatlat.com/2012/01/07/panitikan-ng-kulturang-popular-popular-na-
anxiedad-at-ang-arkipelagong-espasyo/
ACTIVITY:
Explain the following lines, based on Tolentino’s article, in two (2) to

three (3) sentences. Write it down on a 1/2 sheet of paper.
“ Ang panitikan, kung gayon, ay pagtatangkang representasyon o pagbibigay

porma-laman-substansya sa karanasan. Ang panitikan ay pagtatangkang
aproximasyon sa representasyon sa krisis ng lipunan at kasaysayan. O ang panitikan
ay pagtatangkang sumulat sa gitna ng krisis ng representasyon.”
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51
SEMESTRAL PROJECT CHOICE #1 (OFFLINE):
Write FIVE (5) short poems about your experiences in consuming different
products and/or services. You may write about your expectations, disappointments,
approval, etc. just like the poem by Gervacio. Your poem may be written in the
traditional manner (with rhyme and meter) or adhere to the more contemporary forms
(free verse, concrete poem, experimental). Your poems must have at least eight (8)
lines if not a concrete/shape poem. You may submit your work upon the scheduled
retrieval of the modules. Kindly write/encode your work in short bond paper. Provide
a cover page for your name, section, and title of your poetry collection. Staple the
papers together. There’s no need for you to put your work in a folder.
Your collection of work shall be graded according to the following:
Content 60%
Relevance to the theme
Social relevance and application
Impact of ideas
Form 40%
Creativity in overall presentation/Aesthetic appeal
Grammar
100%
52
MODULE 8.
Duration: 9 hours
POPULAR FILM AND THE PHILIPPINE CINEMA

a. describe visual pleasure in film
b. identify the important people and circumstances that shaped popular
Philippine cinema
c. expound on the socio-economic and political contexts of selected Philippine
popular films; and
d. appreciate the potential of film as a new art form and as an avenue of
discussion of the tensions among the conflicting forces within a society
Film Studies has produced different theories and methods and film has been
reviewed and analyzed in terms of its potential as an art form. It has been studied in
terms of the technological transformation of film production; it has been deemed as a
‘culture industry’; and it has been considered as an important avenue for the
‘production of individual subjectivities and national identities (Storey, 2011, p. 78).
This, module, however, is not focused on the development in film studies. Rather, its
concern is on the identification of important junctures between film and Cultural
Studies.
Visual Pleasure and Film
Have you ever wondered why certain characters, particularly female ones,
are usually portrayed in films in erotic or visually stimulating ways? Why do you think
some films usually do close-ups of female body parts? Lara Mulvey, in her Visual
Pleasure Theory explains how visual images in media make the audience look
pleasurably at female images through what she calls the male gaze. She believes
that in film, audiences have to look at the characters from the male heterosexual
perspective.
Lara Mulvey (1975) argues that popular cinema has two opposing forms of
visual pleasure—scopophilia and the paradox of phallocentrism. Scopophilia
pertains to the pleasure of looking that involves ‘taking other people as objects,
subjecting them to a controlling gaze.’ Sexual stimulation, in this case, is through
sight (Storey, 2011, p. 84).
Look at the images below. Why are they visually pleasurable for the male
gaze?
Image source:
cinepages.wordpress.com
53
As Mulvey points out:
In a world structured by ‘sexual imbalance’ . . . men look and women exhibit

‘to-be-looked-at-ness’—both playing to and signifying male desire.”
Traditionally, the woman displayed has functioned on two levels: as erotic
object for the characters within the screen story, and as erotic object for the
spectator within the auditorium. (Storey, 2011, p. 84)
This theory can be applied in reading the Philippine cinema particularly

Filipino films that portray women as sexual objects. Do you recognize the following in
Filipino films?
a. The poor and innocent but sexually provocative-looking female
protagonist who is easily persuaded by some manipulative male
characters
b. The poor and innocent female character as object of sexual desire of a
male character (usually a rich old man)
c. Female characters who work as prostitutes and have to wear short and
skimpy outfits to attract male customers
d. Female characters in ‘bold films’ showing the upper half of their bodies or
a view of their buttocks
e. Female characters who are made to kiss each other
If you can recognize these characters, then you already have an idea of what
a male gaze is and what kind of pleasure they create to other characters and to the
audience as spectators. As Storey (2011) stated, “when the heroine removes her
clothes, it is for the sexual gaze of both the hero in the narrative and the spectator in
the auditorium. It is only when they subsequently make love that a tension arises
between the two looks (p. 84).
The second look, the paradox of phallocentrism, is more complex since this
pertains to the limited role of the woman in the phallocentric symbolic order.
Phallocentrism is derived from the word phallus which means ‘penis’ and the power it
wields in the patriarchal society. The phallocentric symbolic order, therefore, refers to
the societal order dominated by men and their ideologies.
Mulvey, in her work “Narrative Cinema and Visual Pleasure”, describes how
psychoanalysis can be used to expose this kind of structure in films. In the paradox,
the woman is said to be the carrier of meaning but does not make meaning in the
phallocentric symbolic order. Specifically, the woman exists only ‘to symbolize lack
(since she lacks penis), threat of castration (since lacking penis denies her of male
power), and to bring children to the symbolic order. In the patriarchal order, the
woman is only referred to as the male other, the binary opposite. Since no pleasure
is derived from this portrayal of women, the male unconscious make adjustments to
salvage pleasure and escape from the anxiety it signifies (Storey, 2011, p. 84).
Because of these looks, Mulvey argues that ‘pleasure in popular films must
be destroyed in order to liberate women from the exploitation and oppression of
being the (passive) raw material for the (active) male gaze. However, not all feminists
and those who work in the field agree with Mulvey’s arguments. Other feminists point
out that Mulvey’s points disregard contradictory discourses which confront those of
54
the film. According to them, women are not merely passive objects but are also
active in societal engagement and resistance (Storey, 2011, p. 85).
Brain Tickler!
Answer the following questions to aid your understanding of the text.
Mulvey theorized about the male gaze in 1975 (more than 40 years ago). Do
you think her arguments still apply today? Why do you think so? Give one example.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
History of Philippine Cinema
Nowadays, more and more television and phone applications have emerged
as demand on the entertainment media increases. People have been browsing and
watching online for free and movies can now also be downloaded straight to
cellphones or computers at a price. Indeed, the times have changed but what does
this generation really know about the history of the emergence of the Philippine
popular film?
The cinematografo or the film medium came to the Philippines in the late 19 th
century before the years of the revolution. During the American period, the silent film
as the new medium started to become popular but it was only in 1917 when a Filipino
built his own studio.
The Father of Philippine

Cinema is Jose Nepomuceno, who
started his studio, Malayan
Movies, in 1917. At first, he was
only producing short and
educational films and then, in
1919, he produced a silent film
“Dalagang Bukid” which is deemed
as the first Filipino-produced and
written movie.
Image source: ph.asiatatler.com
In 1933, Nepomuceno produced

another masterpiece in Tagalog, “Ang Punyal
na Ginto” which is known as the first ‘talkie’ in
Philippine cinema after the silent film era. The
Americans Harris and Tait introduced the
technology to Nepomuceno. During that time,
Tagalog was not yet established as the lingua
franca of the country which made other
Image source: www.slideshare.net
55
regions question how it should be premiered in local cinemas.
In 1937, Filipino ‘talkies’ began to be premiered abroad. The first Filipino film
to be produced in North America was “Zamboanga” produced by Eduardo de Castro
in 1937. The film, however, was re-filmed in English as it was originally in Tagalog
and Tausug language. The technology of subtitling was also introduced in the film for
non-English audience.
In 1941, the technology of hand coloring was used in

Filipino films like “Ibong Adarna” of LVN Pictures but it was in
“Batalyon XIII” in 1949 where the same film company introduced
color processing.
The first postwar film was based on the story of Doña

Aurora Quezon directed by the National Artist for Film, Manuel
Conde and was featured in 1946. Movies as such during the
postwar period portrayed the horrors of war but emphasized
valor.
Image source: video48.blogspot.com
In 1951, the first Filipino film in full color, “Prinsipe Amante”, was directed and
produced by the National Artist for Theater and Film, Lamberto V. Avellana. This film
started the trend in adopting comics into the film medium. Eccentric costumes and
film sets were also introduced. With this new aesthetic in film, the 1950s was known
as the First Golden Age of Philippine Cinema. During this era, the Big Four of
Philippine Cinema ruled the industry—LVN Pictures, Sampaguita Pictures, Premiere
Productions, and Lebran International—which produced around 300 films annually.
Since more films started to be produced during

these times, the popularity of films also increased.
Consequently, ‘matinee idols’, ‘leading ladies’, and
‘love teams’ also became popular.
The Maria Clara Awards was also established

in 1950 wherein publicists and writers vote for
outstanding Filipino films annually. This paved the way
for the establishment of the Filipino Academy of Movie
Arts and Sciences in 1953. Now, it is more popularly
referred to as the FAMAS.
During the 1960s, themes on domestic affairs

and infidelity became widespread. However, some film
studios closed down due to labor concerns while
others got burned down. Also, international films such
as “James Bond” dominated the local scene due to
extensive commercialism. Because of these, “bomba”
or erotic films became rampantly produced in the
country. The first “bomba” film in the local cinema was
“Uhaw” which featured in 1970.
Image source: spindles.blogspot.com
56
Youth subcultures were explored as themes in films during the 1960s and
1970s and teen love teams were introduced such as Nora Aunor and Tirso Cruz III
as well as Vilma Santos and Edgar Mortiz. Action movies which feature gangsters,
secret agents, and “siga” male lead characters also flourished during this period.
Hence, the National Artist for Cinema, Fernando Poe, Jr. became popular.
Wholesome films which appeal to the masses were introduced by Ishmael

Bernal and Lino Brocka. Brocka’s debut film in 1970, “Wanted: Perfect Mother” and
Bernal’s “Pagdating sa Dulo” (1971) were opposed to “bomba” films as their themes
geared on family issues and power play in the show business.
In 1972, the country was placed under Martial Law and films during this time
were used as propaganda and social and moral commentaries. This eventually led to
the avant-garde filmmakers including Bernal and Brocka, Celso Ad Castillo, Mike De
Leon, and Mario O’Hara. Their works paved the way for the Second Golden Age of
Philippine Cinema.
The Second Golden Age continued until

the 1980s. Some of the notable filmmakers during
this time include Peque Gallaga, Kidlat Tahimik
(the Father of Independent Philippine Cinema),
Nick Deocampo, Marilou Diaz-Abaya, and
Raymond Red. However, the 1980s also
witnessed the gradual rise of commercial films,
following the Marcos dictatorship, which feature Image source:
slapstick comedy, melodrama, and fantasy. These wondersinthedark.wordpress.com
films somehow served to alleviate the horrors and
anxiety from the Marcos regime. Some films that became popular were “Bagets”
(1984), “Shake, Rattle, and Roll” (1984), and “Bituing Walang Ningning” (1985).
However, amidst this trend, Ishmael Bernal’s “Himala” (1982) still gained local and
international recognitions.
During the 1990s, Star Cinema, GMA Films, VIVA Films, and Regal
Entertainment started producing films that appeal to the general masses.
Sensationalism, overemphasis on emotions, and stylized Manila poverty became the
formula. “Bomba” films also resurged in the ‘90s.
In the 2000s, independent filmmaking

became popular due to the international success
of “Anino” (2000) and “Magnifico” (2003). Other
notable films during the decade include “Anak”
(2000) by Rory Quintos, “Ang Pagdadalaga ni
Maximo Oliveros” (2005) by Auraeus Solito,
“Kinatay” (2009) by Brillante Mendoza, “Norte,
Hangganan ng Kasaysayan” (2013) by Lav Diaz,
and “On the Job” (2013) by Erik Matti.
Image source: www.justwatch.com
Box-office films also flourished alongside independent films during the late
2000s up to the present times. One notable characteristic of film production
nowadays is the continuous crossing over of artists from independent to commercial
films and vice versa. New directors became household names in Philippine cinema
57
such as Antoinette Jadaone, Jason Paul Laxamana, Dan Villegas, Cathy Garcia-
Molina, Jerrold Tarog, Mikhail Red, Pepe Diokno, and Sigrid Andrea Bernardo.
Strong female lead characters prospered in films today such as Anne Curtis
in “Buy Bust” (2018) and Jaclyn Jose in “Ma’Rosa” (2016).
Reference:
Sorilla, F. (2019). Cine sandaan: 10 iconic films that shaped Philippine cinema. Retrieved August 11, 2020 from
https://ph.asiatatler.com/life/cinesandaan-10-iconic-films-that-shaped-philippine-cinema
Popular Film Versus Alternative Film
POPULAR FILM ALTERNATIVE FILM

