WOLAITASODO UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTUTIONAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMEMENT OF BIOLOGY

TITTLE THE ECONOMIC VALUE AND IMPACTS OF EUCALYPTUS

TREE IN ETHIOPIA

BY

ABRAHAM ALEMAYEHU ………BIO /MSC/SUM/002/10

MSC BIOSEMINAR SUBMITED TO DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

ADVISOR ,PHD, WONDIMAGEGNEHU TEKALIGN

September 2021

Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all, I would like to thank the almighty GOD for giving me strength and wisdom to
accomplish this work. I would like to extend my advisor, Phd Wondimagegnehu Tekalign) for his
help he gave me throughout the preparation of my bio seminar and his readiness for my help
and guidance every time. He has advised and guided me .

summary

he Eucalyptus Dilemma: The Pursuit for Socio-economic Benefit

versus Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia

Mekonnen Daba

Oromia Agriculture Research Institutes, Bako Agricultural Research Center, Bako, Oromia,
Ethipia
Abstract

Eucalyptus is one of the most planted types of trees in the world, has been grown in
Africa and elsewhere for

over a century. The Ethiopia population is growing rapidly. The natural forest coverage
and native forest tree

species are decreasing in an alarming rate. There are many dilemmas among users,
growers, environmentalists,

researchers and policy makers on the ecological, socio-economic benefit and environmental
impacts Eucalyptus.

Ethiopia Farmers commonly plant eucalypts tree on their farmlands. Currently, growing
eucalypt trees is

becoming a great concern due to its socio-economic benefit and environmental impacts.In
Ethiopia, where there

are huge gaps between demand and supply of wood as a result of increasing
deforestation, the use of fast

growing plantation species such as eucalypts is unavoidable as they are preferred to

other species, because of

their peculiar features; these include they require minimum care, fast growth and good
quality of wood and

fibres, easy reproduction through seeds, coppice after harvested, grow in wide
ecological zones and poor

environments; resistant to environmental diseases and stress and generates

substantial income to rural and

urban households.On the other hand, Some of Eucalyptus impacts on the environment
are: adverse effects of

their leaf litter on soil humus, removal of too much water from farmlands, stream banks,
catchments areas and
underground water, heavy consumption of soil nutrients (deplete soil nutrients), failure to
provide food supplies

or adequate habitat for wildlife, inability to prevent soil erosion and inhibition of
growth of other plants.

Numerous study reports appeared that the benefits of Eucalyptus trees are far more
than its negative

impacts.Consequently, instead of complain whether to avoid plantation of Eucalyptus trees;

emphasis should be

given by the environmentalists, researchers and policy makers to support users and
growers of Eucalyptus in

selecting the appropriate place of plantation and species selection for the adequate
uses and management on

Eucalyptus planting, so that the environmental impacts are minimized and the socio-
economic benefits of

Eucalyptus were optimized. Therefore, this review paper briefly summarizes the socio-
economic benefit and

environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus trees.

Keywords: Eucalyptus Dilemma; Socio-economic benefit; Environmental Impacts; Ecological

effects

Introduction

Eucalyptus is the species most widely introduced overseas and is a long and ever green
tree from Myrtaceae

family (Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Eucalyptus, a genus of more than 500 species, has
become the most planted

genus of tree in the world (Teketay, 2000). The major Eucalyptus growing countries are: China
(170 million ha);

India (2.5 million ha); and Brazil (3.7 million ha) (Davidson, 1995; Stape et al., 2001; Stape,
2002; Liu and Li,
2010; ICFRE, 2010). In Africa, South Africa has the largest area under Eucalyptus
plantations of about half a

million hectares (Teketay, 2003). In Ethiopia the genus was introduced during the reign of
Emperor Menilek II

(1868-1907) in 1894/95 (Von Breitenbach, 1961). The purpose was to supply fuel wood and
construction timber

to the new and growing capital city, Addis Ababa. Species of the genus Eucalyptus (common
name Eucalyptus)

are widely planted all across Ethiopia including on large areas of land previously allocated
to food production

(Liang et al., 2016). In recent decades Eucalyptus has also increasingly been planted on lands
around and within

“church forests,” sacred groves of old-aged Afromontane trees surrounding Ethiopian

Orthodox Tewahido

churches. These revered holy sites have long been recognized for their cultural values
and also for their

ecosystem services including their potential to support species conservation and restoration,
as church forests are

some of the only remaining sanctuaries for many of Ethiopia’s indigenous and endemic
plant and animal

populations (Liang et al., 2016). Currently, it is estimated that, over 500000ha of the
land is covered by

Eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia (Abebe and Tadesse, 2014).

Nowadays in Ethiopia, the Eucalyptus continue to be planted and used by many farmers in
various ways:

mainly grown in small woodlots for building materials and fuel wood and charcoal making,
locally- they are also

found in shelterbelts, shady groves in and around the villages, churches and other dwellings;
they also constitute
a major source of honey and their leaves are traditionally used as a medicine to fight flu and
fever (E. globulus)

just to mention few products and services of the Eucalyptus to be considered as a major
multipurpose tree in

Ethiopia (Louppe and Denis, 2010). Several studies have been conducted on plantation
forest in Ethiopia in

relation with social, economic and environmental concerns (Luttge et al., 2002; Minda, 2004;
Abiyu et al., 2011;

Dessie and Erkossa, 2011).

In Ethiopia, Eucalyptus species are commonly integrated into the various farming
systems and their

planting has resulted in high economic profitability compared with agricultural use of land
for crop production

Journal of Natural Sciences Research

The Eucalyptus Dilemma: The Pursuit for Socio-economic Benefit

versus Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia

Mekonnen Daba

Oromia Agriculture Research Institutes, Bako Agricultural Research Center, Bako, Oromia,
Ethipia

Abstract

Eucalyptus is one of the most planted types of trees in the world, has been grown in
Africa and elsewhere for

over a century. The Ethiopia population is growing rapidly. The natural forest coverage
and native forest tree

species are decreasing in an alarming rate. There are many dilemmas among users,
growers, environmentalists,
researchers and policy makers on the ecological, socio-economic benefit and environmental
impacts Eucalyptus.

Ethiopia Farmers commonly plant eucalypts tree on their farmlands. Currently, growing
eucalypt trees is

becoming a great concern due to its socio-economic benefit and environmental impacts.In
Ethiopia, where there

are huge gaps between demand and supply of wood as a result of increasing
deforestation, the use of fast

growing plantation species such as eucalypts is unavoidable as they are preferred to

other species, because of

their peculiar features; these include they require minimum care, fast growth and good
quality of wood and

fibres, easy reproduction through seeds, coppice after harvested, grow in wide
ecological zones and poor

environments; resistant to environmental diseases and stress and generates

substantial income to rural and

urban households.On the other hand, Some of Eucalyptus impacts on the environment
are: adverse effects of

their leaf litter on soil humus, removal of too much water from farmlands, stream banks,
catchments areas and

underground water, heavy consumption of soil nutrients (deplete soil nutrients), failure to
provide food supplies

or adequate habitat for wildlife, inability to prevent soil erosion and inhibition of
growth of other plants.

Numerous study reports appeared that the benefits of Eucalyptus trees are far more
than its negative

impacts.Consequently, instead of complain whether to avoid plantation of Eucalyptus trees;

emphasis should be

given by the environmentalists, researchers and policy makers to support users and
growers of Eucalyptus in
selecting the appropriate place of plantation and species selection for the adequate
uses and management on

Eucalyptus planting, so that the environmental impacts are minimized and the socio-
economic benefits of

Eucalyptus were optimized. Therefore, this review paper briefly summarizes the socio-
economic benefit and

environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus trees.

Keywords: Eucalyptus Dilemma; Socio-economic benefit; Environmental Impacts; Ecological

effects

Introduction

Eucalyptus is the species most widely introduced overseas and is a long and ever green
tree from Myrtaceae

family (Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Eucalyptus, a genus of more than 500 species, has
become the most planted

genus of tree in the world (Teketay, 2000). The major Eucalyptus growing countries are: China
(170 million ha);

India (2.5 million ha); and Brazil (3.7 million ha) (Davidson, 1995; Stape et al., 2001; Stape,
2002; Liu and Li,

2010; ICFRE, 2010). In Africa, South Africa has the largest area under Eucalyptus
plantations of about half a

million hectares (Teketay, 2003). In Ethiopia the genus was introduced during the reign of
Emperor Menilek II

(1868-1907) in 1894/95 (Von Breitenbach, 1961). The purpose was to supply fuel wood and
construction timber

to the new and growing capital city, Addis Ababa. Species of the genus Eucalyptus (common
name Eucalyptus)

are widely planted all across Ethiopia including on large areas of land previously allocated
to food production
(Liang et al., 2016). In recent decades Eucalyptus has also increasingly been planted on lands
around and within

“church forests,” sacred groves of old-aged Afromontane trees surrounding Ethiopian

Orthodox Tewahido

churches. These revered holy sites have long been recognized for their cultural values
and also for their

ecosystem services including their potential to support species conservation and restoration,
as church forests are

some of the only remaining sanctuaries for many of Ethiopia’s indigenous and endemic
plant and animal

populations (Liang et al., 2016). Currently, it is estimated that, over 500000ha of the
land is covered by

Eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia (Abebe and Tadesse, 2014).

Nowadays in Ethiopia, the Eucalyptus continue to be planted and used by many farmers in
various ways:

mainly grown in small woodlots for building materials and fuel wood and charcoal making,
locally- they are also

found in shelterbelts, shady groves in and around the villages, churches and other dwellings;
they also constitute

a major source of honey and their leaves are traditionally used as a medicine to fight flu and
fever (E. globulus)

just to mention few products and services of the Eucalyptus to be considered as a major
multipurpose tree in

Ethiopia (Louppe and Denis, 2010). Several studies have been conducted on plantation
forest in Ethiopia in

relation with social, economic and environmental concerns (Luttge et al., 2002; Minda, 2004;
Abiyu et al., 2011;

Dessie and Erkossa, 2011).

In Ethiopia, Eucalyptus species are commonly integrated into the various farming
systems and their

planting has resulted in high economic profitability compared with agricultural use of land
for crop production

Journal of Natural Sciences Research

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ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)

Vol.6, No.19, 2016

128

(Mulugeta, 2010). Farmers’ raised interest in eucalypt farm forestry has now caused for
conversion of croplands

into eucalypt woodlots (Dereje et al., 2012). However, the uncontrolled expansion of
eucalypts on productive

farmlands has raised great concern, particularly as eucalypts are claimed to have
detrimental effects on soil

productivity (El-khawas and Shehata, 2005; Forrester et al., 2006; Jiregna, 2006). Numerous
studies conducted

in the Ethiopia have shown reduction in crop growth and yield when agricultural crops
are grown close to

eucalypts (Kidanu et al., 2004, 2005; Jagger and Pender, 2003; Chanie et al.,2013 Jiregna G,
2003). Eucalypts

have been reported to cause crop loss by outcompeting crops for water and soil nutrients
(Michelsen et al., 1993;

Jiregna Gindaba, 2003), through shading (Chanie et al., 2013) and producing
allelochemicals (Lisanework and

Michelsen, 1993; Ahmed et al., 2008). Eucalyptus seedlings are vulnerable to severe
water stress unlike the
seedlings of indigenous deciduous tree species in Ethiopia (Gindaba et al., 2004). This
shows that Eucalyptus

trees need more water and compete with neighboring plants for the available water in the
soil.

Despite its greater importance and the potential for Eucalyptus to improve rural livelihoods
and national

development initiatives, E.globulus is undermined by several scientists and communities

related to the belief that

“there are significant negative environmental externalities associated with Eucalyptus

trees” (Zhang and Fu,

2009; Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Most criticisms are based on a range of technical, ecological and
socio-economic

arguments (FAO, 1988). According to Chin Ong. (2006), fears that Eucalyptus will deplete
water supply, affect

wildlife habitats and soil fertility in undesirable ways, and cause soil erosion seem to be
valid in arid and semi-

arid lands. And one may add that effects of climate change along with an increased scarcity
of water resources,

locally, do not militate in favor of the Eucalyptus. The same author indicates that fears that it
will affect wet zone

biodiversity adversely appear unfounded.

