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Handout 1:
UNDERSTANDING CURRICULUM (Part 1)

TOPICS:
1. What is curriculum?
2. What are the different forms of curriculum?
3. On what principles curriculum can be based from?

DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM

The word curriculum derives from the Latin currere meaning ‘a course to be run
for a certain goal’. This implies that one of the functions of a curriculum is to
provide a template or design which enables learning to take place.

Curricula usually define the learning that is expected to take place during a
course or programme of study in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes, they
should specify the main teaching, learning and assessment methods and provide
an indication of the learning resources required to support the effective delivery
of the course.

A curriculum is more than a syllabus. A syllabus describes the content of a

programme and can be seen as one part of a curriculum. Most curricula are not
developed from scratch and all operate within organisational and societal
constraints.
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Shubert (1985) discusses curriculum as content or the subject matter, curriculum

as program of planned activities, curriculum as intended learning outcomes,
curriculum as cultural reproduction, curriculum as experience, curriculum as
discrete tasks and concepts, curriculum as an agenda for social reconstruction,
and curriculum as currere.

Changing Images of Curriculum

For some people, a curriculum maybe an object for discussion in a classroom,

and for others, it is a process to be followed in the class. Some people consider
curriculum as an activity to be conducted in the class, and for others, it is the end
results achieved by the students at the end of the school year. For some people,
curriculum is static and more structured around a frame, and for others, it is ever
changing and dynamic with social, economic, and political milieu.

There are different views and different metaphors that define curriculum:

1. Curriculum as contents or the subject matter.

This metaphor seems a remarkably traditional metaphor of curriculum

that equates curriculum with the subject to be taught in schools (Shubert,
1985). Teachers/ educators prepare a list of contents laid out in a
structured frame in an order of contents from simple to complex, stating
prerequisites, assessment and grading policy. In school, such a
curriculum is more driven by the standards and textbooks. This image of
the curriculum has exclusive focus on the subject matters or topics to be
covered in classroom teaching and learning. It does not speak about
other noteworthy aspects such as child development and flexibility of the
learning environment. It looks like a structured plan with sequence of
contents.

2. Curriculum as a program of planned activities.

This metaphor focuses extensively on activities planned for classroom

delivery incorporating scope and sequence with balance of the subject
matter, teaching methods, materials, and activities. The planned
activities may range from annual plan, unit plan, lesson plan, activity
plan, and assessment plan. These plans are mostly structured around
some guidelines such as school/district guideline or curriculum
standards. This curriculum metaphor sounds to be a mechanical layout
of curriculum matters in advance of actual teaching and learning. In most
of the cases, we have to cope with situations in the classroom that we
cannot anticipate in advance, and these planned activities may not feet
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to the actual classroom context. There are over-emphases on what to

and how to do, and less or no emphases on how to develop.

3. Curriculum as intended learning outcomes.

This metaphor assumes that the curriculum should focus on the intended
learning outcomes shifting the emphasis from means to ends (Shubert,
1985). Shubert (1985) further states that “intended learning outcomes
are convenient ways to specify purposes in which sequence of learning
outcomes are set forth” (p. 28). The over emphases on only learning
outcomes puts many other outcomes that are not listed in the curriculum
under a shadow. Teachers consider only those outcomes listed the
expected learning outcomes in the form of the end results of teaching
and learning activities.

There are similar expectations from all the students despite their
background, cognitive levels, and ability to learn different contents. This
image of the curriculum brings all students in a racecourse without
considering where they begin but watching at where they end.

4. Curriculum as a cultural reproduction.

This image assumes that the school curriculum should be directly linked
to the cultural aspects, and it should reflect the culture within the school,
community, and the broader society. According to Shubert (1985), “the
job of schooling is to reproduce salient knowledge and values for the
succeeding generation” (p. 29). The students are not expected to look at
their society through a critical point of view but value its practices and
follow the same knowledge from generation to generation.

This image does not anticipate any radical changes in the society in
terms of conventions, rules, norms, and social and cultural values. This
kind of curriculum image portrays the curriculum in a relatively stable
society. This kind of practice is preferred to maintain the hierarchical
social order with all forms or structures of social classes with political and
social motive to maintain the status quo for some privileged group.

