IN PURSUIT

A Pilot’s Guide to Online Air Combat

JOHAN KYLANDER
For Barry “Carrot” Hayes

Copyright © Johan Kylander 2005

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J UN E 12 : T R IP L E TR IP
I step into my personal P40-B at Cambrai, strap in, slide the canopy back and go through the
pre-launch routine: tailwheel locked, trim wheel fully back, RPM set at maximum, listen and
scan for intruders. None around. It's 13:45 local time and the hound dogs are too lazy to
even yap in the blistering French afternoon. I fire the engine and slam the throttle full
forward, clearing the south hangers with feet to spare. I ess and quarter-roll all the way up to
4 km where I reduce to normal pitch and cruise east over the battlefield, still quarter-rolling
and weaving gently. I check my six every 2 seconds.
There’s nothing to be seen at the Meuse apart from a grand vista at 4,5 km. No
enemy formations, not even a single recon plane. Oh well. I cut to fine pitch, anticipating a
boring lonely wait over Bertrix-Acremont. I’m doing about 340 IAS as I come in from
southwest of the field. Hey, there’s a bogey diving in west at about 4 km – probably friendly.
I lose him in the clouds as I swing left to take up orbit. 2 seconds later I spot a 109 arcing in
on my six from the west, co-alt. Well well, who’d a thunk! Someone else must have been
here to stoke the waffles not long ago. I go to max revs and waver a second while assessing
his energy. Co-E, or nearly so. Not yet in guns range, not even close. I swing into him to left
and cross over for a lead turn to right. We’re canopy to canopy by then, so I lag him a bit
and let him do the hauling. We’re in a rolling scissor for a little while and then he goes
vertical, sort of. Damn those Fokkers are fast, but not fast enough to draw out of .50 range. I
reach out and touch him, drawing a fine trail of fluids.
The fight goes downward to about 3 km. I get a few snapshots, some of them
connect briefly. He struggles and hauls for all he’s worth, blowing energy in chunks. I slowly
reel him in, stitch him a little more. He tries to go vertical again and right there I have him. I
give him a long nice burst and watch him disappear – just as I catch a glimpse of another 109
nearby. This guy appears to have engaged from below and is quite out of steam. I reel him in
too and punch his lights out. We’re now uncomfortably close to the field and it’s time to say
goodbye! I scoot out north and disengage entirely to the east before starting a slow climb
back to altitude. I visit Wiltz – no trade – and debate whether to turn back. No, Verviers-
Aachen it is.
Verviers looks empty as does the surrounding lanes to west and northwest. I carry
on to Aachen. Upon arrival, I spy a single-engine job rotate and head out westerly. I circle
astern, let down and roll into a gentle dive. 109. He’s in a hurry. He’s not checking six. I hold
the shot for too long and only strike him half-heartedly at about 70 meters range. I see my
MG splash both his wings then I have to duck violently to avoid the collision. I come to and
spiral, tally the bandit at my long low six in a flat circle on the deck, obviously distressed. I go
in again, twice, but he’s awake now. We’re pretty low, much too close to Aachen for
comfort. I rope-a-dope him. The slimy bastard refuses to stall out but lifts his nose for a
head-on shot. Fokker. I’m as surprised as I’m disgusted. I see my hits splash all over his
engine and forward fuselage. I have the energy to decide though against this Emil, and
disengage. He follows.
I drag him along for a while, heading south. I’ve had enough near Eupen and
chandelle around to have another go at him. Again he comes head-on. Forcrissakes! I press
the tit in rage and give him a long good burst, skidding slightly. Die! And so he does. I’ve
had enough of the likes of him and return to base, booking three confirmed kills.
BMBM, 56th FG(v)
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INTRODUCTION
Greetings to all Virtual Fighter Pilots and those “want-to-be” Pilots. This Work-of-Art “In
Pursuit” by Johan Kylander is a MUST READ.
In Pursuit is a thorough analogy of all facets of the life of a fighter pilot. In Pursuit
covers, in detail, all of the positives and negatives, the things to do and the things not to do
in order to become a “Top Gun” as a fighter pilot. Johan Kylander has given a lot of time
and thought into developing a complete and easy to read compilation of all phases of tactical
flying.
When I was assigned to the 56th Fighter Group, 61st Fighter Squadron. I was
introduced to Flight Leader “Mike” Gladych (PAF) and assigned to him as his wingman.
Many things he taught me still remain in memory. One of the most important was this: if
you know your machine better then your opponent knows his, you can always defeat him.
The next best was this: fly your position (on his wing) where I tell you to and I will always
bring you home. (Correct positioning of all the elements in the formation is the best
protection you can give to each other). I flew fiftyseven missions over Europe during WW II
and I feel like I remember a little of what I was taught. I’ve learned a lot of things from
reading Johan Kylander’s book “In Pursuit” that I wish I had known way back then. I would
have been a much more successful fighter pilot.

Russell S. Kyler
Captain USAAF (1945)

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PREFACE
Walter Mitty exists. Every guy or gal who has ever sat down in front of the computer to
wreak havoc in the virtual skies of Air Warrior, WarBirds, Aces High or World War II
Online, embodies the spirit of Walter, that paragon of daydreaming indulgence in
personalities and situations that he never had the opportunity of experiencing himself. Much
like Walter, we virtual pilots suspend reality and engross ourselves in the fantasy of being
Sierra Hotel fighter pilots, flying and fighting over war-torn Europe, seat-of-the-pants style.
Some of us do. Others, to the utter scorn of the historically versed grognards, are just as
happy whiling away a few hours without a thought of role-playing, yanking and banking to
get an adrenaline rush in what might just as well be another video game. Either is fine. We’re
all warriors.
Yet, whether one seeks the thrill of the moment or strives to recreate an
environment approximating history, one trait is common: the will to succeed and to excel.
And that is what this book is about – to help neophyte and intermediate virtual pilots surpass
the thresholds to acedom.
Learning how to play a computer game should be an easy matter. Most games ARE
easy to master once you’ve figured out what makes them tick, but the massively multiplayer
online air combat game is a striking exception because it isn’t predictable. There are simply
too many factors to consider at any turn: beyond certain automated functions the action is
totally unscripted, unregulated and unpredictable because every action or piece of the
environment is that of another human being - and it all happens in real time. Fact is, the
difference between fiction and reality has a tendency to narrow to such an extent that some
would argue that the game IS reality. In certain respects that is entirely true.
Real-world performance, tactics, psychology and physics apply to this virtual world,
to extents varying with the creators’ vision and programming acumen. When it comes to
engagements, that which works – or doesn’t work – in real life, also works or doesn’t work in
the game. Thus, knowing a thing or two about these matters significantly increases the virtual
pilot’s likelihood of excelling. Other games allow its players to cheat or use shortcuts to
attain their goals. There are no shortcuts or power-ups in the virtual sky. You can’t fake
acedom.
Air combat seems so easy... all you need to do is to point your aircraft at another
and gun him down, right? Not! It is no coincidence that aerial combat skills are most difficult
to acquire - we're talking four dimensions here, where the input is constantly changing. He
who is not able to arrive at the correct solution at every juncture will soon find himself
involuntarily decorating the landscape.
Some are born fighter pilots. If you fail to return to base on a regular basis, take it as
a hint that you're not one of them. You need to practice and practice and practice yet more
to reduce your errors to a survivable level, and even so there's still the odd chance that you'll
meet the Red Baron on your next mission – so be prepared!

I decided to write this book more or less on a whim. Over the years of online combat I’ve
authored countless pilot FAQ’s, training manuals, squadron directives and forum posts
dealing with this or that tactical problem. I’m not a real pilot – I have no formal training
other than a few hours of introductionary flight in civilian craft, but I do however have

5
something like 8000 hours of virtual combat to lean on and a comfortable factual
background gleaned from such outstanding works as “Boots” Blesse’s “No Guts, No
Glory”, Robert “Mouse” Shaw’s “Fighter Combat: Tactics and Manoeuvring”, the “Bible” of
all sim pilots, and others too many to mention. While the “Bible” is certainly a worthwhile
read and in nearly all aspects entirely relevant to our environment, it is nevertheless a tad dry
and not quite as accessible to the beginner virtual pilot as one might want. Furthermore,
Shaw’s work is largely concentrated on the individual aspects of air combat. Some key
missing features which I hope to add here includes the psychology of online fighting and a
look inside the opponents’ brains – the understanding of which are crucial for success. Ergo,
this attempt at writing a practical guide to air combat.

Enjoy.

Johan “BMBM” Kylander

Stockholm, May 2005

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Contents
Introduction 4
Preface 5

Part I: Environment Part IV: You are the enemy

1. The world 7 14. Psychology 96
2. The players 10 15. Aggression 102
3. Fear of death 15 16. Thinking ahead 106
4. Internet and mechanical effects18 17. Common Situations 110
17.1 The Merge 110
Part II: Flight and Combat Basics 17.2 The Bounce 113
5. The platform 20 17.3 Six o’clock high! 115
6. Energy 30 17.4 The extending bandit 116
7. Lift vector, Gravity loads and other 17.5 The low quarter lag 117
terms of combat 41 17.6 The vulture 117
8. BFM 45 17.7 Getting stuck 117
9. Pursuit modes 52 17.8 Common errors 120
10. Situational Awareness 54
11. On guns and gunnery 61 Part V: Never alone!
18. Formation tactics 123
Part III: Advanced Combat Manoeuvres 18.1 The Fighting Element: 126
12. Separation and timing 70 18.2 Fighting doctrines 129
13. ACM 75 18.3 Bracket attack 132
13.1 Split-S 76 18.4 Trail attack 136
13.2 Immelman 77 18.5 Cross Split 137
13.3 Cuban-8 77 18.6 Sandwich 139
13.4 Chandelle 78 18.7 Half Split 141
13.5 Rope-A-Dope 79 18.8 Thach Weave 142
13.6 Defensive spiral 82 18.9 Engagement and
13.7 Hammerhead 83 Disengagement 144
13.8 Scissors 84 19. Missions 149
13.9 Lead Turn 89 19.1 Fighter sweep 151
13.10 High yo-yo 90 19.2 Combat air patrol 152
13.11 Low yo-yo 92 19.3 Barrier combat patrol 155
13.12 The Sliceback 93 19.4 Close air support 156
13.13 Lag displacement roll 94 19.5 Armed Reconnaissance 157
19.6 Bomber intercept 157
19.7 Bomber escort 158
19.8 Ground attack 162

Part VI: Community 166

20 Squadron life 167
20.1 Training 168
20.2 Communications 170
In closing 173
Select bibliography 174
P AR T I : T H E E N VI R O NM E N T
Muster was called at 3:30 PM. Due to the fact that the rest of my squadron had not yet returned from
R&R, I was temporarily assigned to an ad-hoc strike force from REIMS to Buzancy. Inexperienced and/or
poor leadership and bad judgement are often the bane of any military endeavour - and this was no exception.
Our flight leader flew us in to Buzancy at 1.5 Km. A 109E went past us high and to the north about 15
miles west of the target area, which I reported to my flight leader. The flight was instructed to ignore the enemy
aircraft - but it would have been more productive to instruct the 109 to ignore us!
Guy “Ghastly” Skaggs, 56th FG (v)

CH AP T ER 1: T H E WO R L D
The online “world” is a persistent universe, an open arena, populated by fun-seekers and
with whatever structures and automated features the game designers provide it. It’s a 24/7
battlefield where combat is sought and generally found within a few minutes of entering the
world (“spawning in”). For the purposes of this book, the bulk of references to the world, its
vehicles, features and inhabitants, are drawn from the Massively Multiplayer Online Role
Playing Game (MMORPG) World War II Online (WWIIOL). The game attempts to recreate
combat in France 1940, at the tactical and, to some extent, the strategic level. WWIIOL is a
significantly different environment from other games inasmuch as it incorporates all aspects
of the virtual battlefield – it joins air combat with infantry and tanks, surface and submarine
vehicles, supply, interdiction and attrition. Yet, for the purpose of air combat, action in
WWIIOL is much the same as is found in other games such as WarBirds and Aces High:
everyone is out to kill someone, or as the more politically correct would have it, to spend
quality time interacting with other people, online.
When entering the world to strap into your aircraft of choice, you are presented with
a map view. In WarBirds, Aces High et al, the world is divided between two or more sides,
up to a default maximum of four, each having access to a multitude of bases or spawn
points. From there on it’s up to you, the player, to decide where to spawn and with what
equipment, which type of mission to fly etc. Typically, there is a frontline of sorts where you
can be reasonably certain of finding action within minutes or even seconds of launching into
the world, and there is also always a rear area where action is possible but less likely. In any
event, there are seldom places where you can be totally certain of NOT finding someone
intent on your destruction.
MMORPG are different from “standard” online games primarily in the sheer
numbers of opponents. A “standard” online game such as IL-2 might offer a semi-scripted
scenario where up to 16, 24 or at best 64 players can partake. WarBirds and WWIIOL on
the other hand, can easily accommodate hundreds, thousands of players simultaneously
(although the maximum viewable players in any one local area is 64 – a legacy of internet
communication protocol). This naturally means that no mission is ever the same as the other
and that you’re less likely to encounter any particular enemy twice under similar
circumstances. In this world, nothing is scripted. Whatever action is encountered is the result
of the players’ premeditated choice. In other words, the player is master of the situation. This
is important to remember later on, that the only thing limiting the player’s engagement circumstances is
the player himself.
When you spawn in at your location of choice, you’re already sitting at the controls
of an WWII-era aircraft. Your field of view is that of the pilot’s, it’s a first-person perspective
closely resembling that of what a real pilot would see. The notable difference is lack of depth
and lack of peripheral vision, something that is a critical issue when considering what we call
situational awareness. A real pilot would probably liken the experience to flying with blinkers
– the virtual pilot is forced to turn his attention in a dedicated manner to this or that
direction, he has little sense of what goes on to his sides or rear unless he actually looks
specifically in those directions. That’s bad news for formation flying although it certainly
doesn’t make formation flying an exercise in futility. It just makes it a wee bit more
challenging.
The first MMORPG worlds were rather bleak – they offered a perpetually CAVU1
sky and a little less than totally flat terrain until recently when computing power became
more potent and accessible. That was fine at the time, particularly since people were happy
to do battle at all on the massive scale and since variations in terrain and weather would be
an obstruction to the core experience – the pure fight. Lately however, the discerning gamer
has come to appreciate and crave more varied experience. Rolling terrain, realistic structures,
vegetation, weather effects, lighting and clouds enhance the gaming experience not only
from a visual point of view but from an engagement point of view too. In short, pilots
appreciate realism and have a sense for beauty in the environment. Imagine that!
This trend is highly likely to continue. In the future, we’ll see yet more realistic
weather, yet higher resolution of natural features and yet better viewing technology (3D
glasses anyone?) to raise the immersion factor yet further. Even today the immersion factor
is great enough to cause the player to burst out with whoops of joy over a particularly nice
sunset or terrain feature, not to mention the pounding sensation of closing on an blissful
enemy or the sweating palms resulting from extended hard combat. Immersion is not merely
a result of visual and sound effects but of what the player himself contributes in the form of
behaviour – most readily seen in formation flying, voice communications and adherence to
engagement principles. When we fly and fight, we truly ARE fighter pilots.