The major factors driving farmers to plant Eucalyptus are: increasing demand for wood
products in the

market, the unavailability of wood on farm, high rate of biomass production, ease to
cultivate and wider

adaptability, non-palatability to livestock (Mekonnen et al. 2007). Other recent evidence

from the literature

suggests that Eucalyptus may not always have negative effects on topsoil retention and soil
nutrient availability.
If planted properly, for example, Eucalyptus can act as shelterbelts for crops (Zegeye, 2010;
Jagger and Pender,

2003).

Even though there has been concern among users, growers, stakeholders, scientists and
farmers that,

Eucalyptus trees are affecting ecosystem negatively and positively. The environmental
impacts and ecological

services of Eucalyptus trees have been studied only to limited extents in Ethiopia and Africa.
Therefore, the main

objective of this review paper is to highlight the socio-economic benefit and

environmental Impacts of

Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus products and services

Eucalyptus is an excellent tree for producing quality short fibre, vegetable coal and non-
forest products (FAO,

2002). In Ethiopia and Rwanda smallholder farmers grow Eucalyptus mainly for fuel
wood, poles, furniture

making, and construction wood and farm implements. Eucalyptus trees are suitable for
two key functions in

Ethiopia, both urban and rural households: namely the household fuel wood needs and
for construction of

economic housing and fencing (Amare, 2002). According to Nduwamungu et al. (2007), in
Rwanda smallholder

farmers produce charcoal and lumber which are not widely known in Ethiopia.

Some of the known products and services of Eucalyptus are shown in (Table 1).
Eucalyptus can be

used for plywood, telephone transmission poles, fuel wood power and pulp, timber,
medicine, building and
fencing posts, rails, tannin, perfumery and environmental conservation; honey production
(FAO, 1979; Davidson,

1989; Pohjonen and Pukkala, 1990; Jagger and Pender 2000; Teketay, 2000; Amare 2002;
Zerfu, 2002; Hailu et

al., 2003; Oballa, 2005; Mekonnen et al., 2007, Nduwamungu et al., 2007; FAO, 2009;
Gebrekidan et al., 2012;

Jaleta et al., 2016).

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Table 1: some of the known products and services of Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus products

and services

Descriptions

Products

Plywood There are few plywood plants using Eucalyptus in Ethiopia

Transmission poles Almost all power and telephone lines especially in Ethiopia use
Eucalyptus

transmission poles

Lumber It is only in Rwanda where lumber is produced commercially. However, household

level pitsaw is practiced in Ethiopia

Fuel wood The most important benefit of Eucalyptus in all East African countries is
household

energy

Perfumery Few commercial distillers exist in Ethiopia where essential oil is produced from
the

leaves of E. globulus and E. citriodora

Rails Eucalyptus was important in the Kenyan and Ugandan rail way construction

Building and fencing

posts

Almost all wooden houses and wooden fences are built from Eucalyptus in Ethiopia

Scaffolding The construction boom in East Africa including skyscrapers, bridges, dams and

roads use Eucalyptus scaffolding

Pulp There is no commercial pulp production from Eucalyptus in East Africa

Tannin This is not a well-known product in east African countries

Medicine Eucalyptus is used as a medicine at household and community scale in Ethiopia E.

globulus leaves are used to treat common cold and flus

Honey production Eucalyptus flowers pollen are important bee forage in east Africa
(Ethiopia and

Rwanda)

Ecosystem services

Environmental

conservation

Eucalyptus trees are planted for gully stabilizations, soil conservation and road
embankments strengthening

Nurse tree Experiences in Ethiopia showed that some indigenous trees such as Juniperus

procera, Podocarpus falcatus can regenerate well under Eucalyptus stands

Socioeconomic services

Livelihood Contribute positively to income/food security. Growing of Eucalyptus is

considered

a growers green bank account

Economic Eucalyptus is a high value cash crop. In Ethiopia about 25% of farmers income is

from Eucalyptus

Social significance Owning Eucalyptus stand is considered a sign of affluence/wealth

Access to credit In Rwanda eucalypts stands are recognized as collateral to borrow money
from

banks

Land tenure Farmers plant eucalypts to ensure land tenure security in case of dispute or if the

landowner cannot cultivate the land for some reason

Sources: FAO, 1979; Davidson, 1989; Pohjonen and Pukkala 1990; Jagger and Pender 2000;
Teketay, 2000;

Amare 2002; Zerfu, 2002; Hailu et al., 2003; Oballa, 2005; Mekonnen et al., 2007,
Nduwamungu et al., 2007;

FAO, 2009; Gebrekidan et al., 2012; Jaleta et al., 2016.

Socio-economic Benefit of Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus has numerous required socio-economic benefits including employment, security

and financial benefit.
Eucalyptus plantation forestry has played and continues to play significant role in improving
the livelihoods of

rural communities, poverty reduction and reducing the pressure from remnant native
forests in the highlands of

Ethiopia (Tadele et al., 2014). According to the study by (Mekonnen et al., 2007), the income
from Eucalyptus

contributes up to 72% of total household annual cash income for poor household in central
highland of Ethiopia.

The income generated from Eucalyptus sale can be used to buy food and other household
expenses. Similarly,

the fuel wood that is used for household consumption was not converted to price, but it has
significant impact on

poverty reduction and women empowerment. In most rural areas of Ethiopia women
took their major time in

collecting fuel wood far places from their villages. Similarly, Kebebew and Ayele, (2010),
argued that assigning

12% of the land to Eucalyptus can increase the income from the land up to 90% and
reversely substituting the

Eucalyptus covered land by important crops such as teff and barley may reduce the income
from the land up to

125%. In general, practicing Eucalyptus planting as one land use besides other crops in the
available field could

improve the household income and contribute to poverty reduction straggle in Ethiopia.
Growing Eucalyptus has

significant economic benefit to the land user (Wirtu and Gong, 2000; Liu and li, 2010). The
cash obtained from

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Vol.6, No.19, 2016

130

Eucalyptus sale assist smallholder farmers to bridge the food shortage gab at
household level. As a result,

growing Eucalyptus at a farm level in a form of woodlot has become very common practice
among smallholder

farmers in rural parts of Ethiopia (Jagger and Pender. 2003). According to Hailu et al.,
(2003), Eucalypts are

highly preferred and appreciated by local people than other indigenous or exotic species,
which rarely present in

the landscape, because Eucalyptus perform a high biomass production and a rapid growth,
they produce valuable

construction poles and fuel-wood in a reasonable short period of time for the local market,
thus providing cash

income for local village communities. Because of the fuel wood shortage in some regions
litter (leaves, twigs,

bark etc.) is ranked by women and children and locally used for fuel or marketed. According
to Teketay, (2000),

Eucalyptus plantations on steep slopes can provide effective erosion control if careful
techniques such as contour

planting are used. This method has been successful in Nigeria where a humid climate favored
rapid site coverage

and production of large volumes of wood from E. hemiphloia and E. occidentalis have
been recommended for

control of erosion in these conditions.

The imbalance between supply and demand becomes extremely wide and in subsistence
households the
demand is fulfilled through over-exploitation of woody vegetation and any kind of
herbaceous materials in the

vicinity of the villages and households by using dung and crop residues as a substitute for
fuel-wood (Hailu et al.,

2003). In most areas of the country all parts of the Eucalyptus trees (stem, bark, branches,
leaves, and roots) are

harvested for daily livelihood activities (Figure 1).

Local marketing for Eucalyptus construction and wood

Figure 1: Some of socio-economic benefit of Eucalyptus (Hailu et al., 2003)

Environmental and industrial benefits of Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus plantation is not a natural forest nor is it an agricultural crop; it is a forest

crop which through its

functions acts in a similar way to a forest (ENCE, 2009). The environmental and
Industrial benefits of

Eucalyptus were showed in (Table 2). Eucalyptus has great industrial advantages which
make it a tree of

extraordinary value as a renewable raw material. As reported by (Du et al., 2015), Eucalyptus
is a fast-growing

forest tree with high potential biomass carbon sequestration. Since Eucalyptus has high
potential to sequester

carbon and therefore can mitigate climate change like Moringa oleifera and Bamboos
as stated by (Daba,

Transport of Eucaly
ptus litter to the

market

Local marketing for Eucalyptus fuel wood

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131

2016).The author appeared that, Moringa oleifera and Bamboo were fast growing and well
adapted to adverse

climate conditions and therefore high potential to sequester carbon and mitigating to climate
change.

Table 2: Environmental and Industrial benefits of Eucalyptus

Environmental benefits Industrial benefits

Due to its higher growth capacity and the density

of its wood, Eucalyptus is very efficient at

capturing CO 2, fixing carbon and generating oxy-

gen

• The mass effect means that forest plantations act as

the planet’s reserve oxygen tanks

• Its speedy growth and its renewal every 10 or 15

years mean that it fixes a greater amount of carbon

• Eucalyptus promotes biodiversity and eucalypt tus

plantations create new natural spaces

• A Eucalyptus plantation is not a natural forest but

because of its functions it acts in a similar way to a

forest

• Eucalyptus recovers degraded soils which are

unused or unusable

• Eucalyptus protects natural woodland

• Eucalyptus and its forest management reduce the

risk of forest fires.

Eucalyptus plantations create employment and

wealth in the rural medium. The land on which

wood is grown is owned by families.

• Eucalyptus stands out because of its many

industrial applications, which are profitable and

sustainable.

• Its forest production and the wood yield make

white Eucalyptus the most appropriate tree for

producing pulp and renewable energy.

• Eucalyptus implies quality at a lower cost in

manufacturing printing, writing and tissue paper.

• Eucalyptus is also used for other many industrial

and social uses, from manufacturing honey to

essential oils, to hunting and livestock on its

plantations, and leisure.

• The energy potential offered by Eucalyptus bio-

mass is an opportunity for economic and social

development.

Source: ENCE, 2009

Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus causes a number of environmental hazards like depletion of groundwater,

dominance over other

species by allopathic effects, loss of soil fertility and negative impacts on local food
security issues (Joshi and

Palanisami, 2011). Planting of Eucalyptus trees adjacent crop has effects on depletion of
the water table and

hydrological cycle. According to the report by FAO, (2009), among the criticisms against
eucalypts plantations

is that they promote a change in the local climate. This is because of their very high
evapotranspiration rate,

which drains water from the soil leading to a lower water table. This high
evapotranspiration rate is claimed to

adversely affect local rainfall levels, resulting in possible desertification of the area. The
hydrological impacts of

Eucalyptus are often displayed in terms of its runoff regulation, water uptake, canopy
interception, and soil
moisture depletion. According to (Jagger and Pender, 2000), there are both negative and
positive arguments in

literature about Eucalyptus (Table 3).

Table 3: Ecological effects of Eucalyptus

Effect Positive Negative

Biomass production Planting fast growing Eucalyptus may be

one of the best short-term options for the

provision of critically required biomass

Land scarcity may be a constraint to wide-scale

tree planting, however wasteland and degraded

land in good supply

Effects on soils, nutrient

depletion and topsoil

retention

On degraded hillsides and wastelands the

net soil nutrient contribution of Eucalyptus

through leaf litter is likely to be positive

Eucalyptus trees deplete soil nutrients needed by

agricultural crops, however the spatial magnitude

of depletion is not known

Good potential for topsoil retention on

degraded hillside

The ability of Eucalyptus to provide organic

matter is questionable

Allelopathic effects Rainfall may decrease or negate the

allelopathic effects of trees on crop

Allelochemicals negatively influence agricultural

production and are a more significant factor in dry

regions

Hydrological impacts In regions with erratic and severe rainfall

the ability to take up large quantities of

water may reduce runoff, flooding and

water logging

Eucalyptus may complete water away from

agricultural crops decreasing agricultural output as

far as 10 meters away from where trees are

planted

On previously barren slopes, tree cover may

reduce erosion and gully formation caused

by rainfall

Wide scale hydrological impacts are uncertain

Resistance to pests,

pathogens and random

disturbances

Some species of Eucalyptus have avoided

attack from some commonly observed

insect pests and are unpalatable to livestock

Pests and pathogens may migrate to unaffected

regions causing medium-term losses

Some species are drought, flood and fire

resistant

Non-palatability of leaves to livestock is

problematic for farmers who require livestock

fodder.

Source: Jagger and Pender, 2000

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Impacts of Eucalyptus on Agricultural Crop Production

There is no adequate scientific evidence regarding reclamation of farmlands planted

with Eucalyptus for

agricultural crop production. Many research conducted so far mainly focused on reduction
in crop growth and

yield when eucalypt trees are grown on or close to farmlands ( Jagger and Pender, 2003;
Chanie et al., 2013).