Also known as commercial/mainstream Oftentimes called the ‘indie’ or
cinema/ box-office hits independent cinema
Caters to the enjoyment of the general Touches themes with social relevance or
public even psychological impact
Usually shown in public cinemas Also shown in public cinemas but are
more usually shown in art cinemas
Lead characters are played by popular Lead characters may be played by
artists popular artists and/or non-mainstream
ones
Follows a formula in the storyline Explores other means to present familiar
experiences
Compete in annual local film festivals Mostly compete in local and in
international film festivals
EXERCISE:
To understand the difference between popular and alternative cinema, try to

answer the following. Identify the proper category of each movie title. Write POP on
the blank if the movie is for the general public and INDIE if it is an independent film.
1. “One More Chance/ A Second Chance” __________________

starring John Lloyd Cruz and Bea Alonzo
2. “She’s Dating the Gangster” __________________
Starring Kathryn Bernardo and Daniel Padilla
3. “Kita Kita” __________________
Starring Alessandra de Rossi and Empoy Marquez
4. “Beauty and the Bestie” __________________
Starring Vice Ganda and Coco Martin
5. “Serbis” __________________
Starring Coco Martin and Mercedes Cabral
6. “Ang Babae sa Septik Tank” __________________
Starring Eugene Domingo
7. “Alone/Together” __________________
Starring Liza Soberano and Enrique Gil
8. “Hello Love, Goodbye” __________________
Starring Kathryn Bernardo and Alden Richards
9. “Heneral Luna” __________________
Starring John Arcilla
58
10. “100 Tula Para Kay Stella” __________________

Starring JC Santos and Bela Padilla
Now that the difference between popular and alternative cinema has been
established, why do you think the general masses mostly patronize popular films
over other kinds of films?
Contexts of Philippine Popular Films
To answer the question above, read the following excerpt from the essay by
Joi Barrios.
“Kung Bakit Lagi Kong Pinapanuod ang mga Pelikula ni Sharon Cuneta”
Joi Barrios
Maraming nagsasabing baduy si Sharon at paulit-ulit ang kanyang mga

pelikula, ngunit pila pa rin ako nang pila sa bawat pakul. Kasi’y nakatitityak ako sa
mapapanuod. Alam kong masusulit and aking sampung piso. Ano man ang pamagat,
sino man ang kapareha, kakanta man siya o hindi, siguradong tatawas ako, iiyak,
iibig at makikihati sa kanyang tagumpay sa wakas.
P.S. I LOVE YOU: SI SHARON AT ANG KANYANG PRINCE CHARMING
Una kong napanuod si Sharon sa mga pelikulang Dear Heart at PS. I Love
You. Tinedyer pa rin ako noon. Dahil dito, higit na may pang-akit and mga pelikulang
tungkol sa unang pag-ibig kaysa mga bakbakan at bold.
Kung tutuusin, simple lang naman ang kwento ng P.S. I Love You. Lihim na
nagkakagusto si Sharon kay Gabby bagamat mukhang mayabang ito at mukhang
syota na ni Lampel Luis. May biruan, supla-supladahan, tuksuhan, sungit-sungitan,
suyuan, galit-galitan, pagmamahalan. Sa madaling salita, si Sharon pala talaga ang
gusto ni Gabby.
Ang problema nila’y ayaw ng nanay ni Sharon na ginagampanan ni Boots

Anson Roa kay Gabby dahil tatay nito si Edie Garcia na dati nyang kasintahan.
Ngunit paano nga ba naaawat ang mga unang pag-ibig. Sinundan ni Gabby si
Sharon sa cooking school, may pakain-kain pa ang dalawa sa ice cream parlor at
lihim na pagkikit sa golf course, hanggang sa mabuko. Dahil sa hidwaan nilang mag-
ina, nagpahinga sandal si Sharon sa asyenda. Sinundan siya dito ng kanyang ina,
nagkaunawaan sila, at higit sa lahat, sinundan din siya ni Gabby, sakay-sakay ng
kanilang pribadong eroplano.
Ligayang-ligaya akong lumabas ng sinehan habang tinutugtog ang theme

song ng pelikula. At nasisiguro kong ligayang-ligaya din ang iba pang tinedyer na
tulad ko noong panahong iyon. Sa pagbabalik-tanaw at pagsusuri, may natukoy
akong apat na dahilan kung bakit nagtatagumpay anf pelikula kung ang gagmiting
batayanay ang pagtangkilik ng mga kabataang manonood.
59
Una, nakita namin ang aming sarili kay Sharon. Hindi lamang iyong kung ano
kami noon ngunit pati na rin ang gusto naming maging. Masarap manood ng pelikula
kapag ang bida’y maganda, mayaman at makinis ang kutis. Nalilimutan mong wala
man lang nakapagsabing ikaw ay cute, hindi mo alam kung makakapag-aral ka pa ng
kolehiyo dahil nasisante ang iyong ama at hindi naalis ang tagiyawat sa iyong
mukha. Nakakakilig panuorin ang panliligaw ni Gabby kay Sharon, lalo na’t noong
una’y parang sa iba ito may gusto. Nawawaglit sa iyong isipang apat na taon na’y
hindi ka pa rin napapansin ng iyong crush at iba pa rin ang kanyang nililigawan. At
mano kung may katabaan si Sharon? Masarap isiping kahit mas seksi ang ibang
babae ay ikaw pa rin ang pipiliin ng iyong minamahal. Ang buhay ni Sharon ay
magandang panaginip sa aming manonood.
Ikalawang dahilan si Gabby, ang makabagong Prince Charming sa pelikula.

Paano ka nga naman hindi manonood kung ganyan kaguwapo ang bidang lalaki?
Siya na yata ang sagisag ng syotang pangarap. Makisig, mayaman, may
pagkaantipatiko ngunit mabait naman pala, kunwa’y may gusto sa iba pero tapat
naman kung magmahal. At habang pinapanood mo siya, puwede kang managinip
nang gising. Balang araw, darating din si Prince Charming, at kung hindi man siya
nakasakay sa puting kabayo, lulan naman siya ng pribadong eroplano ng kanyang
papa.
Ikatlo, ang alitan ng magulang at anak dahil sa pagkakaroon ng kasintahan

ay hindi na bago sa sinumang tinedyer. Iyon nga lang, sa tunay na buhay, waring
mas bungangera ang mga ina, minsa’y nanakit ang mga ama at madals, hindi ka nila
kinakausap kung kaya’t nagkakaroon ng masayang wakas. Habang muling
nagyayakapan sina Sharon at Boots Anson Roa, maaari mong isipin: kung hindi na
kaya pagod sa kalalaba ang iyong in maghapon at may drayber din din siya at
kumareng handa laging magpautang, mas maging maunawain kaya siya? Mas
madaling sakyan ang problema ng isang pelikula kapag ito’y problema mo rin.
Ikaapat, nalubos ang kaligayahan sa panonood sa pelikula dahil masaya ang

nagiging wakas nito. Walang mukhang nakasimangot, walang humihiyaw sa
hinagpis, walang lumayo nang magkagalit. Masaya ang mga anak at masaya ang
mga magulang. At masaya rin kaming manonood dahil nais naming ng ganitong
wakas para sa aming mga buhay. Ang ibig sabihin nito’y may pag-asa, pagkat sa
dulo ng bawat kuwento, nagkakatuluyan ang mga magsing-irog at binabasbasan sila
ng kanilang mga magulang.
Hindi nakapagtataka kung gayon kung handing magbayad ng tig-sa-sampung

piso ang mga kabataang tulad ko noon. Kung bat aka kasi’y may puwang para sa
mga pangarap pagkat maraming posibilidad ang buhay. Ang Sharon na nakasabay
ko sa pagdadalaga ay Sharon na nabubuhay sa karangyaang di ko naranaansan at
nakapagpapalimot sa mga paghihirap at kabiguan ng aking pangkaraniwang buhay.
60
KAHIT WALA KA NA: BABAE LABAN SA LALAKI, BABAE LABAN SA BABAE
Pinapanuod ko pa rin ang mga pelikula ni Sharon sa pagitan ng pagbabago

ng mga batayang paniniwala at pananaw sa buhay. Nang mabalitaan kong tungkol
sa isang babaeng tumatayo sa sariling paa ang pelikulang Kahit Wala Ka Na, natuwa
ako. Marahil, kako, para itong mga pelikulang “Relasyon” o “Broken Marriage,” na
matagumpay na naglarawan sa mga suliranin ng kababaihan at kalalakihan.
Nagkamali ako. Sa pelikula inagaw ni Cherie Gil kay Sharon si Richard

Gomez., nagkahiwalay ang mag-asawa, nagtrabaho si Sharon para suportahana ng
anak, nanatili siyang walang dungis ang karangalan kahit hinahabol ng mga lalaki at
nagtapos ang pelikula sa pag-iibigna nila ng bagong kaibigang si Tonton Gutierrez.
Kung ang pelikula ay tungkol sa mga Prince Charming na nagiging

salawahan at sa mga babeg hindi sikat na artista kundi karaniwang empleyada, ano
naman kaya ang bagong problema.
Simple lang naman. Hindi lahat ng babae ay si Sharon Cuneta. Hindi lahat ng
babaeng nakikipaghiwalay sa asawa ay madaling nakahahanap ng trabaho
hinahabol ng lahat ng lalaki at iniibig ng tapat ng isang Tonton Gutierrez. Sa
madaling salita, tinangka ng pelikula na maginge realistiko ngunit ang bida ay
nananatiling ideyal—masipag, mabait, masuwerte.
Hindi pa nakontento, binigyang-diin ng pelikula ang kawalanghiyaan ni Cherie