1 Clear Air Visibility Unlimited

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CH AP T ER 2: T H E P L A Y ER S
In MMORPGs such as WarBirds and WWIIOL players are truly international. While the
games are produced and first released in the U.S. they have gathered a strong following all
over the world. The main nations besides the U.S. are, in no particular order, Canada,
Australia, U.K., Germany, France and Italy. Other nations with relatively strong online
communities include Finland, Sweden, Spain and Brazil. Although the player base is mainly
(85-90%) rooted in North America, the distribution does provide an 24/7/365 alternate
reality.
Regardless of origin pilots can be said to fall into either of two main categories: the
casual and the hard-core. This is not indisputably so, to the contrary: depending on your
mood, you might be hard-core in one session and casual in another. You may even be a
hard-core casual pilot, or a casual hard-core pilot. Still, for the sake of argument, pilots are
usually geared either toward a behaviour which is predicated by historical aspects, or toward
one that is entirely centred on the fighting experience. I will call them Type A Grognards and
Type B Funseekers. The Grognard has a deep interest in the era and has probably spent half
a lifetime reading up on the history and particulars of WWII. He knows the difference
between MG-FF and MG-121, he can recite orders of battle from obscure engagements over
the Owen Stanleys and he knows perfectly well what discerning traits one or the other
machine has at varying airspeeds. The Grognard is usually well versed in ACM and
formation tactics, and can almost be trusted to immerse himself in the fighter pilot fantasy to
the point of wearing silk scarves and goggles. In short, he’s a diehard realism freak. The
Grognard prepares himself with maps of the arena, he joins up with wingmen and claws for
altitude. He abhors “dying”, or at any rate does his very best to avoid it.
The Funseeker on the other hand doesn’t really bother with specifics: all he wants is
a good fight with as little delay as possible. The Funseeker habitually takes on any odds at
any time under any circumstance. He usually takes off in the frontline and makes a beeline to
the action. If he’s shot on the runway, he’ll most likely replane and attempt it again no matter
what the opposition. The Funseeker is generally a loner. He may know that teamwork
improves his survival chances but is at pains to hook up with someone other than by
accident. While the Funseeker certainly doesn’t enjoy “dying”, his flying style is rarely
affected by it – although, involuntarily, his anger and frustration over having been whacked
might.
Still, these typologies aren’t absolute. The great leveller is experience – there are as
many inexperienced Grognards as hotshot Funseekers. The game itself also determines the
distribution of type A and B pilots – WarBirds for instance has a large cadre of experienced
pilots whereas the ace vs. rookie ratio in WWIIOL is something like 1 to 9 or greater, mainly
because the WWIIOL player base consists largely of people with tank-infantry background.
When these guys go aloft they do so primarily with a view to affect the ground-war situation,
which means that they fly low and concentrate on whacking enemy ground units. Needless
to say, these “pilots” fall like flies when confronted with anyone having a few years of air-to-
air experience.
If you put two pilots of similar experience and capability in two similarly performing
aircraft, the one who makes the least mistakes – or he who has the most luck – will win. As
luck has it however, no two pilots are hardly ever so closely matched. If you on the other
hand put a brilliant pilot in, say, a Brewster Buffalo, and a complete beginner in a Focke-
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Wulf D-9, chances are that the expert pilot will send the beginner down in flames in very
short order. Experience is the deciding matter, not the plane. This was painfully experienced
by real aviators in The Great Marianas Turkey Shoot, in the opening days of Operation
Barbarossa and in the last year of the European War on the Western front. Experienced,
well-trained and highly motivated pilots will sweep the skies every time or at least for as long
as they aren’t outnumbered twenty to one. Online, it is very much the same: experience is at
a premium, and it is dearly purchased through what at times seems to be a near infinite
amount of virtual deaths.
Experience will tell you where to launch, where to patrol, how to execute your
mission, when to engage and when not to. Experience tells you whether the bogey is friendly
or enemy, whether he’s a bomber or fighter, whether he’s heading toward you or away from
you, whether he’s seen you or not. Experience gives you a subconscious scanning routine,
the ability to format, the tingle along the spine that tells you to break hard away, the ability to
check six while you’re dogfighting, the keen sense for energy. Experience tells you where
your exit window is, when to disengage, how to fox an enemy, the difference between too
soon and too late. It is all that you need, and everything the beginner wants.
It’s a cruel war out there. Some of your opponents have logged thousands of hours
and engaged the enemy tens of thousands times, whereas quite a few have hardly even
scored their first kill yet. It is very much like in the real war, but here the veterans are
immeasurably more experienced than ever the greatest Experten – except in the discipline of
staying alive that is. Until you become experienced, and that may take months, years even,
read as much as you can, study acknowledged veterans in the air, and fly as if your life
depended on it. You are fortunate in having recourse to a lot of training material and
accumulated wisdom that the real pilots didn’t – some were sent up in the air with less than
40 hours of tuition, and with no more combat instruction than Dicta Boelcke2.
In the beginning you need to take baby steps and concentrate on a single thing: how
to survive. Let me rephrase that: first you must learn to live, not how to kill. As a new pilot
you should forget entirely about (dog)fighting, however tempting it may seem to indulge in
it. Spend your first month slavishly following other pilots around and STAY with them
throughout a sortie. Firing your guns is secondary, survival and not losing your self-chosen
leader is primary. The big question is whom to follow. Choose the ones who climb to at least

2 By the summer of 1916, Oswald Boelcke had become Germany's top fighter pilot. Feldflugchef
Colonel Thomsen of the German High Command urged Boelcke to draw up a summary of principles
that should govern every air fight. His list of 'rules' for success is often referred to as the 'Dicta
Boelcke.'
1. Try to secure advantages before attacking. If possible keep the sun behind you.
2. Always carry through an attack when you have started it.
3. Fire only at close range and only when your opponent is properly in your sights.
4. Always keep your eye on your opponent, and never let yourself be deceived by ruses.
5. In any form of attack it is essential to assail your opponent from behind.
6. If your opponent dives on you, do not try to evade his onslaught, but fly to meet it.
7. When over the enemy's lines never forget your own line of retreat.
8. For the Staffel: Attack on principle in groups of four or six. When the fight breaks up into a series
of single combats, take care that several do not go for one opponent.

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3-4 km (9-12,000 ft), the ones who seem to know what they’re doing. Forget about the
loudmouthed crowd, the weedclippers and the impatient. When you grow confident enough
to go on the offensive you should attack only such enemy as are low, slow and non-
manoeuvring. These fellows are invariably found enroute to particularly active map areas.
Kill them from above and behind when they're napping, with a single devastating high-speed
attack.
Immediately break off after an attack, whether successful or not, and regain your
advantages and situational awareness. If surprise is lost, disengage entirely: it’s hard enough
to kill a guy who’s sleeping at the stick, killing someone who manoeuvres to avoid you is
immeasurably more difficult and quite beyond most raw beginners. And wading right into
the furball as a newbie is about the worst thing you can do. Without proper understanding of
energy, ACM and combat psychology, and without situational awareness to handle even
ONE bandit, how can you hope to prevail? If you perchance return to base it is mainly
attributable to dumb luck, numerical superiority and the gracious intervention of friendlies in
saving your posterior.
As a rookie pilot you will find advice a dime a dozen, or maybe not at all depending
on your co-flyers and community. Hopefully you will pick up some nuggets of wisdom here
and put them to use – if so, my ambition has been rewarded.
While I consider myself an accomplished pilot, I am nevertheless just as prone to
suffer disaster as anyone else is out there, and perhaps that humility is my saving grace. An
example: one fair day I wended my way out over the front in a Dewoitine D.520. I was not
far into “indian country”, at somewhat below the aircraft’s best performance altitude (5500
m), and had been diligently observing the sky ever since takeoff. As per rote behaviour I was
flying a gently weaving path – “flying crookedly” – quarter-rolling to observe my entire stern
sector every 4-5 seconds and never once ignoring any part of the sky. Yet, a 109-E managed
to creep up on me:

The first notice I got of his attack was a stream of tracer flying past my wing and canopy: I could hardly
believe I was being attacked. As I rolled and pulled somewhat to avail me of my incredulity, I spotted the
bandit no more than 300 meters away right on my tail and slightly high, and immediately accentuated the
manoeuvre into a proper evasive action. What luck that he was a right bad shot and hadn’t closed in further
before opening fire! I had some steam up already so I went into a rolling scissors and was soon gratified to see
the 109 flash past, whereupon I immediately pulled in after him. He made a gentle zoom away and from the
way he handled his crate I knew he’d lost sight of me. Interestingly enough he didn’t make much of an effort
in regaining visual but chose to carry on – a fatal mistake, for one cannot fight that which one cannot see.
Fortunately enough his closure had not been massive and I managed to eke out a couple of cannon
hits as he slowed down at the top of his zoom, hitting his rear fuselage from low seven o’clock. I could see him
shudder with the hits and then go into a long dive, still not seeing me, which I followed.
Having dived to 1 km he then went into a steep zoom, allowing me to cut across his circle and draw
a bead as he topped out – surprisingly enough he seemed to be flying at reduced RPM too. My cannon
hammered him again, slicing through him from low astern and instantly setting his plane on fire.

The whole combat took no more than a minute at most and beside the initial bounce I was
in control of the entire fight. Had he but disengaged after the first missed pass he would

12
have had no worries – but he lost sight, and thus lost the fight. Still, the fact that he managed
to surprise me was disconcerting!
The great thing about MMORPGs is that you’re always fighting other people rather
than predictable artificial intelligence drones. In that respect, every engagement is unique. It
also means that in order to excel you have to accurately gauge the bandit’s experience and act
accordingly. It’s not that difficult either – everything the bandit does, or does not do, gives
you all the necessary clues as to his level of situational awareness, plane handling capability,
energy and ACM proficiency, his mission, confidence and tactical plan. All you need to do is
watch him closely. Then of course, you might be set up by a cunning foe who lets you
believe that he’s less experienced while waiting for you to commit the one error he’s
expecting. Everything isn’t always what they seem to be, and there are more than one way of
surprising the unwary. That said, human beings are usually infinitely more predictable than
AI drones: their behaviour is predicated by stimuli which, once you figure out how to apply
it, becomes utterly predictable. Taken as a whole the enemy exhibits all the attributes of the
flock, of the lone stalker, of the vengeful, of the hurried, of the blinkered. Learning to
discern the typologies and roughly how and where they appear is very much part of the
engagement equation.
Psychology is arguably one of THE biggest factors in air-to-air combat, something
that I discuss at length in Part IV. For now, keep in mind that there are no absolutes: your
enemy may act rationally or irrationally; he may be experienced or a rookie; he may be hell-
bent on completing an important mission or just out for a bit of fun; he may not have seen
you or is disregarding you on purpose.
Accurately assessing the enemy’s mental state, identifying with him as it were,
reading his mind from the way he handles his plane and from the decisions he makes, is in
my opinion one of the most gratifying elements of online combat. The moments when you
“read” an enemy often contain a measure of glee, which isn’t particularly pretty but
nonetheless funny – recognising the enemy’s fear or surprise or lack of skill, and capitalising
on it, is unavoidably material to combat. If you’re big-hearted, maybe you feel compassion or
pangs of sadness when you gun someone down. I don’t!
In any event, the people are what makes or breaks the game. The sense of belonging
to a community, of supporting a positive community spirit, is perhaps more important than
any individual exploit in the game. To illustrate, you might be a Sierra Hotel gunfighter, but if
you lack humility or engage in disruptive behaviour online, you will probably feel very lonely
in the game. While building a reputation, self-esteem, or seeking respect from your peers may
or may not be important to you, the same rules that govern acceptable behaviour in the real
world also applies in the game. In other words, insufferable egomaniacs, people using
offensive language, spammers3 and other high-strung dramatis personae are seldom tolerated
very long.
In the air, you will witness great exploits, fantastic scenes – and unfathomable
displays of ineptitude. I am ever in awe of pilots who seemingly without effort clear out a
whole gaggle of enemy single-handedly, much as I’m disturbed by the near total lack of
professionalism in some cases, such as when a whole group of fighters meticulously

3 Individual who makes extensive use of capital letters in the text interface and/or monopolises the
text buffer with seemingly inconsequential drivel.
13
organised and deployed, dive in and become embroiled, stationary, and defeated in detail. In
short, there are all kinds of players out there, and you never know how good they are until
you take them on and meet them eye to eye.

14
CH AP T ER 3: F E A R O F D EA T H
“We only thought about going out and getting drunk when we got back from the mission - we never considered
the fact that we might NOT be coming back.”
S/Sgt Leonard J. Hurley, 305th Bomb Group (H)

“I was always scared--that was what made me move quick.”

Major Robert S. Johnson, 61st FS, 56th FG

Death, in the online game, means nothing. And then again, it does. The simple fact that you
can respawn immediately and go on out to repeat the same mistake over and over again
without permanent penalty makes for a warped world when it comes to pilot behaviour. On
the other hand, no one likes “dying” for the inconvenience, disruption and confidence-
degrading of it. That said, some guys just don’t care and even regard dying as an expedient to
avoid a troublesome and tedious flight home. Others will go to any length to avoid virtual
death – by any means necessary including “hugging the ack”4 and even “yanking the cable”5.
Fundamentally, however, players usually rate success higher than failure – if they
didn’t, what reason would they have to play? In the online game, fear of death is thus a
highly individual choice – whether to immerse yourself in the overall experience or to simply
regard the game as a simple diversion, a sort of physical “twitch” exercise.
Death means failure. Death does have a meaning in the game insofar as it gives the
enemy a shot in the arm, insofar as it increases the odds against your remaining team mates,
insofar as it depletes the available aircraft for your side (when attrition is modelled, as in
WWIIOL), insofar as it forces you to spend time trucking back to the fight etcetera. But the
most important thing about death, which escapes most pilots, is that it reveals your errors.
Death is a learning experience which few takes to heart. Instead, the thing most flying
cadavers feel is anger. You get mad – or rather, hopping, screaming, wall-punching, monitor-
crunching mad – when you’re shot down, a rather disagreeable sensation if it happens with
any regularity, yet this anger is a good thing if you stop to think about it. You shouldn’t get
mad at the guy who shot you down, or curse the tree that collided with you (heh), but thank
them for the lesson and scold yourself for being such a dummy that let it happen in the first
place. And then work to avoid death by that cause in the future.
Flying as if your life depended on it gives the game a whole new meaning. Whereas
you would normally hop into any fight, you now pick your fights carefully and learn to
appreciate the dread and fear experienced by those who literally laid their lives on the line.
Your situational awareness improves, you learn to check your six more often, you learn to
maintain energy and positional advantage, and you may even learn how to fight as a team.
Death is the result of sloppiness and abandon. For the purpose of this book, we will
assume that the pilot is imbued with proper fear of death, or if you will, an abhorrence of
failure.
The pilot must not, however, fear death so much that he becomes paralyzed or that
he fails to capitalize on advantageous situations. There can be no gain, no improvement,

4Circling in the protection offered by friendly anti-aircraft batteries.

5Voluntarily disconnecting from the internet game through unplugging the network, the anonymous
disappearance being preferred over public humiliation.
15
without risk. Fear of death must not be equated with a defensive posture, rather, the pilot
should respect death and learn to recognize the envelope of death – in other words, learn to
realise his limitations and to know when said limitations are about to be exceeded. Thus, a
fighter pilot learns to know himself, and to know his enemy.

It’s easy to see who fears death and who does not. The pilot who fears death adheres to
fundamental principles of air to air combat: he secures an altitude advantage; he keeps his
energy state high; he scans effectively; he flies with a wingman at the very least; he engages
with selection; he disengages before the situations turns against him; he uses surprise if at all
possible – in short, he hoards as many advantages as possible and never lets his guard down.
When this fellow makes a mistake, it’s generally an infinitesimally small one: an inopportune
stall, a break too gently executed or one false turn too many. If he’s worth his salt, such an
error is easily recognised and repaired.
The pilot who doesn’t fear death ignores every rule ever written. He flies low on the
predictable route; he seldom scans effectively; he rarely flies in formation; he engages with
abandon and against any odds; he never disengages – in short, he forgoes all advantages for
the purpose of getting to the fight without delay and of mashing the trigger as much as
possible. This pilot does nothing but mistakes from the time he takes off to the moment
when he’s shot down.
The learning experience is greatly hastened by taking due note of every sortie and
every death in particular. Writing after-action reports, playing the engagement over and over
again in your mind’s eye in search of the critical error, is a great way to improve. While the
terminal error is usually easy to see – overstaying one’s welcome, atrocious gunnery, target
fixation, hesitation, blackout, collisions etc – the critical error generally precedes the terminal
one, sometimes by several minutes, and is usually an error of judgement: you engaged where
you should have disengaged, you thought he had less energy than he actually had, you
overrated your proficiency or had too little respect for the enemy, and so on. Next time you
won’t make that mistake again. Next time you’ll fly faster, higher, closer, aim better, pull less
gravity loads, break off in time, bring friends to a duel.

Fear death, and you will be fearsome.

Sometimes it takes a long time to learn, and some lessons are never learnt. Below are some
excerpts from my sortie log back in 1997 and 1998, clearly I had some difficulty with a whole
catalogue of basic errors!

Sortie 1: Engine of my 109K smoked by gold spit. Landed.