5. Curriculum as experience.

This metaphor assumes that the curriculum should be based on means-

ends continuum (Shubert, 1985). The epistemologists and philosophers
who consider this image of the curriculum as an important aspect of
education attend that experience is a bridge that connects means with
ends. For them, curriculum is a dynamic process of experiencing the
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sense of meaning what it is and its direction that depends upon

dialogical and dialectical interrelationship between teacher and students.
curriculum as personal experience and growth is exceptionally flexible.
Sometimes it is difficult to manage such a curriculum with a diverse
nature of students, their experiences, and priorities. Also, we don’t have
exact tool to assess students’ experiences, though we can understand
their experiences through reflective practices, but it is exceedingly
difficult to assess them. It is not possible to express all of our
experiences through language that we have. The feelings, emotions,
excitements, a sense of satisfaction, motivations, thinking, and deeper
abstractions cannot be expressed to other people in the same form as
we experience.

Development and implementation of curriculum based upon experiences

broadens the curriculum to an immensely wider scope that sometimes
teachers just feel overwhelmed, and impossible to consider it within the
scope of subject and classroom activities. However, it is a positive
aspect of this image that focuses on the productive and meaningful
learning experiences through curriculum.

6. Curriculum as discrete tasks and concepts.

This image assumes that the curriculum is simply a set of tasks to be

mastered (Shubert, 1985). The list of tasks or concepts in the curriculum
is influenced by the idea of banking curriculum in which teachers invest
their knowledge to the students. This kind of curriculum is highly
influenced by scientific management aspect, and it is more related to
training approaches in business and industry. It intends to change
behavior of students through the discrete tasks and concepts they
master in a highly mechanical way. The students are taken to the
process without knowing the meanings of what they are doing and why
they are doing.

7. Curriculum as an agenda for social reconstruction.

This image assumes that schools should not remain just passive follower
of social practices, but it should be an agent for social reconstruction.
Schools should teach students about various social ills making them
aware of both good and bad practices and motivate them to change or
reconstruct the social practices in order to create a more equitable and
just society. This image of the curriculum is influenced by critical school
of thought such as Frankfurt School. When curriculum is viewed and
planned from this perspective, it may consider that students to be
motivated to take a leadership role in order to end the social evils such
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as hunger, poverty, suppressions, oppressions, terrorism, wars, racism,

sexism, and many more that prevails all societies. These issues can be
incorporated in different disciplines with context.

However, it is difficult to carry this mission through schools because

schools do not run only by teachers, but there are many other
stakeholders who may not agree on such high mission of schools. Also,
school becomes a means of indoctrination of political thoughts or
philosophy that many parents or policy makers may not disagree.

8. Curriculum as currere.

This image assumes that a curriculum is like running of a race (Shubert,

1985). This image of the curriculum emphasizes individualism. Students
are encouraged to reconceptualize their individual differences and set a
goal for themselves based upon their past and present experiences.
Grumet (1980 as cited in Shubert, 1985) claims that the curriculum
becomes a way for reconceiving one’s perspective on life. It is about
developing an understanding of self and others. Students make a
decision about where to start, what is the process, where to go, and how
to go. Schools provide services to the students to reach their goal.
According to Shubert (1985), “curriculum is the interpretation of lived
experiences” (p. 33). This curriculum is extremely broad, and sometimes
the personal goal of students may not match with school, and even it
may be beyond the capacity of parents to provide support to achieve the
goals.

Students may develop an experience of helplessness and loneliness in

their endeavor that may lead to frustration, anxieties, and loss of
confidence. Letting students set their goal and run their race on their own
may develop a sense of accomplishments and feeling of self-respect.
But, if their goal is too ambitious, then the curriculum as currere can be a
source of psychological problems if students cannot meet the goals.
Teachers should be conscious about such individual student’s goal, and
they can lay a foundation through classroom discussions and
engagement in productive learning activities. Parents’ support is
particularly critical in the implementation of such curriculum image in the
long run.
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TYPES OF CURRICULUM

1. Overt, explicit, or written curriculum

It is simply that which is written as part of formal instruction of schooling
experiences. It may refer to a curriculum document, texts, films, and
supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support the
intentional instructional agenda of a school. Thus, the overt curriculum is
usually confined to those written understandings and directions formally
designated and reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors and
teachers, often collectively. It appears in state and local documents like
state standards, district curriculum guides, course of study, scope and
sequence charts and teachers’ planning documents given to schools

2. Societal curriculum (or social curricula)

Cortes defines this curriculum as:…[the] massive, ongoing, informal
curriculum of family, peer groups, neighborhoods, churches,
organizations, occupations, mass media, and other socializing forces that
“educate” all of us throughout our lives. This type of curricula can now be
expanded to include the powerful effects of social media (YouTube;
Facebook; Twitter; Pinterest, etc.) and how it actively helps create new
perspectives and can help shape both individual and public opinion.