There has been also fear of crop loss owing to the perceived long-term site
deterioration allegedly caused by

Eucalyptus (Jiregna, 2006). Eucalyptus caused crop yield reduction due to nutrient depletion
and production of

toxic exudates (allelochemicals) (EI-Amin et al. 2001). Experimentally, it was proven that
the poor
performances of the adjacent plants, particularly maize and undergrowth plants were
due to light, water and

nutrients (total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable calcium) competition and
soil water repellency

(Chanie et al., 2013). In areas where there are crops nearby, this can make Eucalyptus a
problematic competitor.

For instance, (Chanie et al., 2013) found that Eucalyptus decreased both soil nutrients and
crop (maize) yield up

to 20 m away from the Eucalyptus trees in the Lake Tana plain of Ethiopia, and additionally,
soil hydrophobicity

(water repellency) became a problem.

Impacts of Eucalyptus on Water Resource

There is limited evidence regarding the impacts of Eucalyptus on water. Water scarcity is an
increasingly severe

problem across the developing world, with many countries in East Africa already
experiencing severe water

scarcity (Jagger and Pender, 2000). Certain trees that are integrated into agricultural
systems can increase the

efficiency of water use, while plantations of fast-growing trees like Eucalyptus trees can
exacerbate the problem

of water shortages. It is claimed that Eucalyptus trees absorb more water from the soil than
any other tree species.

The results of research on the water use and water balance effects of trees in Kenya
shows that, Eucalyptus

consumes more water, especially during its early growing stages compared to pinus
species (Dye and Bosch,

2000).
Eucalyptus is a well-known forest species of high water uptake ranging from 50 Lt/d/plant to
even 90

Lt/d/plant, depending upon the adequacy of supply (Joshi and Palanisami, 2011). But, it is
also reported that, in

stress situation, its roots can grow even up to 20-30 feet and extract more water. The leaf area
of the Eucalyptus

plants is also another important factor affecting the rate of water consumption. The study by
Hatton et al. (1998)

concluded that there was a strong linear relationship between tree leaf area and mean daily
water use for a wide

range of Eucalyptus species grown under similar climatic conditions. Eucalyptus trees
also take up a great

amount of water from the soil and as a result can affect water availability, competing
with crops and other

vegetation for water and depleting the water table (Zegeye, 2010; Dessie and Erkossa,
2011; Palmberg, 2002;

Jagger and Pender, 2003). Their high water requirements and deep root systems can
give them a relative

advantage over other plants in terms of water usage, which can be particularly damaging if
Eucalyptus trees are

planted in arid regions (Palmberg, 2002; Jagger and Pender, 2003).

Ethiopian farmers across the country blaming Eucalyptus plantations. This is due to its
impact on the

water availability and crop production. This was observed during field visit and other research
work across the

region like Oromiya (East Wollega and West Shewa), Amhara (Bahirdar) and Tigray
(Gergera and Abreha

Weatsbha). For example, farmers in the East Wollega (Diga) and West Shewa (Tulu
kosoru) believe that
Eucalyptus plantations around agricultural land and water sources significantly affect the flow
rate of springs and

reduced crop production. Some have witnessed that springs have disappeared due to
Eucalyptus plantation.

Consequently, the community banned any further plantation around water sources such
as ponds and springs.

However, in some instances, they are planting around degraded land and roadsides
areas for their livelihood

benefit. This was observed during the households’ survey to East Wollega and West
Shewa in Oromia, where

farmers plant Eucalyptus around agricultural land, river and roadsides areas for their
livelihood benefit (Figure

2). The community in this area explain that once Eucalyptus planted in any environments, its
grow very fast as

they get access to water throughout the years. Farmers claim that the profits that can be
gained from the sale of

the annually harvested Eucalyptus can outweigh what could have been obtained from the
same plot, if they were

to plant other crops.

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133

Figure 2: Planted Eucalyptus around agricultural land (Diga and Tulu kosoru area)

Source: Photo by Author, 2015

Impacts of Eucalyptus on Soil

The criticisms of the Eucalyptus are justified but, argue that only some species, mainly
the deep rooted types,

drain water resources, and that poor forestry practices, like high planting densities and short
crop rotations, are

primarily responsible for depletion of the soil’s nutrients, increased soil erosion, and
suppression of the

undergrowth (Dessie and Erkossa. 2011). The impacts of Eucalyptus species on soil health
remain hotly debated

among scientists and development practitioners (Palmberg, 2002; Jagger and Pender, 2003;
Yitaferu et al., 2013).

Fast growing and short rotation tree plantations such as Eucalyptus also use escalated
amounts of nutrients from

the soil in comparison to slow-growing species (Heilman and Norby, 1997; Dessie and
Erkossa, 2011).

Monoculture forest activities such as Eucalyptus plantations may further affect soil
chemical characteristics if

the organic litter is continuously raked, prohibiting nutrient recycling (Zewdie, 2008).

Soil quality and composition is a significant indicator of ecosystem health, and thus the
impacts of

smallholder Eucalyptus planting on agricultural land can have great implications for larger
development issues

such as food security (Wiebe, 2003 and Lal, 2007). The potential negative impacts of
Eucalyptus plantations on

soil quality and other ecosystem services have been intensively studied. Studies conducted
across many tropical

and sub-tropical regions cite high demand for soil nutrients as an important drawback to
Eucalyptus plantations
(Bean and Russo, 1989; Harrington and Ewel, 1997; Kidanu et al., 2005). According to
FAO, (2009), reports

improper land use and soil management, which often leave the soil with less or no
vegetation, are often cited as

the major causes of soil quality deterioration. However, fast growing tree plantations
may also lead to soil

quality decline when they are poorly planned and not properly managed. The impact of tree
plantations upon soil

resources has been very much debated and there is no complete consolidated view, partly
due to the fact that the

impact is much dependent on variable site and forest conditions (Jagger and Pender, 2000).
Numerous research

reports were appeared on effects of Eucalyptus on soils in several countries over many years
(Malik and Fries,

1985; Poore and Fries, 1985; Lugo et al., 1990; Lemenih et al., 2004; Lemma, 2006; Kindu et
al., 2006a).

High rates of soil nutrient uptake in Eucalyptus spp. are due in part to the combined
effect of fast

growth and the inability to fix nitrogen (Zegeye, 2010); consequently in both the short and
long-term Eucalyptus

plantation establishment has been shown to have detrimental effects on soil quality and
fertility (Yirdaw, 2001;

Chanie et al., 2013). By degrading soils, Eucalyptus may render land less suitable for future
growth of crops and

natural forests alike (Palmberg, 2002).

In addition to soil fertility and nutrient content, Eucalyptus has been found to have impacts
on topsoil

retention and soil erosion (Poore and Fries, 1985; Sunder, 1993; Palmberg, 2002; Jagger
and Pender, 2003;
Dessie and Erkossa, 2011). Some studies have concluded that Eucalyptus can worsen soil
erosion as an indirect

result of frequent disturbance from repeated harvesting (Poore and Fries,1 985; Nyssen et al.,
2004).

Conclusion

Eucalyptus has rapidly expanded and it became the most planted tree species across
the world over the last

century. Foresters, users, growers and wood industries support its expansion looking at
its socio-economic

benefits. Socio-economic studies have shown that these plantations have acted as a buffer
against financial crisis

for many poor farmers on land unsuited to sustainable agriculture. In contrasts,

environmentalists and

researchers fear this for the perceived negative environmental impact.

The research reports conducted in Ethiopia and elsewhere show that the Eucalyptus are
among the most

preferred trees, as they grow fast and can survive in marginal environments. In the face of
growing economy and

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increased demand for wood products, Eucalyptus remains to be the desired species that
grows fast and produce
wood to at least meet the demand of wood for fuel, construction and furniture materials. In
contrast, its alleged

negative environmental impacts and inability to meet both necessary productive and
ecological services. Among

the worries of eucalypts trees may not adequately benefit mankind as trees, as they
may not always provide

quality wood, soil conservation and watershed, wildlife habitat and even recreational or
aesthetic values. The

Eucalyptus products and its environmental impact are greatly influenced by plantation sites
and management.

In General, impacts of Eucalyptus on the environmental and ecological services are: it

drains water

resources, enhances soil erosion, suppresses undergrowth, depletes the soil of its
nutrients, and cannot provide

habitat or food for native wildlife. On the other hand, Eucalyptus provides multiple
environmental and socio-

economic benefits: It is fast growing, requires minimal care, grows in wide ecological
zones and poor

environments, coppices after harvest, resists environmental stress and diseases, seeds are
easy to collect, store

and do not require pre-sowing.

Therefore, in order to avoid or minimize the Eucalyptus dilemmas; emphasis should be

given by

environmentalists, researchers and policy makers to support land users and growers in
selecting the appropriate

place of planting like degraded land; steep slopes; waterlogging area; roadside and
selection Eucalyptus tree

species and managing planted Eucalyptus trees; so that the environmental and ecological
impacts are minimized
and the socio- economic benefits of Eucalyptus were optimized.

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The Eucalyptus Dilemma: The Pursuit for Socio-economic Benefit

versus Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia

Mekonnen Daba

Oromia Agriculture Research Institutes, Bako Agricultural Research Center, Bako, Oromia,
Ethipia

Abstract
Eucalyptus is one of the most planted types of trees in the world, has been grown in
Africa and elsewhere for

over a century. The Ethiopia population is growing rapidly. The natural forest coverage
and native forest tree

species are decreasing in an alarming rate. There are many dilemmas among users,
growers, environmentalists,

researchers and policy makers on the ecological, socio-economic benefit and environmental
impacts Eucalyptus.

Ethiopia Farmers commonly plant eucalypts tree on their farmlands. Currently, growing
eucalypt trees is

becoming a great concern due to its socio-economic benefit and environmental impacts.In
Ethiopia, where there

are huge gaps between demand and supply of wood as a result of increasing
deforestation, the use of fast

growing plantation species such as eucalypts is unavoidable as they are preferred to

other species, because of

their peculiar features; these include they require minimum care, fast growth and good
quality of wood and

fibres, easy reproduction through seeds, coppice after harvested, grow in wide
ecological zones and poor

environments; resistant to environmental diseases and stress and generates

substantial income to rural and

urban households.On the other hand, Some of Eucalyptus impacts on the environment
are: adverse effects of

their leaf litter on soil humus, removal of too much water from farmlands, stream banks,
catchments areas and

underground water, heavy consumption of soil nutrients (deplete soil nutrients), failure to
provide food supplies

or adequate habitat for wildlife, inability to prevent soil erosion and inhibition of
growth of other plants.
Numerous study reports appeared that the benefits of Eucalyptus trees are far more
than its negative

impacts.Consequently, instead of complain whether to avoid plantation of Eucalyptus trees;

emphasis should be

given by the environmentalists, researchers and policy makers to support users and
growers of Eucalyptus in

selecting the appropriate place of plantation and species selection for the adequate
uses and management on

Eucalyptus planting, so that the environmental impacts are minimized and the socio-
economic benefits of

Eucalyptus were optimized. Therefore, this review paper briefly summarizes the socio-
economic benefit and

environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus trees.

Keywords: Eucalyptus Dilemma; Socio-economic benefit; Environmental Impacts; Ecological

effects

Introduction

Eucalyptus is the species most widely introduced overseas and is a long and ever green
tree from Myrtaceae

family (Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Eucalyptus, a genus of more than 500 species, has
become the most planted

genus of tree in the world (Teketay, 2000). The major Eucalyptus growing countries are: China
(170 million ha);

India (2.5 million ha); and Brazil (3.7 million ha) (Davidson, 1995; Stape et al., 2001; Stape,
2002; Liu and Li,

2010; ICFRE, 2010). In Africa, South Africa has the largest area under Eucalyptus
plantations of about half a

million hectares (Teketay, 2003). In Ethiopia the genus was introduced during the reign of
Emperor Menilek II
(1868-1907) in 1894/95 (Von Breitenbach, 1961). The purpose was to supply fuel wood and
construction timber

to the new and growing capital city, Addis Ababa. Species of the genus Eucalyptus (common
name Eucalyptus)

are widely planted all across Ethiopia including on large areas of land previously allocated
to food production

(Liang et al., 2016). In recent decades Eucalyptus has also increasingly been planted on lands
around and within

“church forests,” sacred groves of old-aged Afromontane trees surrounding Ethiopian

Orthodox Tewahido

churches. These revered holy sites have long been recognized for their cultural values
and also for their

ecosystem services including their potential to support species conservation and restoration,
as church forests are

some of the only remaining sanctuaries for many of Ethiopia’s indigenous and endemic
plant and animal

populations (Liang et al., 2016). Currently, it is estimated that, over 500000ha of the
land is covered by

Eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia (Abebe and Tadesse, 2014).