Sortie 2: Engine smoked again off F13 by vila in pony, extended but crashed against unexpectedly appearing
mountain while attempting to ditch under fire.
Sortie 3: In pony. Died low running from 8 golds to F17.
Sortie 4: Pissed. Up Spit5 from F17 in face of heavy gold opposition. Shot two Spit9's and landed.
Sortie 5: Up 109K. Found webs in a FW off F13. Fought for several minutes before gaining the upper
hand. I blew his vator and rtb'd w/o 30mm slugs. Webs landed successfully.
WarBirds, September 15 1997

16
Sortie 1: -ok---(SpitIX), -bex-- (FW), tos--u (SpitIX). All kills delivered while sweeping wink's six. I
crash into someone or other and have to swim all the way back to F21.
Sortie 2: -bex-- (FW), -bex-- (FW), -omud- (Bf110). Crashed into E/A.
Sortie 3: Jettisoned ordnance (1000 lb bombs) at low alt to engage enemy 110 south of 21. Killed by own
bomb blast. Subsequently bombed and strafed on runway. P/O'd.
Sortie 4: smokey (P39). Pieces of various 110's and B17's. Landed.
Sortie 5: Two enemy 110's accounted for. Die in vicious flat spin.
Sortie 6: Killed by ackweenies at F4.
Sortie 7: In P39, eliminated by -sach- in F6F over F4. No kills.
Sorties 8 and 9 in SpitIX: -bex-- (FW) and various others, log incomplete. Both sorties landed with empty
magazines.
Sorties 10 to umpteenth: heavy to F4, log incomplete, but no deaths.
WarBirds, March 12 1998

Sortie 1: outflown by buzzer despite initial altitude advantage. Death by dweebery.

Sortie 2: death by dweebery, general kind.
Sortie 3: engage 110, scoop out low and get too close, touch wing to wing. Death by dweebery.
Sortie 4: flaps extended, throttle idle, bounce from 17K to the deck on Hurri, waste E and continue stallfight
despite clear disadvantage. -vert- (?) in the Hurri rapidly outturn my hapless kite. Death by dweebery
extremis.
Sortie 5: lead turn Spit but rapidly lose advantage, if any, blown away by buzzer again. Dweebery of a
particularly bad kind.
WarBirds, March 24 1998

Ouch!

17
CH AP T ER 4: I NT E RN E T AN D M EC HA N IC AL P AR T ICU L A RS
It is helpful to have an understanding of how the internet works and how it affects gameplay,
as well as to understand that your mechanical setup may increase the odds against you. The
online game is an exchange of information between clients (the players’ computers) with the
game host as intermediary. Everything pertaining to your situation – airspeed, attitude,
heading and bullets – is sent to the host in internet protocol (IP) packets, normally one
packet every 200 millisecond or so. That information, and the information of everyone else
in the neighbourhood, is then sent out in a packet to your opponent who receives it in the
next 200 millisecond bracket. Sometimes the delay is longer, meaning that your data may be
up to half a second or more old. That half second is a lot in combat.
While the enemy you see turning in front of you appears to be in a certain place, he
is actually about half a second further ahead in his turn. That in itself doesn’t imply that you
should aim your guns at the spot where he actually is (in terms of internet delay), only that
what you see is not the same as what the enemy sees. Consider a turning fight where you see
the enemy straight across the circle, in your top view. You would think that neither of you
has the advantage. In reality, the enemy (depending on his turn rate) may already be pulling
in to a firing position, he may already be firing his guns. Next thing you know, his front end
registers hits on you, the host confirms it and you tumble down on fire, screaming “how did
he do that!” all the way to the ground. The only way to deal with it is to make allowance for
this tiny lag in your engagements.
Sometimes internet delay (lag) is so bad that the enemy is seen doing the most
outlandish manoeuvres, zipping this way and that or zooming to impossible altitudes. Take it
as a cue to distance yourself from that particular fellow, and if it happens repeatedly, as a cue
to check your own internet connection. The rule is: if everyone is lagging in and out, it’s your
connection that is at fault.
Other mechanical effects governing combat are those of your computer and your
controller setup. A slow-poke computer with inadequate RAM or dopey graphics card will
increase lag on your end, to the point of making air combat totally unenjoyable. It’s rough,
but in order to fly you must have a high-end machine and be diligent about keeping it fit for
fight by regular defragmentation of the hard drive. The flight controller (joystick) is also
crucial. Investing in a state-of-the-art joystick (approximately $100-$140) is a wise move if
you’re serious about flying. A sloppy stick with a bad dead-zone, or a stick which requires
overmuch strength to move the control surfaces, significantly lowers your chances against a
pilot who flies with a precisely calibrated and well-sprung stick. In addition to the stick
characteristics, you should also consider the placement of controller hats, buttons and knobs
relative to your hand size. If you have girly hands, don’t buy a large and heavy stick with
many buttons that you can hardly reach.
Additional controllers – throttle and rudder pedals – are highly recommended not
merely for the immersive quality but for ease of play. Having throttle and rudders on a single
joystick may seem comfortable, but it’s a far cry from having separate controllers. A single
hand simply cannot manipulate or effectively coordinate all aspects of flight, other than
perhaps for simple cruising around. The main drawback of having everything on your single
stick is that whenever you twist the handle to work the rudder or use your thumb to spin the
throttle you may also compromise control of the other pitch and roll axes, i.e. you lose fine
control of the plane and perform involuntarily. It’s much the same with using a Point-of-
18
View “coolie” hat: when you thumb it in one direction, the hand wants to push the stick in
that direction too. It takes a conscious effort to remain in control of your plane before you
get used to flying on feel alone. There are of course ways of practicing control, one of my
favourites being that of flying “backwards”: hold a half-back view and fly around, preferably
quite close to the ground, without augering in. When you can master that, try taking off and
landing while flying backwards too. Another big thing about joysticks is the ease of which
you can throw your crate around. It doesn’t take more than a flick of the wrist to execute
what in reality would be a highly taxing manoeuvre involving your whole body and both
arms! Thus the REAL grognards build their own joysticks – full length, floor-mounted jobs
that is certain to give you a real workout and a much better idea of flight.
Get to know your controllers before you attempt any fancy stuff, and learn to fly
without ever taking your eyes from the monitor – the more you have to glance down to type
in commands or work knobs and buttons, the less in control you will be and the more you
will suffer in combat.

19
P AR T I I: FL IG H T A N D C O MB AT B AS IC S
CH AP T ER 5: T H E P L A TF O RM
The purpose of this book is not to go into minute detail about aerodynamics but into the
nature of combat. The reader is assumed to have a general understanding of flight; how lift is
generated and what the various control surfaces are for. Suffice it to say that the three axes
of movement are roll (along the longitudinal axis), pitch (nose up or down) and yaw (slew left
or right). Other than that, two important details to keep in mind are the aircraft’s thrust-to-
weight ratio (TWR) and its wingloading.
A heavy aircraft with relatively weak engine, such as the Dewoitine D.520, has a low
TWR, whereas a light aircraft with a powerful engine such as the A6M “Zero” has a high
TWR. A high TWR is naturally desirable, as more power means better accelleration, more
lift, better climb, better zoom and a better turning capability. Wingloading is derived from
weight divided by wing area. The fighter with the lower wingloading is the more agile, but
this is often at the expense of having a low top speed, lack of pilot armour and lack of
punch. High wingloading means that the fighter cannot turn as well and stalls out sooner
than the fighter with a low wingloading – compare for instance the difference between the
Hurricane (low TWR, low wingloading) and the Focke-Wulf 190 (high TWR, high
wingloading). These traits are important to remember inasmuch they dictate how to best
employ a particular fighter, e.g. the Focke-Wulf is not primarily an angles fighter but should
be restricted to energy fighting.
The singular purpose of the fighter is to close with the enemy and gun him down
with as little risk to himself as possible. Everything else, in the words of Baron von
Richthofen, “is rubbish”. To that end, the fighter is equipped with forward-firing guns
and/or cannon, the object being to bring these into such a position as to score a quick kill.
At one point of the spectrum it seems pretty straightforward: motor in behind the
enemy, kill him dead and get out of Dodge. On the other end of the same spectrum, it’s a
whole science of situational awareness, flight envelopes, energy states, lift vectors, angles and
gravity loads. Since the simplistic approach usually gets you killed in a hurry, it’s opportune
to learn something about the science and psychology of manoeuvring.
It should also be noted that the platform itself means little from a tactical point of
view, other than that it may or may not impose certain restrictions on the pilot’s freedom of
manoeuvre in various situations. What matters are the conscious and subconscious decisions
taken by the pilot, and his moral fortitude. To illustrate this, consider the situation where a
supposedly superior aircraft is defeated by a supposedly inferior aircraft because the former
failed to secure advantages in the form of altitude, airspeed and surprise, whereas the latter
did. Given certain circumstances even a doubly inferior aircraft will prevail, if the pilot
knows his own and his plane’s limitations.
The platform is important to consider, for it dictates your options and decisions. If,
for instance, your rear-view is less than stellar, you will have to manoeuvre all the more to
keep your six clear, and preferably bring a wingman to fly line abreast with (more on this
later). Other governing factors are rate of climb, rate of turn, rate of roll, turn radius, dive
performance, maximum AOA (angle of attack), top speed at various altitudes, acceleration,
pilot armour, fuel tank locations and their integrity, armament, drag, engine type, stall
behaviour, ruggedness of construction etcetera. Each of these factors are important in
combat. Remember though that even if your crate is found lacking in ALL of these respects,
20
it is still the PILOT who makes the difference through his awareness of imposed limitations
and through his decision-making. Let’s look more closely on the most important of these
factors:

Cockpit visibility
If it’s good, no worries! If it’s restricted, you must roll, bank, yaw and turn to various degrees
in order to check your stern aspects. Bad cockpit visibility makes for an increased workload
for the pilot, and enhances the need for an extra pair of eyeballs. Still, even under the best
conditions, ALL planes have their blind spots: below the nose, below wings and below tail.
Use this against your enemy: attack him from such quarters as he cannot easily observe. This
naturally implies a fair level of knowledge of the enemy aircraft types. Knowing whether the
109 is half-blind in his low left or in his low right astern may be the difference between a
successful bounce and a failed one.
Good: Yak-3, A6M, Bf-110, any bubble-canopy equipped fighter such as Typhoon, P51-D
etc.
Bad: Dewoitine D.520, P47 razorbacks, F4F.

Rate of climb
A decent rate of climb advantage (better TWR) over the enemy allows you to use the vertical
to disengage from a potentially nasty situation and to close with a slower climbing enemy.
Naturally it also reduces the time to combat altitude and it generally saves fuel too. If your
climb rate is superior, no worries! If it’s deplorable, you must be extremely wary of engaging
in vertical fights and of climbing anywhere near a combat area. A fighter with low rate of
climb absolutely must engage with an altitude advantage, and thus make all it’s climbing to
altitude from rear fields and in areas where the enemy is unlikely to be encountered, unless it
has a substantial top speed advantage which can be used to increase the horizontal
separation.
Good: Bf-109, Spitfire, Yak, P-38
Bad: P40, P47, F4F

Rate and radius of turn

A good turn rate is a highly prized asset, second only to having a superior roll rate. Since
many fights tend to degenerate into turning contests, having the fighter with the fastest turn
rate and smallest turn radius is clearly desirable. Turn performance is a complex issue
involving every aerodynamic aspect of the design from type of airfoil and wing shape,
horsepower output at various altitudes, max AOA etcetera. Whether your plane is a good
turner or not also depends on which enemy you encounter, and under what circumstances –
so, knowing the performance of your crate and the enemy’s, at specific altitudes and
airspeeds, is critical – e.g. the supposedly nimble Zero will hardly turn at all over 400 km/h.
Do note though, that there are more ways to defeat an enemy than by out turning him.
Angle of Attack is most important for sustained turning: AOA is measured as the difference
in degrees between your actual (vertical) flight path and the plane’s longitudinal axis. For
combat purposes, this angle is created when you haul back on the stick from level flight, or
when you try to fly level at very low speed. If you exceed maximum AOA for your airfoil
(wing shape) it will no longer create lift and you will stall out.
21
Good: Bf-109, Spitfire, Yak, A6M, Curtiss Hawk, I-16
Bad: FW-190, P47, Bloch 151/152

Rate of roll
Most important of all in a fighter, is its ability to change heading and attitude rapidly. To do
so involves the use of elevators and ailerons, both of which should give immediate and
precise feedback without application of overmuch force. Having a superior roll rate means
that you can change your heading and/or plane of manoeuvre faster than the enemy, and
thus outmanoeuvre him (because the angle of bank [sideways tilt] is important for
determining heading and rate of turn, the basic components of manoeuvre). This is especially
important when you’re in a slower-turning aircraft – as long as you hold the roll rate trump,
the better turning but slower rolling aircraft must play by your rules. E.g. if you’re being out-
turned to the left you can quickly switch to a right-hand turn through rolling and pulling on
the elevators, thus to meet then enemy nose to nose and then to put distance between
yourself and the opponent by simply running clean away. Roll rate is not constant – it differs
with airspeed – and one crate that may outroll an opponent in one situation may be miles
behind at a different airspeed. Typically, your roll rate is slower at very low and very high
speeds. If your roll rate is inferior to that of the enemy’s you are heavily disadvantaged and
must at all cost avoid contests where roll rate is central, such as in a flat scissors fight. That is
not to say that a slower rolling aircraft must always be defeated, to the contrary, for there are
ways of getting around the problem. We’ll talk more about that later in this chapter.
Good: P47, P38, P39, P40, FW-190, Bf-109, Curtiss Hawk
Bad: Spitfire, A6M, Bf-110

Dive performance
The ability to pounce unseen on an enemy from high altitude, and the ability to dive out of
trouble, is almost as important as a good climb rate or superior roll rate. Most fighters are
well endowed in this regard although some “locks up” easily from compressibility effects or
must be wrestled down with excessive use of trim tabs and elevator pressure, or suffer stiff
ailerons in high speed dives. Significant for a plane that dives well is the ease of going into
and maintaining a straight dive; that the fighter retains aileron and elevator control at all but
the highest speeds (850+ km/h). It is therefore crucial to know how your fighter behaves at
terminal velocity, at what altitude you need to ease back to avoid ploughing into the ground,
and at what speed your opponent’s performance degrades. Mass, wing design and general
construction are the key features here. A heavy fighter of sturdy construction and with thick
wings dives a lot better than a light, flimsy aircraft with thin or tapered wings.
Good: P47, F4F, F6F, Curtiss Hawk, P40, FW-190.
Bad: Spitfire, Bf-109, A6M, Ki-43, P38

Top speed
Speed is life. Having a substantial speed advantage over the enemy allows you to engage and
disengage at will. High speed allows you to minimise your stay in enemy guns envelopes, to
convert speed to altitude when necessary and to close unseen on the enemy. Consider the
Messerschmitt 262 jet fighter, the epitome of speed superiority, or the significant speed
differences between a Typhoon IIB and a Ju-87 Stuka. High speed is not always a blessing
22
however, as it prevents you from making radical manoeuvres and makes you more than a
little predictable once the enemy has his eyes on you. Accelleration is another factor that can
be decisive in a fight: you may have the fastest job in the sky but if the slower enemy has
better accelleration from slow to mid-range speeds then he’ll be all over you the moment you
engage in an energy-burning turning contest. Even so, all is not lost if your accelleration is in
the pits. Simply make sure to keep a few thousand feet of air below your belly and use it in
lieu of raw horsepower, should the need arise.

