EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.

NET

Unit 6

t
o .ne
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
Pr
OF SCIENCE EDUCATION-II
s
ok
Bo
w.
ww

Written by: Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Ather Khan

Reviewed by: Arshad Mahmood

97

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

CONTENTS

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 99
Objectives................................................................................................................ 99
6.1 Constructivism as a Referent in Teaching Science ............................................... 100
6.2 Types of Constructivism ....................................................................................... 102
6.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development and Learning.................................... 103
6.4 Information Processing Theory ............................................................................. 104
6.5 Bandera: Social Learning Theory ......................................................................... 106

t
o .ne
s Pr
ok
Bo
w.
ww

98

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

INTRODUCTION
This Unit explains constructivist view of acquiring knowledge in science and its impacts
on science education. Constructivitism is a very influent theory of science education. This
is a theory about how knowledge is acquired and constructed. The constructivist
epistemology asserts that the only tools available to a knower are the senses.

In this unit we have traced the origin of constructivist view of knowledge and discussed
the philosophical basis of this theory. A brief discussion on variety of constructivism has
also been included in this account. Types of constructivists are also discussed. Piagetian
theory of cognitive development is also included. Apart from it Bandera’s Social
Learning theory is also a part of this unit.

t
OBJECTIVES

.ne
After reading this unit you will be able to:
1. understand the concept of constructivism.

o
2. concept clearance about learning and cognitive development theories
Pr
s
ok
Bo
w.
ww

99

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

6.1. Constructivism as a Referent in Teaching Science

Why is it, in educational settings, we rarely talk about how students learn? Why aren't
teachers using how students learn as a guide to their teaching practices? These questions
seem almost too absurd to ask; but think, when was the last time you spoke to colleagues
about how students learn? Do you observe learning in your classroom? What does it look
like? These are a few of the questions that we have begun to ask ourselves and our
teaching colleagues. One way to make sense of how students learn is through
constructivism. Constructivism is a word used frequently by science educators lately. It is
used increasingly as a theoretical rationale for research and teaching. Many current
reform efforts also are associated with the notion of constructivism. But what exactly is
constructivism and how can it be useful to the practicing teacher? Constructivism is an
epistemology, a theory of knowledge used to explain how we know what we know. We
believe that a constructivist epistemology is useful to teachers if used as a referent; that
is, as a way to make sense of what they see, think, and do. Our research indicates that

t
teacher's beliefs about how people learn (their personal epistemology), whether

.ne
verbalized or not, often help them make sense of, and guide, their practice. The
epistemology that is dominant in most educational settings today is similar to
objectivism. That is to say, most researchers view knowledge as existing outside the

o
bodies of cognizing beings, as beings separate from knowing and knower. Knowledge is
Pr
"out there," residing in books, independent of a thinking being. Science is then
conceptualized as a search for truths, a means of discovering theories, laws, and
principles associated with reality. Objectivity is a major component of the search for
s
truths which underlie reality; learners are encouraged to view objects, events, and
ok

phenomenon with an objective mind, which is assumed to be separate from cognitive

processes such as imagination, intuition, feelings, values, and beliefs (Johnson, 1987). As
a result, teachers implement a curriculum to ensure that students cover relevant science
Bo

content and have opportunities to learn truths which usually are documented in bulging
textbooks.
w.

The constructivist epistemology asserts that the only tools available to a knower are the
senses. It is only through seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting that an
ww

individual interacts with the environment. With these messages from the senses the
individual builds a picture of the world. Therefore, constructivism asserts that knowledge
resides in individuals; that knowledge cannot be transferred intact from the head of a
teacher to the heads of students. The student tries to make sense of what is taught by
trying to fit it with his/her experience. Consequently, words are not containers whose
meanings are in the words itself, they are based on the constructions of individuals. We
can communicate because individual's meanings of words only have to be compatible
with the meanings given by others. If a situation occurred in which your meaning of a
word no longer sufficed, you could change the meaning of the word. Using
constructivism as a referent, teachers often use problem-solving as a learning strategy;
where learning is defined as adaptations made to fit the world they experience. That is, to
learn, a person's existing conceptions of the world must be unreliable, enviable. When
one's conceptions of the world are enviable one tries to make sense out of the situation
based on what is already known (i.e. Prior knowledge is used to make sense of data