Nowadays in Ethiopia, the Eucalyptus continue to be planted and used by many farmers in
various ways:

mainly grown in small woodlots for building materials and fuel wood and charcoal making,
locally- they are also

found in shelterbelts, shady groves in and around the villages, churches and other dwellings;
they also constitute

a major source of honey and their leaves are traditionally used as a medicine to fight flu and
fever (E. globulus)

just to mention few products and services of the Eucalyptus to be considered as a major
multipurpose tree in
Ethiopia (Louppe and Denis, 2010). Several studies have been conducted on plantation
forest in Ethiopia in

relation with social, economic and environmental concerns (Luttge et al., 2002; Minda, 2004;
Abiyu et al., 2011;

Dessie and Erkossa, 2011).

In Ethiopia, Eucalyptus species are commonly integrated into the various farming
systems and their

planting has resulted in high economic profitability compared with agricultural use of land
for crop production

Journal of Natural Sciences Research

www.iiste.org

ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)

Vol.6, No.19, 2016

128

(Mulugeta, 2010). Farmers’ raised interest in eucalypt farm forestry has now caused for
conversion of croplands

into eucalypt woodlots (Dereje et al., 2012). However, the uncontrolled expansion of
eucalypts on productive

farmlands has raised great concern, particularly as eucalypts are claimed to have
detrimental effects on soil

productivity (El-khawas and Shehata, 2005; Forrester et al., 2006; Jiregna, 2006). Numerous
studies conducted

in the Ethiopia have shown reduction in crop growth and yield when agricultural crops
are grown close to

eucalypts (Kidanu et al., 2004, 2005; Jagger and Pender, 2003; Chanie et al.,2013 Jiregna G,
2003). Eucalypts

have been reported to cause crop loss by outcompeting crops for water and soil nutrients
(Michelsen et al., 1993;
Jiregna Gindaba, 2003), through shading (Chanie et al., 2013) and producing
allelochemicals (Lisanework and

Michelsen, 1993; Ahmed et al., 2008). Eucalyptus seedlings are vulnerable to severe
water stress unlike the

seedlings of indigenous deciduous tree species in Ethiopia (Gindaba et al., 2004). This
shows that Eucalyptus

trees need more water and compete with neighboring plants for the available water in the
soil.

Despite its greater importance and the potential for Eucalyptus to improve rural livelihoods
and national

development initiatives, E.globulus is undermined by several scientists and communities

related to the belief that

“there are significant negative environmental externalities associated with Eucalyptus

trees” (Zhang and Fu,

2009; Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Most criticisms a

Journal of Natural Sciences Research

www.iiste.org

ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)

Vol.6, No.19, 2016

127

The Eucalyptus Dilemma: The Pursuit for Socio-economic Benefit

versus Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia

Mekonnen Daba

Oromia Agriculture Research Institutes, Bako Agricultural Research Center, Bako, Oromia,
Ethipia
Abstract

Eucalyptus is one of the most planted types of trees in the world, has been grown in
Africa and elsewhere for

over a century. The Ethiopia population is growing rapidly. The natural forest coverage
and native forest tree

species are decreasing in an alarming rate. There are many dilemmas among users,
growers, environmentalists,

researchers and policy makers on the ecological, socio-economic benefit and environmental
impacts Eucalyptus.

Ethiopia Farmers commonly plant eucalypts tree on their farmlands. Currently, growing
eucalypt trees is

becoming a great concern due to its socio-economic benefit and environmental impacts.In
Ethiopia, where there

are huge gaps between demand and supply of wood as a result of increasing
deforestation, the use of fast

growing plantation species such as eucalypts is unavoidable as they are preferred to

other species, because of

their peculiar features; these include they require minimum care, fast growth and good
quality of wood and

fibres, easy reproduction through seeds, coppice after harvested, grow in wide
ecological zones and poor

environments; resistant to environmental diseases and stress and generates

substantial income to rural and

urban households.On the other hand, Some of Eucalyptus impacts on the environment
are: adverse effects of

their leaf litter on soil humus, removal of too much water from farmlands, stream banks,
catchments areas and
underground water, heavy consumption of soil nutrients (deplete soil nutrients), failure to
provide food supplies

or adequate habitat for wildlife, inability to prevent soil erosion and inhibition of
growth of other plants.

Numerous study reports appeared that the benefits of Eucalyptus trees are far more
than its negative

impacts.Consequently, instead of complain whether to avoid plantation of Eucalyptus trees;

emphasis should be

given by the environmentalists, researchers and policy makers to support users and
growers of Eucalyptus in

selecting the appropriate place of plantation and species selection for the adequate
uses and management on

Eucalyptus planting, so that the environmental impacts are minimized and the socio-
economic benefits of

Eucalyptus were optimized. Therefore, this review paper briefly summarizes the socio-
economic benefit and

environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus trees.

Keywords: Eucalyptus Dilemma; Socio-economic benefit; Environmental Impacts; Ecological

effects

Introduction

Eucalyptus is the species most widely introduced overseas and is a long and ever green
tree from Myrtaceae

family (Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Eucalyptus, a genus of more than 500 species, has
become the most planted

genus of tree in the world (Teketay, 2000). The major Eucalyptus growing countries are: China
(170 million ha);

India (2.5 million ha); and Brazil (3.7 million ha) (Davidson, 1995; Stape et al., 2001; Stape,
2002; Liu and Li,
2010; ICFRE, 2010). In Africa, South Africa has the largest area under Eucalyptus
plantations of about half a

million hectares (Teketay, 2003). In Ethiopia the genus was introduced during the reign of
Emperor Menilek II

(1868-1907) in 1894/95 (Von Breitenbach, 1961). The purpose was to supply fuel wood and
construction timber

to the new and growing capital city, Addis Ababa. Species of the genus Eucalyptus (common
name Eucalyptus)

are widely planted all across Ethiopia including on large areas of land previously allocated
to food production

(Liang et al., 2016). In recent decades Eucalyptus has also increasingly been planted on lands
around and within

“church forests,” sacred groves of old-aged Afromontane trees surrounding Ethiopian

Orthodox Tewahido

churches. These revered holy sites have long been recognized for their cultural values
and also for their

ecosystem services including their potential to support species conservation and restoration,
as church forests are

some of the only remaining sanctuaries for many of Ethiopia’s indigenous and endemic
plant and animal

populations (Liang et al., 2016). Currently, it is estimated that, over 500000ha of the
land is covered by

Eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia (Abebe and Tadesse, 2014).

Nowadays in Ethiopia, the Eucalyptus continue to be planted and used by many farmers in
various ways:

mainly grown in small woodlots for building materials and fuel wood and charcoal making,
locally- they are also

found in shelterbelts, shady groves in and around the villages, churches and other dwellings;
they also constitute
a major source of honey and their leaves are traditionally used as a medicine to fight flu and
fever (E. globulus)

just to mention few products and services of the Eucalyptus to be considered as a major
multipurpose tree in

Ethiopia (Louppe and Denis, 2010). Several studies have been conducted on plantation
forest in Ethiopia in

relation with social, economic and environmental concerns (Luttge et al., 2002; Minda, 2004;
Abiyu et al., 2011;

Dessie and Erkossa, 2011).

In Ethiopia, Eucalyptus species are commonly integrated into the various farming
systems and their

planting has resulted in high economic profitability compared with agricultural use of land
for crop production

Journal of Natural Sciences Research

Journal of Natural Sciences Research

www.iiste.org

ISSN 2224-3186 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0921 (Online)

Vol.6, No.19, 2016

127

The Eucalyptus Dilemma: The Pursuit for Socio-economic Benefit

versus Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus in Ethiopia

Mekonnen Daba

Oromia Agriculture Research Institutes, Bako Agricultural Research Center, Bako, Oromia,
Ethipia
Abstract

Eucalyptus is one of the most planted types of trees in the world, has been grown in
Africa and elsewhere for

over a century. The Ethiopia population is growing rapidly. The natural forest coverage
and native forest tree

species are decreasing in an alarming rate. There are many dilemmas among users,
growers, environmentalists,

researchers and policy makers on the ecological, socio-economic benefit and environmental
impacts Eucalyptus.

Ethiopia Farmers commonly plant eucalypts tree on their farmlands. Currently, growing
eucalypt trees is

becoming a great concern due to its socio-economic benefit and environmental impacts.In
Ethiopia, where there

are huge gaps between demand and supply of wood as a result of increasing
deforestation, the use of fast

growing plantation species such as eucalypts is unavoidable as they are preferred to

other species, because of

their peculiar features; these include they require minimum care, fast growth and good
quality of wood and

fibres, easy reproduction through seeds, coppice after harvested, grow in wide
ecological zones and poor

environments; resistant to environmental diseases and stress and generates

substantial income to rural and

urban households.On the other hand, Some of Eucalyptus impacts on the environment
are: adverse effects of

their leaf litter on soil humus, removal of too much water from farmlands, stream banks,
catchments areas and

underground water, heavy consumption of soil nutrients (deplete soil nutrients), failure to
provide food supplies
or adequate habitat for wildlife, inability to prevent soil erosion and inhibition of
growth of other plants.

Numerous study reports appeared that the benefits of Eucalyptus trees are far more
than its negative

impacts.Consequently, instead of complain whether to avoid plantation of Eucalyptus trees;

emphasis should be

given by the environmentalists, researchers and policy makers to support users and
growers of Eucalyptus in

selecting the appropriate place of plantation and species selection for the adequate
uses and management on

Eucalyptus planting, so that the environmental impacts are minimized and the socio-
economic benefits of

Eucalyptus were optimized. Therefore, this review paper briefly summarizes the socio-
economic benefit and

environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus trees.

Keywords: Eucalyptus Dilemma; Socio-economic benefit; Environmental Impacts; Ecological

effects

Introduction

Eucalyptus is the species most widely introduced overseas and is a long and ever green
tree from Myrtaceae

family (Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Eucalyptus, a genus of more than 500 species, has
become the most planted

genus of tree in the world (Teketay, 2000). The major Eucalyptus growing countries are: China
(170 million ha);

India (2.5 million ha); and Brazil (3.7 million ha) (Davidson, 1995; Stape et al., 2001; Stape,
2002; Liu and Li,

2010; ICFRE, 2010). In Africa, South Africa has the largest area under Eucalyptus
plantations of about half a
million hectares (Teketay, 2003). In Ethiopia the genus was introduced during the reign of
Emperor Menilek II

(1868-1907) in 1894/95 (Von Breitenbach, 1961). The purpose was to supply fuel wood and
construction timber

to the new and growing capital city, Addis Ababa. Species of the genus Eucalyptus (common
name Eucalyptus)

are widely planted all across Ethiopia including on large areas of land previously allocated
to food production

(Liang et al., 2016). In recent decades Eucalyptus has also increasingly been planted on lands
around and within

“church forests,” sacred groves of old-aged Afromontane trees surrounding Ethiopian

Orthodox Tewahido

churches. These revered holy sites have long been recognized for their cultural values
and also for their

ecosystem services including their potential to support species conservation and restoration,
as church forests are

some of the only remaining sanctuaries for many of Ethiopia’s indigenous and endemic
plant and animal

populations (Liang et al., 2016). Currently, it is estimated that, over 500000ha of the
land is covered by

Eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia (Abebe and Tadesse, 2014).

Nowadays in Ethiopia, the Eucalyptus continue to be planted and used by many farmers in
various ways:

mainly grown in small woodlots for building materials and fuel wood and charcoal making,
locally- they are also

found in shelterbelts, shady groves in and around the villages, churches and other dwellings;
they also constitute

a major source of honey and their leaves are traditionally used as a medicine to fight flu and
fever (E. globulus)
just to mention few products and services of the Eucalyptus to be considered as a major
multipurpose tree in

Ethiopia (Louppe and Denis, 2010). Several studies have been conducted on plantation
forest in Ethiopia in

relation with social, economic and environmental concerns (Luttge et al., 2002; Minda, 2004;
Abiyu et al., 2011;

Dessie and Erkossa, 2011).