Trimming your aircraft

In WWIIOL as in most other air combat simulations you have the option to trim your
aircraft, for level flight, for climbing and diving, using the elevator trim tabs. Similarly you
can trim your ailerons and rudder for minute corrections in the yaw and roll plane. This
capability is something which is lost on the majority of beginner pilots but which is essential
for any kind of controlled flight, both in cruise and in combat. Your aircraft exhibits specific
pitch, roll and yaw tendencies at various airspeeds, tendencies which you control by
manipulating the trim tabs mentioned above. These trim tabs are small control surfaces on
the main control surfaces which balance the same in order to attain an unloaded joystick
state (i.e. controlled flight without stick input). For instance, for take off and landing, it’s
auspicious to trim the aircraft tail heavy (elevator trim up) so as to avoid having to pull back
unnecessarily on the stick. If your crate likes to roll to the right due to excessive engine
torque you will have to counteract this with adding port aileron trim. And if your kite likes to
yaw left due to damage, add starboard rudder trim to offset the increased drag on your port
wing.
The greatest utility however is found in the elevator trim tab. The objective here is
to trim your aircraft to an unloaded state at the speed you’re currently at. Or in other words,
if you’re flying at 500 km/h but are trimmed for 300 km/h, you will have to push the stick
forward to maintain level flight. Instead, you should trim nose heavy (elevator trim down) to
lessen the need for stick input. Similarly, if you’re trimmed for 500 km/h but enter a turning
fight and thus slow down to 250-300 km/h, you will need to trim tail heavy in order to get
the most elevator authority, thus improving your turn performance, to avoid fighting at a
disadvantage.
It should be obvious now that in order to maximise your performance and efficiency
you need to jog that trim wheel at all times, and to be aware of your airspeed and trim state
at all times. The pilot who doesn’t trim his aircraft according to the speed he’s at is
involuntarily saddling himself with a great disadvantage and is usually an easy mark for the
discerning eye.

It’s the pilot, not the plane

The guy who wins is the guy who makes the fewer gross mistakes.
Lieutenant Jim "Huck" Harris, USN

For a pilot flying an inferior aircraft, it’s convenient and natural to blame his shortcomings in
the air on the quality of his plane. While certain aircraft are more challenging to fly, or
decidedly inferior in performance, guns, what have you, there are always but always ways to
work around a disadvantage. Even if you’re in a slow, unmanoeuvreable, undergunned and
23
avgas-soaked crate, pitted against an enemy who enjoys every conceivable advantage, there
are still ways to prevail. All you have to do is to realise that you cannot succeed in any mission, any
time. You will have to choose your mission wisely and carry it out with singular determination
(and teamwork), with such tactics as to minimise your disadvantages.
In an environment where the enemy holds air superiority, has the faster, the more
manoeuvrable, the better armed and the better overall performing aircraft and, logically, the
better morale, the opposing force must employ superior tactics and exhibit immaculate
caution in the fights they choose to engage in. While the lesser force isn’t likely to prevail in
the long run, it can still account creditably for itself and remain in being far longer than had it
waded mindlessly into combat. History is studded with such examples: France 1940, The
Western Desert 1941-42, Italy 1943, France 1944, The Eastern Front etc – in all these
examples, one air force was significantly outnumbered by a more powerful and better
performing enemy yet managed a creditable performance.
How does one do it? When the mechanical advantages are all on the enemy side,
one has to secure all other advantages before joining the fray. That means taking off from
rear fields to avoid being clubbed like baby seals at the frontline fields; flying in formation to
create local air superiority; climbing to superior altitude so as to gain an initial energy
advantage; engaging with team tactics versus the singleton tactics of the enemy; to minimise
the appearance over enemy territory to the duration of the critical mission only; to engage
with the element of surprise and to disengage well before these advantages degrade.
It is you the pilot who makes the critical choices. There’s no reason whatsoever to
accept a bad fight unless you wilfully put yourself in that situation. You CAN climb to
superior altitude, you CAN make at least one surprise attack and get away with it, you CAN
choose where and how to fight. You may be in the slowest, most pitiful aircraft ever
designed and still prevail against the fastest, the most numerous and the best aircraft the
enemy can bring to bear, as long as you make the correct choices.
Central to this engagement doctrine is to regard the sortie as a mission with a very
strict objective and to regard death as the only failure to be avoided at all cost. The sortie
cannot be one whose only mission is to “find trouble of some sort and we’ll take it from
there”. Fly with a purpose.
The “pilot over plane” discussion is naturally also a matter of individual ability. How
else can one explain the fact that no two pilots handle a similar craft in precisely the same
way? Pilot A is extremely successful in his plane: he knows how to ride the edges of the
mechanical, situational and psychological envelopes. Pilot B is an intermediate pilot: he
manhandles the crate, doesn’t watch his enemy closely enough, and his actions are marked
by frustration. Pilot A knows what he and his plane can do, pilot B does not. In addition to
this, the pilots may have different flight controller setups (pilot A has a great stick, throttle
and rudder combo, pilot B struggles with a cheap piece of plastic of dubious quality and
must use his free hand to manipulate the keyboard). Until such point as pilot B realises the
limitations of his skill and the mechanical impact on his flying (the stick) he will blame his
crate and call it a worthless piece of fecal matter.

24
Remember the three core advantages material for success:
SPEED
ALTITUDE
SURPRISE

When either of these advantages is lost it’s high time to disengage in order to retrieve it. It is
of course eminently possible to fight without surprise on your side, and sometimes it’s
necessary too. It’s also quite possible to fight without either surprise or speed, since altitude
can be traded for the latter, but if you’re in a mechanically inferior aircraft… don’t. Still,
people being what they are, the great majority will trust their prowess before all else even
though it may be sorely lacking… so, back to square one: if your capabilities aren’t what you
thought they were, fall back on trusting on speed, altitude and surprise.

Permeating the flight simulation community is the inevitable and interminable discussion of
who has the best plane, of whom is “über” and whom is, well, fucked. Plane types are
weighed against plane types, roll rates are bandied against climb rates and turn rates, and
never will the discussion come to a rest – because the community is ever in flux with new
pilots of little learning and/or experience entering the fray, and because beliefs are stronger
than facts. Regardless of game and regardless of where in the timeline of WWII the game
exists pilots, particularly those who are saddled with a particular allegiance, will be either
lamenting or gloating in their crates depending on which side is holding the trumps. Be that
as it may, I submit that it is still the pilot who matters over the plane and those who claim
otherwise are simply not sufficiently well endowed in any or all of the core dimensions vital
to air combat. Take for instance the match between Spitfires and 109s: normally, the 109
drivers will lament the Spits’ turning ability and climb rate whereas the Spitfire pilots will
groan over the 109s potent weaponry and awesome dive and climb rates. Enter the Focke-
Wulf 190 A series and the Axis pilots will croon with joy and gloat over their superior speed,
dive and armament – until they try to dogfight, as most are wont to do. Still, despite winning
the dogfights, the Spitfire jocks will complain and wish they had something faster, something
with punch, such as the Typhoon Mk IIB or the better performing Spitfire Mk IX. Give
them that and the übermunchkins will be back on the defensive, lamenting their hard luck,
until they get another upgrade. And so it continues, without anyone save the precious few
realising that speed, climb, dive, roll and what have you, matters little or not at all.
Remember, the thing is not what you have to fight with, but HOW you fight with it.

“My plane can’t climb worth a damn!”

So, don’t engage in climbing contests! Do all of your climbing well before entering hostile
skies, and disengage when the bad guys threaten to get on top. Think “discipline!”.

“The enemy keeps winning the turning fights!”

So, don’t turn with them! Engage only in such fights as you feel comfortable in, e.g. close
unseen from behind or dive in unseen from above. Set up drag-and-bag traps with a buddy
or three. Avoid all else. Think “discipline!”

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“We are always outnumbered!”
So, fight only on YOUR terms! There is always a rear field to launch from. Instead of
spending your online time as a bona fide target drone at the forward fields, always with
enemy on top, invest a few minutes in securing an altitude advantage from a rear field. Then
you are ready to rule. Make single attacks, don’t bog down in wrestling individual enemy and
disengage the moment you sense your energy advantage is about to be compromised. Or
better still, collect some 4-8 pilots and work like a team against the solo or gaggle tactics of
the enemy. Think “discipline!”

“All they do is run!”

So, let them! If you can’t catch them, why even try? If the bandit is running away it clearly
means that he isn’t a threat. At the most, a running bandit is a lure or a ruse. If you can get
the bandit to run you’ve won the engagement since you’re in possession of the field. On the
other hand, the bandit may call it a draw as he is still alive, and he may be planning a come-
back on better terms. In any case, if the bandit is running scared, you can get him to turn
back for another go by showing him contempt and/or disinterest – check out chapter 17.4.
And if he’s running home to repair or rearm, well, then you have the opportunity to own his
sky so as to kill him all the more effectively next time you happen to meet him. In other
words, follow him to his lair and stake him out as he replanes.

“Scumbag nitwits keep crashing into me!”

Since beginner pilots usually fly “pipper-on-enemy” only until they learn the concept of
separation, ramming is an occupational hazard. Pitch two beginners against each other and
they’re highly likely to die in a head-on collision (flying straight at your enemy usually results
in collisions you know), whereas two intermediate or accomplished pilots are far less likely to
collide – because they fly to avoid the collision rather than fly to collide. It really isn’t that hard:
simply point beside your enemy in a head-on approach and you will not collide. The novice
retorts with “but then he gets a free shot!”, to which I say: use the Vertical Luke, i.e. pitch up or
down out of his plane of manoeuvre in order to complicate the shot beyond his capability.
Up close and personal, if you’re feeling the collision coming up, slide out with a stomp of the
rudder or relax stick pressure to slide below and behind your enemy.

What do you do when the enemy is faster and the only thing you have is an advantage in roll rate?
Speed is of course the decisive advantage – he who has an overhead of speed can run down
the slower enemy and disengage from any fight that threatens to go sour. Thus, the slower
fighter needs to secure an energy advantage by storing up on potential speed known as…
altitude. However, before long you’re highly likely to get into the situation where the enemy
is co-E or better thus forcing you to fight on his terms. He who has speed normally has the
climb and dive advantage as well, although there are exceptions to the rule. Anyhow, here
you are, fighting a faster bandit with nothing but your wits and your roll rate – how do you
do it? Your roll rate is of decisive importance inasmuch it allows you to change direction
swiftly and thus create or increase separation which the enemy cannot immediately follow or
make up for. In short, every time he commits to an attack, you have the opportunity to roll
and pull outside his performance envelope. Thus you evade his every pass, flying outside his
“cone of opportunity”. Every time he misses, he must set up anew by turning around and
26
that he cannot do without a certain separation (distance) as that would put him unhealthily
close to your guns. While he turns around you move out again, towards home, friends and
AA guns. If you’re feeling somewhat more combative, you can easily set him up for a rolling
scissor as he comes boring in on you (see chapter 13.8), and polish him off once and for all.
For it is highly likely, given his speed advantage, that he has a poor turn performance and is
likely to stall out if he handles his crate with abandon.

The enemy is faster AND rolls better – all I have is a slight advantage in the turn?
Now you’re doubly disadvantaged. The enemy is faster and rolls better, giving him the
opportunity to follow your every move and produce excellent guns solutions in due time.
You’re flying a crate that can turn well, and that’s it, so how do you prevail? Well, the enemy
will want to fight in long, fast, straight moves with as little turning as possible, whereas you
will want to slow down the fight and turn as much as possible. In order to survive and
prevail you must fight on your terms only, and you must avoid a pure rolling contest too.
That said, your enemy’s performance is likely to suffer markedly if you can bring him down
to a slow speed, allowing you to work with rolling scissors despite your slight roll
disadvantage – for the rolling scissor isn’t as dependent on massive aileron use as it is on
judicious use of elevators to manage vertical separation. In the rolling scissor, you use your
roll to corkscrew around your enemy, not to roll completely away as in the flat scissor. So
then, bring him down to a slow fight by flying close to him and by cutting across the circle
he makes in an effort to reverse on you. He will try to increase separation so as to turn
completely around on you before closing again, if you can deny him that separation he will
eventually slow down to fight on your terms or disengage altogether in frustration. The
critical part of the fight is when he manages that important separation and comes at you –
you will have to feed him angles on his approach and use the rolling scissor against him, for
that is the only thing short of a bare-knuckle knife fight that will save you.

What do you do if you are thrice disadvantaged?

You cannot run. You cannot roll your way out of Dodge. And you cannot outturn your
assailant. The only thing you have going for you is a slightly more levelled field in the slow
fight, as your disadvantages aren’t quite as marked then. Your choices are extremely limited:
other than knocking down a couple of stiff ones in the airdrome bar, you must fly well above
anything remotely hostile and only engage if you can do so with the prospect of killing your
target in one blow or of destroying your enemy’s SA and energy in that single attack. You
may also want to seriously consider bringing along a fistful of friends so that you can set up
drag&bag traps for the unwary. In the co-energy or worse scenario, which is bound to occur
since you went up alone to brave the odds, your only alternative is to roll your way home
while making yourself as unpredictable a target as possible. If you’re really good you may get
a few snapshots in such a rolling scissor disengagement fight, but don’t bank on it. If you do
elect to fly and fight (maybe you don’t have a choice!) you should attempt to find the enemy
where he’s low and slow: at or near his base, on climbout stretches, while returning with
battle damage etc. Jump on him then, hack him down and make yourself scarce right quick!
Nothing hones skill as well as fighting in a completely disadvantaged aircraft – try it, and you
might just get to like it. If nothing else, your kills, when you get them, will be all the sweeter.

27
 Some of the best (virtual) pilots I’ve known deliberately flew the crappiest aircraft.
Squire Toad for instance habitually flew his big, clumsy, flimsy, slow and under-gunned Aichi
Val divebomber into combat with the heaviest American Iron, Spitfires and the like, kicking
their heinies. Minister Worr preferred the comparably slower and under-performing P38-F
against much faster, nimbler and better rolling enemy, doing more than well for himself. The
kick of gunning down a guy in a thrice advantaged aircraft is exceptional. I’ve waded into
(and successfully out of) combat in a Blenheim Mk I fighter-bomber, a ruddy big and
unwieldy aircraft that was totally at a disadvantage against the opposition in all aspects but
turn radius at near stall speed, which is a dubious advantage at best. While these examples are
but lore and braggadocio, they do support the claim that winning has precious little to do
with the aircraft and its capabilities but very much more so with the brain behind its controls.

We can’t support our troops because the enemy is too numerous and have better aircraft than we do.
If I had had a dime for every time I’ve heard this I’d be a rich man today. It is inevitably so
(in a game) that one side will outnumber the other, one side will have a better performing
inventory, one side will have the better pilots and one side will enjoy all the benefits of
superior morale. What’s worse, depending on your allegiance of course, is that these factors
are self-reinforcing: good inventory = more pilots = more success = better morale = more
flight time = better pilots und so weiter. Griping and yammering isn’t going to change that.
If you’re left holding the wrong end of the stick you had better do something about it, right
quick. The first thing to realise in this situation is that you cannot expect to succeed in any
venture at any time under any circumstance. Strike that thought from your mind. You can
only succeed in such situations as your proficiency and circumstances allow, and with the
above-mentioned set of disadvantages ranged against you those situations are few indeed.
Tough luck, but there it is.
Back in 1943 Air Vice Marshal Tedder laid down the law on how fighters should be
employed, in order of priority and in order of discrete tasks to be accomplished before the
next can be contemplated:

a. Fighter sweeps to clear the enemy out of the sky.

b. Escort for light and medium bombers.
c. Interception of enemy aircraft.
d. As a fighter bomber to provide CAS for ground forces.

This doctrine makes all sense. Before you can afford the luxury of CAS you absolutely must
win air superiority. To do so, you must find and defeat the enemy in the air and on the
ground, destroying him with fire and bombs, with interdiction and denial of production.
Such enemy aircraft that venture to do the same to us must be intercepted and destroyed,
and only once these tasks have been satisfactorily completed can CAS become an issue. So, if
you’re outnumbered, outperformed and outmoraled: fly higher, fly faster, engage with
distinction and disengage at the first whiff of advantages lost. Never ever fly alone, treat your
team with as much care as you want them to show you and learn to dominate locally before
shooting for total air superiority. What does all this have to do with “pilot over plane” you
ask? Well, it is not uncommon for sim pilots to make too steep demands on their rides, and

28
on themselves, that they cannot deliver. Realising one’s limitations and adapting to them is
probably the single most important factor in surviving a sortie.