100

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

perceived by the senses). Other persons are part of our experiential world, thus, others are
important for meaning making. "Others" are so important for constructivists that
cooperative learning is a primary teaching strategy. A cooperative learning strategy
allows individuals to test the fit of their experiential world with a community of others.
Others help to constrain our thinking. The interactions with others cause perturbations,
and by resolving the perturbations individuals make adaptations to fit their new
experiential world. Experience involves an interaction of an individual with events,
objects, or phenomenon in the universe; an interaction of the senses with things, a
personal construction which fits some of the external reality but does not provide a
match. The senses are not conduits to the external world through which truths are
conducted into the body. Objectivity is not possible for thinking beings. Accordingly,
knowledge is a construction of how the world works, one that is viable in the sense that it
allows an individual to pursue particular goals. Thus, from a constructivist perspective,
science is not the search for truth. It is a process that assists us to make sense of our

t
world. Using a constructivist perspective, teaching science becomes more like the science

.ne
that scientists do it is an active, social process of making sense of experiences, as
opposed to what we now call "school science." Indeed, actively engaging students in
science (we have all heard the call for "hands-on, minds-on science") is the goal of most

o
science education reform. It is an admirable goal, and using constructivism as a referent
Pr
can possibly assist in reaching that goal. Driver (1989) has used a constructivist
epistemology as a referent in her research on children's conceptions of science. Children's
prior knowledge of phenomena from a scientific point of view differs from the
s
interpretation children construct; children construct meanings that fit their experience and
ok

expectations. This can lead children to oftentimes construct meanings different from what
was intended by a teacher. Teachers that make sense of teaching from an objectivist
perspective fail to recognize that students solve this cognitive conflict by separating
Bo

school science from their own life experiences. In other words, students distinguish
between scientific explanations and their "real world" explanations (the often cited
w.

example-that forces are needed to keep a ball in motion versus Newton's explanation is
one such example). Children's conceptions are their constructions of reality, ones that are
viable in the sense that they allow a child to make sense of his/her environment. By using
ww

a constructivist epistemology as a referent teachers can become more sensitive to

children's prior knowledge and the processes by which they make sense of phenomena.
The teaching practices of two teachers at City Middle School may best illustrate how
practice can be influenced by making sense of teaching and learning from constructivist-
and objectivist oriented perspective. To Bob, science was a body of knowledge to be
learned. His job was to "give out" what he (and the textbook) knew about science to his
students. Thus the learning environment Bob tried to maintain in his classroom facilitated
this transfer of knowledge; the desks were neatly in rows facing Bob and the blackboard.

Lectures and assignments from the text were given to students. Bob tried to keep students
quiet and working all during the class period to ensure that all students could "absorb" the
science knowledge efficiently. Another consequence of Bob's notion of teaching and
learning was his belief that he had so much cover that he had no time for laboratory
activities. Let's look at an example that typifies Bob's teaching style. Bob's sixth grade

101

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

students were to complete a worksheet that "covered" the concept of friction. After the
students completed the worksheet, Bob went over the answers so the students could have
the correct answers for the test later in the week. From a constructivist perspective, what
opportunities did Bob's students have to relate the concept of friction to their own
experiences? Were these opportunities in Bob's lesson plan to negotiate meanings and
build a consensus of understanding? Bob spent one class period covering the concept of
friction; is that sufficient time for students to learn a concept with understanding? On the
other hand, John made sense of teaching and learning from a constructivist perspective.
John's classes were student-centered and activity-based. Typically in his high school
classes, John introduced students to different science topics with short lectures, textbook
readings, and confirmatory laboratories. After the introduction John would ask students
what interested them about the topic and encouraged them to pursue and test these ideas.
Students usually divided themselves into groups and then, conducted a library research,
formulated questions/problems, and procedures to test the questions/problems. In other

t
words, the students were acting as scientists in the classroom. Like Bob, John taught a