Gil—nang-aakit kay Richard, nanghahamak kay Sharon at sa huli’ynambabaril pa—
upang laong tumingkad ang kadakilaan ni Sharon. Dahil dito, lubusan nating ibinigay
ang ating simpatya sa bida dahil ipinapaalala niya sa atin ang lahat ng
pagpapakasakit at pagdurusasng ating naranasan nang dahil sa pag-ibig. Kasabay
nito’y ipinaalala nman ni Cherie ang lahat ng babaeng hinusgahan natin bilang
kontrabida ng ating buhay; ang kaklase natin noong high school na may crush din sa
ating crush, ang kaopisina ng asawang tawag nang tawag sa bahay, ang sino mang
sumulyap, nagkagusto o umibig sa ating kasintahan, asawa o kalaguyo.
Sa pamamagitan ng pagkukulay sa babae ng puti o itim, paghihiwalay sa

birhen at puta, pagbubukod ssa mabuti at masama, binigo ng pelikula ang anumang
pagtatangka nitong maging “maka-babae.” Maaaring itinanghal nito si Sharon bilang
ulirang babae na tumayo sa sariling paa matapos makipaghiwalay sa asawa ngutnit
kasaby nito ‘y kapwa babae rin ang sinisi bilang dahilan ng kanyang mga suliranin.
Sa ganitong paraan, sinundan nito ang nauna nang mga kuwento sa panitikan, dula
at pelikula kung saan ang mga babae ay lagi nang magkatunggali: Sina Estrella at
Caridad sa Paglipas Ng Dilim, sina Norma Blancaflor at Rosa Rosal sa mga pelikula
ng LVN.
Ang kapwa babae ay kaaway o kaya’y potensyal na kaaway pagkat siya’y

katunggali at kaagaw. Ang pag-ibig ay paligsahan at ang lalaki ang premyong
mapapanalunan. Nakakaligtaan ang katotohanang ang mga kuwento ng mga
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trayanggulo ng pag-ibig ay usapin ng kapangyarihan. At ang kapangyarihang ito ay

wala sa dalawang babaeng nagtutunggali kundi sa lalaking pinag-aagawan.
Pinanood ko ang pelikula sa pagitan ng pag-aaral at pagsusuri sa kaanyuan

at kaapihan ng kababaihan. Nalungkot ako. Nanghinayang ako dahil nagging
napakalakas na behikulo sana ang pelikula para paglalarawan ng suliranin ng
kababaihan ngunit nangibabaw na naman ang komersyalismo sa industriya.
SI SHARON AY PRODUKTO, ANG PELIKULA’Y NEGOSYO
Para sa prodyuser, ang pelikula’y negosyo. Pinagbubuhusan ng kapital

upang magkaroon ng kitang aabangan. Dito nagsisimula ang mga pelikulang may
pormula. Kailangang naroon alaht ng sangkap: tawanan iyakan, koting bakbakan ng
magkatunggaling lalaki, kontrabidang babae at dakilang bida para siguradong
magtagumpay. Dahil subok na kikita ang pelikula kapag nariyan ang mga sangkap
na ito, paulit-ulit na rin ang mga tema, paksa at pati na rin ang wakas ng mgga
pelikula, lalo na yaong kay Sharon.
Ano man ang papel ni Sharon, tinedyer na mayaman, atsay, basurera, asawa
at ina, hindi nagbabago ang kanyang mga katangian. Lagi siyang maganda, mabait,
masipag, masuwerte, dakila. Ito ang katangiang hinahanap sa kanya naming mga
kapos sa mga ito.: kaming di makinis ang balat, minsa’y kinatatamaran ang
paggawang hindi nagbibigay ng sapat na kita, hindi dinaratnan ng suwerteng laging
hinihintay, kaduda-duda ang kadakilaan dahil laging nagkakamali.
Ang panonood kay Sharon ay pagtakas sa buhay. Habang nakapatay ang

ilaw at nagkukutkot ka ng mani, maaari mong iiyak ang lahat ng kaapihan, maaari
kang magalit sa lahat ng umaalipusta sa iyo, maaari mong ibigin lahat ng mga Prince
Charming na wala pa ngunit siguradong darating. Paglabas mo ng sinehan, pabaon
ni Sharon ay pangarap at pag-asa. Nakatutulong ito sa pagtitiis, nagpapahupa sag
alit, nakapagpapatanggap sa kahirapan. Kapag marami ka nang pananalig sa
suwerte, hindi mo na maiisip ang mga bagay tulad ng kawalang-katarungan,
pagbabago, pag-aaklas.
Oo, pinapanood ko pa rin ang mga pelikula ni Sharon. Ngunit hindi upang
ako’y mag-ilusyongn Sinderela ring gaya niya. Sa bawat pelikula, nauunawaan ko
kung bakit nananatiling atsay, basurera o martir na babae ang mga Pilipinang
kasabay ko sa pila.
Reference:
Barrios, J. (2015). Kung bakit lagi kong pinapanuod ang mga pelikula ni Sharon Cuneta. In R. Tolentino & G. Devilles
(Eds.), Kritikal na espasyo ng kulturang popular (pp. 279-285). Quezon City: Ateneo De Manila University
Press.
62
Based on the reading, it can be said that subjectivity plays a role in people’s
choices when it comes to watching particular films. People are willing to go to the
nearest public cinema and pay for a single or multiple movies just to watch their
favorite artist/s. In the case of the author, she emphasized the connection between
the characters played by Sharon Cuneta with the personal experiences and dreams
of those who admire her and her characters. In short, the people watch her films not
only for escaping reality but as a means of connecting themselves to their ideal
selves or what they want their life to become.
However, just like in any other case of popular texts, films also serve as a
money-making avenue. Just like what Joi Barrios stated, Sharon Cuneta is also a
product of capitalism—a reality that exists which is the same as that of the other
rising stars nowadays. With stars just like her, products are easily sold in the market.
Aside from this, ‘popular stars’ are always put in formulaic films. Hence, consumers,
although they might have already predicted the ending of a popular film, will still
watch them. This is something that alternative film does not have that is why they are
not usually as high grossing as popular films.
Nowadays, there are other rising stars in Philippine cinema. Also, with the
injection of influences by other countries (Mexicanovela, Kdrama, Lakorns, etc.),
Philippine popular cinema is slowly adopting their styles to further cater to the
changing taste of the general masses. Can you think of Philippine popular movies
today which resemble your favourite TV series abroad?
EXERCISE:
1. Who is your favourite Filipino movie artist?

_____________________________________________________________
2. Why do you like watching movies with your favourite artist as the lead
character?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Do you agree with the idea of Joi Barrios’ idea that your favourite film artist is
also a product of capitalism? Why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
ACTIVITY:
Watch a popular Filipino film of your choice. Write a short essay (250-400
words only) highlighting the following. Write your answer on a whole sheet of
paper or print it out on a letter-sized (short) coupon bond. Please refer to the
Appendix for the rubric.
63
1. Who are the lead actors/actresses in your chosen film?
2. Why do you think they were chosen to play their roles in the movie? Is his/her
role in that movie the same with his/her other movie roles?
3. What is the plot of the movie? Does it remind you of the story of another
movie?
4. Why do you think popular movies follow a formula in their stories? Is it

necessary for the films to earn money?
_________________________________________________
(Title)
___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
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64
Answer the following questions in a separate sheet for paper for submission.
I. Identify whether the following descriptions refer to canonical or

popular literature. Write CANON if classical and POP if popular.
______________1. Well-liked by the many
______________2. Themes are relatable to the experience of the general masses
______________3. Has established its relevance over the years
______________4. Uses the language easily understood by the masses
______________5. Includes best works that have been written
II. Answer the following items by choosing the right words from the
box.
‘Bomba’ films Kidlat Tahimik Dalagang Bukid
Jose Nepomuceno 1950s independent film
1980s Zamboanga Ang Punyal na Ginto
Batalyon XIII 1990s Ibong Adarna
1. The Father of Philippine Cinema

2. The first ‘talkie’ in the Philippines
3. The first Filipino film in North America
4. The first Golden Age of Philippine Cinema
5. The first Filipino-produced and written movie
6. The second Golden Age of Philippine Cinema
7. The Father of Philippine Independent Cinema
8. The type also film also called the alternative cinema
9. The type of film that were produced in the 1970s following
10. The Filipino film where color processing was first introduced
65
MODULE 9.
Duration: 6 hours
PHILIPPINE POPULAR MUSIC
a. identify the colonial influences that helped develop Philippine popular music;
b. name some icons of Philippine popular music;
c. explain the social, economic, and political context of Philippine popular music;
and
d. appreciate the importance of the development of popular music in the country
Brief History of Philippine Popular Music
Read the following article from the National Commission for the Culture and the
Arts then answer the activity that follows.
“Philippine Popular Music in the Philippines”

Jonas Baes
Spanish and later American colonial regimes created a Philippine society whose
Western social institutions were modeled after their respective societal structures. While
both Spanish and American regimes gave their shares of social and cultural influences, it
was the American regime that established institutions that make up some of the present
structure of modern Philippine society. The creation of such institutions and the
absorption of Philippines into the global political economy likewise created a need for
forms of leisure that was fit for such a society. This social condition gave rise to the
development of Philippine popular music into the forms that are known today.
Anglo-American popular music was widely heard in dance halls and cabarets,
including vaudeville shows at the early part of the twentieth century. The well known
musical genres at the time like the cakewalk, the foxtrot and the ragtime—forerunners
of what was to develop as Jazz—were played by Filipino dance bands in cabarets.
Vaudeville shows (bodabil) consists of a variety of acts that included slapstick comedy
routines and tap dance numbers aside from popular music. Filipino folk songs were
arranged into dance rhythms to suit the emerging American taste. With the introduction
of radio, sheet music, live entertainment and movie themes, popular music found its
place in the mainstream of Philippine society.
During the Japanese invasion in the Second World War, American forms of
entertainment were banned along with the suppression of American values. The
Japanese branded American culture as decadent while concealing its own agenda of
economic and cultural expansionism. With this, a pro-Filipino virtue was promoted side
by side with a pro-Japanese virtue and songs were one important medium to
disseminate this value.
66
In the late 1940’s as the world was rebuilding itself after the turmoil of the
2nd World War, American forms of entertainment re-surfaced in the Philippines.
American military presence, which demanded the forms of rest and recreation, exposed
the Filipinos to swing and continued the proliferation of popular stage shows like the
bodabil. Later, in the 1950’s, a popularized version of the samba was introduced. This
was followed by the emergence of the instrumental groups known as
the cumbachero (a local version of a Latin-American band), which became well-known
in fiestas and other social gatherings.
In the 1950’s to the 1960’s, newer genres as rock and roll and country
music appealed to a younger generation of Filipino popular artists. Filipino counterparts
of famous Western artists as Elvis Presley, Jerry Vale, Buddy Holly, Chuck Berry, and
the Beatles were heard over the radio and seen in movies and on television.
While preference for foreign artists prevailed, local artists continued to strive for a
distinct sound that could be referred to as “Filipino”. Conscious efforts to develop that
Filipino sound (Pinoy Sound) came however in the 1970’s with the creation of Filipino
rock music, dubbed as Pinoy Rock, Filipino Jazz or Pinoy Jazz and Filipino pop ballad
or the Manila Sound. Those initial efforts came to a significant development in the late
70’s to the 80’s with the flourishing of various Filipino pop styles.
In the late 70’s, the Metro Manila Popular Music Festival (or Metro Pop), a song
writing competition for amateurs and professionals, became the buffer for the creation
of new pop songs and the introduction of emerging artists and performers. Other local
competitions inspired even more artists and composers to create more music. These
include Likha Awit Pambata (a children’s song competition), the Himig Awards, and
the Cecil Awards. It was at about this period when the Organisasyon ng mga
Pilipinong Mang-aawit (OPM), was created to address the needs of Filipino popular
artists. OPM also stood for Original Pilipino Music a handle for music composed
and/or performed by Filipinos, even with its eventual use of English lyrics.
The effort to probe deeper into the search for a Filipino identity in popular music
was attempted in the late 1980’s and the early 90’s by a group of composers who
banded together to form KATHA (write/create). This effort gave rise to the move to
create Brown Music, a kind of counterpart to the African-American “Black Music.” The
outputs of multi-awarded composer Ryan Cayabyab to fuse indigenous musical
elements with foreign pop idioms took off to enable non-mainstream artists like Joey
Ayala to surface in the commercial arena. As the decade of the 90’s commenced, more
and more alternative artists entered into the mainstream.
Jonas Baes has done research on the Iraya-Mangyan music of Mindoro which has
Baes, J. (n.d.). Popular music in the Philippines. Retrieved July 1, 2020, from
https://ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts- sca/music/popular-music-
in-the-philippines/
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Brain Tickler!: Among the colonizers of the Philippines, why do you

think the Americans are the ones who have established much
influence in Philippine popular music until today?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
The OPM Icons
OPM or the Original Pilipino/Pinoy Music originally referred to