29
CH AP T ER 6: EN ER G Y
Speed is life.
Unknown pilot

The concept of energy is absolutely central to air combat. Without an understanding of

energy or how to deal with disparities of energy under various circumstances, no fighter pilot
can hope to survive. When talking about Energy, or simply “E”, it’s generally assumed that
maintaining a high energy state is the way to go, and that if you have it, you can’t go wrong.
Wrong. Maintaining a high energy state (flying high and fast) is not the be all and end all,
although having it is certainly preferable to not having it. What matters is the comparison
between your energy state and that of the enemy’s, and how these energy states are used.
Thus, energy is always relative – and, having a high energy state is not always a blessing, as
we shall see. That said, he who holds the energy advantage dictates the fight: he is free to
engage and disengage at will.
Your energy state is the sum of your airspeed and your altitude (to be totally true
energy is the sum of airspeed and position relative to the enemy) as created by your
powerplant and conscious choices. Either of these two factors can be traded for the other:
airspeed can be traded for altitude, which can be traded back to airspeed. When you ram that
throttle forward you’re increasing your energy. When you convert some of that speed to
altitude by climbing you’re essentially “putting money in the bank” to be used at a later time.
The wise pilot always maintains a positive bank account! He will need it to execute surprise
attacks, to manoeuvre against sudden threats, to close distances rapidly and to disengage
safely.
Note that a fast fighter at a lower altitude may have the same energy state as a slow
fighter at a higher altitude, although the altitude difference cannot be much more than 2000-
4000 feet and the high fighter needs to go pretty damn slow for them to be energy-neutral.
What’s more, (relative) energy is dependent on position and vectors: the energy total of two
fighters approaching head on is vastly different from that of two fighters pointed away from
each other. Consider a meeting engagement between two co-E, similarly capable, fighters: if
one of them opts to blow right through in the merge his opponent must spend a certain
amount of energy and time to convert to his tail, and by then the disengaging fighter is likely
out of guns range. Thus, your position and vector relative to the enemy is of great energy
value and as such needs to be assessed at every juncture.

The energy equation of speed+altitude+vector is what allows a patently slower fighter to

dominate a technically speaking faster fighter. On paper the slowpoke plane shouldn’t have a
chance, right? Well, with a bit of altitude to be cashed in for speed and distance (from an
advantageous position I should add) almost any plane can be brought to bear against a
supposedly vastly superior fighter. What’s more, that faster fighter isn’t always fast: he may
be cruising at reduced power settings, he may be handicapped by battle damage, he may be
turning, climbing, circling, landing or in a number of other ways remaining essentially
stationary. In such a case his top speed matters little. As in real estate, position is all that
matters.
As stated above, if you have a significant energy advantage you lay the rules of the
engagement. If the situation is or becomes unfavourable, you may want to disengage or seek
30
a better position from which to engage. Until the advantage is no longer significant, the low-
energy fighter must seek to meet the high-energy fighter at the best of given terms and to
work towards levelling the respective energy states. Typically, the high-energy fighter will
engage with the altitude advantage and stick to moves that burns as little E as possible – in
order to keep up his attacks with minimal risk to himself for as long as possible. Conversely,
he wants the enemy to stay disadvantaged: he will want him to burn energy by forcing him to
engage in heavy defensive manoeuvring. Another way of burning your opponent’s energy is
to make him lose situational awareness – he will have to burn more energy in looking around
and keeping his six clear. Thus we can speak also of situational energy and morale-related
energy.
Burning hard-earned energy is naturally extremely bad. Energy is destroyed when
airspeed decreases without a consequent increase in altitude; by increasing drag (through
pulling excessive gravity loads in turning, by using flaps or excessive use of rudders); by
deliberately chopping throttle; by skids and through dumping of altitude without consequent
increase of airspeed. Look for these telltale signs in combat, and avoid committing them
yourself. In other words, never slow down in combat. You will be doing yourself an
immense disservice if you pin your survival on a bag of tricks such as use of combat flaps,
snap rolls and tail slides – before all else, learn the basics!
The successful pilot hoards energy and hangs on to it for dear life, never spending
more than is necessary to keep himself safe or to score a kill. You have to be a miser with
energy and always strive to keep energy-bleeding manoeuvres to a minimum, lest you be
found flapping around on the edge of a stall without smash to avoid a sudden onslaught. The
true mark of an energy-conscious pilot is that he gains or at the very least retains energy
where others spend theirs, making his flight seem effortless and ever unpredictable. As long
as you have energy, you have options.
An overhead of energy – lots of speed and lots of altitude – is a cushion against
sloppiness. If you have a significant energy advantage, you can afford making a bad attack or
two, though probably not more. As long as you keep this advantage all the enemy can do is
to defend himself and make himself a difficult target.
You must be ever mindful of your energy state and keep a “balance book” of speed,
altitude, vectors and potential moves in your head. Furthermore, while you may have a
superior energy state against the one bandit you might soon be confronted by more whose
energy states are vastly superior to your own. We call these bandits “wildcards” – unknown
entities – which may at any time enter the equation and ruin your fun. To this end, it helps
thinking of energy in different magnitudes: you have the “big picture” which spans the whole
engagement area beyond visual range, you have the “first contact” energy states in the
engagement and you have the “close in” energy states when you ride the edge of your own
and your opponent’s ability. It is important to consider each of these in turn, and conjointly
when discussing a fight in particular.

The “big energy” picture

When you’re cruising around looking for a fight, you will want to do that at an energy state
which allows you to dictate the engagement from the word Go, rather being forced to deal
with the opposite at every turn. In other words, you should cruise several thousand feet over
what is normal for the general area, and at a good clip too. The higher you go, the more you
31
can relax and cut down on boost and RPMs to save fuel and extend your stay in enemy
territory, while still being relatively certain of holding the energy trump. As long as you’re on
top you don’t necessarily have to motor along at top speed as this wears out your engine and
burns gasoline for precious little gain: it’s a small matter to power up and spend a few
thousand feet to get up to combat speed without letting go of a sizeable energy advantage.
You can safely assume that anything that moves lower and slower (or both) than yourself can
be adequately handled as long as you manoeuvre into a favourable position and take
advantage of the situation. If you eschew this – securing a superior energy state – you will
always fight at a disadvantage. Voluntarily choosing a bad starting situation defies logic.
Whenever you engage in a fight and deplete your energy, you must consider the “big
energy picture” for that particular area. Even though you may have retained a good deal of
energy it may be drastically lower than that of your typical wildcard in the area – if so, you
must put some distance between yourself and likely entry vectors so as to safely regain
energy in a less trafficked area. In this regard it should also be noted that there’s a measure of
safety to be found in lurking in the weeds if the bulk of wildcards can be assumed to be
found at much higher altitudes. It’s a crapshoot though, for it only takes one vigilant soul, or
one lucky sod, to get on your six and draw the attention of a whole host of bad guys. And
that can really ruin your day. In other words, you may be stranded with a relatively low total
energy in an area where the bulk of wildcards have a relatively higher energy. You certainly
don’t want that – exit this unhealthy area without undue delay and regain a reasonable energy
state.

“First contact” energy

Assuming that you encounter a bogey at roughly the same altitude and in your forward
quarter while you’re cruising around at a good clip, the relative energy state is largely
unknown until you engage in combat. Still, with experience, you should be able to deduce a
lot, well before you actually meet. As soon as you lay eyes on the bogey you should be
computing and comparing: your own speed; difference in altitude; heading and angle off tail;
rate of closure; type of bandit and whether he’s seen you or not. If you’re approaching head
on the likelihood of him not seeing you is small (although it happens!) and the only thing
that really gives you a clue is rate of closure. Hence, from an intelligence-gathering point of
view, a head-on approach is about the worst possible case.
If your intention is to engage rather than to disengage, it is far better to introduce a
measure of lateral (horizontal) separation by pointing your nose well to either side of the
bandit. You already know that you’ve seen him, and the lateral displacement is your first
offensive manoeuvre – question is, has he seen you, and what will his response be? And
more importantly, what is his energy state?
Another way of dealing with the same situation is to add a vertical component as
well (i.e. dive or climb slightly). While this robs you of some altitude or airspeed, it doesn’t
materially degrade your energy, to the contrary, and will give you answers to the same
questions above.
The beginner pilot usually doesn’t consider any other move than the one which
brings him directly towards the enemy – i.e. he will always point his crate straight at the
enemy, and when the enemy zips by (provided that he doesn’t collide), he’ll haul around as
hard as he can and point at him again. Needless to say, that approach is more than
32
ineffective, it is also totally predictable. This type of fighting doesn’t include any intelligence-
gathering or tactical finesse whatsoever, it’s merely a question of pulling G’s and flapping
about in the vain hope of getting guns on enemy.
Now, at first contact, the objective is to make an instant assessment of relative
energy states and to arrive at a game plan for the ensuing engagement – other than simply
hauling in on the bandit. You need to be relatively sure of whether you have the advantage
or not, and this process of collating information is concurrent to manoeuvring into a
favourable position. Again, instead of trucking right into the fray, you secure an element of
lateral displacement by pointing well to the side of the enemy. His reactions to this move
tells you a lot about his general awareness and intentions, as well as his energy state.
Assuming that you’re roughly co-energy and that the bandit does the predictable thing of
turning towards you, you have started what will turn out to be a lead-turn manoeuvre. At this
point it seems like the enemy has the better position since he has his guns pointed at you,
however, that is merely smoke and mirrors. At the time when the bandit thinks himself set
up for a high angle off snapshot, you turn into him and manoeuvre around on his six with a
vertical reversal, taking advantage of the gravity assist to slice in across his predictable
turning manoeuvre. Note that this is merely one of many possible gambits you can choose
from.
Once the opening move has been made you should be fairly aware of the energies
involved, and the proficiency of your opponent. You’re now free to work your way into a
favourable guns position. We’ll get back to the actual manoeuvring in later chapters.
These “first contact” energies can be more or less easy to determine, the level head-
on approach being the most difficult of them. It’s a whole lot easier to determine relative
energy if the enemy is moving across your front, and especially so if he’s trucking along at a
lower altitude. What you need to keep in mind is that the energy you have at the outset of
the fight is likely to be it: once you start turning, you’ll be forced to burn energy. It is also
here, at the beginning of the fight, that the novice pilot burns the most energy by going
tongs and hammers after the bandit without regard to whether it’s wise to do so or not.
I mentioned position and vectors earlier as one important aspect of the energy
game. Consider again the level head-on pass, but this time from a defensive point of view.
Now the objective is to avoid the fight, so instead of taking out a lateral displacement you
keep trucking toward the bandit – though not straight at him. You will want to pass close
enough to avoid him getting on your six yet far enough away to avoid a simple head-on shot.
If the enemy is to have any chance of engaging you, he will have to make a lead turn so as to
place himself in your rear hemisphere at the time you pass by. This however is beyond the
capabilities of most pilots, giving you the opportunity for a clear getaway. What you do is to
turn the energy of the bandit against him, knowing that he must spend energy to get into a
favourable position (on your six). If he times his manoeuvre badly or doesn’t manoeuvre at
all by the time of the merge, you will be increasing the distance all the while, speeding out of
his guns envelope as it were. By the time he hauls his crate around you’re not only far distant
but have kept your original energy as well, whereas he has lost both position and energy.

“Close in” energy

When engaged in a turning contest, be it nose-to-tail or nose-to-nose or a vertical fight,
popular belief has it that energy is not a factor, that only angles matter. Nothing could be
33
farther from the truth. Energy is ever important. Energy is what makes or breaks a fight, that
which tells you whether you can or cannot perform a certain manoeuvre. Keeping track of
energy states in the fangs-out hair-afire fight is a real challenge since positions, altitudes,
angles and gravity loads keeps changing. Here, you have to think in terms of “level”, “uphill”
and “downhill”. You will have to watch relative attitudes and minute altitude differences very
closely and watch especially for signs of the enemy chancing a lag pursuit, whether he
deploys flaps, chops his throttle or works extensively with rudder. A careless stall following
an optimistic lead pursuit curve, a sloppily executed manoeuvre, a momentarily lost visual
contact, is all it takes to eradicate an energy advantage and turn the table right over.
The objective of the close-in dogfight is arguably to get your guns on the enemy
with minimal delay. However, you will want to do that with as high a probability for a kill as
possible. To this end it helps a lot thinking about energy: you will want to bleed his energy
and thus his options to a completely predictable state where he has no option but to wallow
in front of your guns. As long as he has energy he can manoeuvre against you: once he’s
without energy, he’s at your complete mercy (naturally provided that you keep yours, and
gain a rear-aspect position too). This energy-bleeding process is quite rewarding, but it is also
accompanied by a measure of risk as the process isn’t immediate. If you’re primarily an
angles fighter, you will have to spend some time with the bandit, get on his six and stay
there. This practice is wholly inappropriate for any engagement other than a pure 1 vs. 1
fight, and even then it’s debatable whether it’s sane to “play with your food”. The energy
fighter reduces his enemy’s energy by other means: by subjecting him to a series of attacks
that leaves him no option other than to spend energy through radical guns defence.
Learning how to retain energy and how to make the enemy bleed his is arguably the
difference between the experienced and the inexperienced pilot. Little by little, you’ll learn to
make your moves at as little cost as possible, when it’s as most auspicious to do so. Here are
some clues:

• When at high speed, make small moves.

• Rolls costs less energy than hauling back on the elevators.
• If you need to slow down your forward progress, shed speed in the vertical and roll
to keep your eyes on the bandit.
• Make your major turns when the energy cost is the smallest – i.e. at or near the top
of vertical manoeuvres.
• Break off unproductive passes before you incur an energy penalty.
• In a turn fight, use lag pursuit to get your energy up.

What does “levelling the enemy’s energy advantage” really mean?

At some time or the other you have probably found yourself defending against an enemy
who holds the energy advantage. He’s subjecting you to a series of slashing attacks, and all
you can do is to keep turning into him, defeating his passes by presenting him with low-
probability shots. Question is, how do you get out of the rut and even out the fight? Most
beginners simply stay put under the enemy’s guns and even try to climb below him, making
subsequent defensive moves all the more difficult and less likely to succeed. Rather than
playing sitting duck below a boom&zooming enemy, you need to cancel out his energy

34
advantage by introducing lateral separation. In other words, as the enemy zooms, you fly
away from him, opening up the distance. Next time he attacks, he must first cover the lateral
distance before closing to guns distance. This takes time, and forces him to burn energy in a
shallow dive from which he cannot hope to regain as much energy as he would had you
remained largely static below him. As he misses his next attack, you open up separation
again. Before long, his attacks will become less frequent, less aggressive and a lot easier to
defend against, indicative of energy having been levelled.
Another way of dealing with the problem is to dive out and force the enemy to
come after you. The objective here is to reach terminal velocity, where closure is small or
minimal, and then to manoeuvre from a more or less neutral energy state (though at an
angles disadvantage). As you level off, at top speed, the enemy should be closing but not as
rapidly as if you had remained below him. Now the energy game is more or less even: defeat
the upcoming stern attack, and either open up lateral separation as above or go into a rolling
scissors fight. In either case, you’ve successfully levelled the energy equation. Also, chances
are that the enemy will be a fraction slow in following your pull-up (or your defensive brake),
resulting in a vertical overshoot - i.e. he bottoms out below you. Another thing to consider
here is the mechanical performance of your crates at terminal velocity: who dives and
accelerates better, who has a roll rate advantage in the dive, which crate handles
compressibility better etc. We’ll discuss this more in detail later on in the ACM chapters.

Too much energy!

When considering a fight, we generally assume the opposing pilots to manoeuvre close to
each other and seek the shortest possible route to each other’s six o’clock. However, there
are all kinds of situations out there and not all of them favours the fighter with an overhead
of energy. Being on the receiving end can actually be an advantage under certain
circumstances, particularly the one most dreaded by the average pilot: the high six o’clock
attack.
Consider this: you’re motoring along and are assailed from high six by an enemy that
you’ve been keeping your eyes on. As he streaks in with a ton of smash, his superior speed is
actually more of a hindrance than a blessing: at such a speed, he is extremely limited as to
how much gravity loads he can pull and with how many angles he can correct his approach.
You on the other hand are flying at a normal cruise speed and can thus introduce more
angles into his attack run than he can handle: a simple course correction to 90 degrees off tail
is usually all that is needed to defeat his pass – see figure 1 below. In order to draw lead on
you without blacking out, he must slow down and thus burn energy. This is even more true
when the enemy assaults you from a flank or from directly ahead – all you need to do is to
throw him a few angles, i.e. turn to increase his angle off your tail, and you will see him miss
his attack by miles. This manoeuvre can be started while the bandit is yet quite some distance
away: if he’s any good, he’ll break off his attack and seek a better position. If he’s unskilled or
flying with hope as his co-pilot, he’ll throw caution to the winds and bore right in regardless,
pulling gravity loads and making his shot all the more difficult. The farther out the enemy is,
the more gentle you can make your manoeuvre so as to retain your energy. If he’s really
close, you need to make a hard break turn so as to get quickly out of his manoeuvre
envelope. Then and there you have him.