3. Hidden Curriculum
Hidden curriculum refers to the unwritten, unofficial, and often unintended
lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school. While the
“formal” curriculum consists of the courses, lessons, and learning
activities students participate in, as well as the knowledge and skills
educators intentionally teach to students, the hidden curriculum consists
of the unspoken or implicit academic, social, and cultural messages that
are communicated to students while they are in school.

It is an unintended curriculum which is not planned but may modify

behavior or influence learning outcomes that transpire in school The
hidden curriculum begins early in a child's education. Students learn to
form opinions and ideas about their environment and their classmates.
For example, children learn 'appropriate' ways to act at school, meaning
what's going to make them popular with teachers and students. They also
learn what is expected of them; for example, many students pick up on
the fact that year-end test scores are what really matter.
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4. Null Curriculum
That which we do not teach, thus giving students the message that these
elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our
society. Eisner offers some major points as he concludes his discussion
of the null curriculum. Schools have consequences not only by virtue of
what they do teach, but also by virtue of what they neglect to teach. What
students cannot consider, what they don’t processes they are unable to
use, have consequences for the kinds of lives they lead. From Eisner’s
perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught in
schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make
conscious decisions as to what is to be included and what is to be
excluded from the overt (written) curriculum. Since it is physically
impossible to teach everything in schools, many topics and subject areas
must be intentionally excluded from the written curriculum.

Null curriculum refers to what is not taught but should be taught in school
according to the needs of society. For example, environmental education,
gender or sex education, life education, career planning education, local
culture and history education courses are still empty in some schools.

5. Phantom curriculum
Media and its uses have become important issues in schools. Exposure
to different types of media often provides illustrative contexts for class
discussions, relevant examples, and common icons and metaphors that
make learning and content more meaningful to the real lives and interests
of today's students. In an Information Age media has become a very
strong type of curricula over which teachers and parents have little or no
control. This type of learning has a name and definition. It is called the
phantom curricula. It can be defined as - "The messages prevalent in and
through exposure to any type of media. These components and
messages play a major part in enculturation and socializing students into
the predominant meta-culture, or in acculturating students into narrower
or generational subcultures."

6. Concomitant Curriculum
What is taught, or emphasized at home, or those experiences that are
part of a family’s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the
family. (This type of curriculum may be received at church, in the context
of religious expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals, molded
behaviors, or social experiences based on the family’s preferences.)

7. Rhetorical curriculum
It comes from those professionals involved in concept formation and
content changes; from those educational initiatives resulting from
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decisions based on national and state reports, public speeches, from

texts critiquing outdated educational practices. The rhetorical curriculum
may also come from the publicized works offering updates in pedagogical
knowledge.

8. Curriculum in Use
The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in
textbooks, and content and concepts in the district curriculum guides.
However, those “formal” elements are frequently not taught. The
curriculum-in-use is the actual curriculum that is delivered and presented
by each teacher.

9. Received curriculum
Those things that students take out of classrooms; those concepts and
content that are truly learned and remembered.

10. The internal Curriculum

Processes, content, knowledge combined with the experiences and
realities of the learner to create new knowledge. While educators should
be aware of this curriculum, they have little control over the internal
curriculum since it is unique to each student.

11. The electronic curriculum

Those lessons learned through searching the Internet for information, or
through using e-forms of communication. (Wilson, 2004) This type of
curriculum may be either formal or informal, and inherent lessons may be
overt or covert, good or bad, correct or incorrect depending on ones’
views.

Students who use the Internet on a regular basis, both for recreational
purposes (as in blogs, wikis, chatrooms, through instant messenger, on-
line conversations, or through personal e-mails and sites like Twitter,
Facebook, or YouTube) and for personal online research and information
gathering are bombarded with all types of media and messages. Much of
this information may be factually correct, informative, or even entertaining
or inspirational. But there is also a great deal of other e-information that
may be very incorrect, dated, passé, biased, perverse, or even
manipulative.