Philippine pop songs that were popular in the Philippines during the late 70s to the
present. OPM artists such as Rico J. Puno Jr., Ryan Cayabyab, and Celeste
Legaspi in the 70’s, and Regine Velasquez, Sharon Cuneta, Martin Nievera, Pops
Fernandez, among many others led the way in the 80’s and 90s.
Exercise: Can you name all of the following OPM icons?
Image sources: rodmagaru.com, www.sarahgeronimo.ph, www.imdb.com,

www.pinterest.ph, www.philstar.com, tempo.com.ph 68
EXERCISE:
Fill out the following table with the details being asked. Use your knowledge
on the Philippine popular music scene. You may identify artists from the 1970s up to
the present.
Genre Name of Filipino Artist Iconic/Famous Songs

(2 songs only)
Pop
Hiphop
Rock and Roll
Rhythm and
Blues (R&B)
Any genre of
your choice
The Contexts of Philippine Popular Music
Just like any form of art, music also plays a vital role in our society and
culture. There is music for when we are joyful, melancholy, or even afraid. We have
music during celebrations, funerals, and even during protests. As humans, we tend
to associate music with our connection to the world and how we perceive the world
itself.
Music can be a form of entertainment or an aesthetic enjoyment. Have

you noticed how Filipinos love to come together to sing or dance around? Filipinos
are highly relational, hence, we tend to join groups and connect with others
especially through music. Also, our love for music is especially manifested in our
fondness of videoke, in attending concerts, and even in watching and following new
artists in social media.
Music is also therapeutic. When you feel down, do you notice that listening
to a certain type of music tend to uplift your spirits? This is another role of music in
people’s lives. Music has an element that cures and balances our emotional state.
Sometimes, this process is achieved through catharsis or the sudden release of
intense emotions. This is particularly observed when one is writing music or the
lyrics to a musical piece.
Furthermore, music has an economic role. Music is also a big player in

business. Nowadays, it is easier to sell music online since the media has made it
69
possible for us to upload content in our pages or musical and video platforms.
Aside from this, music is also used in campaign jingles, in advertisements, and in
presentations. Have you noticed that artists and their record labels keep on
encouraging the people to stop buying or downloading pirated copies of their
albums? This is partly due to the large sum of money that is involved in the
production and distribution of music.
Finally, music is communicative as it is also political. Music is a portrayal

or a reflection of what is happening around us. When we want to communicate
something to another individual or a group of people, we can use a particular music
or lines from the lyrics of a song. Also, we can use music to tell the story of the
oppressed and the marginalized, the abused, the brave, the triumphant, etc.
Through music, people may be empowered and are made aware of the social and
political situation of a society.
ACTIVITY:
Study the following lyrics taken from popular Fiipino songs. Identify one (1)
socio-cultural context/issue that you can observe from the song. What is it
about? Write only your answer on a ½ sheet of paper.
LYRICS CONTEXT
(What socio-political issue does it
portray?)
“Tatsulok” by Bamboo 1.
Hindi pula't dilaw tunay na magkalaban

Ang kulay at tatak ay di syang dahilan
Hangga't marami ang lugmok sa
kahirapan
At ang hustisya ay para lang sa
mayaman
Habang may tatsulok at sila ang nasa
tuktok
Di matatapos itong gulo
“Sirena” by Gloc 9 2.
Ngayon sa iyong kaarawan, susubukan

kong palitan
Ang lungkot na nadarama, 'wag na po
nating balikan
Kahit medyo naiinis, hindi dahil sa
nagka-cancer
Kasi dahil ang tagapag-alaga mo'y naka-
duster
Isang gabi, ako'y iyong tinawag, lumapit
Ako sa'yong tabi, ika'y tumangan,
kumapit
Ka sa aking kamay kahit hirap magsalita
"Anak, patawad sana sa lahat ng aking
70
nagawa
'Di sinusukat ang tapang at ang bigote
sa mukha
Dahil kung minsan, mas lalake pa sa
lalake ang bakla"
“Upuan” by Gloc 9 3.
Mawalang galang na po
Sa taong naka upo
Alam niyo bang pantakal ng bigas namin
ay di puno
Ang ding-ding ng bahay namin ay
pinagtagpi-tagping yero
Sa gabi ay sobrang init na tumutunaw ng
yelo
Na di kayang bilhin upang ilagay sa
inumin
Pinakulong tubig sa lumang takuring
uling-uling
Gamit lang panggatong na inanod
lamang sa istero
Na nagsisilbing kusina sa umaga'y
aming banyo
Ang aking inay na may kayamanan
isang kaldero
Na nagagamit lang pag ang aking ama
ay sumweldo
Pero kulang na kulang parin
ulam na tuyo't asin
Ang singkwenta pesos sa maghapo'y
pagkakasyahin
Di ko alam kung talagang maraming
harang
O mataas lang ang bakod
O nagbubulag-bulagan lamang po kayo
Kahit sa dami ng pera niyo
Walang doktor na makapagpapalinaw ng
mata niyo
“Paraiso” by Smokey Mountain 4.
Return to a land called paraiso
A place where a dying river ends
No birds there fly over paraiso
No space allows them to endure
The smoke that screens the air
The grass that's never there
And if I could see a single bird, what a
joy
I try to write some words and create
A simple song to be heard
By the rest of the world
71
“Mga Kababayan Ko” by Francis M. 5.

Mga kababayan ko
Dapat lang malaman nyo
Bilib ako sa kulay ko
Ako ay Pilipino
Kung may itim o may puti
Mayron naman kayumangi
Isipin mo na kaya mong
Abutin ang iyong minimithi
SEMESTRAL PROJECT CHOICE #2 (ONLINE):
Filipinos love music and most Filipinos can sing, dance, or create a tune. In
order to showcase your musical talent and skills in utilizing technology, choose
among the following options:
Choices for the project:
1. You may use popular online applications to aid your production (WeSing,
Smule, Tiktok, etc.). If using online karaoke apps and you think you can pull it
off, your video may cover a full popular OPM song (either Filipino or English)
that is up to four (4) minutes only; you may also choose to sing half of the song
only (from the first verse up to the first chorus). If you want to dance, you may
also record a full song performance or just use the 60-second Tiktok setting.
DO NOT MAKE VIDEOS WITH EXPLICIT CONTENT (No vulgar language &
no vulgar images). Upload your videos to your FB account with the
#philpopculturebida and send the link to your instructor’s email address or FB
Messenger account. Your grades will not depend on the likes or reactions of
your FB friends.
2. If you would like to perform live (through FB Live), the instructor will schedule a
performance day for the class to enjoy.
Your performance shall be graded according to the following criteria:
Choreography (Must be original) 30%

Execution (Timing & Coordination, Projection & Expression) 40%
Overall Aesthetic Appeal including Background and Costume 15%
Full Guideline-compliance 15%
100%
***You may start to upload your recorded video after the allotted schedule for Module
9.
72
MODULE 10.
Duration: 15 hours
OTHER READINGS IN PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE AND ART
a. explain how other avenues of popular culture become a site of struggle and
conflict among the people within the social hierarchy;
b. determine how these are a part of the people’s identification as Filipinos;
c. appreciate the importance of the emergence of new avenues of popular
culture as they contribute to the further creation of new cultures.
Read the following full texts and excerpts dealing with certain forms of
Philippine Popular Culture and Art. As you read each one, answer the following
questions to aid your understanding. Write your answer to these questions in
complete paragraph form (300- 500 words with introduction, body, and
conclusion) in a whole sheet of paper or encode in a letter-sized bond paper.
1. Based on the readings, how do capitalism and commercialism sustain

themselves using the mass culture? (Paano ginagamit ng kapitalismo at
komersyalismo ang kultura ng masa para sa sariling kapakanan nito?)
2. Explain how pop culture/ art forms question what the ruling class
dictates towards homogenization of the society? (Ipaliwanag kung
paano kinukuwestyon ng kulturang popular at makabagong sining ang
mga dinidikta ng alta-sosyedad o naghaharing uri tungo sa
pagkakaroon ng iisang kaakuhan ng lipunan.)
FOOD/CULINARY
“Bubble Tea at Gitnang Uring Bubble”

Rolando B. Tolentino
“Consumption has never been so empowering!” Tila ito ang sinasaad ng mga
youth hub: mula Metro Walk at libu-libong call center agents, ang student crowd sa
Katipunan at Maginhawa Streets hanggang sa alfresco areas ng malls at sa mga
enclave sa Scout area, Timog at Morato.
Kabataan-fueled itong retail binge ng kasalukuyan: newly-empowered sa call

center work kundi man sa may spending money mula sa supportive at restrictive na
mga magulang. Sa spesifiko, nailahok ng konsumeristang kabataan ang food-and-
beverage sa kanilang lumalawak na repertoire ng bilihin.
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Pribatisado ang konsumerismo: sa pagitan ng bumibili at ng pinagbibilihan.