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Fig 1. The enemy manoeuvre envelope. Know what your enemy cannot do, and use it against him.

Thus, should you find yourself flying around with lots of enemy well above, you need not
fear them overly much, knowing that their overhead of energy will prevent them from
making effective passes at you. In that respect it is safer by far to fly a lot (10,000+ feet)
lower than the enemy, or just below him (inside his turn radius), than within easy grasp some
1-3,000 feet down. When it’s you who have the significant energy advantage, you will have to
shed some of it to a manageable level lest your attacks be predictable and easily defeated.
This same overhead of energy is a great handicap when you’re coming in with a lot
of smash to help a friend who’s turning with an enemy at low speeds. While you may close
the distance rapidly, you will not be particularly effective unless the enemy is extremely slow
or extremely predictable (allowing you to set up an unloaded lead pursuit pass). It is not
uncommon to happen into such a situation with more than double or even triple the energy,
which naturally restricts you to time-consuming boom&zoom passes. Meanwhile your
partner is in deep doo-doo with an enemy who might have a shot opportunity every 5
seconds. Thus, you must shed your energy to a manageable level, or to a factor of 1,5:1 over
the bandit. If you burn too much energy you may likewise be unable to saddle up quickly,
exposing your friend to enemy fire and possibly even exposing yourself.

Energy in the dogfight

When the chips are down and you’re engaged mano a mano with the enemy in a turning
contest, energy is almost tangible. It helps greatly to think of yourself and the enemy in terms
of angles-rich/angles-poor, energy-rich/energy-poor through the various stages of the fight.
In a single-circle horizontal fight, you’re both struggling to haul your crates around and to
draw lead, to become angles rich. He who has the more powerful engine, or the lower
wingloading, or the better stall characteristics (can pull more AOA), he who is energy-rich
will earn angles with relative ease. But what if the crates are more or less evenly matched and

36
what if the opponents are both angles-neutral and energy-neutral? He who relaxes his turn,
either willingly to exit the circle or through an inopportune stall, will eventually allow the
enemy a clear shot. Still, simply staying in a flat nose-to-tail chase that doesn’t produce
sufficient angles quickly, or in one which you’re clearly losing, is silly. Co-energy, co-altitude
and locked into a repetitive behaviour, you must do something to get out of the rut.
The reflexive behaviour of most pilots is to honk back on the stick for all they’re
worth, pulling as many G’s as they can, turning as sharply as they can. This leads to a quick
loss of energy and eventually to a state which leaves the pilot with no options whatsoever:
he’ll be low and slow on the deck, unable to cash in more altitude for speed. The obvious
answer to this dilemma is to keep the fight dynamic. Sticking to a nose-to-tail chase is a static
situation despite the apparent motion: you need to introduce the dynamic and capitalize on
the reflexive behaviour of your enemy.
Your options, when co-energy, to get out of the rut, is to reverse the circle with all
its risks and benefits as in figure 2 and 3, or to momentarily go to lag pursuit in order to
stash up a smidgeon of energy, with all its risks and benefits, as in figure 4. In Figure 2 below
you give the enemy a small but potentially dangerous opportunity shortly after the reversal as
you bring the fight nose-to-nose instead of nose-to-tail. Remember that it’s the fellow leaving
the static circle that relinquishes position, i.e. loses angles and becomes the defender.

Fig 2. Reversing the circle

At time 0 the fighters are essentially neutral, locked in a flat, static, nose-to-tail circle, canopy
to canopy. The black fighter decides to leave the circle, either because he feels himself slowly
losing position or because he simply doesn’t like the unproductive situation. At time 1 he
reverses the circle by rolling 180 degrees out, briefly blanking out the enemy behind and
below his tail. This isn’t so much of a problem as one might think – it’s fairly clear where the
enemy will go, particularly if they’re on the deck already – the white fighter must by logic and
reflex continue to haul towards the black fighter. It takes a supreme effort for the white
fighter to reciprocate with a reversal of his own at this time – his gut instinct tells him to go
37
for the enemy. Note that it’s eminently possible to roll either way to get out of the circle. For
some reason, probably due to lack of experience and a desire for security, most pilots
chooses the rather time-consuming process of reversing upright, nose-over-horizon, whereas
the inverted reversal is quicker. The inverted reversal has the pilot rolling “inwards” into the
circle until the canopy points fully down and then fully away from the bandit. This is more
efficient insofar as you need not fight inertia and gravity to reverse the controls (push the
stick over) but simply exaggerate the already established bank, however, it is also slightly
more taxing on the Situational Awareness and an over-eager pilot may lose control in the
manoeuvre and make a mess of himself. That said, a hamfisted pilot is equally liable to stall
out in the “normal” reversal, particularly so if the fight is already conducted at near-stall
speed.
At time 2 the black fighter has regained visual on the white fighter and is
manoeuvring to defeat his shot: he throws him a small vertical element (up or down
depending on proximity to ground) and trusts in the white fighter’s reflex to go for broke. In
the interval leading up to time 2 the white fighter has had the opportunity to “clean up” a
little bit since it’s more energy-efficient to continue and relax the already established turn
than to roll and reverse. Thus the white fighter has a small energy and a considerable angular
advantage at time 2 and gains a guns position earlier than the black fighter who must struggle
to bring his crate around for a shot. This is where the wheat is separated from the chaff!

Fig 3. Reversing the circle, continued

Knowing just what kind of a target he’s setting himself up as and that the white fighter, now
salivating wildly, will relax his elevator pressure to unload for the shot, the black fighter
completes the setup. He knows that he will not have a chance to get a good shot off himself
and that he will cripple himself if he tries, by becoming predictable. That, becoming

38
predictable, is what he must avoid at all cost and what the white fighter is falling for. The
way to capitalize on the situation is to treat the guns defence situation at time 2 as an
opportunity for a lead turn, a rolling scissor or for a blind reversal (i.e. in the bandit’s low
cold six), all depending on the angles, energy and separation at time 2.
Distance allowing, i.e. if he has time to swing his nose around without completely
killing his energy, the black fighter can start an early (lead) turn across the white fighter’s
track. As the white fighter unloads and goes straight for the shot, the black fighter performs
his guns defence and starts the swing onto the white fighter’s back. This is a high-risk
defence unless the rate (through white’s guns envelope) is good and the vertical offset
sufficient to make the bandit’s guns solution tricky enough.
The rolling scissor looks like a defensive posture but is actually a highly aggressive
stance, a “come on if you dare” gesture that a seasoned pilot might recognise and appreciate
as an invitation to a high-quality fight. Just before time 2 in figure 3 the black fighter waits
for the white fighter to unload and get ready for the shot. As the white fighter draws near at
his 4-5 o’clock, our black fellow rolls toward the attacker, and pitches up by pulling toward
him as he goes. As the two tracks intersect, perpendicularly or nearly parallel depending on
how many angles the defender relinquishes, the defender is hanging inverted over the
attacker, canopy to canopy. The black fighter sees his enemy zip by below with his missed
shot and calmly finishes his attack by rolling down into the white fighter’s astern for the
killshot. It all happens in one sweeping motion, without hesitation and without stopping to
verify – just pitch up, roll over and down. Do note though that it’s nigh impossible to
perform the rolling scissor if you’re all out of energy – you absolutely must have speed
enough to produce a decent rate through the enemy gunsight and speed enough to execute
the pitch-up with rate to spare.
If the bandit is careless or slow enough to let you pass by him in his cold six, i.e. out
of sight below his belly, it’s an easy matter to kill his situational awareness by reversing out of
his sight and going vertical. Whichever course of action you decide on it’s likely to bring
immediate results since you’re manoeuvring while he’s flying essentially straight, even if it’s
only for a few fractions of a second.

Fig 4. Release and yo-yo

In figure 4 above the two fighters are in a static flat nose-to-tail circle again. The black fighter
decides to leave the unproductive contest and relaxes his back pressure on the stick
momentarily, thereby going into lag pursuit (i.e. putting his lift vector behind the bandit
39
instead of straight at him). At that moment he starts building energy relative to the enemy,
though in the process relinquishing position and angles: he’s becoming energy-rich but
angles-poor. The bandit, seeing his growing angular advantage, is highly likely to continue
hauling back for all he’s worth and thereby blowing energy at a sustained rate, because he can
see that it’s (seemingly) producing results. The black fighter on the other hand, is now free to
use his small energy advantage to go into a short high yo-yo, defeating the bandit’s shot
opportunity with a tricky oblique vector through the pulldown. The white fighter simply
doesn’t have the energy both to close the circle and to haul up for a guns solution with the
requisite lead. Following the high yo-yo the black fighter goes down to “dip into the bowl”
for a low yo-yo while the bandit is flapping helplessly behind him without energy after trying
to draw a bead.
The black fighter is now converting the static round-and-round fight to a vertical
contest. After the low yo-yo he’ll be back on the way up again for another high yo-yo,
meanwhile the bandit has just recovered from a near-stall and is in no position to keep up.
The bandit is stuck in a flat circle whereas the black fighter is describing an oblique circle and
turning it into a fully vertical one. Before long he’ll be able to haul down into the white
fighter from above, or slice into him from a high-side position, and subject him to a series of
snapshots. The black fighter is stashing up on energy while the bandit is becoming
increasingly defensive and still blowing chunks of energy.
It should now be fairly obvious that it’s counterproductive, in any fight, to haul back
on the stick for all you’re worth as a rote behaviour. Use your brain instead of your muscles,
and trust the enemy to make the mistake of fighting reflexively. Countless are the times that
I’ve been assailed by a vastly energy-superior enemy and finished the fight by subjecting the
totally out-energied and helplessly flopping bandit to a series of slashing attacks, and that in a
crate that is decidedly slower.

The neutral state

In order to fight without fear you need to know when you and your enemy are neutral
relative to each other. The neutral state is an “equal opportunity” state: either of you can get
into a stern position or extend safely away. You are neutral when:

• You are coming head on toward each other.

• You are going tail to tail (as in having blown through a merge without turning).
• When you are parallel to each other, as in belly-to-belly, canopy-to-canopy or
wingtip-to-wingtip.

The neutral state is of course fleeting. Use it as a reference as to whom is earning angles and
position in the fight.

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CH AP T ER 7 : L I F T V E CTO R, GR A VI T Y L O A DS A N D OT H ER T ER MS OF
CO MB AT
You have probably heard the hoary maxim of “keep your lift vector on the enemy”. What
does it really mean? Well, the “lift vector” is always pointed straight up your canopy, so it’s
only significant in a turning fight where the opponents are actively trying to get their guns on
each other. It’s a term for describing position and type of pursuit (lead, pure, lag): if you’re in
a standard nose-to-tail fight with the enemy straight across the circle, you both have your lift
vectors on each other as long as you keep honking that stick right back. If neither of you are
gaining angles, you’re both essentially in pure pursuit, and essentially neutral (i.e. no one has
the advantage). Now, if you were to make a half-roll and continue your turn in the other
direction, your lift vector would momentarily point diametrically away – until you complete
the half-circle and meet the opponent head on. After the merge, your natural instinct is to
honk back on the stick and swing onto your opponent’s six, right? That is keeping your lift
vector on the enemy.
This “lift vector” is significant inasmuch you can actually see how much the
opposing fighter is able to pull in a given situation. Say that you meet him head on again after
having reversed the nose-to-tail fight to a nose-to-nose fight: if your crate is the better
performer, you may be able to fly “outside” (i.e. above) his maximum permissible lift vector
(i.e. max permissible Angle of Attack, or outside his flight envelope) and thus cause him to
stall out or at the very least defeat his guns solution. Similarly, you can relax back pressure
and fly “beneath” his velocity vector, i.e. momentarily going into lag pursuit, forcing the
enemy to push negative-G loads should he attempt to get his guns on you.
Fighting is all about knowing what the enemy can and cannot do under given
circumstances, of knowing how the enemy is likely to react to given input – and to use this
predictability against him. One such knowledge is that the enemy will nearly always try to
keep his lift vector on you, even if it means burning every ounce of energy or, in the extreme
case, ploughing straight into the ground.
Consider this: you’re coming head on towards an enemy who apparently has every
intention to fight. Normally you might make a lead turn, go for a bit of lateral separation or
even making a head-on guns pass with a subsequent vertical zoom. What if you rolled
inverted instead as if starting a split-S? Chances are that the bandit will also roll inverted and
attempt to follow you – except that upon seeing him commit to the roll you immediately roll
right-side up and zoom instead, while he ploughs straight down without a clue in the world.
Doing the unexpected in the interest of provoking a reflexive response is often good for a
hearty belly laugh.
Lift and velocity vectors is also at play when you’re spiralling or a bandit, or
subjecting him to a chandelle (more on this later on). He will most likely try to keep his
velocity vector on you to the point of stalling out – because his energy was depleted so much
that he couldn’t sustain the climb, or rather, because you kept increasing the angles, he
exceeded his maximum angle of attack trying to keep his guns on you.

Gravity loads
Gravity is one of the four central forces you have to contend with, the others being thrust,
drag and lift. When you’re cruising around, the plane (and the pilot) is subjected to normal
gravity – 1G. When you manoeuvre, inertia causes you to experience greater or lesser gravity
41
loads depending on the difference between the velocity vector and the manoeuvre vector.
Thus, when you haul back on the stick, you increase the gravity load with the amount of
back pressure. The greater the velocity vector the greater the inertia and thus the greater the
potential gravity load. If you’re really motoring, you don’t have to pull a lot to experience
very high G’s.
“Pulling G’s” is a recurring feature of air combat, and one that isn’t particularly
auspicious. When you pull gravity loads you trade energy for position, or energy for an
abrupt change of heading. Pulling sustained gravity loads will bleed your energy to the point
of flapping helplessly about, not to mention the very real risk of blacking out, something you
should be extremely wary of. Pull less G’s in combat and you will be all the more in control
and retain all the more energy. To be sure, pulling G’s is often necessary: in break turns,
when hauling in on a tightly turning enemy, when executing radical manoeuvres etcetera. The
trick is to pull those G’s wisely!
The most auspicious time to pull G’s (or rather, to make a radical change in
direction) is when the penalty for doing so is slight: in the vertical going up, when your plane
is slowing; when you’re at corner velocity and the enemy is above his corner velocity; when
the enemy has lost sight. Sometimes though, you really don’t have much of a choice. When
you need to pull G’s to get out of his line of fire or to evade a collision, pull!
You should also learn to watch the enemy for telltale signs of him pulling gravity
loads. Identifying his G loads, the approximate force and the timing of them, tells you
volumes about his energy state, his experience and his frame of mind. Look especially for
wingtip vortices and accelerated stalls, and his behaviour when he appears to lose sight of
you, because they spell opportunity.

Angle of Attack
I’ve mentioned AOA a couple of times already. AOA (as measured for the plane as a whole
rather than the wing) means the angle between the actual flight path and the path described
by the plane’s longitudinal axis. In other words, you may be pointing your crate 30 degrees
up, but are in actual fact travelling only 20 degrees up. At that point, your AOA is 10
degrees. Your aircraft can only remain airborne (create lift) up to a certain AOA. If you
exceed max AOA the airflow over the wing will be disrupted and “burble”, creating an
instant loss of lift. This is known as a stall, and you can experience it at any time by cutting
back throttle while keeping your nose high. As speed and thus airflow decreases, you must
raise the nose more and more (increase AOA) to remain at a certain altitude – until such
point as you feel a wing drop from loss of lift. Having a crate with a good max AOA is
beneficial inasmuch as it can sustain a higher instantaneous change of pitch without suffering
accelerated stalls, and has a better low-speed handling, such as in low and slow dogfights.
Other than that, it’s not much to keep in mind. Fly your plane cleanly, and you won’t have to
worry about stalls at all.

Angle Off Tail

Angle Off Tail, or AOT, is a combat term used to describe pursuit and gunnery situations
involving two or more aircraft (also known as “angles”). AOT is never static – it changes
fractionally throughout the fight. If you’re parked straight behind a bandit, angle off is zero.