12. Supported Curriculum

The supported curriculum continues to have a strong influence on the
taught curriculum, especially for elementary teachers, who teach four or
five subjects. The textbook is often their major source of content
knowledge. It includes all the facilities and materials that will help the
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teacher in implementing the curriculum for a successful teaching-learning

process

13. Assessed Curriculum

A tested or evaluated curriculum where teachers use paper-and-pencil
tests, practical exams, and/or portfolios to assess the student's progress
and for them to determine the extent of their teaching during and after
each topic they teach. The Assessed curriculum seems to have the
strongest influence on the curriculum taught. In an era of accountability,
teachers are understandably concerned about how their students perform
on tests.

Much classroom time is spent on developing test and on practicing

questions similar to those that will appear on district, state, and national
tests. And in almost every class, students ask the perennial question:
"Will this be on the test?" There is a positive side to this emphasis on
tests, when they take the form of performance assessments.

14. Extra Curriculum

The school project programs. An activity at a school or college pursued in
addition to the normal course of study

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

1. Idealism

Idealism emphasizes that matter is an illusion and moral and spiritual

reality is the ' chief explanation of the world. They consider truth and
values as absolute, timeless and universal. The world of mind and
ideas is permanent, regular and orderly; it represents a perfect order.
Eternal ideas are unchangeable and timeless. Knowledge consists of
rethinking of the latest ideas present in the mind. It is the teacher's job
to bring out this latent knowledge into the consciousness of the child.

This view, applied to education, would imply that teachers would act
as role models of enduring values. The school must be highly
structured, advocating only those ideas that demonstrate those
enduring values. The choice of instructional materials would depend
on the subjects, which constitute the cultural heritage of mankind.
According to Omstein and Hunkins (1988), the hierarchical sequence
places abstract subjects like philosophy and theology on the top.
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Mathematics helps to develop the power of abstract thinking and

occupies an important position.

According to idealists, learning does not comprise acquisition of facts

from various disciplines. Idealists believe that learning is based on
broad ideas and concepts. One of the earliest proponents of the
idealist philosophy is Plato. Others who gave an idealist conception of
reality were transcendentalist philosophers in the US like R.W.
Emerson and Henry Thoreau. In education, the idealist philosophy
was propagated by Frederic Froebel, the founder of the kindergarten

2. Realism

Another traditional school of thought is realism and the profounder of

this philosophy is Aristotle. Pestalozzi's instructional principles were
based on realism. The realist views the world in terms of object and
matter. He believes that human behaviour is rational when it conforms
to the laws of nature and is governed by social laws. People perceive
the world through their senses and reason. Realists consider
education as a matter of reality rather than speculation.

According to realists, curriculum follows a hierarchical order with the

abstract subjects at the top and the transitory subjects at the bottom.
They stress that a curriculum consists of organized body of
knowledge pertaining to specific areas. For example, the history
curriculum comprises experiences of mankind. Details related to
animals can be studied in zoology. Like the idealist, the realist also
stresses logic and lessons and exercise the mind that cultivate
rational thought. It is the responsibility of the teacher then, to impart to
the learners the knowledge about the world they live in. Logic and the
experiences that cultivate human mind are emphasized in curriculum.

The three "Rs" (reading, writing and arithmetic) are also necessary in
a person's basic education.' According to the realists, the subject
experts are the source and authority for determining the curriculum.

3. Pragmatism

Pragmatism, also referred to as experimentalism, is based on change,

process and relativity. In contrast to the traditional philosophies, i.e.,
idealism and realism, pragmatism. suggests that the value of an idea
lies in its actual consequences. Learning occurs as a person engages
in problem-solving which is transferable to a wide variety of subjects
and situations.
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Learning is considered as a transaction between the learner and his

environment. Basic to this interaction is the notion of change. In this
sense, whatever values and ideas are upheld currently would be
considered tentative since further social development must refine or
change them.

Concepts of unchanging or universal truths are meaningless. For

instance, at a particular period it was generally believed that the earth
was flat, which was subsequently disproved through scientific
research. To consider, therefore, what is changeless (idealism) and
the perceived universe (realism) and to discard social and/or
perpetual change is detrimental to the overall. growth and
development of children.