.ne
sixth grade class previously, and also taught students about friction. Included in John's
lessons were activities to "get the students involved." Students rubbed their hands
together with and without a lubricant so that they could see the purpose of motor oil in

o
engines. The students conducted experiments with bricks to learn about different types of
Pr
friction, and even watched The Flintstones in class to point out friction and what would
really happen (i.e. Fed would burn his feet stopping the car, etc.) John spent two weeks
teaching his unit on friction. Were John's students given opportunities to make sense of
s
the concept of friction?
ok

Constructivism as an epistemology is briefly outlined and its usefulness for teachers

using it as referent is described. The beliefs and knowledge about learning of two
Bo

teachers is contrasted in order to compare a constructivist approach to learning and an

objectivist approach. Evidence that one of the teachers uses constructivism as a referent is
w.

highlighted by his approach to teaching, arrangement of his classroom and questioning

techniques. Finally two major challenges faced by South African teachers that would
want to use constructivism as a referent are discussed with some suggestions as to how
ww

these challenges can be overcome in order to move from an objectivist approach to a

constructivist approach.

6.2 Types of Constructivism

Radical and Social Constructivism

Constructivist ideas fall into a couple of not-always-distinct camps. The first camp, which
finds its extreme expression in the radical constructivism of Ernst von Glaserfeld,
revolves around the idea that each individual constructs reality for him or herself. Radical
Constructivism puts forward two main claims (von Glasersfeld 1989: 162):

"(a) Knowledge is not passively received but actively built up by the cognizing subject;
(b) the function of cognition is adaptive and serves the organization of the experiential
world, not the discovery of ontological reality."

102

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

In other words, all experience is subjective, filtered through the prism of individual
biases, experiences, and sense perceptions. The mind simply organizes this stuff into
something we call "reality."

An alternate camp, generally referred to as social constructivism, emphasizes the role of

culture and context in developing personal and shared interpretations of reality. It
emerges largely from the work of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, and Bandera. It shares with
radical constructivism the idea that reality is constructed, but to social constructivists this
construction does not exist prior to its social invention. Knowledge is a social product,
and learning a social process, and meaning is an agreement shaped by social patterns and
the assumptions encapsulated in language.

One particularly influential social constructivist-based theory is Vygotsky's idea of the

Zone of Proximal Development. The ZPD describes the difference between what a person

t
can learn on his or her own, and what that person can learn when learning is facilitated by

.ne
someone with greater expertise. The idea of well-timed instructional interventions,
operating within an individual's ZPD, has become stock-in-trade for instructional design
models ranging from the whole-language approach to learning reading and writing, to

o
various methods for training individuals within a corporate culture.
Pr
Social constructivism is related to the concept of stativity, which is discussed separately.
s
6.3. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development and Learning
ok

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development is about how a child constructs a mental
model of the world. Piaget was employed at the Benet Institute in the 1920s, where his
job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests.
Bo

He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the
w.

questions that required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed
important differences between the thinking of adults and children.
ww

Piaget (1936) described his work as genetic epistemology (i.e. the origins of thinking).
Genetics is the scientific study of where things come from (their origins). Epistemology
is concerned with the basic categories of thinking, that is to say, the framework or
structural properties of intelligence. What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how
well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he
was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea
of number, time, quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged.

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive
development. His contributions include a theory of child cognitive development, detailed
observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to
reveal different cognitive abilities.Before Piaget’s work, the common assumption in
psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults. Piaget
showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults.

103

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically
inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.

Sensori-motor stage (birth to 2 years old)

The infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and reality (and how things
work) through interactions with the environment. It is able to differentiate between itself
and other objects. Learning takes place via assimilation (the organization of information
and absorbing it into existing schema) and accommodation (when an object cannot be
assimilated and the schemata have to be modified to include the object.

Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4)

The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical
situations. Objects are classified in simple ways, especially by important features.

t
Concrete operations (ages 7 to 11)

.ne
As physical experience accumulates, accommodation is increased. The child begins to
think abstractly and conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her
physical experiences.

o
Pr
Formal operations (beginning at ages 11 to 15)
Cognition reaches its final form. By this stage, the person no longer requires concrete
objects to make rational judgments. He or she is capable of deductive and hypothetical
s
reasoning. His or her ability for abstract thinking is very similar to an adult.
ok

6.4. Information Processing Theory

Bo

The basic idea of Information processing theory is that the human mind is like a
computer or information processor — rather than behaviorist notions that people merely
responding to stimuli.
w.

These theories equate thought mechanisms to that of a computer, in that it receives input,
ww

processes, and delivers output. Information gathered from the senses (input), is stored and
processed by the brain, and finally brings about a behavioral response (output).

Information processing theory has been developed and broadened over the years. Most
notable in the inception of information processing models is Atkinson and Tiffin’s ‘stage
theory,’ presenting a sequential method, as discussed above, of input-processing-
output[2]. Though influential, the linearity of this theory reduced the complexity of the
human brain, and thus various theories were developed in order to further assess the
inherent processes.

Following this line of thought, Crack and Lockhart issued the ‘level of processing’
model[3]. They emphasize that information s expanded upon (processed) in various ways
(perception, attention, labeling, and meaning) which affect the ability to access the
information later on. In other words, the degree to which the information was elaborated
upon will affect how well the information was learned.

104

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

Brantford broadened this idea by adding that information will be more easily retrieved if
the way it is accessed is similar to the way in which it was stored[4]. The next major
development in information processing theory is Rumelhart and McClelland’s
connectionist model, which is supported by current neuroscience research[5]. It states
that information is stored simultaneously in different areas of the brain, and connected as
a network. The amount of connections a single piece of information has will affect the
ease of retrieval.

The general model of information processing theory includes three components:

Sensory Memory
In sensory memory, information is gathered via the senses through a process called
transduction. Through receptor cell activity, it is altered into a form of information that
the brain could process. These memories, usually unconscious, last for a very short

t
amount of time, ranging up to three seconds. Our senses are constantly bombarded with

.ne
large amounts of information. Our sensory memory acts as a filter, by focusing on what is
important, and forgetting what is unnecessary. Sensory information catches our attention,
and thus progresses into working memory, only if it is seen as relevant, or is familiar.

o
Working Memory/short Term Memory
Pr
Baddeley (2001) issued a model of working memory as consisting of three components
.The executive controls system oversees all working memory activity, including selection
s
of information, method of processing, meaning, and finally deciding whether to transfer it
ok

to long term memory or forget it. Two counterparts of this system are the auditory loop,
where auditory information is processed, and the visual-spatial check pad, where visual
information is processed. Sensory memories transferred into working memory will last
Bo

for 15-20 seconds, with a capacity for 5-9 pieces or chunks of information. Information is
maintained in working memory through maintenance or elaborative rehearsal.
w.

Maintenance refers to repetition, while elaboration refers to the organization of

information (such as chunking or chronology).
ww

The processing that occurs in working memory is affected by a number of factors. Firstly,
individuals have varying levels of cognitive load, or the amount of mental effort they can
engage in at a given moment, due to individual characteristics and intellectual capacities.
Secondly, information that has been repeated many times becomes automatic and thus
does not require much cognitive resources (e.g. riding a bike). Lastly, according to the
task at hand, individuals use selective processing to focus attention on information that is
highly relevant and necessary.

Long Term Memory

Long term memory includes various types of information: declarative (semantic and
episodic), procedural (how to do something), and imagery (mental images).

As opposed to the previous memory constructs, long term memory has unlimited space.
The crucial factor of long term memory is how well organized the information is. This is

105

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

affected by proper encoding (elaboration processes in transferring to long term memory)

and retrieval processes (scanning memory for the information and transferring into
working memory so that it could e used). As emphasized in Branford’s work, the degree
of similarity between the way information was encoded and the way it is being accessed
will shape the quality of retrieval processes. In general, we remember a lot less
information than is actually stored there.