42
Fig 5. Angle Off Tail

Most pilots manoeuvre to place themselves at 0 AOT – they “saddle up” behind the enemy
and match airspeeds to gain a comfortable high-probability shot. This is natural and
convenient, for it is a whole lot easier to follow someone around than to anticipate where
they’re going next. Since the target only rarely cooperates by flying straight and level, unless
he’s fast asleep, most fights tend to degenerate into turning contests of some kind. Keeping
track of angles gained and lost is therefore of some importance if one wants to know
whether a particular manoeuvre was successful or not. A high AOT means that the attacking
fighter must draw increasingly more lead in guns situations and that the firing window
becomes correspondingly smaller.

Corner velocity
Corner velocity is the speed at which your particular aircraft has its optimum turn
performance. You can either consult charts, or get a good handle on your corner velocity
through a series of tests. You will notice that your plane doesn’t turn very well either at very
high or very low speeds, but will perform very well somewhere in between – usually around
280-350 km/h for WWII-vintage aircraft. This is the speed where you get both maximum
turn rate (in angles per second) and best turn radius (in meters) at maximum permissible
gravity loads: if you’re above corner velocity both your rate and radius will suffer, and you
are likely to black out from excessive G’s and/or suffer an accellerated stall; if you’re below
corner velocity your rate will be low but your radius may be smaller.

43
 Corner velocity is important to consider when you’re jumping someone, or are being
jumped yourself by a bandit with a ton of smash. The best course of action in most cases, if
you find yourself with an excess of speed, is to shed some of it in the vertical. Thus, if you’re
being chased around and need to manoeuvre radically, first bleed off some speed by bringing
the fight up into the vertical rather than to incur a heavy penalty in the form of blackouts
through excessive G’s at your present (high) speed.

Closure
The speed differential between two aircraft is called closure. If you’re gaining on an enemy,
you have [positive] closure. If the enemy is drawing away, you don’t have it – your closure is
negative. The rate of closure is important to consider, mainly for guns situations, as you will
want to close rapidly with the enemy but still have a decent shot opportunity once you get
there. In other words, if your closure is too high, your shot window may be too small to deal
out a killing volume of fire. Thus, if you’re in such a situation, you must manage your rate of
closure (or overtake) by shedding some excess speed: by throttling down, by fishtailing or by
a vertical displacement. The latter course of action is generally recommended, although when
surprise is on your side it may lead to the enemy getting wind of your attack. Why is closure
management important? Well, things will be a lot easier if you can remain behind the enemy
– and behind the enemy is anything behind, beside, above or below his wingline out to one
turn radius (if the distance is greater, he can turn to face you and you will no longer be
behind him, right?). If you’re packing an overhead of energy you risk overshooting the bandit
before you have time to deal him critical damage, thus you must somehow slow down. It is
easiest by far to stash your overhead of speed in the vertical, by zooming up and behind the
bandit while rolling to keep him in visual, then to swoop down on him at a more controlled
and leisurely pace.
You will want to dispatch your bandit as quickly, safely and effectively as possible,
with a minimum of risk and expenditure of precious ammunition, because, the more time
you spend dawdling the more of a chance you give him to spot you, to combat you and to
get help from his friends. A stealthy, rapid approach to the enemy rear quarter requires a
substantial overhead of energy to be used for a lightning-quick attack. By definition this
means that your firing window will be quite short, usually no longer than 2-3 seconds. On
the other hand, you will want to maximise your firing window so that you have time to
stabilize your platform, time to sight your guns properly and time to deliver a lethal volume
of fire. So, you will want to approach both fast and slowly! It’s not that tricky really: see
chapter 17.2 – “The Bounce”.

44
CH AP T ER 8: B AS IC F L I GH T M AN O EU VR E S ( B F M )
It may seem somewhat redundant to “go through the motions” and describe details of basic
flight, but you’d be surprised as to how few online pilots actually know how to land properly
or how to perform a simple skid. If you’ve never ventured into the hostile skies before, this
section is highly recommended.

Taxiing
At times, you will need to form up on the runway prior to takeoff. This is a simple enough
procedure which ensures that all pilots are facing the same takeoff heading and are properly
paired up in wingman teams. To taxi, crank up the engine and knock the throttle forward
just a tad to get rolling. You won’t need more than perhaps 5-10% of engine power to start
rolling. To taxi straight forward, lock your tailwheel (if this is an option). To steer left or
right, brake accordingly with your tailwheel unlocked. Make sure to keep your speed low
enough to keep the tail down – if you power up too much the tail will rise and you’re likely
to slew radically to the side in a ground loop. Be gentle with the brakes, or you may find
yourself digging holes with the propeller, or even turning over entirely.

Take off
When you’re set to take off, increase engine RPM to maximum, trim the aircraft tail down
and open up the throttle, gently at first, while pushing gently forward on the stick to lift the
tailplane. This is important, because if you don’t your AOA will be too high – the wings
won’t create lift and you will slither around on the ground in a stalled-out condition. Once
the nose comes down and the wings are level with the ground you should be accelerating
rapidly. Counteract engine torque with a touch of rudder and possibly a bit of aileron, keep
your run straight as you can and let the machine build up to takeoff speed – usually
somewhere around 100-150 km/h. Once you reach this speed, let it increase yet further and
gently pull the stick toward you. Don’t yank it back! A gentle pull is all it takes to become
airborne. Once up, crank up the undercarriage and let speed build up yet more before
hauling back on the stick. When you’re doing more than 150-180 km/h you can safely
increase AOA to steepen your climb.

Landing
Few sim pilots knows how to land properly. One of the funniest things you can do online is
actually to remain on the field and observe takeoffs and landings. It’s a hoot. You’ll see pilots
bouncing and augering left and right – don’t let it happen to you. The proper way of landing
is to let down to a manageable altitude, generally about 500-1000 feet, with your intended
runway direction directly to your side. Fly past the runway at this altitude while shedding
speed and altitude. As you pass the airfield, continue on for a while and then make a
coordinated turn to the left to get on your glide path. As you’re about to cross the glide path,
make a final turn onto it and line up with the runway. You should now have your flaps out,
landing gear down and have your aircraft trimmed tail heavy. Now, the objective is too keep
your nose slightly above the horizon (only so much that you can still see the runway) and use
your throttle only to adjust the rate of descent. In a perfect landing, you should not have to
adjust your pitch (nose up/down) at all, and should be using no more than 10-20% throttle
on the approach. If you notice that your descent is too rapid – that you will most likely land
45
short of the runway – increase throttle to bring you back to the proper glide path. If you’re
about to overshoot, cut back to idle. If you’re coming in both short and hot (too low and too
fast), chop throttle and use the extra speed in a short ascent to the glidepath. If you’re really
overshooting the runway, i.e. going far too fast and far too high to glide down on idle
throttle, break off the landing attempt and set up anew.
As you draw closer to the runway at just above stall speed (about 90-110 km/h
depending on your crate) with your nose slightly high, you will get a good feeling for how an
increase or decrease of throttle affects the glide path. Shortly before touchdown, actually just
a few feet over the runway, cut throttle entirely and raise the nose just a tad more – this is
known as to “flare” the aircraft – and let the aircraft settle on the ground. The slower you fly,
the less you will bounce and the sooner you will come to a stop. Let it roll and pump the
brakes gently to bring down your speed. Do this a couple of times until you can make a
perfect landing every time, and to get a good feeling for initial altitudes and speeds. When
you’ve become proficient enough, make it a habit to check your VsI indicator (vertical speed
gauge) while landing. A descent rate of 1-2000 feet per minute indicates a gentle glide path
whereas 3-4000 fpm is clearly excessive and will most likely lead to permanent damage and
injury.

Fig 6. Landing. Manage your descent rate with throttle to stay on the glidepath.

Coordinated turn
A coordinated turn, as opposed to an un-coordinated one, employs a measure of rudder.
Most flight simulations lets you turn without the use of rudders whereas a real-life pilot
would never consider such an abomination due to gravity and parasitic drag. Turning is
simple: give a bit of rudder in the turn direction at the same time as you bank the aircraft
gently in the turn direction, and introduce just a bit of elevator pressure to avoid losing
altitude in the manoeuvre. Once in the turn, neutralise rudder and aileron, and maintain a
steady back pressure to sustain the turn. Practice turning into cardinal headings – north,
west, southwest and so on, to get a hang of the forces and timings involved.

Skid or sideslip
The skid is a convenient way of shedding altitude without changing direction, and can also
be a part of a combat manoeuvre. The ingredients of a skid or sideslip is to keep the nose
high, to give full rudder deflection and to counteract the roll with a bit of opposite aileron.
46
This will increase drag significantly and cause you to rapidly lose altitude and airspeed –
imagine doing that with a bandit on your tail: odds are high that the rotter will overshoot and
set himself up for a snapshot. Note though that the skid robs you of significant energy and
isn’t really advisable other than as a last-ditch manoeuvre, and preferably when you have
some altitude to play with already. Practice making aggressive skids by banking 45 degrees to
one side and giving full rudder deflection in the opposite direction, nose high – you will drop
like a stone. Another way of shedding speed and altitude is to “fishtail”: pumping full left
and full right rudder alternately with your nose high. The increased drag will decrease your
airspeed significantly. This is useful when you’re coming in hot on landing or when you’re at
risk of overshooting (i.e. overtaking) an enemy from his six to his twelve o’clock.

Stalls and spin recovery

Getting out of a stall is easy. Since a stall is nothing but loss of lift due to excessive AOA
and/or a factor of insufficient airspeed, all you need to do is to neutralise your controls and
regain normal angle of attack and airspeed. If you aggravate the stall by continuous back
pressure on the stick you may happen into a spin, although that generally requires rudder
input as well. So, if you stall, let go of the stick and let the nose drop to build up airspeed
again, then resume normal flight. The onset of a stall is also quite noticeable: you’ll find
yourself “mushing” as if the crate was flying through molasses, and the aircraft will yaw
noticeably towards the stalling wing (one wing always stalls before the other) before the wing
actually drops from loss of lift. Now, if you’re already on the deck you’ll have to be very
careful about your recovery as it’s nigh impossible to recover without a certain loss of
altitude.
Should you happen into a spin, the proper procedure is to neutralise controls and
throttle back, then input rudder opposite to the direction of spin. I.e. if you’re spinning to
the left, let go of the stick and give full right rudder. As soon as you recover from the spin,
neutralise controls again, throttle up and let airspeed build up before trying to resume normal
flight, lest you enter a spin in the other direction. It is always best to try and get out of the
spin as soon as it begins – the longer you wait the higher the AOA and the more difficult the
recovery. Practice getting in and out of spins at various altitudes. Spins are easily entered by
exceeding AOA with full rudder deflection, preferably at low airspeeds.

Aileron roll

Fig 7. Aileron roll.

In level flight, roll the aircraft swiftly through 360 degrees by holding the stick fully to either
side. As you complete the roll, move the stick rapidly in the opposite direction to recover
level flight. You should come out of the roll at the same altitude and in the same direction of
travel as you began it. You may also have heard of the “snap roll”, or involuntarily
47
experienced it. The snap roll is actually a stall manoeuvre in which one wing momentarily
loses lift, aggravating roll rate. It’s easy enough to perform, but be advised it burns a bit of
energy and may leave your situational awareness in the pits: move the stick fully to the side
and then pull full back in a single deft swipe. This will stall the low wing and “snap” it,
increasing your roll rate. Once you’ve snapped, neutralise controls to regain lift and
controlled flight. You can sustain the snap roll at a significant energy cost, or snap and then
continue with a normal aileron roll.

Barrel roll

Fig 8. Barrel roll.

Picture yourself rolling inside a great barrel. Pull back gently while rolling, but not so far as to
exceed your maximum Angle of Attack (the point where lift is no longer produced) or so
much as to cause a blackout. This is a tricky manoeuvre as you need to balance aileron and
elevator input to maintain your general heading. You should come out of the roll at the same
altitude and in the same direction of travel as you began it. The barrel roll is a great
manoeuvre for transitioning from defence to offense against a bandit closing in to guns
range in your stern quarter – it slows your forward progress without an altogether crippling
expenditure of energy. If the enemy is concentrated on a largely unloaded guns run, you will
“corkscrew” along his flight path, producing an overshoot which you capitalize on by sliding
in on his six. The barrel roll is not restricted to a single 360 degree rolling manoeuvre but can
be sustained through as many revolutions as you wish (or have energy for). Also note that
the barrel roll is useful in a head-on engagement, where it’s employed as the first part of a
lead turn manoeuvre.

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Loop-de-Loop

Fig 9. Loop-de-Loop.

A loop is a simple aerobatic manoeuvre in the vertical plane. Pull back and maintain a gentle
back pressure. Watch the horizon in your up-view, and adjust any deviation from the true
heading with a touch of rudder. Exit the loop at the entry level, and in the entry direction.
The loop is not a combat manoeuvre.

Regarding rudders
Proper use of rudders is something which takes quite a lot of practice to master, mainly
because the lack of sensory input in computer flight. Use of rudders is not vital – because the
physics model isn’t sophisticated enough (no wind gusts, no prop wash effects) and because
the plane can be sufficiently well flown without them. That said, when you do get the hang
of rudder play, you will never want to fly without it, and will return to base immediately if it’s
shot to tatters. The stick controls pitch and roll. The rudder controls the third plane: yaw, or
the left-right slew off the longitudinal flight path. Its function is quite similar to that of
turning the steering wheel of a car, though with the difference that the surface isn’t solid. In
other words, the plane will exhibit a rolling tendency in the direction of yaw, and you will
incur an increasing drag penalty for as long as the rudder is in use. This can be both a benefit
and a disadvantage depending on the circumstances. When you’re giving a lot of rudder you
burn a lot of energy in exchange for a somewhat better turn rate. On the other hand, the yaw
will throw you off kilter with regard to matching the enemy plane of manoeuvre unless you
counteract the resulting “over-rolling” tendency by giving a bit of opposite aileron. E.g. in a
45 degree banking turn to left at corner velocity, you might want to seek a lead pursuit
position on the bandit across your circle. Since a sustained elevators-only turn will not yield
such a position without a steep gravity load penalty, you tread gently on the left rudder to
yaw into the enemy. Now you will notice that the plane wants to dip into the circle,

49
effectively making your life more miserable rather than improving your position. To avoid
this over-rolling tendency you must move the stick somewhat to the right (giving right
aileron input) to correct the roll. The net effect is that your angular advantage increases at the
price of losing a few pounds of energy. As you will no doubt understand, such rudder input
cannot be sustained forever – to the contrary, it must be briefly and deftly applied only when
it’s the most auspicious to do so.
Rudders are also most useful for side-slipping, fishtailing, standing on a wing
without loss of altitude (e.g. left wing down, full right rudder) – the rudder works as your
elevator in this case – and for correcting (or walking) your fire. Certain combat manoeuvres
are dependent on rudders, e.g. Hammerhead and Sliceback, whereas others benefit greatly
from a tap of the toe at the right moment.
Whenever you have a bandit on your six, in guns range, the use of rudder is most
auspicious. Since the enemy is concentrating on following your every manoeuvre you can
momentarily fox him by forcing him to correct to a false heading. A small skid, yawing the
aircraft to one side, will lead the enemy to pull deflection in that direction while you’re
actually travelling in the opposite.

Fig 9. Skid

In the picture above the defending fighter is skidding by giving full rudder to one side while
compensating the rolling tendency with opposite aileron. This gives the impression that he’s
heading either right or left (thin arrows) while in reality his general heading is largely constant
(fat arrows). Drawing lead against such a target is extremely difficult since it defies everything
you’ve learnt about deflection shooting – look at the picture above and consider that the
shooter must aim for the red arrowheads, not along the perceived (blue) flight path. The
pursuing fighter is led to compensate for this without the use of rudder, forcing him to use
ailerons and elevators to stick with the perceived manoeuvres. Since use of rudder increases
drag, the defending fighter slows down considerably whereas the pursuer largely maintains
his speed, eventually leading to an overshoot. Do note however that this ruse only works for
a limited time and does expose the defending fighter to devastating fire from an enemy who
is able to accurately assess the manoeuvre.
The best way of learning how to use rudders is through trial and error. If you have
them, use them! Don’t be afraid to experiment – at worst all you have to do is replane.
Practice using rudders in turning fights: use top rudder to skid up, down rudder to slice in. A
smidgeon of rudder usually earns you the few angles necessary to get your guns on a
predictable target. In a nose-to-nose fight in particular, you’ll find that you can fly on the
inside of the bandit (i.e. outside his performance envelope) and skid outward with rudder to
ream him on every near-head-on pass. Similarly, when a bandit breaks hard and you’re
behind him at or near corner velocity, you can yaw your shot in – or skid up preparatory to

50
slicing down into him. Thus you will make seemingly “impossible” shots against an enemy
who doesn’t realise the utility of rudders.