Ang kakatwa, may sanctimonious na relasyon anf kabataan at ang tinatangkilik na
produkto-serbisyo (di na magkahiwalay ito para sa antas na kalidad na inilalangkap
sa brand, kailangan din ng kalidad na serbisyo).
Ang produkto ay isang brand, and fad ay isang lifestyle choice ng hanay ng
tumatangkilik. Ang individual nag may ahensyang magdetermina ng kanyang
preferensya kahit pa nga malaki ang kabig ng paghihikayat ng word-of-mouth
advertising (para nakakaangat—mas exklusibo—dahil limitadong sirkulo lang ang
nakakaalam) at ng pinakamalaking advertisement nito: ang mismong hanay ng mga
katawan ng kabataang tumatangkilik, blina-blog, nila-like sa Facebook, binibitbit ang
plastic na lalagyan sa iba’t ibang lugar.
Hindi na bago ang bubble tea (dating pearl shake drink). Ang kaibahan lang
ay ilang mga subtle na kalakaran sa pagbebenta nito. Una wala (pa) ang outlet sa
malls, nasa enclaves ng kabataang konsumerista na nasa labas ng mall (ang
pinakamalaki’t malawak na espasyo ng postmodernong konsumpsyon). Ang pag-
unlad sa labas ng primaryong sityo—kundi man, simbolo ng—konsumerismo ay ang
“radical choice” ng boses ng kontraryong kabataan anti-primaryong konsumerismo.
Sa laylayan, puwede.
Ikalawa, ‘di tulad ng Zagu at iba pang pearl shake outlets ng sinauna, “Asian”
modern ang lugar ng pagtangkilik ng konsumpsyon. Di lantaran ang nasang kumita,
tulad ng cart at stalls ng naunang outlets. Di rin ito Western “third space” (o sa
pagitan ng opisina’t bahay) interiors ng coffee shops. Anti-industrial, anti-west ang
karagdagang masasabi sa “radical choice” ng mga kabataang konsumerista. Pero
tulad ng coffee shop, puwedeng tumambay sa pwesto, mag-aral, mag-first date,
mag-chill (tambay ng may coolness factor).
Ikatlo, ang flavors ng bubble tea ay mas “natural” ang labelling: watermelon
milk tea with pearls, caramel milk tea, at hakka milk tea, halimbawa, mula sa
Moonleaf Tea sa Maginhawa Street. Hindi na ito leche flan (crème brûlée), cookies
and cream, at iba pang parang flavors ng ice cream ang mga pangalan. Anti-
komersyalistang konsumerismo ang tila isinasaad naman nito.
At panghuli, ang bubble tea shop ay nagsasaad ng mismong “third space” sa

pagitan ng maingay na pulutong sa lugar ng inuman, at ang presensya ng
nakakatandang hegemoniya ng lipunan sa coffee shops: mga abogado’t kliyente,
halimbawa, sa Starbucks Matalino Street sa likod ng Hall of Justice sa Quezon City o
mga magulang na nakikihang-out sa Starbucks Katipunan. Mula rito naman,
lumalabas na anti-establisyimyento rin pala anf product-of-choice ng kabataang
konsumerista.
Ang kaibahan ng anti-establisyimyentong sentimiento ng bubble tea shop sa

inuman, halimbawa, ay ang higit pang sterilisasyon ng kabataang kultura (wala
naman sigurong argumento’t basag-ulo sa bubble tea shop) at ang propensidad ng
astang radikal at radikalismong nakaugat sa wanna-be o nag-aantay na mag-
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mainstream ng preferensiya at pagtangkilik. Sa katunayan, ang Moonleaf Tea ay

nagdagdag ng mas malaking branch sa mismong Maginhawa Street, at mayroon
nang branches sa Katipunan at St. Thomas Square!
Ang huling punto ay walang pinagkaiba sa naunang pangarap ng indie

filmmakers: gumawa ng indie film para makapasok sa mainstream na naudlot dahil
sa pagbulusak ng mainstream cinema. Ang hindi lubhang tumitingkad ay ang
tasitong partisipasyon ng kabataang konsumerista sa mismong kalakaran ng
konsumerismo at kapitalismo.
Ang inaakalang radical choice ay nagsasalin din naman sa higit pang kita
kahit pa ang kita ay di (pa) pumapasok sa mas higit na komersyal na espasyo ng
mga Sy at Ayala. Dagdag pa rito, ang radical choice ay nakaangkla sa
pribatisasyon—ang pagpasa ng estado sa mismong kamay ng mamamayan para
magkandakumahog sa paghahanap ng oportunidad para sa individual at
panlipunang katubusan.
Empowered nga ang kabataan, pero empowered para lumikha ng sariling

bubble at mundo na hindi rin naman radikal na hiwalay sa mundo ng konsumerismo
at kapitalismong nag-akda rin naman sa kanilang pinili, sa kanilang mismong mga
katawan at aspirasyon. Na sa bawat pagtunghay at aaktwal na pagtangkilik sa
bubble tea ay reafirmasyon—hindi pagbalikwas—sa lifestyle choice ng kapitalismo:
hindi bula kundi ngdula nito.
“Beer Bucket at Pagpapahaba ng Gitnang Uring Usapan”

Sa aking pagkakaalam, Sa Filipinas lang nauuso ang bucket beer promo

(promotion o napapanahong special promo lamang)—packaged na apat o lima plus
one beer, minsan ay may libre pang pulutan. Lumalabas na sa agarang pag-order ng
set na bilang ng beers, “libre” na ang isang bote. Sa komersyal ng San Mig Light, na
sa tunay na manginginom ng beer ay isang aberasyon, tulad ng decaffeinated
coffee, Diet Coke at Coke Zero, ang magsyotang magkahiwalayna umibis ng kani-
kanilang sports car ay nagkatagpo sa isang dance club na may kanya-kanyang bitbit
na partners.
Ang dance floor ay nagiging arena ng showdown at showoff, hanggang sa

magkatanungan ang magsing-irog, “Sino ang kasama mo?” Pasok ang waiter, may
bitbit na bucket beer at ang tagline ay “Mahaba-haba ‘atang usapan ‘yan.” At ang
closing shot ay ang magsing-irog na nagp-PDA (public display of affection) at PDD
(public display of drunkenness).
Ang gitnang uring panahon ay ipinakilala bilang mas lehitimong aspirasyon at

pagkakataon kaysa sa nauna nitong mga porma, halimbawa, ang malling na
ginagawang pasyalan lang ang mall complex gayong di naman lumalahok sa
75
konsumerismo. Ang tinangka ay ang pagtukoy ng market segment na gustong

maging mas natatangi kaysa sa mayoryang kauri nila sa pamamagitan ng kanilang
mas kaiga-igayang paglalahok at inkorporasyon sa konsumerismo at kapitalismo.
Narito na ang gitnang uring panahon, ang panahong ipinapaako sa masa

wanna be kaysa aktwal na gitnang uri. 24/7 ang gitnang uring panahon kapag nasa
call center enclave, nariyan lang kung gustong ehersisyo ang pagiging gitnang uring
mamamayan. Kung kaya naman walang diferensya na umorder ng paisa-isang beer
na mas mahal na halaga o beer na lampas sa P100 ang presyo ng bawat bote. Ibig
sabihin, tinutukoy na negosyo ang aktwal na kondisyon ng gitnang-uri sa bansa:
nananatiling aspirational kaysa realized na karanasan para sa nakararami.
Ang “bucket beer” ay nangangahulugan ng maraming bagay. Maaaring tulad

sa “bucket list”, ang mga bagay na kailangan gawin mo bago ka mamatay. At
malamang marami rito ay ang mga bagay na ipinagkait sa buong buhay, pero dahil
nga mamamatay naman, pwede nang mag-indulge. Kung balde ito, “pila-balde” na
ang literal na kahulugan ay pagpila ng balde sa igiban para makapag-uwi ng
maiimbak na tubig.
Ang balde ang lunduyan ng komunidad na kasalatan at pangangailangan, at

individual na karangyaan, ang kapasidad magbayad ng taga-igib. “Pila-balde” na ibig
sabihin sa sexual na konotasyon ay ang babaeng pakawala na pumapayag sa
nakapilang lalake. Pero hindi naman balde talaga ang pinaglalagyan, mas tabo pa na
sinasabing stock sa banyo ng mga Filipinong nasa Amerika.
Ang motto rin naman kasi ng konsumerismo at kapitalismo ay carpe diem

(seize the day). Sa mga wanna be na gitnang-uri, ito ang itinakda ng kapital na
kanilang pagkakataon. Kabahagi pa rin ito ng levelling up sa “sachet economics” o
tingiang retail sa bansa, na may natukoy na grupo ng individual—sa mayoryang
mukha ng kahirapan sa bansa—na mas madulas ang relasyon sa kanilang wallet at
kung gayon, mas handang mapabilang (kahit peryodiko lang tuwing payday at
deadlines para maka-meet ng quota sa opisina, halimbawa) sa sandali ng paggasta
na nagiging lehitimong (temporal naman na ) gitnang uri.
Ang komoditi naman, tinatangkilik hindi pa sa aktwal nitong nagagawa, kundi

sa lifestyle choice na kasama rito. Ibig sabihin, kung gusto mo naman
magpakalasing, mag-hard ka na lang, tulad ng Empi Light o kwatro kantos sa bahay.
Pipiliin ang bucket beers sa mga bar, karaoke, restaurant at food court dahil may
pampublikong pagdanas ng pagkaangat sa iba pang dumaraan lamang sa
establismyento.
Magbabayad ka nang mas mahal dahil alam mong premium ang pag-inom sa
labas. Ang premium ay ang imahinaryo ng gitnang-uring panahon na matagumpay
na nagging kapakat ng produkto ng bote ng beer. Ang trahedya ng gitnang-uring
panahon ay ang dalawang maaaring mangyari rito.
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Una, ang repetisyon, tulad ng anumang inuman, ng mga dati nang napag-
usapan, napagtawanan, napag-awayan. Ano ang kalitatibong pagbabago sa
imahinaryong panahon kung gayon? At ikalawa, ang mas maraming tahimik kaysa
kalitatibong sandali sa panahon. Nauubos ang gitnang-uring panahon sa
reafirmasyon ng espasyo nito, hindi ng aktwal na panahon: magkakasama nga pero
nagtetext naman, nag-iinternet, o nagmomonitor ng pagdating at pag-indyan ng mga
kasama pa.
Ang inaakalang prolongasyon ng gitnang-uring usapan at panahon ay hindi

maaaring magmaterialista dahil sa batayang absence ng aktwal na gitnang kalahok.
Na ang idea ng capital na ang bucket beer ay isang promo ay siyang katotohanan:
special offer kahit pa bayad naman ang kantitatibong dagdag at hanggang dito na
lamang.
Ang inaakalang gitnang-uring usapan ay itinakdang maglahong parang bula,

o at best, maging hangover na lamang na sinusumpa pero muli’t muli pa rin gagawin
sa ngalan ng imahinaryo ng gitnang uring itinalaga ng konsumerismo at kapitalismo.
Dito papasok ang alok muli ng waiter, at ang inaasahang pag-ayon mo para sa
inaasam na happy ending ng 46-second na komersyal.
“Farmers Markets o ang Tianggeng Pangmayaman”