6.5. Bandera - Social Learning Theory

People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those
behaviors [1]. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from
observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandera). Social learning
theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

t
.ne
Necessary Conditions for Effective Modeling
Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid includes
distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. One’s

o
characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, and perceptual set, past
Pr
reinforcement) affect attention. Retention — remembering what you paid attention to
includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal,
motor rehearsal.
s
ok

Reproduction — reproducing the image, including physical capabilities, and self-

observation of reproduction. Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes
Bo

motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and
vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)
w.

Reciprocal Determinism
Bandera believed in “reciprocal determinism”, that is, the world and a person’s behavior
cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes
ww

one’s behavior[2], Bandera, who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too
simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well[3].
Later, Bandera soon considered personality as an interaction between three components:
the environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain
images in minds and language).

Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist and
cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
The theory is related to Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory and Lava’s Situated
Learning, which also emphasize the importance of social learning.

Observational Learning
Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated
during the famous Bubo doll experiment (Bandera, 1961).

106

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

Individuals that are observed are called models. In society, children are surrounded by
many influential models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV,
friends within their peer group and teachers at school. These models provide examples of
behavior to observe and imitate, e.g. masculine and feminine, pro and anti-social etc.

Children pay attention to some of these people (models) and encode their behavior. At a
later time they may imitate (i.e. copy) the behavior they have observed. They may do
this regardless of whether the behavior is ‘gender appropriate’ or not, but there are a
number of processes that make it more likely that a child will reproduce the behavior that
its society deems appropriate for its sex.

First, the child is more likely to attend to and imitate those people it perceives as similar
to itself. Consequently, it is more likely to imitate behavior modeled by people of the

t
same sex.

.ne
Second, the people around the child will respond to the behavior it imitates with either
reinforcement or punishment. If a child imitates a model’s behavior and the

o
consequences are rewarding, the child is likely to continue performing the behavior. If
Pr
parent sees a little girl consoling her teddy bear and says “what a kind girl you are”, this
is rewarding for the child and makes it more likely that she will repeat the behavior. Her
behavior has been reinforced (i.e. strengthened).
s
ok

Reinforcement can be external or internal and can be positive or negative. If a child

wants approval from parents or peers, this approval is an external reinforcement, but
feeling happy about being approved of is an internal reinforcement. A child will behave
Bo

in a way which it believes will earn approval because it desires approval. Positive (or
negative) reinforcement will have little impact if the reinforcement offered externally
w.

does not match with an individual's needs. Reinforcement can be positive or negative,
but the important factor is that it will usually lead to a change in a person's behavior.
ww

Third, the child will also take into account of what happens to other people when
deciding whether or not to copy someone’s actions. A person learns by observing the
consequences of another person’s (i.e. models) behavior e.g. a younger sister observing
an older sister being rewarded for a particular behaviour is more likely to repeat that
behaviour herself. This is known as vicarious reinforcement.

This relates to attachment to specific models that possess qualities seen as rewarding.
Children will have a number of models with whom they identify. These may be people in
their immediate world, such as parents or older siblings, or could be fantasy characters or
people in the media. The motivation to identify with a particular model is that they have a
quality which the individual would like to possess.

107

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net

EduWorldPK.com BooksPro.net SEDiNFO.NET

Identification occurs with another person (the model) and involves taking on (or
adopting) observed behaviors, values, beliefs and attitudes of the person with whom you
are identifying.
The term identification as used by Social Learning Theory is similar to the Freudian term
related to the Oedipus complex. For example, they both involve internalizing or adopting
another person’s behavior. However, during the Oedipus complex the child can only
identify with the same sex parent, whereas with Social Learning Theory the person (child
or adult) can potentially identify with any other person.

Identification is different to imitation as it may involve a number of behaviors being

adopted, whereas imitation usually involves copying a single behavior.

t
o .ne
s Pr
ok
Bo
w.
ww

108

StudyNowPK.com BooksPro.net ProPK.net