In Ethiopia, Eucalyptus species are commonly integrated into the various farming
systems and their

planting has resulted in high economic profitability compared with agricultural use of land
for crop production

Journal of Natural Sciences Research

Eucalyptus is one of the most planted types of trees in the world, has been
grown in Africa and elsewhere for over a century. The Ethiopia population is growing
rapidly. The natural forest coverage and native forest tree species are decreasing in an
alarming rate. There are many dilemmas among users, growers, environmentalists,
researchers and policy makers on the ecological, socio-economic benefit and environmental
impacts Eucalyptus. Ethiopia Farmers commonly plant eucalypts tree on their farmlands.
Currently, growing eucalypt trees is becoming a great concern due to its socio-economic
benefit and environmental impacts.

In Ethiopia, where there are huge gaps between demand and supply of wood as a
result of increasing deforestation, the use of fast growing plantation species such as
eucalypts is unavoidable as they are preferred to other species, because of their peculiar
features; these include they require minimum care, fast growth and good quality of
wood and fibres, easy reproduction through seeds, coppice after harvested, grow in
wide ecological zones and poor environments; resistant to environmental diseases and
stress and generates substantial income to rural and urban households.On the other
hand, Some of Eucalyptus impacts on the environment are: adverse effects of their leaf
litter on soil humus, removal of too much water from farmlands, stream banks, catchments
areas and underground water, heavy consumption of soil nutrients (deplete soil nutrients),
failure to provide food supplies or adequate habitat for wildlife, inability to prevent soil
erosion and inhibition of growth of other plants. Numerous study reports appeared that
the benefits of Eucalyptus trees are far more than its negative impacts.
Keywords: Eucalyptus Dilemma; Socio-economic benefit; Environmental Impacts; Ecological
effects

Introduction

Eucalyptus is the species most widely introduced overseas and is a long and ever green
tree from Myrtaceae family (Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Eucalyptus, a genus of more than 500
species, has become the most planted genus of tree in the world (Teketay, 2000). The major
Eucalyptus growing countries are: China (170 million ha); India (2.5 million ha); and Brazil (3.7
million ha) (Davidson, 1995; Stape et al., 2001; Stape, 2002; Liu and Li,

2010; ICFRE, 2010). In Africa, South Africa has the largest area under Eucalyptus plantations
of about half a million hectares (Teketay, 2003). In Ethiopia the genus was introduced during
the reign of Emperor Menilek II
(1868-1907) in 1894/95 (Von Breitenbach, 1961). The purpose was to supply fuel wood and
construction timber to the new and growing capital city, Addis Ababa. Species of the genus
Eucalyptus (common name Eucalyptus) are widely planted all across Ethiopia including on
large areas of land previously allocated to food production (Liang et al., 2016). In recent
decades Eucalyptus has also increasingly been planted on lands around and within

“church forests,” sacred groves of old-aged Afromontane trees surrounding Ethiopian

Orthodox Tewahido churches. These revered holy sites have long been recognized for
their cultural values and also for their ecosystem services including their potential to support
species conservation and restoration, as church forests are some of the only remaining
sanctuaries for many of Ethiopia’s indigenous and endemic plant and animal populations
(Liang et al., 2016). Currently, it is estimated that, over 500000ha of the land is covered
by Eucalyptus plantation in Ethiopia (Abebe and Tadesse, 2014). Nowadays in Ethiopia, the
Eucalyptus continue to be planted and used by many farmers in various ways: mainly grown in
small woodlots for building materials and fuel wood and charcoal making, locally- they are also
found in shelterbelts, shady groves in and around the villages, churches and other dwellings;
they also constitute a major source of honey and their leaves are traditionally used as a
medicine to fight flu and fever (E. globulus) just to mention few products and services of the
Eucalyptus to be considered as a major multipurpose tree in Ethiopia (Louppe and Denis,
2010). Several studies have been conducted on plantation forest in Ethiopia in relation
with social, economic and environmental concerns (Luttge et al., 2002; Minda, 2004; Abiyu et
al., 2011; Dessie and Erkossa, 2011).

In Ethiopia, Eucalyptus species are commonly integrated into the various farming
systems and their planting has resulted in high economic profitability compared with
agricultural use of land for crop production

caused for conversion of croplands into eucalypt woodlots (Dereje et al., 2012). However,
the uncontrolled expansion of eucalypts on productive

farmlands has raised great concern, particularly as eucalypts are claimed to have
detrimental effects on soil productivity (El-khawas and Shehata, 2005; Forrester et al., 2006;
Jiregna, 2006). Numerous studies conducted

in the Ethiopia have shown reduction in crop growth and yield when agricultural crops
are grown close to eucalypts (Kidanu et al., 2004, 2005; Jagger and Pender, 2003; Chanie et
al.,2013 Jiregna G, 2003). Eucalypts

have been reported to cause crop loss by outcompeting crops for water and soil nutrients
(Michelsen et al., 1993; Jiregna Gindaba, 2003), through shading (Chanie et al., 2013) and
producing allelochemicals (Lisanework and
Michelsen, 1993; Ahmed et al., 2008). Eucalyptus seedlings are vulnerable to severe water
stress unlike the seedlings of indigenous deciduous tree species in Ethiopia (Gindaba et al.,
2004). This shows that Eucalyptus

trees need more water and compete with neighboring plants for the available water in the soil.
Despite its greater importance and the potential for Eucalyptus to improve rural livelihoods and
national development initiatives, E.globulus is undermined by several scientists and
communities related to the belief that

“there are significant negative environmental externalities associated with Eucalyptus

trees” (Zhang and Fu, 2009; Rassaeifar et al., 2013). Most criticisms are based on a range of
technical, ecological and socio-economic arguments (FAO, 1988). According to Chin Ong.
(2006), fears that Eucalyptus will deplete water supply, affect wildlife habitats and soil fertility
in undesirable ways, and cause soil erosion seem to be valid in arid and semi-arid lands. And
one may add that effects of climate change along with an increased scarcity of water resources,
locally, do not militate in favor of the Eucalyptus. The same author indicates that fears that it
will affect wet zone

biodiversity adversely appear unfounded.

The major factors driving farmers to plant Eucalyptus are: increasing demand for wood products
in the market, the unavailability of wood on farm, high rate of biomass production, ease
to cultivate and wider adaptability, non-palatability to livestock (Mekonnen et al. 2007).
Other recent evidence from the literature suggests that Eucalyptus may not always have
negative effects on topsoil retention and soil nutrient availability. If planted properly, for
example, Eucalyptus can act as shelterbelts for crops (Zegeye, 2010; Jagger and Pender, 2003).
Even though there has been concern among users, growers, stakeholders, scientists and
farmers that, Eucalyptus trees are affecting ecosystem negatively and positively. The
environmental impacts and ecological services of Eucalyptus trees have been studied only to
limited extents in Ethiopia and Africa. Therefore, the main objective of this review paper is to
highlight the socio-economic benefit and environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus.
Eucalyptus products and services

Eucalyptus is an excellent tree for producing quality short fibre, vegetable coal and non-
forest products (FAO, 2002). In Ethiopia and Rwanda smallholder farmers grow Eucalyptus
mainly for fuel wood, poles, furniture

making, and construction wood and farm implements. Eucalyptus trees are suitable for
two key functions in Ethiopia, both urban and rural households: namely the household
fuel wood needs and for construction of economic housing and fencing (Amare, 2002).
According to Nduwamungu et al. (2007), in Rwanda smallholder farmers produce charcoal and
lumber which are not widely known in Ethiopia. Some of the known products and services
of Eucalyptus are shown in (Eucalyptus can be used for plywood, telephone transmission
poles, fuel wood power and pulp, timber, medicine, buildin and fencing posts, rails, tannin,
perfumery and environmental conservation; honey production Gebrekidan et al., 2012;

Rails Eucalyptus was important in the Kenyan and Ugandan rail way construction Building and
fencing posts .Almost all wooden houses and wooden fences are built from Eucalyptus in
Ethiopia Scaffolding The construction boom in East Africa including skyscrapers, bridges, dams
and roads use Eucalyptus scaf foldingPulp There is no commercial pulp production from
Eucalyptus in East Africa Tannin This is not a well-known product in east African countries
Medicine Eucalyptus is used as a medicine at household and community scale in Ethiopia E.
globulus leaves are used to treat common cold and flus Honey production Eucalyptus flowers
pollen are important bee forage in east Africa (Ethiopia and Rwanda)

Environmental conservation
Eucalyptus trees are planted for gully stabilizations, soil conservation and road

embankments strengthening .Nurse tree Experiences in Ethiopia showed that some indigenous
trees such as Juniperus procera, Podocarpus falcatus can regenerate well under Eucalyptus
stands

Socio economic services

Livelihood Contribute positively to income/food security. Growing of Eucalyptus is considered a

growers green bank account .Economic Eucalyptus is a high value cash crop. In Ethiopia about
25% of farmers income is from Eucalyptus Social significance Owning Eucalyptus stand is
considered a sign of affluence/wealth Access to credit In Rwanda eucalypts stands are
recognized as collateral to borrow money from banks Land tenure Farmers plant eucalypts to
ensure land tenure security in case of dispute or if the landowner cannot cultivate the land for
some reason

Socio-economic Benefit of Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus has numerous required socio-economic benefits including employment, security and
financial benefit. Eucalyptus plantation forestry has played and continues to play significant role
in improving the livelihoods of

rural communities, poverty reduction and reducing the pressure from remnant native forests
in the highlands of Ethiopia (Tadele et al., 2014). According to the study by (Mekonnen et al.,
2007), the income from Eucalyptus contributes up to 72% of total household annual cash
income for poor household in central highland of Ethiopia. The income generated from
Eucalyptus sale can be used to buy food and other household expenses. Similarly, the fuel
wood that is used for household consumption was not converted to price, but it has significant
impact on poverty reduction and women empowerment. In most rural areas of Ethiopia
women took their major time in collecting fuel wood far places from their villages. Similarly,
Kebebew and Ayele, (2010), argued that assigning 12% of the land to Eucalyptus can increase
the income from the land up to 90% and reversely substituting the Eucalyptus covered land
by important crops such as teff and barley may reduce the income from the land up to 125%.
In general, practicing Eucalyptus planting as one land use besides other crops in the available
field could improve the household income and contribute to poverty reduction straggle in
Ethiopia. Growing Eucalyptus has significant economic benefit to the land user Eucalyptus sale
assist smallholder farmers to bridge the food shortage gab at household level. As a
result, growing Eucalyptus at a farm level in a form of woodlot has become very common
practice among smallholder
farmers in rural parts of Ethiopia (Jagger and Pender. 2003). According to Hailu et al.,
(2003), Eucalypts are highly preferred and appreciated by local people than other indigenous or
exotic species, which rarely present in the landscape, because Eucalyptus perform a high
biomass production and a rapid growth, they produce valuable construction poles and fuel-
wood in a reasonable short period of time for the local market, thus providing cash income
for local village communities. Because of the fuel wood shortage in some regions litter
(leaves, twigs, bark etc.) is ranked by women and children and locally used for fuel or marketed.
According to Teketay, (2000), Eucalyptus plantations on steep slopes can provide effective
erosion control if careful techniques such as contour planting are used. This method has been
successful in Nigeria where a humid climate favored rapid site coverage and production of large
volumes of wood from E. hemiphloia and E. occidentalis have been recommended for
control of erosion in these conditions.

The imbalance between supply and demand becomes extremely wide and in subsistence
households the demand is fulfilled through over-exploitation of woody vegetation and any
kind of herbaceous materials in the vicinity of the villages and households by using dung and
crop residues as a substitute for fuel-wood (Hailu et al., 2003). construction poles and fuel-
wood in a reasonable short period of time for the local market, thus providing cash income
for local village communities. Because of the fuel wood shortage in some regions litter
(leaves, twigs, bark etc.) is ranked by women and children and locally used for fuel or marketed.
According to Teketay, (2000),

Eucalyptus plantations on steep slopes can provide effective erosion control if careful
techniques such as contour planting are used. This method has been successful in Nigeria where
a humid climate favored rapid site coverage

and production of large volumes of wood from E. hemiphloia and E. occidentalis have been
recommended for control of erosion in these conditions. The imbalance between supply and
demand becomes extremely wide and in subsistence households the demand is fulfilled
through over-exploitation of woody vegetation and any kind of herbaceous materials in the
vicinity of the villages and households by using dung and crop residues as a substitute for fuel-
wood (Hailu et al., 2003).