Binanggit na kwento ng kaguro habang ito ay nakasakay sa jeep. May

naguusap sa kanyang tapat na pagkaupo habang padaan ang sasakyan sa Sidcor
Sunday market sa Lung Center sa Quezon Avenue. Tinanong ng isa, “Bakit ang
daming sasakyan?” Sagot ng kausap, “May tiangge kasi riyan sa loob ng ospital.
Tianggeng pangmayaman.”
Nagpupunta ako rito, namimili ng halaman, lutong-pagkain, sariwang gulay

lalo na ang pang-salad, at mga prutas. May buhay na hito, tilapia’t palaka. May ibon,
imported na tuta, kuting at koi. May “one-of-a-kind” na German chocolate cake at
maja blanca na pinakamasarap daw ayon sa katabing news clipping, gumagawa ng
laundry bags at table napkins mula sa katsa, at iba pa. May ukay-ukay, Japanese
surplus, items na galing sa Ikea sa Singapore, pirated na dami’t bag, at exported
overruns.
Pumupunta ako rito kapag mag alas-onse ng umaga na’t malapit nang
magbalot at baklasin ang mga puwesto, at magsara ang tiangge. Lumipat ang Sidcor
Sunday Market sa kalayuang Centris, isang nabubuong First World enclave sa
Quezon Avenue at EDSA na ang batayang maykayang populasyon ay mula sa liga
ng call center agents. Nawala ang inaapakang putik at alikabok ng Lung Center
grounds, ang problema sa parking at ang napakasiksik na pamilihan.
77
Farmers market ang tawag sa ganitong tianggeng pangmayaman. Pero sa

simula ng farmers market, mga magsasaka talaga ang nagtitipon para magbenta ng
kanilang ani, kasama ang entrepreneurial na kabiyak na nagbebenta ng lutong
pagkain. Ito ang araw ng palengke sa mga liblib na bayan, isang araw na natatangi
dahil dito lang bumababa at nagtitipon ang magkakalayong magsasaka para
magbenta ng kanilang produkto.
Naging bahagi ang “farmers market” ng popular na imahinasyon nang

ipangalan ang pinakatampok (pinakasosyal) na pelengke sa Cubao mula sa
katawagang ito. Kapag may cooking shows, lalo na yung internasyonal na palabas,
at kailangan ng eksena na namamalengke, sa Farmers Market tutungo. At hanggang
ngayon ay hindi nagbabago ang imaheng ito sa kasosyalan.
Sa dalawang pagkakataon, nang magpahanap ako ng salmon para gawing

sashimi sa Commonwealth market, at ng parsley sa Marikina Market, pakutyang
itinuro ang Farmers Market para sa di regular na mga bagay sa kanilang mga
palengke. Ang farmers market ay in-appropriate na ng gitnang uri at mayayaman,
ginawang kanilang pribadong tianggian.
Gusto ng ganitong demograpiko ng pribilisasyon ng produktong sariwa, fresh

out of the farm, value for money, cutting the middleman out, at anti-komersyalista.
Para silang namamalengke, hindi nagrogroseriya. Para silang nagsha-shopping,pero
hindi sa mall. Para silang nakikipagtawaran, pero sa mas mahal at ligtas na
panuntuan.
At tulad ng anupamang transformasyon ng produkto’t serbisyo sa kapitalismo,

naglaho ang pangunahing salik sa produksyon: ang magsasaka at ang kanyang
paggawa. Ang tumampok ay ang mga maliliit na negosyante’t middle man na nagso-
source ng bargain na produktong bebenta sa “farmers markets.” Sa katunayan
nagging magical ang kanilang paglaho sa mga produktong ibinebenta: orchids,
organic vegetables, karinderyang pagkain, herbal breads, at iba pa.
Kahit katulong mo na ang trabahador ng may pwesto na dalhin ang

pinamiling paso’t seedling, halimbawa, ay hindi naman sila naisasaalang-alang sa
tawaran (direktang negosasyon ng namimili sa may pwesto) o pagti-tip (para sa
karagdagang serbisyo ng produkto). Nandiyan sila, tulad ng maraming reserbadong
army ng walang trabaho’t underemployed na katawan, naglipana.
Naglipana ang farmers markets sa Manila, pawang nasa enclave ng first

worldism: Salcedo Saturday market at Legazpi Sunday market sa Makati business
district, at Mercato Centrale sa Fort Boniacio. Farmers markets na hindi naman
talaga. Ambiance, orkestradong feeling kundi man branding na lamang ito, para ang
init at ulan ng labas ay maging kaiga-igaya pa ring halina sa mga maykaya na mamili
sa palengke’t tiangge na inukol ng negosyo para sa kanila.
Naalaala ko ang isang skema ng mga ekonomista para magbunsod ng

paggastos at kaunlaran: ang farm to market roads, o ang paggawa ng kalsada mula
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taniman patungong palengke. Ang konsiderasyon dito ay hindi naman para maibsan
ang krisis ng agrikultura o ng mga magsasaka kundi para makapasok ang
negosyante para angkatin sa murang halaga ang tannim, maibyahe’t maibenta ito sa
palengke.
Ang farmers market ay isang aberasyon: walang agsasaka, di naman lubos

na palengke ang itsura. At precisely ginawa nga itong gentrifikasyon para sa iilang
maykaya sa lipunan na may oras at may perang makapamili.
THEATER
“Teatro ng Tunay”
rebyu ng Mrs. B (dula ni Joi Barrios,
kasama sina Rowena Festin at Grundy Constantiono, Agosto 2011)
Ang pilosopong si Slavoj Zizek ang gumawa ng distinksyon sa dalawang

parallel na realidad: ang Tunay (Real) ay ang realidad ng kapitalismo, ang
metanaratibo ng capital, na may sariling pribilehiyadong buhay sa kontemporaryong
global na kaayusan; at ang tunay (real) o ang realidad mula sa ibaba, ang
inaasahang maetsapwera ng Tunay.
Magkasalungat ang kwento. Sinasabing gumaganda, halimbawa, ang

pambansang ekonomiya, na diretso na tayo kay Presidente Noynoy Aquino sa daang
matuwid; at ito ang kwento ng Tunay. Ang tunay na sinasabi naman mula sa hanay
ng nakararaming mamamayan. Nasaan?
Ang dulang pagtatanghal na Mrs. B. ay masasabing teatro ng tunay (theatre

of the real). Ito ay nagsasaad ng kontra-naratibo sa metanaratibo ng kapitalismo sa
bansa sa panahon ni dating Presidente Gloria Arroyo, at ni Aquino: na ang paglabag
sa karapatang pantao—lalo na ang mga kaso ng desaparesidos—ang collateral
damage para sa pag-akda ng bansa sa neoliberalisasyon.
Nagawa itong pagtunghay sa tunay sa pamamagitan ng mga dulang device.

Una, ang paksa ay biographical, halaw sa buhay at karanasan ni Edith Burgos (kilala
sa marami bilang Mrs. B), ang ina ni Jonas na ayon sa website ay apat na taon at
116 araw nang sapilitang winala nang buksan ko sa umagang sinusulat ko itong
rebyu.
Ang pagtunghay ay pagsaksi sa isang natatanging buhay, sa pagpili nito sa

buhay bilang modalidad ng kontemporaryong pagkilos, na di lang individual at
pamilya, kundi kolektibong pakikiisa at pagkilos para sa katarungang pantao sa
bansa. Ito ang buhay ng endurance at stamina, na madaling mapanghina sa mga
pintuang nagsasara at balaho sa bawat madaraanan. Ito ang testimonial ni Mrs. B sa
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dula, at ang aktwal na testimonial niya sa pagtatapos ng dula bilang kabahagi pa rin
ng pagtatanghal ng teatro ng tunay.
Ikalawa, may plastisidad ang dula at natatangi ang kakayahan nitong maging
bukas sa mas kontemporaryong kaganapan sa patuloy na paglabag sa karapatang
pantao. Naipasok ang mga karagdagang kaso ng manunulat na si Ericson Acosta at
film student Maricon Montajes na nakakulong sa mga piitan. Ang dula ay nakaangkla
sa pagiging makabuluhan, at nagagawa ito dahil ang bawat staging (ang orihinal ay
noong 2009) ay pagpapanibagong dula na higit na nakakatugon sa kawalang-
kabuluhan ng estado sa pagtataguyod ng karapatang pantao.
Ikatlo, ang dulang nakafokus sa buhay ng isang kontraryong nilalang ng

estado ay may kapasidad na pangalanan ang mga tauhan (halimbawa, ang linya ni
Mrs. B, “Sinungaling ka, General Tolentino. Ano ang kapalit ng promotion? Buhay ng
anak ko? Do you have sons, General? The sins of the father will be visited upon the
son.”) substansya ng kanilang buhay (siya, ang buhay ni Jonas na natutunghayan
natin kay Mrs. B, ang mga aktwal na pamilya ng mga winala’t pinaslang sa
pagtatapos ng dula), at ang karanasan (ang sistematisasyon ng paglabag sa
karapatang pantao).
Ng kapangyarihang magpangalan ni Mrs. B ay hindi fantasying ahensya. Ito

ay kontra-estadong kapangyarihan na umakda sa karanasan ng kanyang
mamamayan, pati na ni Mrs. B. Ang dulang testimonial ay pagrehistro ng pagtutol at
pagbabalikwas: pinangalanan ng biktima ang sarili, ang kanyang anak na mas
matinding biktima, ang kahalintulad na karanasan ng napakaraming pamilya’t anak,
ang pambansang karanasan sa kultura ng impunidad.
Di tulad ng sine,—mapa -Hollywood na negation ng tunay o mapa-indie

cinema na madalas ay estetisasyon (para sa international art film market) ng tunay—
ang dula ay nagbibigay-diin (o nagpapabigat) sa tunay. Sino ang hindi maaantig
gayong ang aktwal na personahe (na nandoon sa pagtatanghal) at ang mismong
tauhan (napakagaling na isinabuhay ni Malou de Guzman nang ako ay manood) sa
dulang itinanghal ay nandoon: ang tinutunghayan ay di lamang teatro kundi ang
mismong tunay.
At ito ang patuloy na inobasyon ng kilusang kultural, ang gawing

makabuluhan ang teatro sa panahong ang teatro ay nananatiling elitist kahit pa
kakatwang nakakiling ang mainstream theatre (maging ng mga university group) sa
pagbibigay- libangan. Malibang para ang tunay ay maibsan, tulad sa karanasan sa
panonood ng sine.
Sa maliit pero napapanahong produksyon n Mrs. B., ang teatro ay may

kapangyarihang akdain at itanghal ang tunay, kontraryo sa ofisyal na lagay ng bansa
at ng kanyag mamamayan. At sa kapangyarihang ito, ang kolaboratibong
kapangyarihang isaad na sa patuloy lamang na pakikibaka ang Tunay ay
mababalikwas.
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FASHION
“Anatomiya ng Jologs”
Teo S. Marasigan
Mga kabataan sila, mga tinedyer at mas matanda pa. Kadalasan, nakatira sa
komunidad ng maralitang tagalungsod—iyong tinatawag ng iba na “iskwa-kwa,”
“iskwating”—o maralita sa kanayunan. Mga anak ng mga manggagawa, magsasaka
at mala-manggagawa, gayundin ng mga tinatawag na “lumpen”—mga sangkot sa
mga gawaing anti-sosyal: nagnanakaw, nagbebenta ng droga, sangkot sa
prostitusyon.
Lantad sila sa iba’t ibang media: telebisyon (ang iba’y may cable TV, at
karamiha’y may mga programa at estasyong nagpapalabas ng mga music video),
radyo, internet. Gayundin sa iba’t ibang gaheto para sa media: cellphone para sa
musika at video, murang DVD player at DVD para sa mga pelikula, ang iba’y may
mga iPod para sa musika.
Kung papaniwalaan ang suri ni Fredric Jameson, Marxistang Amerikano, na