Let us now visualize how pragmatism would have influenced the

framing of curriculum. Curriculum, according to pragmatists, should be
so planned that it induces teachers and the learners to think critically,
rather than what to think. Teaching should, therefore, be more
exploratory than explanatory. Learning takes places in an active way
as learners solve problems, which help them widen the horizons of
their knowledge and reconstruct their experiences in consonance with
the changing world.

Therefore, the teacher should provide learners learning opportunities

to construct their own learning experiences. They stress more on
problem-solving using scientific method than acquiring an organized
body of knowledge.

4. Existentialism

This philosophy focuses on human free will. These philosophers

consider that students as individuals are responsible to outline their
own future. Students are the center of the classroom, and they decide
what to study, how to study, when to study, why to study. They are
responsible for their education though school and the teachers
provide support to their learning. Existentialism puts emphasis on the
responsibility of people (or students) to make their choices, and their
choices define their existence (who they are). Teachers and schools
play a significant role to layout the curriculum structure very flexibly for
students grade-wise.

This philosophy recognizes individual differences among students.

The teacher functions as a facilitator to help each student learn in his
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or her own pace. Since this philosophy focuses the individualism,

teachers use differentiated curriculum, and differentiated instruction in
order to provide an opportunity for all students to make progress from
where they are, and in their own pace. J.P. Sartre is the proponent of
this philosophy. According to existentialism, students determine
curriculum because they are responsible for making choices of what
they learn (Martin & Loomis, 2007). This philosophy considers
curriculum as currere in which students decide their goals making
choices from available educational pathways.

Omstein and Hunkins (1988) are of the view that an existentialist

curriculum would focus on experiences and subjects that lend
themselves to philosophical dialogue and acts of choice making. It
would enable activities of self-expression and experimentation. The
teacher becomes a partner in the process of teaching-learning,
assuming a nondirective role. The teacher is a more of a facilitator
enabling the learner to explore and search to develop insights rather
than one who imposes predetermined values.

Existentialism has gained greater popularity in recent years. Today,

many educationists talk focusing on the individual, promoting diversity
in the curriculum and emphasize the personal needs and interest of
learners.

5. Perennialism

Perennialism is the most conservative educational philosophy and is

rooted in realism. It advocates the permanency of knowledge that has
stood the test of time and the values that have moral and spiritual
bases. The underlying ideas are that education is constant, absolute
and universal. The curriculum of the perennialist is subject-centered. It
draws heavily on defined disciplines or logically organized bodies of
content. It emphasizes teaching-learning of language, literature,
sciences and arts.

The teacher is considered as an authority in his/her discipline and

teaching is considered an art of imparting information / knowledge and
simulating discussion. In such a scheme of things, students are
regarded immature, as they lack the judgement required to determine
what should be studied, and it is a fact that their interest demands
little attention as far as curriculum development is concerned. There is
usually one common curriculum for all the students with little room for
elective subjects.
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According to this viewpoint, sending some students through an

academic curriculum and others a vocational curriculum is to deny the
latter a genuine equality of education opportunities. The education
advocated by perennialists appeals to a small group of educators who
stress intellectual meritocracy. Their emphasis is on testing students,
enforcing tougher academic standards and programmes and
identifying gifted and talented students.

6. Progressivism

This philosophy focuses on personal experiences, children’s interests

and their needs (Martin & Loomis, 2007). These philosophers
emphasize on curriculum that is relevant to children. John Dewey is
one of the main proponents of progressivism in education and
curriculum. According to Dewey, students should be involved with real
problems so that they gain ownership to the problems and how they
solve it. They should be asked meaningful questions that make them
creative and critical thinkers. Students should be engaged in problem
solving using the scientific method, and they should be able to
develop their own theories.

Progressive curriculum focuses on the freedom of students to develop

naturally, students’ interest as the center point of teaching, teacher’s
role as a facilitator (not a dictator of tasks), multi-dimensional
development of a child, and school community cooperation. According
to progressivism, curriculum is determined by the teachers and
students based upon mutual agreement and understanding (Martin &
Loomis, 2007). This philosophy assumes curriculum images as
intended learning outcomes and curriculum as experience.