In most areas of the country all parts of the Eucalyptus trees (stem, bark, branches, leaves, and
roots.

Benefits of eucalyptus

The mass effect means that forest plantations act as

the planet’s reserve oxygen tanks Its speedy growth and its renewal every 10 or
Eucalyptus promotes biodiversity and eucalypt tus

plantations create new natural spaces A Eucalyptus plantation is not a natural forest but
because of its functions it acts in a similar way to a

forest Eucalyptus recovers degraded soils which are unused or unusable Eucalyptus protects
natural woodland Eucalyptus and its forest management reduce the risk of forest fires.
Eucalyptus plantations create employment and

wealth in the rural medium. The land on which

wood is grown is owned by families.Eucalyptus stands out because of its many

industrial applications, which are profitable and sustainable. Its forest production and the wood
yield make white Eucalyptus the most appropriate tree for producing pulp and renewable
energy. Eucalyptus implies quality at a lower cost in manufacturing printing, writing and tissue
paper. Eucalyptus is also used for other many industrial and social uses, from manufacturing
honey to

essential oils, to hunting and livestock on its plantations, and leisure. The energy potential
offered by Eucalyptus bio-mass is an opportunity for economic and social development.

Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus causes a number of environmental hazards like depletion of groundwater,

dominance over other species by allopathic effects, loss of soil fertility and negative impacts
on local food security issues (Joshi and Palanisami, 2011). Planting of Eucalyptus trees
adjacent crop has effects on depletion of the water table and hydrological cycle. According
to the report by FAO, (2009), among the criticisms against eucalypts plantations

is that they promote a change in the local climate. This is because of their very high
evapotranspiration rate, which drains water from the soil leading to a lower water table. This
high evapotranspiration rate is claimed to

adversely affect local rainfall levels, resulting in possible desertification of the area. The
hydrological impacts of Eucalyptus are often displayed in terms of its runoff regulation,
water uptake, canopy interception, and soil

moisture depletion. According to (Jagger and Pender, 2000), there are both negative and
positive arguments in literature about Eucalyptus Biomass production Planting fast growing
Eucalyptus may be one of the best short-term options for the provision of critically required
biomass Land scarcity may be a constraint to wide-scale tree planting, however wasteland and
degraded land in good supply Effects on soils, nutrient. Depletion and topsoil retention On
degraded hillsides and wastelands the net soil nutrient contribution of Eucalyptus through leaf
litter is likely to be positive Eucalyptus trees deplete soil nutrients needed by water logging
Eucalyptus may complete water away fro agricultural crops decreasing agricultural output as far
as 10 meters away from

resistan.

Impacts of Eucalyptus on Agricultural Crop Production

There is no adequate scientific evidence regarding reclamation of farmlands planted with

Eucalyptus for agricultural crop production. Many research conducted so far mainly focused
on reduction in crop growth and

yield when eucalypt trees are grown on or close to farmlands ( Jagger and Pender, 2003;
Chanie et al., 2013). There has been also fear of crop loss owing to the perceived long-
term site deterioration allegedly caused by

Eucalyptus (Jiregna, 2006). Eucalyptus caused crop yield reduction due to nutrient depletion
and production of toxic exudates (allelochemicals) (EI-Amin et al. 2001). Experimentally, it
was proven that the poor performances of the adjacent plants, particularly maize and
undergrowth plants were due to light, water and nutrients (total nitrogen, available
phosphorus and exchangeable calcium) competition and soil water repellency

(Chanie et al., 2013). In areas where there are crops nearby, this can make Eucalyptus a
problematic competitor. For instance, (Chanie et al., 2013) found that Eucalyptus decreased
both soil nutrients and crop (maize) yield up

to 20 m away from the Eucalyptus trees in the Lake Tana plain of Ethiopia, and additionally, soil
hydrophobicity .

Impacts of Eucalyptus on Water Resource

There is limited evidence regarding the impacts of Eucalyptus on water. Water scarcity is an
increasingly severe problem across the developing world, with many countries in East
Africa already experiencing severe water scarcity (Jagger and Pender, 2000). Certain trees
that are integrated into agricultural systems can increase the efficiency of water use, while
plantations of fast-growing trees like Eucalyptus trees can exacerbate the problem

of water shortages. It is claimed that Eucalyptus trees absorb more water from the soil than any
other tree species. The results of research on the water use and water balance effects of
trees in Kenya shows that, Eucalyptus

consumes more water, especially during its early growing stages compared to pinus species
(Dye and Bosch, 2000).

Eucalyptus is a well-known forest species of high water uptake ranging from 50 Lt/d/plant to
even 90 Lt/d/plant, depending upon the adequacy of supply (Joshi and Palanisami, 2011). But,
it is also reported that, in stress situation, its roots can grow even up to 20-30 feet and extract
more water. The leaf area of the Eucalyptus plants is also another important factor affecting the
rate of water consumption. The study by Hatton et al. (1998) concluded that there was a strong
linear relationship between tree leaf area and mean daily water use for a wide range of
Eucalyptus species grown under similar climatic conditions. Eucalyptus trees also take up
a great amount of water from the soil and as a result can affect water availability,
competing with crops and other

vegetation for water and depleting the water table (Zegeye, 2010; Dessie and Erkossa,
2011; Palmberg, 2002; Jagger and Pender, 2003). Their high water requirements and
deep root systems can give them a relative

advantage over other plants in terms of water usage, which can be particularly damaging if
Eucalyptus trees are planted in arid regions (Palmberg, 2002; Jagger and Pender, 2003).
Ethiopian farmers across the country blaming Eucalyptus plantations. This is due to its
impact on the water availability and crop production. This was observed during field visit and
other research work across the region like Oromiya (East Wollega and West Shewa),
Amhara (Bahirdar) and Tigray (Gergera and Abreha Weatsbha). For example, farmers in
the East Wollega (Diga) and West Shewa (Tulu kosoru) believe that Eucalyptus plantations
around agricultural land and water sources significantly affect the flow rate of springs and
reduced crop production. Some have witnessed that springs have disappeared due to
Eucalyptus plantation. Consequently, the community banned any further plantation around
water sources such as ponds and springs.

However, in some instances, they are planting around degraded land and roadsides areas
for their livelihood

benefit. This was observed during the households’ survey to East Wollega and West
Shewa in Oromia, where
farmers plant Eucalyptus around agricultural land, river and roadsides areas for their
livelihood benefit (). The community in this area explain that once Eucalyptus planted in any
environments, its grow very fast as

they get access to water throughout the years. Farmers claim that the profits that can be
gained from the sale of

the annually harvested Eucalyptus can outweigh what could have been obtained from the same
plot, if they were

to plant other crops.

Source: Photo by Author, 2015

Impacts of Eucalyptus on Soil

The criticisms of the Eucalyptus are justified but, argue that only some species, mainly the
deep rooted types, drain water resources, and that poor forestry practices, like high planting
densities and short crop rotations, are

primarily responsible for depletion of the soil’s nutrients, increased soil erosion, and
suppression of the undergrowth (Dessie and Erkossa. 2011). The impacts of Eucalyptus species
on soil health remain hotly debated

among scientists and development practitioners (Palmberg, 2002; Jagger and Pender, 2003;
Yitaferu et al., 2013). Fast growing and short rotation tree plantations such as Eucalyptus also
use escalated amounts of nutrients from the soil in comparison to slow-growing species
(Heilman and Norby, 1997; Dessie and Erkossa, 2011). Monoculture forest activities such
as Eucalyptus plantations may further affect soil chemical characteristics if

the organic litter is continuously raked, prohibiting nutrient recycling (Zewdie, 2008). Soil
quality and composition is a significant indicator of ecosystem health, and thus the
impacts of smallholder Eucalyptus planting on agricultural land can have great implications
for larger development issues

such as food security (Wiebe, 2003 and Lal, 2007). The potential negative impacts of Eucalyptus
plantations on soil quality and other ecosystem services have been intensively studied. Studies
conducted across many tropical
and sub-tropical regions cite high demand for soil nutrients as an important drawback to
Eucalyptus plantations (Bean and Russo, 1989; Harrington and Ewel, 1997; Kidanu et al.,
2005). According to FAO, (2009), reports

improper land use and soil management, which often leave the soil with less or no vegetation,
are often cited as the major causes of soil quality deterioration. However, fast growing
tree plantations may also lead to soil

quality decline when they are poorly planned and not properly managed. The impact of tree
plantations upon soil resources has been very much debated and there is no complete
consolidated view, partly due to the fact that the

impact is much dependent on variable site and forest conditions (Jagger and Pender, 2000).
Numerous research reports were appeared on effects of Eucalyptus on soils in several countries
over many years (Malik and Fries,

High rates of soil nutrient uptake in Eucalyptus spp. are due in part to the combined
effect of fast growth and the inability to fix nitrogen (Zegeye, 2010); consequently in both the
short and long-term Eucalyptus

plantation establishment has been shown to have detrimental effects on soil quality and
fertility (Yirdaw, 2001; Chanie et al., 2013). By degrading soils, Eucalyptus may render land less
suitable for future growth of crops and

natural forests alike (Palmberg, 2002). In addition to soil fertility and nutrient content,
Eucalyptus has been found to have impacts on topsoil retention and soil erosion (Poore and
Fries, 1985; Sunder, 1993; Palmberg, 2002; Jagger and Pender, 2003; Dessie and Erkossa,
2011). Some studies have concluded that Eucalyptus can worsen soil erosion as an indirect

result of frequent disturbance from repeated harvesting (Poore and Fries,1 985; Nyssen et al.,
2004).

Conclusion

Eucalyptus has rapidly expanded and it became the most planted tree species across the
world over the last century. Foresters, users, growers and wood industries support its
expansion looking at its socio-economic

benefits. Socio-economic studies have shown that these plantations have acted as a buffer
against financial crisis for many poor farmers on land unsuited to sustainable agriculture.
In contrasts, environmentalists and researchers fear this for the perceived negative
environmental impact. The research reports conducted in Ethiopia and elsewhere show that the
Eucalyptus are among the most preferred trees, as they grow fast and can survive in marginal
environments. In the face of growing economy and increased demand for wood products,
Eucalyptus remains to be the desired species that grows fast and produce wood to at least
meet the demand of wood for fuel, construction and furniture materials. In contrast, its
alleged negative environmental impacts and inability to meet both necessary productive and
ecological services. Among

the worries of eucalypts trees may not adequately benefit mankind as trees, as they may
not always provide quality wood, soil conservation and watershed, wildlife habitat and even
recreational or aesthetic values. The

Recomendation

Eucalyptus products and its environmental impact are greatly influenced by plantation sites and
management. In General, impacts of Eucalyptus on the environmental and ecological
services are: it drains water resources, enhances soil erosion, suppresses undergrowth,
depletes the soil of its nutrients, and cannot provide habitat or food for native wildlife. On
the other hand, Eucalyptus provides multiple environmental and socio-economic benefits:
It is fast growing, requires minimal care, grows in wide ecological zones and poor
environments, coppices after harvest, resists environmental stress and diseases, seeds are
easy to collect, store

english conversation .

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Company

Environmental and Industrial benefits of Eucalyptus

Environmental benefits

Due to its higher growth capacity and the density

of its wood, Eucalyptus is very efficient at

capturing CO 2, fixing carbon and generating oxy-

gen

• The mass effect means that forest plantations act as

the planet’s reserve oxygen tanks

• Its speedy growth and its renewal every 10 or 15

years mean that it fixes a greater amount of carbon

• Eucalyptus promotes biodiversity and eucalypt tus

plantations create new natural spaces

• A Eucalyptus plantation is not a natural forest but

because of its functions it acts in a similar way to a

forest

• Eucalyptus recovers degraded soils which are

unused or unusable

• Eucalyptus protects natural woodland

• Eucalyptus and its forest management reduce the

risk of forest fires.

Eucalyptus plantations create employment and

wealth in the rural medium. The land on which

wood is grown is owned by families.

• Eucalyptus stands out because of its many

industrial applications, which are profitable and

sustainable.

• Its forest production and the wood yield make

white Eucalyptus the most appropriate tree for

producing pulp and renewable energy.

• Eucalyptus implies quality at a lower cost in

manufacturing printing, writing and tissue paper.

• Eucalyptus is also used for other many industrial

and social uses, from manufacturing honey to

essential oils, to hunting and livestock on its

plantations, and leisure.