tampok na kahulugan ng “globalisasyon” sa antas ng kultura ang pag-igting ng
komunikasyon at media—na resulta ng pag-unlad ng teknolohiya para sa mga ito—
masasabing anak ang mga “jologs” ng globalisasyon. Hindi aksidenteng nagsimula
silang tawaging ganyan noong huling bahagi ng dekada ’90, matapos ang pagrurok
ng magagandang retorika kaugnay ng “globalisasyon”—bagamat tiyak na sintomas
din sila ng pagpapatuloy ng isang matagal nang tradisyon ng pag-uugnayan ng mga
uri sa lipunan.
Noong huling bahagi ng dekada ’90, “hip-hop” ang subkulturang makikita sa

kanila. Nitong huli, iba na: iyong tinatawag na “punk” bagamat laganap din ang
tinatawag na “emo rock.” May pagkakatulad ang hip-hop at punk: nagmula ang una
sa maralitang mga komunidad ng mga Aprikano-Amerikano sa US, nagmula ang
ikalawa sa mga komunidad ng manggagawa sa Britanya. May hibo ng angas at
protesta sa rasista at elitistang lipunan, bagamat madalas na seksista rin, ang una.
Mas tampok ang angas at protesta sa elitistang lipunan ng ikalawa. Pareho silang
palaban, taas noo.
Ang “emo rock” sa kabilang banda, ay tila mas impluwensya ng mga bandang
Kano. Mahilig sa itim, naglulunoy sa kalungkutang kadalasa’y resulta ng pag-ibig.
May nakapagsabing kakatwa ang mga titik ng mga kantang “emo”: kadalasang
tungkol sa pag-ibig na hindi nauunawaan, dahil hindi naman nasasabi at inuunawa,
at nagdudulot ng grabeng pighati sa personaheng kumakanta. Kabaligtaran
samakatuwid ng mga titik ng mga kantang Bon Jovi, halimbawa, na OA—“over-the-
top,” sabi ni Kenenth Guda—ang pagpapahayag ng pag-ibig:
“I wanna lay you down in a bed of roses/ Cause tonight I sleep in a bed of
nails/ I wanna be just as close as the Holy Ghost is. . .”
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Pananamit at pisikal na itsura ang tampok na tatak nila. Nakakabili sila sa

mga murang tindahan ng damit, ukay-ukay at mumurahing stall sa mga mall.
Kasabay ng paglalako sa kanila ng iba’t ibang subkultura, binibihisan din sila;
kasabay ng pagbibigay ng pantasya ang pananamit. Maaaring ang mga damit na ito
ang binibili nila sa perang dati na ilang inilaan sa damit, maaaring katas ng
pinaghirapan ng mga magulang o kamag-anak na OFW, nagtatrabaho, o gumagawa
ng mga aktibidad na anti-sosyal. Mayroon din silang bukod-tangi at tawag-pansing
mga estilo ng buhok.
May mga espasyo rin sila, kung saan madalas silang nakikita ng mga
tumatawag sa kanilang “jologs”: mga mall, lalo na iyong hindi pang-alta sosyedad,
mga bakanteng lote para sa mga nagse-skateboard, mga internet café. Parang ulap
na punung-puno ng ulan, naglalakad sila sa kalsada, sama-sama sa pagdalo sa mga
konsyertong rock.
Hindi naman sila nagpipilit na magmukhang mayaman. Isa lang ang

subkulturang niyayakap nila sa iilang imahe at molde ng pagiging kabataan—at oo,
ng “uso” at “astig” din—na nakahapag sa kanila, na ipinag-aakit at idinidikdik din sa
kanila. Wala silang gaanong pagpipilian. Pero dahil dito, tinatawag at tinatawag
silang “jologs.”
Hindi tinatawag na “jologs” ang mahirap na nakasuot ng damit na karaniwan

nang itinuturing na pang-mahirap tulad ng maruming t-shirt at pantalong maong.
Hindi “jologs” ang magsasakang naka-kamisa chino, kahit ang taong grasa, ang
manggagawang naka-uniporme. Pero “jologs” ang mga maralita na tila umaalis sa
pang-kulturang “lugar” na itinakda sa kanila ng lipunan—tumutulad sa Amerikano,
lumilibot sa mga espasyo kung saan nakikita sila ng iba. Tiwala sa sarili, masayang
ipinapakita ang kanilang subkultura, bagamat parang may sariling mundo sa
pagsasaya.
Kaya pang-distansya ng mga nakatataas na uri ang salitang “jologs”—

pagmamaliit (sa mga binabansagan) at pagmamataas (ng mga nagbabansag).
Partikular ang uring gumagamit nito: petiburgis—mga estudyante, propesyunal. Sila
ang mas lantad sa mga “jologs”, hindi ang mga anak ng burgesya-komprador at
malalaking panginoong maylupa. Bihira sigurong marinig ang salitang ito sa mga
mansion ng mga Cojuangco at Lopez. Kaya nilang iwasan at layuan ang mga
“jologs”. Ang mga petiburgis, hindi sila ang nababastusan sa mga ito,
naaalibadbaran, nandidiri.
Jologs ang Cueshe, hindi nag Bamboo—“far from it!” pahabol pa ng iba.
Jologs si Vhong Navarro, hindi si Billy Crawford. Jologs si Andrew E. pero hindi si
Gloc-9. Jologs si Marian Rivera, bagamat hindi na daw si Judy Ann Santos. Sa mga
sirkulo ng mga petiburgis, tinatawag nang “jologs” ang kung anu– ano at kung sinu-
sino na maaaring niyayakap sa aktwal ng mga tinatawag na “jologs” at maaari ring
hindi. Ang hindi niyayakap ng mga “jologs,” may marka nila, ng pagiging “masa”:
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malabis sa emosyon o kaya’y kengkoy, may palatandaan ng pagiging maledukado at

mahirap.
Obserbasyon ni Barbara Ehrenreich, progresibong manunulat sa Amerikana,

paunti nang paunti ang pagkakataong magkita nang mata-sa-mata ng mayayaman at
mahihirap sa US. Ang mayayaman, sa ibang lugar nakatira, nagtatrabaho, namimili,
nagpapalipas-oras, nagrerelaks. May mga sasakyan sila—ang iba’y
panghimpapawid pa—para makalipat-lipat sa kanilang mga espasyo. May katulad na
obserbasyon si Neferti Xina M. Tadiar, feministang Pinay, sa sikat niyang sanaysay
hinggil sa mga flyover sa Metro Manila. Aniya, paraan din ng mga istrukturang ito
para malampasan at maiwasan ng mayayaman sa bansa ang mga espasyo ng
mahihirap na anglawa sa ibaba—tindahan sa bangketa, barung-barong, traysikel at
pedikab.
Pagpapatuloy ng tunguhin at lohikang ito ang panukalang magtayo ng pader

paikot sa UP: ang ilayo ang mga anak-mayaman at umaastang anak-mayaman sa
“banta” ng mga “jologs” at ng mga kauri nila—kasama na ang kontroberyal na mga
krimen sa kampus. Natural na sa UP ito magiging isyu, dahil matagal nang
nababakuran ang Ateneo, La Salle at iba pa. Gusto nitong panatilihin ang
pantasyang liberal ng isang unibersidad ng malayang talakayan sa balangkas ng
konserbatibong mga hakbangin—kasama ang pag-demolish sa mga tahanan ng mga
maralita sa paligid ng kampus. Ang pagkilala na bahagi ang UP ng lipunan ay
nagtutulak ng pagpapatianod sa mapanupil na mga hakbanging ginagamit ng lipunan
laban sa maralita.
Ang paghubog ng mga bagong media sa kabataan, na isa sa mga nagluwal

ng “jologs” ay isa ring dahilan sa naikuwento ng isang kaibigang organisador ng mga
kabataan at estudyante: Na mabilis dumami sa mga komunidad ng maralita ang
Karatula o Kabataang Artista para sa Tunay na Kalayaan, makabayang
organisasyong pangkultura ng kabataan.
Ang “jologs” na ba ngayon ang dating “bakya”?
ARCHITECTURE
“Nasyonalismo at Arkitekturang Filipino”

Edson G. Cabalfin
(Excerpt)
Problematisasyon ng Nasyonalismo
Ipinakita ni Roxas-Tope (1998) ang ilan sa mga nagiging suliranin ng usaping

nasyonalismo, kaugnay sa kontekstong Asyano. Dahil ang kaisipang nasyonalismo
ay bunga ng pangyayaring historical sa Europa (sinasabi ng iba na lumabas daw it
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noong huling kalahating bahagi ng ika-18 siglo, iba ang nagiging pangyayari sa Asia.
Kung ang Europeong konteksto ng nasyonalismo ay umaayon sa konsepto ng
pagsasama-sama o konsolidasyon, nagiging kontra-kolonyal ang pagkiling sa Asya.
Dahil na rin sa magkatulad na karanasang kolonyal ng mga bansang Asyano,
nagiging magkakatulad din ang nagiging pagbubuo ng nasyonalismo dito. Bagaman
may paglaban at katugunan sa pwersang kolonyal, kadalasan ang mga itinuturing na
bourgeois ang pumapalit, at siyang nagpapatuloy ng sistemang mapaniil ng mga
kolonisador.
Nangangahulugan, ang sariling mamamayan ng bansa ang siyang

nagpapalaganap ng mapaniil na mga operasyon at sistema. Kadalasan, itinatago
ang mga operasyong ito sa likod ng mga “programang pambansa.” Kaakibat din,
kadalasan, ang pagnanasa ng “pagkakaisa” bilang isang sistema ng homogenization.
Dito, inaasam ang pagkakaroon ng “iisa” na kasaysayan kultura, identidad, hangarin
bilang integral sa “programang pambansa.”
Ano ngayon ang nangyayari? Bakit ito nagiging masama?
Dahil may “iisa” na idealisasyong itinakda, lahat ng hindi umaayon sa gayong

mga pamantayan ay isinasantabi. Ang sinuman o anumang hindi umaayon ay hindi
na halimbawa, maituturing na Filipino, kapag hindi ito sumusunod sa kategorya ng
pagiging Filipino. Kaugnay sa homohenisasyong ito ang kulturang sinasabi na
“pambansang kultura.” Wika ni Ernest Gellner sa kaniyang papel na “Nationalism and
High Cultures” (1983), nakikita niya ang nasyonalismo bilang pagpapataw ng isang
kulturang kadalasan ay dayuhan o taliwas sa mga aktuwal at nagaganap sa kultura.
Ang pagpapataw ng “iisang pambansang kultura” ang siyang nagiging

madalas na sigaw ng mga nasyonalista. Ang diskurso ng nasyonalismo, sa
pagkakataong iyon, ay umaasa sa pagbubuo ng iisang kultura na pag-uusbungan ng
iisang pambansang kaakuhan. Dahil sa iisang identidad na iaasam, walang lugar sa
anumang kaakuhan na hindi tumutugma sa pambansang identidad.
Ang operasyon ng “othering” o ang pagsasantabi ay nagaganap sa anumang

identidad na hindi umaakma sa idealisasyong pambansa. Sa pagsasantabi, ating
itinuturing na hindi tugma, hindi bahagi, taliwas, kumokontra, nasa labas, isang
kontradiksyon ang mga bagay na inilalagay natin sa kategoryang “iba.” Nagiging
masama ang gayong operasyon dahil may naitatakdang pribilehiyo. Nagiging elitista
ang gayong pananaw.
Pagbalangkas ng Tanong
Hindi maipagkakaila na ang nasyonalismo ay isang mainit pa ring usapin