According to progressivism the skill and tools of learning include

problem solving methods and scientific inquiry; in addition, learning
experiences should include cooperative behavior and self-discipline,
both of which are important for democratic living (Ornstein and
Hunkins, 1988). The curriculum, thus, was inter-disciplinary in nature.
And the teacher was seen as a guide for students in their problem
solving and scientific projects. Dewey and William Kilpatrick both
referred to this role as the "the leader of group activities". The teacher
and students planned activities together, but the teacher was to help
students locate, analyses, interpret and evaluate data to formulate
their own conclusions.
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7. Essentialism

Being a conservative philosophy, essentialism with its roots in both

idealism and realism, evolved mainly as a critique of progressive
thought in education. Yet, the proponents of essentialism do not
totally reject progressive methods, as they do believe that education
should prepare the learner to adjust with the changing society. Thus,
in essentialism learning should consist in mastering the subject matter
that reflects currently available knowledge in various disciplines. The
teacher is considered a master of a subject and is to be respected as
an authority because of the knowledge and high standards he or she
holds.

The most notable achievements of the essentialists have been

widespread implementation of the competency based programme, the
establishment of the grade-level achievement standards, and the
movement to re-emphasize academic subjects in schools/colleges. In
many ways, the ideas of essentialism lie behind attacks on the quality
of education by the media and by local pressure groups, and to a
good extent on distance education.

Martin and Loomis (2007) state that essentialism focuses on teaching

of the essential component of academic and moral knowledge.
Essentialists believe that students should be taught core curriculum.
Their emphasis is on high academic standards. They focus much on
essential knowledge, skill, and attitude such as reading, writing, and
computing together with many others. Who decides what is essential
for a child? Is it the teacher or school to decide or the society at large?
They focus on essential things that students should learn things
based upon decisions of the society at large.

Their emphasis is on mastering these basic skills, and efficient to

function in their job or daily life. According to essentialism, curriculum
is determined by the society and teachers with mutual agreement
(Martin & Loomis, 2007). This philosophy also views curriculum as a
list of contents, or list of planned activities.

8. Reconstructionism

A group of thinkers felt that progressivism put too much emphasis on

child-centred education that mainly served the individual child and
middle class, with its play theories and private schools. What needed
were more emphasis on society-centred education that took into
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consideration the needs of society (not the individual) and all classes
(not only the middle class).

Reconstructionism views education as a means to reconstruct the

society. The reconstructionists believe that as the school / college is
attended by virtually all the youth, it must be used to shape the
attitudes and values of each generation. As a result, when the youth
become adults, they will share certain common values, and thus the
society will have reshaped itself.

The reconstructionist curriculum consists of subjects which promote

new social, economic and political education. The subject matter is to
be used as a vehicle for studying social problems, which must serve
as the focus of the curriculum. Views of some recent reconstructionist
have been put forth by Ornstein and Hunkins, ( 1988) who have given
a reconstructionist programme of education which emphasize the
following:

 critical examination of the culture heritage of a society as well

as the entire civilization;
 scrutiny of controversial issues;
 commitment to bring about social and constructive changes;
 cultivation of a planning-in-advance attitude that considers the
realities of the world we live in;
 and enhancement of culture renewal and internationalism;

Stemmlng from this view, reconstructionism expands the field of

curriculum to include intuitive, personal, mystical, political and social
systems of theorizing. In general, the curriculum advocated by
reconstructionist, emphasizes sociology, psychology and philosophy,
and not the hard sciences. The thrust is on developing individual self-
realization and freedom through cognitive and intellectual activities,
and thus on liberating people from the restrictions, limitation and
controls of society. The idea is that we have had enough of discipline-
based education and narrow specialization, and we do not need more
specialists now, we need more 'good' people if we want to survive.
The reconstructionists, including such recent proponents as Mario
Fantini, Iiarold Shane and Alvin Toffler, seek a curriculum that
emphasizes, cultural pluralism, internationalism, and futurism.
Students should be taught to appreciate life in a world of many
nations -a global village - with many alternatives for the future, they
advocate.
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REFERENCES

Belbase, S. (2011). Philosophical Foundations for Curriculum Decision A

Reflective Analysis. College of Education, University of Wyoming. Retrieved from
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED524740.pdf

Cohen, L.M. (1999). Philosophical Perspectives in Education. OSU - School of

Education;

Lynch, M. (2017). 5 things that educators should know about philosophy of

education. Retrieved on August 2019 from https://www.theedadvocate.org/5-
things-that-educators-should-know-about-the-philosophy-of-education/

Mascareno, B. (2018). Seven Types of Curricula in the Classroom. Retrieved

from https://www.theclassroom.com/5-types-curricula-classroom-8013624.html