• The energy potential offered by Eucalyptus bio-

mass is an opportunity for economic and social

development.

Source: ENCE, 2009

Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus

Eucalyptus causes a number of environmental hazards like depletion of groundwater,

dominance over other

species by allopathic effects, loss of soil fertility and negative impacts on local food security
issues (Joshi and

Palanisami, 2011). Planting of Eucalyptus trees adjacent crop has effects on depletion of
the water table and

hydrological cycle. According to the report by FAO, (2009), among the criticisms against
eucalypts plantations

is that they promote a change in the local climate. This is because of their very high
evapotranspiration rate,

which drains water from the soil leading to a lower water table. This high evapotranspiration
rate is claimed to

adversely affect local rainfall levels, resulting in possible desertification of the area. The
hydrological impacts of

Eucalyptus are often displayed in terms of its runoff regulation, water uptake, canopy
interception, and soil

moisture depletion. According to (Jagger and Pender, 2000), there are both negative and
positive arguments in

literature about Eucalyptus (Table 3).

Table 3: Ecological effects of Eucalyptus

Effect Positive Negative

Biomass production Planting fast growing Eucalyptus may be

one of the best short-term options for the

provision of critically required biomass

Land scarcity may be a constraint to wide-scale

tree planting, however wasteland and degraded

land in good supply

Effects on soils, nutrient

depletion and topsoil

retention

On degraded hillsides and wastelands the

net soil nutrient contribution of Eucalyptus

through leaf litter is likely to be positive

Eucalyptus trees deplete soil nutrients needed by

agricultural crops, however the spatial magnitude

of depletion is not known

Good potential for topsoil retention on

degraded hillside

The ability of Eucalyptus to provide organic

matter is questionable

Allelopathic effects Rainfall may decrease or negate the

allelopathic effects of trees on crop

Allelochemicals negatively influence agricultural

production and are a more significant factor in dry

regions

Hydrological impacts In regions with erratic and severe rainfall

the ability to take up large quantities of

water may reduce runoff, flooding and

water logging

Eucalyptus may complete water away from

agricultural crops decreasing agricultural output as

far as 10 meters away from where trees are

planted

On previously barren slopes, tree cover may

reduce erosion and gully formation caused

by rainfall

Wide scale hydrological impacts are uncertain

Resistance to pests,

pathogens and random

disturbances

Some species of Eucalyptus have avoided

attack from some commonly observed

insect pests and are unpalatable to livestock

Pests and pathogens may migrate to unaffected

regions causing medium-term losses

Some species are drought, flood and fire

resistant

Non-palatability of leaves to livestock is

problematic for farmers who require livestock

fodder.

Source: Jagger and Pender, 2000

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Impacts of Eucalyptus on Agricultural Crop Production

There is no adequate scientific evidence regarding reclamation of farmlands planted with

Eucalyptus for

agricultural crop production. Many research conducted so far mainly focused on reduction
in crop growth and

yield when eucalypt trees are grown on or close to farmlands ( Jagger and Pender, 2003;
Chanie et al., 2013).

There has been also fear of crop loss owing to the perceived long-term site deterioration
allegedly caused by

Eucalyptus (Jiregna, 2006). Eucalyptus caused crop yield reduction due to nutrient depletion
and production of

toxic exudates (allelochemicals) (EI-Amin et al. 2001). Experimentally, it was proven that
the poor

performances of the adjacent plants, particularly maize and undergrowth plants were due
to light, water and
nutrients (total nitrogen, available phosphorus and exchangeable calcium) competition and soil
water repellency

(Chanie et al., 2013). In areas where there are crops nearby, this can make Eucalyptus a
problematic competitor.

For instance, (Chanie et al., 2013) found that Eucalyptus decreased both soil nutrients and crop
(maize) yield up

to 20 m away from the Eucalyptus trees in the Lake Tana plain of Ethiopia, and additionally, soil
hydrophobicity

(water repellency) became a problem.

Impacts of Eucalyptus on Water Resource

There is limited evidence regarding the impacts of Eucalyptus on water. Water scarcity is an
increasingly severe

problem across the developing world, with many countries in East Africa already
experiencing severe water

scarcity (Jagger and Pender, 2000). Certain trees that are integrated into agricultural
systems can increase the

efficiency of water use, while plantations of fast-growing trees like Eucalyptus trees can
exacerbate the problem

of water shortages. It is claimed that Eucalyptus trees absorb more water from the soil than any
other tree species.

The results of research on the water use and water balance effects of trees in Kenya
shows that, Eucalyptus

consumes more water, especially during its early growing stages compared to pinus species
(Dye and Bosch,

2000).

Eucalyptus is a well-known forest species of high water uptake ranging from 50 Lt/d/plant to
even 90
Lt/d/plant, depending upon the adequacy of supply (Joshi and Palanisami, 2011). But, it is also
reported that, in

stress situation, its roots can grow even up to 20-30 feet and extract more water. The leaf area
of the Eucalyptus

plants is also another important factor affecting the rate of water consumption. The study by
Hatton et al. (1998)

concluded that there was a strong linear relationship between tree leaf area and mean daily
water use for a wide

range of Eucalyptus species grown under similar climatic conditions. Eucalyptus trees also
take up a great

amount of water from the soil and as a result can affect water availability, competing
with crops and other

vegetation for water and depleting the water table (Zegeye, 2010; Dessie and Erkossa,
2011; Palmberg, 2002;

Jagger and Pender, 2003). Their high water requirements and deep root systems can
give them a relative

advantage over other plants in terms of water usage, which can be particularly damaging if
Eucalyptus trees are

planted in arid regions (Palmberg, 2002; Jagger and Pender, 2003).

Ethiopian farmers across the country blaming Eucalyptus plantations. This is due to its
impact on the

water availability and crop production. This was observed during field visit and other research
work across the

region like Oromiya (East Wollega and West Shewa), Amhara (Bahirdar) and Tigray
(Gergera and Abreha

Weatsbha). For example, farmers in the East Wollega (Diga) and West Shewa (Tulu
kosoru) believe that

Eucalyptus plantations around agricultural land and water sources significantly affect the flow
rate of springs and
reduced crop production. Some have witnessed that springs have disappeared due to
Eucalyptus plantation.

Consequently, the community banned any further plantation around water sources such as
ponds and springs.

However, in some instances, they are planting around degraded land and roadsides areas
for their livelihood

benefit. This was observed during the households’ survey to East Wollega and West
Shewa in Oromia, where

farmers plant Eucalyptus around agricultural land, river and roadsides areas for their
livelihood benefit (Figure

2). The community in this area explain that once Eucalyptus planted in any environments, its
grow very fast as

they get access to water throughout the years. Farmers claim that the profits that can be
gained from the sale of

the annually harvested Eucalyptus can outweigh what could have been obtained from the same
plot, if they were

to plant other crops.

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Figure 2: Planted Eucalyptus around agricultural land (Diga and Tulu kosoru area)

Source: Photo by Author, 2015

Impacts of Eucalyptus on Soil

The criticisms of the Eucalyptus are justified but, argue that only some species, mainly the
deep rooted types,

drain water resources, and that poor forestry practices, like high planting densities and short
crop rotations, are

primarily responsible for depletion of the soil’s nutrients, increased soil erosion, and
suppression of the

undergrowth (Dessie and Erkossa. 2011). The impacts of Eucalyptus species on soil health
remain hotly debated

among scientists and development practitioners (Palmberg, 2002; Jagger and Pender, 2003;
Yitaferu et al., 2013).

Fast growing and short rotation tree plantations such as Eucalyptus also use escalated amounts
of nutrients from

the soil in comparison to slow-growing species (Heilman and Norby, 1997; Dessie and
Erkossa, 2011).

Monoculture forest activities such as Eucalyptus plantations may further affect soil
chemical characteristics if

the organic litter is continuously raked, prohibiting nutrient recycling (Zewdie, 2008).

Soil quality and composition is a significant indicator of ecosystem health, and thus the
impacts of

smallholder Eucalyptus planting on agricultural land can have great implications for larger
development issues

such as food security (Wiebe, 2003 and Lal, 2007). The potential negative impacts of Eucalyptus
plantations on

soil quality and other ecosystem services have been intensively studied. Studies conducted
across many tropical

and sub-tropical regions cite high demand for soil nutrients as an important drawback to
Eucalyptus plantations
(Bean and Russo, 1989; Harrington and Ewel, 1997; Kidanu et al., 2005). According to
FAO, (2009), reports

improper land use and soil management, which often leave the soil with less or no vegetation,
are often cited as

the major causes of soil quality deterioration. However, fast growing tree plantations may
also lead to soil

quality decline when they are poorly planned and not properly managed. The impact of tree
plantations upon soil

resources has been very much debated and there is no complete consolidated view, partly due
to the fact that the

impact is much dependent on variable site and forest conditions (Jagger and Pender, 2000).
Numerous research

reports were appeared on effects of Eucalyptus on soils in several countries over many years
(Malik and Fries,

1985; Poore and Fries, 1985; Lugo et al., 1990; Lemenih et al., 2004; Lemma, 2006; Kindu et al.,
2006a).

High rates of soil nutrient uptake in Eucalyptus spp. are due in part to the combined
effect of fast

growth and the inability to fix nitrogen (Zegeye, 2010); consequently in both the short and long-
term Eucalyptus

plantation establishment has been shown to have detrimental effects on soil quality and
fertility (Yirdaw, 2001;

Chanie et al., 2013). By degrading soils, Eucalyptus may render land less suitable for future
growth of crops and

natural forests alike (Palmberg, 2002).

In addition to soil fertility and nutrient content, Eucalyptus has been found to have impacts on
topsoil

retention and soil erosion (Poore and Fries, 1985; Sunder, 1993; Palmberg, 2002; Jagger
and Pender, 2003;
Dessie and Erkossa, 2011). Some studies have concluded that Eucalyptus can worsen soil
erosion as an indirect

result of frequent disturbance from repeated harvesting (Poore and Fries,1 985; Nyssen et al.,
2004).

Conclusion

Eucalyptus has rapidly expanded and it became the most planted tree species across the
world over the last

century. Foresters, users, growers and wood industries support its expansion looking at
its socio-economic

benefits. Socio-economic studies have shown that these plantations have acted as a buffer
against financial crisis

for many poor farmers on land unsuited to sustainable agriculture. In contrasts,

environmentalists and

researchers fear this for the perceived negative environmental impact.

The research reports conducted in Ethiopia and elsewhere show that the Eucalyptus are among
the most

preferred trees, as they grow fast and can survive in marginal environments. In the face of
growing economy and

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increased demand for wood products, Eucalyptus remains to be the desired species that
grows fast and produce
wood to at least meet the demand of wood for fuel, construction and furniture materials. In
contrast, its alleged

negative environmental impacts and inability to meet both necessary productive and ecological
services. Among

the worries of eucalypts trees may not adequately benefit mankind as trees, as they may
not always provide

quality wood, soil conservation and watershed, wildlife habitat and even recreational or
aesthetic values. The

Eucalyptus products and its environmental impact are greatly influenced by plantation sites and
management.

In General, impacts of Eucalyptus on the environmental and ecological services are: it

drains water

resources, enhances soil erosion, suppresses undergrowth, depletes the soil of its nutrients,
and cannot provide

habitat or food for native wildlife. On the other hand, Eucalyptus provides multiple
environmental and socio-

economic benefits: It is fast growing, requires minimal care, grows in wide ecological
zones and poor

environments, coppices after harvest, resists environmental stress and diseases, seeds are
easy to collect, store

and do not require pre-sowing.

Therefore, in order to avoid or minimize the Eucalyptus dilemmas; emphasis should be

given by

environmentalists, researchers and policy makers to support land users and growers in
selecting the appropriate

place of planting like degraded land; steep slopes; waterlogging area; roadside and
selection Eucalyptus tree

species and managing planted Eucalyptus trees; so that the environmental and ecological
impacts are minimized
and the socio- economic benefits of Eucalyptus were optimized.