hanggang ngayon. Sa arkitektura, ang gayong layuning nasyonalismo ay makikita
natin sa katanungang “Ano ang arkitekturang Filipino?” Matagal nang naihain ang
katanungang iyon, simula pa noong dekada sesenta nang manumbalik ang
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matinding pagmamahal sa sariling bayan, lumakas ang kilusang nasyonalista, at

sinimulan ang pagsusuri sa nananaig ng mga pamantayan at kaisipang
pinalalaganap ng Amerika. Dahil rito, lumabas rin ang matinding pangangailangan na
unawain at tuklasing muli ang sariling pagkatao ng mga Filipino, kung kaya
nagkaroon din ng biglaang pananaliksik at pagtuklas ng kaakuhang Filipino.
Identidad ang nagiging partikular na pokus ng mga usapin. Maging sa

arkitektura, ang mga arkitekto, akademista, at kritiko ay napasailalim sa masalimuot
na talakayan ukol sa identidad sa arkitektura. Para kay Locsin, isa sa ating National
Artist for Architecture, ang nasyonalismo sa arkitektura ay ang pagpapamalas ng
gayong pambansang kaakuhan.
Kung babalikan natin ang tanong na “Ano ang arkitekturang Filipino?” bilang
kumakatawang kaisipan sa usapin ng identidad sa arkitektura, mahihinuha natin ang
ilang mga palagay. Ito ang mga hakang nakatago sa likod ng tanong. Ang tanong ay
hindi rin basta-basta nasasagot gawa ng mga nakakawing pang mga isyu at usapin.
Ipinapakita rin dito ang nagiging problematisasyon ng mga inihayag na palagay.
Una, ang identidad sa arkitektura ay nakikita bilang isang depinisyon. Sa

paghahanap ng identidad sa arkitektura, ang madalas na ginagamit ay yaong
katangiang umaayon sa iisang partikular na depinisyon. Maging ang paggamit ng
kaisipang depinisyon ay nakapagbibigay ng implikasyon. Ang depinisyon, na siyang
galing sa Ingles na salitang definition, ay nagmula sa Latin definer, o “ang pagtataya
ng hanggahan.” Sa dahilang pagtatakda ng hanggahan ang nagiging pinakadiwa ng
“depinisyon,” gayundin ang kaisipan sa identidad bilang isang depinisyon: ang
identidad ay ang katulad ding pagtatakda ng hanggahan. Kung gayon, ang
paghahanap ng identidad sa arkitektura ay isang proseso ng paghanap ng gayong
hanggahan ng identidad. Ang anumang bagay na umaayon sa partikular na
parametrong inihanay ng isang depinisyon ay umaayon samatwid sa identidad na
iyon. . .
Ano naman ang nagiging suliranin dito? Ang pagtingin sa identidad bilang
isang depinisyon ay siya mismong nakahahadlang sa patuloy pa ring pagtuklas ng
sariling kaakuhan. Ang implikasyon ng paglagay sa isang depinisyon ay ang
paglalagay ng identidad sa isang kahon. Ang identidad, samakatwid, ay pinipilit
nating ilagay sa isang estado o pangangatawan na hindi nagbabago. Estatiko ang
pagtingin sa identidad.
Ikalawa, ang pagka-Filipino sa arkitektura ay nakasalalay sa iisang

pambansang identidad. Tulad din ng nabanggit na, ang paghahanap ng identidad ng
pagka-Filipino sa arkitektura ay maitatali natin sa kilusang nasyonalista noong
dekada sesenta. Maiuugnay natin, kung gayon, ang mga nakatagong balakin na
ipahayag ang “iisang pamabansang identidad” sa pamamagitan ng pagtatalaga ng
mga sistemang nagbubuo ng kaakuhan. Ang pamahalaan ay nagtatalaga ng mga
kasangkapan o sistema upang mapalaganap ang isang pambansang identidad at
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kultura. Ang arkitektura ay isa gayong mga kasangkapan o sistema. Ang

lehitimisasyon ng isang pamabansang kaakuhan ay maluwalhating natatanggap ng
nakararami, dahil na rin ito ay naturalista o naituring na “natural” na pangyayari. Ang
arkitektura bilang isang konkretong obheto at produkto na nakikita at bahagi ng
karanasang pang-araw-araw ay maaaring magsilbing kasangkapan sa
pagpapalaganap ng gayong kaisahan. Kaugnay din ng gayong nasang pambansang
identidad ang identidad sa arkitektura bilang “iisa” rin. Hinahangad, maging sa
arkitektura, ang isang homohenisadong identidad.
Ikatlo, ang kaakuhan sa arkitekturang Filipino ay nakatuon sa mga bukod-

tangi na elemento at katangian. Makikita natin ang hangarin para sa
homohenisadong identidad sa mga komentaryo at sa madalas nang pagkompara ng
arkiektura sa mga mas “buo” daw na kultura. Tulad ng Hapon at Tsina ang mga
“dakilang sibilisasyon,” na mas madali raw makita ang partikular at kaibang
katangian ng kanilang arkitektura. Dahil sa paghahambing sa gayong “buo” na
arkitektura, nakikita na ang arkitektura natin ay sinasabing walang identidad, dahil
walang makitang “buong identidad.” Mamamalas natin dito na nakakawing pa rin ang
pagtingin sa pagiging “buo at homohenisado” na arkitektura. Madalas gamitin ang
mga kapuna-punang katangian ng arkitektura bilang batayan ng “buong” identidad.
Halimbawa, kapag sinabing arkitekturang Hapones, madalas na pumapasok sa
isipan ang mga elemento ng Torii, ang imahen ng isang dambanang Shinto, shoji
skrin, ang mga banig na tatami, at iba pa. Kung arkitekturang Thai naman, palaging
limilitaw ang spires, ang mga lilok na ginto, ang patong-patong na bubong bilang
pangunahin at tampok na mga katangian. Hinahanap ang “kakaiba” o “bukod-tangi”
na mga elemento bilang pagtukoy sa kaakuhan.
Subalit mapapansin natin sa gayong pagkakategorya ang nagaganap na

stereotype. Sa stereotype, inilalagay ang isang bagay o identidad sa isang partikular
na imahen o kaisipang madaling maproseso at maunawaan. Kung kaya upang
madaling maunawaan at matukoy ang isang arkitekturang Hapones, madaling
natatandaaan ang pinaka-“diwa” nito dahil sa natukoy na mga elemento. Ang
nagiging probema nito, tulad sa iba pang pag-stereotype, ang isang bagay ay
nailalagay pa rin sa isang estatikong imahen o kaisipan. Hindi napapayagan ang
anumang hindi umaayon sa gayong imahen.
Kawangis sa arkitekturang Filipino, pilit ding hinahanapan ito ng “likas at

katangi-tanging” mga elemento upang madaling matukoy ang pagka-Filipino.
Sumasailalim ito sa mga operasyong pag-stereotype. Kailangan daw matukoy rin sa
arkitekturang Filipino ang mga elementong ito, upang masabi na mayroon din tayong
“buong” kaakuhan. Dahil hindi ito ang katotohanan at ang tunay na umiiral,
nahihirapan tuloy makakita ng partikular at katangi-tanging mga elemento sa
kondisyong Filipino. Kaya sinasabi na wala raw tayong “dakilang tradisyon sa
arkitektura.” Kung wala bang kakaiba at katangi-tanging mga elemento ang
arkitektura natin, wala na ba tayong maituturing na Filipino sa ating arkitektura?
86
Nakaangkla pa rin ang konsepto ng “pagkakaiba” sa ibang kultura bilang

pundamental na operasyon ng pagtatakda ng sariling kaakuhan.
Ikaapat, ang “arkitekturang Filipino” ay nakaugat sa usapin ng “kaakuhang

Filipino/pagka-Filipino.” Upang masagot natin ang katanungang “Ano ang
arkitekturang Filipino?” haharapin muna natin ang katanungang “Ano ang pagka-
Filipino?” o “Paano natin maituturing na ang isang bagay ay Filipino?” Ang usapin ng
kaakuhan sa arkitektura, kung gayon, ay nakatali sa usapin ng kaakuhan ng
pagkataong Filipino.
87
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92
APPENDIX
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PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE

PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE

Everyday, we consume different things. As we consume, we also create new

Popular culture is an effective tool of capitalism to control the masses but

This module is an attempt to make the ASCOTians cognizant of their roles in

VISION: ASCOT envisions to become a globally-recognized scientific and

ASCOT shall produce globally-competitive, ethnically-upright, and gender

Course Code: GE 14 Credit Units: 3

1. explain the concepts relating to cultural studies and popular culture as

Number of Hours: 3 hours per week for 18 weeks

CLASS POLICIES AND COURSE REQUIREMENTS:

1. Class Performance—Students are expected to read the lessons in the

envelope labeled PHILPOP PRELIM/ MIDTERM/ FINALS during a

Course Requirements Percentile

Activities/Quizzes/Minute Paper 40%

George Mason University. 2019. About cultural studies. In

Tolentino, Rolando B. 2016. Kabataang kulturang popular at mga sanaysay sa

Tolentino, Rolando B. & Devilles, Gary C. 2015. Kritikal na espasyo ng kulturang

MELISSA GRACE P. NACINO, MA LL

MODULE 2. PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE STUDIES:

MODULE 3. CONSUMPTION IN EVERYDAY LIFE 17

MODULE 4. CONSUMPTION AND CULTURAL STUDIES 25

MODULE 6. READING THE POPULAR 37

MODULE 8. POPULAR FILM AND THE PHILIPPINE CINEMA 53

Lesson 8.3. Popular Film Versus Alternative Film

MODULE 10. OTHER READINGS IN PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE & ART 73

CULTURAL STUDIES AND POPULAR CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

a. define Cultural Studies and Popular Culture;

What is Cultural Studies?

Cultural Studies is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the role of social

Stuart Hall (1992) pointed out that:

Cultural Studies has multiple discourses; it has a number of different histories.

Relationship Between Culture and Cultural Studies

Culture, Ideology, and the Popular

Image Source: https://hro-partners.com

Before dealing with the definition of popular culture, it is important to define

 Culture can be used to refer to ‘a general

 Culture suggests ‘a particular

 Culture can be used to refer to ‘the works

Another essential term in popular culture studies is ideology. Graeme Turner

Ideology can refer to a systematic body of ideas articulated by a particular

A second deﬁnition suggests a certain

A fourth deﬁnition is one that was very

Image source: manilatoday.net

One example of this power struggle is observed in the production of popular

Study the following table and answer the following question on a ¼

Popular Culture High Culture

PHILIPPINE POPULAR CULTURE STUDIES: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

Isang Pagdalumat sa Espasyo at mga Araling Pangkultura

Hindi nalalayo sa isang pulong ang paghahain ng isang antolohiya ng mga

Isang pagtatagpo ito dahil may pangangailangan na rin na magkaroon ng

Bienvenido Lumbera Soledad Reyes Nicanor Tiongson Rolando Tolentino

Sinasabi na nakaugat sa mga aralin nina Raymond Williams, Richard Hogart

Sa Pilipinas, nagmula sa araling panitikan at hindi sa araling pang-media ang

Doreen Fernandez Valerio Nofuente

Sa Kanluran, nagmula rin sa mga panayam at palihan ang pagkakaroon ng

Sa ganitong konsepto ng pagtatagpo nais naming ipaliwanang ang espasyo