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ACRONYM

FAO Food Agricultural Organization

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GOE Government of Ethiopia

CSA Central Statistical Agency

WW World wide

WFC World food conference

USAID US.Agncy for international development

IAASTD Assessment of agricultural knowledge ,science, and technology

for development

FSB Financial stability board

FFP Free food program

Table of Contents page

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 2

ACRONYM 3

ABSTRACT 9

1. INTRODUCTON 10

1.1. Background of the study 10

1.2 Statement of the Problem 11

1.3.1 General Objective of the study 11

1.3.2. Specific Objective of the study 11

1.4 Research Question 11

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study 11

1.6 Significance of the Study 12

1.7 Organization of the paper 12

2.1 Theoretical Review 13

2.1.1 Food Security Concepts and definition 13

2.1.2 Dimensions of Food Security 14

2.1.3 An analytical framework of food security states 15

2.2 Empirical Review 17

2.2.1 Determinants of Food Security 17

2.3 Coping Strategy 18

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 19

3.1 Description of Study Area19

3.1.1. Location, relief and climate 19

3.1.2. Agriculture and demographic characteristics of the study area 20

3.1.3 Institution services of the study area 20

3.2 Research design 21

3.3 Sampling method and sample size determination21

3.3.1 Sampling method 21

3.3.2 Sample size determination 22

3.4 Data type, Source and method of collection 22

3.4.1 Data type 22

3.4.2 Data source 22

3.4.3 Methods of Data Collection 23

3.5 Method of Data Analysis 23

4.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents 24

4.1.1 Age distribution of respondents. 24

4.1.2 Sex distribution of respondent 24

4.1.3 Marital status of respondent 25

4.1.4 Religious types of respondents 25

4.2 Food Security Status 26

4.2.1 Status of food supply 26

4.2.2 Crop production in the area 27

4.2.3 Meal taken /day 28

4.2.4 Family size 29

4.2.3 Land access 29

4.2.4 Agricultural input /fertilizer use31

4.2.5 Size of livestock32

4.3 Coping Strategy 33

5. Conclusion and recommendation 34

5.1. Conclusions 34

5.2 Recommendations34

APPENDIXE 38

Table 4. Religious distribution of respondents 19

Table 5.food supply status of respondent 20

Table 6.crop more produced by respondent 24

Table 7. Meal taken per day 25

Table 8.family size of the respondent 26

Table 9. Land ownership 27

Table 10. Input used by respondent 29

Table 11.size of livestock ownership 30

ABSTRACT

Food security is condition that exists when all people at all-time sufficient physical and
economic access to safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary need including food
preference in order to live health and active life (USAID, 2020) and FAO, 2020).The overall aim of
this study was to analyse determinants of food security and household copying strategy in
jabitehnan wereda of west gojjam zone. As a specific objective, this study assessed food security
status, identified determinants of food security and analysed coping strategies practiced by food
insecure households in the study area. A total of 450 households were selected randomly from
finte selam 02, kebele. Both primary and secondary data were collected for this study. Primary
data were collected by direct interview of sample respondents; whereas, secondary data was
collected from published and unpublished documents. Educational status of household head,
family size, farm input, sale of livestock, borrow grains, reduce size of meal, sale of fire wood
and charcoal, daily labourer, escaping of meal, engaged in petty trade and ate less preferred
food were identified as major coping strategies practiced by food insecure households. The
determinants of food security in the study of house hold head family size are level of the house
hold head, size of land accessed, size of livestock owned by house hold and agriculture input
used by house hold are factors that affect food security in study area. From the total households
interviewed, 430(95%) households were found to be users of farm inputs; such as fertilizer
herbicides insecticides, whereas, 20(5%) were non-users of farm inputs. Then user is productive
and secured. The Woreda agriculture office together with extension agent should prepare a
program for awareness creation for the farmers to use farm inputs in their land.

1. INTRODUCTON

1.1. Background of the study

Food security is condition that exists when all people at all-time sufficient physical and
economic access to safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary need including food
preference in order to live health and active life (USAID, 2020,and FAO, 2020).Food insecurity is
increasing in the world where 925 million people were undernourished. Out of them, about 900
million people were living in developing countries (FAO, 2019). More than 70% of these people
live in rural areas and depend, directly or indirectly, on agriculture for their living. The majority
of the developing countries invest in the agricultural sector due to which these households were
more vulnerable to price instability (IAASTD, 2020).

Agriculture is a key driver of Ethiopia’s long-term growth and food security. Agriculture directly
supports 85 percent of the population, constitutes 43 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP),
and 80 percent of export value. Nearly 16 percent of Government of Ethiopia (GOE) public
expenditures were committed to the sector (Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2018).
Agriculture is the predominant and an important economic sector in Ethiopia. Agriculture
contributes substantially to the overall Ethiopian economy (Bogal and Shimels, 2018). Ensuring
food security remains a key issue for the Government of Ethiopia. In order to combat threats of
famine and pervasive poverty and there by ensure food security for its population, the
government strategy has rested on increasing the availability of food grains through significant
investments in agricultural technologies. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO, 2019), 41 percent of the Ethiopian population lives below the poverty
line and more than 31 million people were undernourished.

Coping strategies is an indicator of household food security that is relatively simple and quick to
use, straight forward to understand and correlates well with more complex measures of food
security. A series of question about how manage of households to cope with a shortfall in a food
for consumption result in a simple numeric score. It is simplest form, monitoring change in the
coping strategies score indicates whether household food security status decline or improving.

The situation of Jabitehnan found is not an exception to the food insecurity problem. Therefore,
in order to comprehensively address the problem of food insecurity identify the major
determinants of food security becomes crucial.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Several studies in the past have indicate that people of Ethiopia have experience long periods of
food insecurity which may be ascribe to several factors which include occasional droughts and
also degradation of farm lands. These factors have limit the “physical, social and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food necessary to meet the dietary needs and food
preferences for leading an active and healthy life” for majority of the residents(D.O. Gilligan et
al, 20018).Land degradation coupled with unpredictable rainfall and drought cause a serious
threat on households’ food security in Ethiopia. Besides, overgrazing, improper cultivation
practices, mismanagement of land resource were the main causes for land degradation (Bill and
Melinda Gates Foundation, 2020).

Different factors aggravate the growing problem of food security. Among the major challenges
of food security in Ethiopia were backward agriculture, unstable weather, recurrent drought,
pests and disease, population pressure, weak institutional capacity, and inadequate
infrastructures and social services (FSB, 2019). our desire to know about food security concept
and measurement practically, to know food security status of the wereda do to these reason the
determinant of problem to study food security in rural house hold.

1.3 Objectives of the study

 1.3.1 General Objective of the study

TO analysis the determinants of household food security and copying strategies in study
area.

1.3.2. Specific Objective of the study

1. Assess food security status in the study area.

2. Identify the determinants of household food security in the study area.

1.4 Research Question

1. What does food security status look like in study area?

2. What are the major determinants of household’s food security in the study area?

1.5 Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study focus on identifying food security status, determinants of food security and coping
strategies practice by food insecure households were also assessing at different levels at the
time of food shortage. This study was conducted only on jabitehnan wereda. This study would
have been limited not only in area coverage but also time because of lack of budget, time and
other opportunity costs.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This study provides information that will enable effective measures to be undertaken so as to
improve food security status in the study area. The effective performance of this study is
essential to provide secondary data to other researchers to conduct further research on this
issue; provide information about the study area in relation to food security status, location,
farming system and other demographic data. This research is not only essential for the society
of that district but also for us to understand food security determinant, concept and
measurement clearly in addition to the course rural development and food security.

1.7 Organization of the paper

The study will be organized in five chapters. First chapter it contained the introduction part
deals with the background of the study, statement of the problem, objective of the study,
research question, significance of the study, scope and limitation and organization of the paper
(study).The second chapter deals with related literature review that consist of theoretical, and
empirical review and The third chapter is about methodology of the study, it consist of location,
relief and climate of the study area, Agricultural and Demographic characteristics of the study
area, institutional serves of the study area, research dings, sampling method, sample size
determination, data type, data source, data collection method and data analysis method. .
Fourth chapter deals with result and discussion and finally the fifth chapter is about conclusion
and recommendation will be presented.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Theoretical Review

2.1.1 Food Security Concepts and definition

Food is one of the most important basic of life. From the nutrition aspect of food stuffs were
two main kinds organic and inorganic the major source of food are plant and animal
(weldeghaber, k 2020).

Food security concepts originated in the mid-1970s during the international discussion on
global food crisis. The initial focus of food security attention was primarily on food supply
problems- of assuring the availability and to some degree the price stability of basic food stuffs
at the international and national level (Clay, 2016 and FAO, 2018). Since the World Food
Conference in 1974 due to food crises and major famines in the world, the term Food Security
was introducing, evolve, develop and diversify by different researchers. Food security and
insecurity are terms use to describe whether or not households have access to sufficient quality
and quantity of food. Food security issues gained prominence in the 1970s and have since been
given considerable attention. Food security perceives at the global, national, household and
individual levels. Food security at global level does not guarantee food security at the national
level. Moreover, food security at the national level does not guarantee food security at the
household or even the individual level (Duffour, 2018). Afterwards, worldwide observations of
different access to available food within nations shift interest and concern from food security
from the national to the household level. At the same time, the unit of analysis shift from the
global and national level to the household and individual level (Hart, 2018).food security is a
condition that exists when all people at all times have sufficient physical and economic access to
safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs including food preferences, in order to live
a healthy and active life (USAID, 2019). In the present study, food security is defined as
adequate availability of and access to food for households to meet the minimum energy
requirements as recommend by the Ethiopian government for an active and healthy life (Wali
and Penporn, 2018). ‘

2.1.2 Dimensions of Food Security

Acoring to (Jrad et al, 2019), elaborate on four dimensions of food security as

Food availability, food accessibility, food utilization and stability.

Food availability: refers to the physical presence of food which may come from own production,
purchases from internal market or import from overseas. (Gregory et al, 2018) explained that
food availability refers to the existence of food stocks for consumption. the same source
indicates that, availability refers to the physical existence of food, be it from own production or
on the markets. On national level food availability is a function of the combination of domestic
food stocks, commercial food imports, food aid, and domestic food production, as well as the
underlying determinants of each of these factors. Use of the term availability is often confusing,
since it can refer to food supplies available at both the household level and at a more aggregate
(regional or national) level. However, the term is applied most commonly in reference to food
supplies at the regional or national level.

Food access: Household food access is the ability to obtain sufficient food of guarantee and
quantity to meet nutritional requirements of all household members. Here, the food should be
at right place at the right time and people should have economic freedom or purchasing power
to buy adequate and nutritious food. (Kuwornu et al 2018]

Food utilization: this refers to ingestion and digestion of adequate and quality food for
maintenance of good health. This means proper biological use of food, requiring a diet that
contains sufficient energy and essential nutrients, as well as knowledge of food storage,
processing, basic nutrition and child care were and illness management (Jrad et al, 2018).
Stability of Food: refers to the continuous supply of adequate food all year round without
shortages (Jrad et al, 2019). To be food secure a population, household, or individual must have
access to adequate food at all times.

Fig1: four dimensions of food security

2.1.3 An analytical framework of food security states

Sustainable livelihood framework was utilized to analysed household food security status of the
study area. The framework was developed in line with the general definition of food security
mentioned above: availability, food access and utilization. Within the framework, five factors
determining household food security status were incorporated. These include the demographic,
bio-physical, productive asset/resources, infrastructural and socio-cultural factors (Figure 2).
The outcome of the study provided an understanding of whether the household in the study
area are food secure or not. The linkages and interactions between household food security
status and determining factors are briefly explained as follows:

Food availability addresses the households’ adequate supply of food and is determined by the
level of home production, purchase in the market or food transfer (Degefa, 2018)Food
availability can be affected by disruptions of food production due to bio-physical problems
(erratic rainfall distribution, recurrent drought, soil erosion, poor soil fertility, crop pest and
disease, and livestock disease), poor access to productive resources (farm size, oxen, skill, farm
and off-farm income, farm implements, modern farm input utilization) and demographic factors
(family size, sex and age of household) (Figure 1).

Food access is the way in which households acquire available food in different forms that
include home production, purchase in the market, borrowing, gifts from relatives/friends, and
provisions through relief systems or food aid, this can be determined by household productive
asset (farm size, oxen, skill, farm and off-farm income, farm implements, modern farm input
utilization), socio-cultural factors (saving habit and social support) and infrastructural factors
(access to road, rural credit, storage facility, extension services, irrigation practice and location
of market)

Food utilization is the way in which people consume their food . This can be determined by
demographic factors (educational level of household), sociocultural factors (eating habit,
food preferences, food rationing, social and religious ceremonies, nutritional knowledge
and health status) and infrastructural factors (water supply and health services)