51
CH AP T ER 9: P UR SU IT MO D ES
Whenever you’re manoeuvring against an enemy or formatting on a friendly aircraft, you will
have to employ one of three possible modes of pursuit: lead, pure or lag pursuit. These
modes of pursuit signify your heading (or rather, velocity vector) relative to the target. They
also govern your angle off tail to the target, and your closure rate. Knowing when to employ
a certain type of pursuit, and seeing which kind of pursuit the enemy employs against you, is
a central aspect of air to air combat. We’ll be using these terms again and again in discussing
various manoeuvres, so make yourself comfortable with them.

Fig 10. Pursuit modes.

Lead pursuit
Whenever your velocity vector is pointed ahead of the enemy, in his future flight path, you’re
employing lead pursuit. Think of it as a way of cutting off the enemy, either in the horizontal
or the vertical plane of manoeuvre. Incidentally, this also increases the angle off tail as range
decreases. The employment of lead pursuit is the only way a slower fighter can catch a faster
target. If you’re planning on using your guns, you can either maintain lead pursuit and go for
a high angle off snapshot or, by switching to pure or even lag pursuit as you draw into range,
convert your position from high angle off to low angle off tail.

Pure pursuit
Whenever your velocity vector (in normal flight this is signified by your gunsight pipper) is
pointed straight at the enemy, you’re in pure pursuit. If your rate of closure isn’t excessive
you will eventually end up directly behind the enemy. However, if the target is turning, angle
off tail is increasing all the while, thus creating a high angle off guns situation. Since the
52
target is always moving at a certain velocity, the pure pursuit curve isn’t ruler straight as one
might think, but slightly curved. While the easiest and most natural of pursuit modes, pure
pursuit introduces a slightly more challenging shot (since you’re pulling G’s, however little)
and it is also more time-consuming than a lead pursuit curve, and thus more predictable.

Lag pursuit
Whenever your velocity vector is pointed behind the enemy (either in the horizontal or
vertical plane), you’re in lag pursuit. This is a comfortable way of reducing angle off tail for a
better probability shot, and it’s a handy way of staying behind the enemy. It may even cause
him to lose sight of you altogether. Use lag pursuit when your rate of closure is excessive, or
when you want to hang on to your energy in a situation where the enemy is bleeding his by
hard manoeuvring.
In a turning fight where you cannot draw lead on the bandit without stalling out or
blacking out, the use of lag pursuit is most auspicious. Assuming you’re on the bandit’s tail
and turning hard as you can but cannot get to guns position, relax your turn to slide into his
cold six, or to slide up in his high quarter rear for a yo-yo, depending on your vertical
attitude. From that moment on you’re stashing up on energy but losing angles. It is a rather
small matter to convert this energy to angles or a snapshot opportunity again, either on the
top of a vertical manoeuvre where you get a gravity assist, or at the top of your small high
yo-yo.
By using lag you’re displacing your own circle relative to the enemy’s while
remaining behind his wingline and in control of the situation. The bonus here is that it goes
against the grain for the defending pilot to do anything other than keeping his lift vector on
you – which in most cases means that he will be turning as hard as he can, thereby burning
his energy while you’re conserving yours and even building up to a significant energy
advantage.

Fig 11. Displacing the circle

53
CH AP T ER 10 : S IT UA T I ON AL A W AR E N ESS
“I was at 3K at 400 so my E was still good. I did a quick check of my six and saw no immediate threat. I
proceeded to perform a chandelle to bring my heading to the south. My thinking was I needed to get a visual
on that 109 before I could know how to extend from it.”
Jeff “Gorian” Gonzales, 56th FG(v)

Situational Awareness, or SA, is a catch-all term for the real-time ability to acquire and
process a host of different data in a constantly shifting environment, and the ability to
translate an assessment into action aimed at maintaining integrity (of self, of dependants, of
mission). In short, it means "knowing what goes on, and successfully adapting to it". SA is
what makes or breaks a combatant – it’s not the vehicle, not the numbers, nor the situation
itself. You’ve heard the saying “it’s the one you don’t see that kills you” and that is very
much so. If you don’t see the threat, if you’re not aware of it, then you cannot manoeuvre
profitably against it. Lose sight, lose the fight!
“Knowing what goes on” is a complex, very taxing and constantly ongoing process
because you must identify and keep track of everything that goes on around you in order to
make the correct tactical decision at any one time, all the time. You must do it without pause,
and the input changes constantly. Good SA starts with, but is not limited to, looking around
you, and for that you need to develop a routine. Your scanning must be continuous and
cover ALL parts of the sky. Work either clockwise or counter-clockwise, whichever feels
best, and look properly – not perfunctorily. To check your six, quarter-roll and jink while
checking high and low astern – both left and rear. When you’ve gone through all the views,
start over again, and keep doing it until you land and shut off your engine. Realise that
“continuous” means just that: you should be checking every last piece of the sky every 3-4
seconds. Why? Because it doesn’t take more than a couple of seconds for someone to drop
in on your six, that’s why!

Fig 12. The cone is your blind area – roll and bank to observe it every 4-5 seconds

A large proportion of pilots see far too little, and understand even less, of what goes on
around them. This failure to recognise and react to threats is what gets them killed, not their
ability or lack of ability to manoeuvre. Scanning and seeing is the first part of SA, for the rest
it is threat assessment based on position, energy and vectors, a matter of prioritizing and
54
storing bits of data in your memory banks to be checked upon again later, and it’s a good
part anticipation and educated guesswork.

This other part is what one might call “wide sky awareness” and relates to what you
might reasonably expect in this part of the world. This ties in to the “big energy picture”
discussed earlier – what is the general bogey energy level around here; at what altitudes are
you likely to find the enemy; what are their missions, configurations and general headings;
will the enemy be on his toes or will they be dreaming on a lazy climb to altitude; are there
likely to be massive furballs in the area; will you find bombers and escorts at altitude; is this
predominantly a cruise-through area; how likely are you to find friendlies around here
etcetera. All these factors, coupled with your own flight profile – are you in the weeds or at
superior altitude? Are you cruising at reduced RPM or making best time? Is your aircraft
conspicuous or not? – should weigh in to affect your scanning procedure and readiness for
action. One thing you can be certain of though, is that there is ALWAYS someone who has
more smash and more altitude than you. You can never ever let your guard down. Ever.

Fig 13. Is this you? A lot of pilots fail to look about them properly. Know that it doesn’t take more than a few
seconds for any sector of the sky to grow “red”.

The third part of SA is psychology and anticipation. Let’s say that you bounce a guy but miss
your shot and use your superior energy to disengage. You see the bandit come after you for a
while until he eventually breaks off pursuit and vanishes in the haze. What can you
reasonably expect from him? Did you make him mad enough to come after you or is he
likely to continue his mission without further ado? Will he climb beyond visual range and
loiter in the bounce area, waiting for you to come back? Is he a dogged fellow or one that
loses heart easily? Did you give him reason to believe that you might come back or might he
55
assume that you’re disengaging for good? Are there other bogies in the area that might catch
his attention? Only you can tell, and you can tell only by looking at his moves, by making
assumptions from his observed behaviour.
The situation is always in a flux. Throw in a few variables and it changes completely.
What if you have a wingman, or a friendly of some sort and ability, to draw the bandit’s
attention? At what point can you safely reverse? Should you drag for the friendly or can the
friendly drag for you? Will the friendly blow his position and become static? What if you’re
on the deck, is AA a factor for either of you? Can you use the terrain to mask your
disengagement or reversal? Is the bogey you saw earlier on a friendly or a bandit, and what is
his SA and intent? Is your current heading taking you further into a high-energy bandit-
infested area, or out of it? Such questions and deliberations must run through your mind
without pause.

Playing this game is such a gamble you'd think you'd learn from you're mistakes but every once and a while it
happens. Just a reminder telling you not to enjoy it too much. Forgetting about the sky above you or what
happens after you've gone in. Wingman with you and yet you don't know where he is. You haven't checked. It
doesn't matter if you're both playing element leader tonight. One bandit down, you climb in view of the airfield
and you're trying to figure friend from foe. Wasn't there 3 of us? Who's the fourth guy then? Others have no
visual until it’s too late. 109. Great, co-altitude right near the field. Lead turning him now and on his six to
the south. He knows his game and drops down in the flight path. Options? No chance of catching him but
maybe the others have. Disengage? No wait it out a bit and see if friend can catch him. No joy. Conscious of
2 other cons below you with a friendly above them going in you follow the 109 in a chandelle. He comes down
easily evaded. Friendly collides with 2 below you which are now quickly joining the fray. Still on the first 109
who is now dragging for the two behind you. Smart. Defensive now and time to disengage east. Dropping
down for some speed and scissoring you loose one but others stick to you like glue. Failed downward spiral
and feeling pretty stupid they bag you in another scissoring run on the deck. Where did it go wrong?
Hammered, 56th FG(v)

In a combat situation, the amount of data is often overwhelming and sometimes conflicting.
The normal reaction to that is to deal only with the most obvious or the most critical
information while disregarding everything else. Problem is, the things you disregard are
highly likely to come after you and bite you in the bum. Literally. The less SA a combatant
has, the easier it is to defeat him. Some guys doesn’t have any SA at all – these are the easiest
marks of them all. Others may have a reasonable SA from the outset, but become distracted
by a lesser threat or suffer from tunnel vision. These guys are also easy marks, and they stand
out like a sore thumb in the sky. Still, even the most developed SA can be overtaxed and
knowing how to produce such a situation is paramount for prevailing against an "ace".

56
Fig 14. Tunnel vision. You cannot fight what you cannot see.

When you concentrate on a single enemy, as in a lengthy tail-chase or when looking through
the gunsight, your situational awareness is in the pits. Keep up your scanning routine at all
times, particularly when you’re getting fixated on a bandit and when you’re about to fire.

Levels of SA and task overload

In order to progress up the SA ladder, you must first master your aircraft and grasp the
fundamental concept of Energy. Having a bunch of bandits at your six is not a problem if
you KNOW that they don’t have any closure (i.e. are not closing to guns range) and KNOW
that if you just keep trucking you’ll eventually lose them. A rookie pilot however is quite
likely to make the poorest possible choice in that situation - such as burning his energy by
excessive turning or panicking by diving out. Here then, is a general table of SA levels:

0. The pilot cannot perform any action with any degree of success.
1. The pilot is able to maintain coordinated flight, read his instruments and track one other
aircraft.
2. The pilot can keep track of one other aircraft without looking at his instruments or visual
references, regardless of attitude.
3. The pilot can keep track of several aircraft without effort and navigate at the same time.
4. The pilot can keep track of all aircraft in his vicinity and assess their energy state in
relation to his own at all times.
5. The pilot can anticipate threats beyond visual range.

This last point is not as cuckoo as it sounds. Upon asked how he managed to pick up enemy
aircraft well before anyone else did, famous RAF pilot George Beurling replied "I can smell
them". So, whenever you feel the hairs rising in the bottom of your neck, or save yourself by
a break turn based on a hunch, you know that you've attained good SA. This also is a factor
57
of having a good grip on the “big energy” picture, indicative of having a good “wide area
SA”.
The fewer things you have to worry about, the higher your SA potential. Assuming
the pilot has a basic SA level (3), what improves or destroys his SA is the number of tasks he
has to perform, or the amount of data he has to process. It is also a matter of training and
discipline: target fixation or the employment of inferior formations for instance, can be
eliminated through training. However, introduce sufficiently many new or diverse tasks to
the pilot, and he will become overloaded to the point of not having enough SA to survive
very long. He will lose control of the situation and fail to recognize a critical threat. Imposing
task overload on the enemy and retaining control over your own tasks is what SA is all
about.
What are the tasks? Beyond avoiding an unfortunate contact with the ground, the
tasks include:

• Navigation (staying in the air, plotting current and projected position)

• Systems checks (fuel, engine temperature, system failures etc)
• Ongoing visual checks of the surrounding airspace
• Radio communication
• Adherence to mission
• Position and energy state relative to friendly vehicles and territory
• Position and energy state relative to enemy vehicles and territory
• Position and energy state relative to unseen but likely enemy vehicles

For a beginner the first few tasks are sufficient to soak up the bulk of his attention.
Progressing down the list the big unknowns are of course the enemy inputs. These are
exponential: one bandit (or a formation of bandits) may cause you to devote 20% of your
attention, whereas two cons with vastly different data (altitude, speed, attitude, type etc) may
force you to devote 100% of your processing effort to sustain yourself. Introduce one more
unknown set of data or make one of the previous critical (such as losing a vital control
surface) and presto - task overload. So, what separates the rookie from the ace is not really
flying ability, but the ability to process and adapt to huge amounts of data.
How do you avoid task overload? Well, one of the most fundamental solutions is to
fly in formation. Formations, beyond the basic hypothesis of providing a numerical
superiority, help to share the tasks and thus lessen the probability of task overload.
Formations add more eyeballs and brains to the scanning and threat assessment routine.
However, formations introduce another set of tasks that can be equally devastating (keeping
station, responding to orders, keeping on top of the radio chatter, responding to calls for
help etc). Therefore, the understanding and employment of appropriate formations is crucial
- not only for the individual but for the formation as a whole. There are other ways, beyond
constant scanning, of keeping your SA high and most of them are quite self-explanatory.
That said, you’ll notice that 99% of all online pilots disregard them 99% of the time:

• Maintain superior altitude and speed.

58
 • Limit yourself to single passes on the enemy, after which you promptly disengage to
regain SA.
• Don’t surround yourself with enemy (as in a furball).

I said earlier that imposing task overload is key for defeating ace pilots – it is naturally also
true for defeating anyone. How do you do that? It’s fairly easy actually: as long as you fight
predictably, e.g. keep flying a simple nose-to-tail circle with the enemy or stick to an entirely
predictable boom&zoom attack, you establish a pattern which the enemy gets to expect and
can plan against with little effort. If you, on the other hand, keep changing your position
relative to the enemy and force him to devote a lot of energy just to keep track of you, such
as in a rolling scissors or by subjecting him to attacks from always changing quarters, then
you drain his SA. Add a couple or more friendlies to the equation, all attacking from
different angles, speeds and times, and the ace SA will be sorely taxed.
How do you know when someone’s SA is not up to snuff? That too is pretty easy to
establish. When you bounce someone and manage to motor up on them from a highly
visible position, sometimes through a veritable cloud of enemy, and they still don’t
manoeuvre, then you know his SA is less than stellar. When you fight a guy and you see him
make a completely false turn, then you know he’s lost sight of you. I’ve actually flown up to
format on the wings of enemy aircraft more than once, and remained in perfect formation
with them for minutes on end, without them noticing. You get a hearty belly laugh when
they finally see you and make a wild turn away! You can also tell from the way people
arrange themselves in “conga lines” – enemy and friendly aircraft interspersed in a long tail-
chase – that their SA is somewhat lacking. This latter phenomenon is surely a blend of bad
SA, target fixation and wishful thinking, neither of which is particularly conducive to a long
and healthy (virtual) life. Bad SA is quite frequent near airfields – for some reason people
consider themselves safe near a friendly base and seldom check either their six or the
immediate surroundings. Feast upon them, and make sure you’re not the ready-made dinner
yourself.

What is a good fighter pilot made of?

“A fighter pilot must possess an inner urge for combat. The will at all times to be offensive will develop into
his own tactics. I stay with an enemy until either he’s destroyed, I’m out of ammunition, he evades into the
clouds, or I’m too low on gasoline to continue the combat.”
Colonel Hubert “Hub” Zemke, 56th FG

Beyond having a working situational awareness, keen eyesight, a stable mental state and a fair
dose of controlled aggression, the above-average fighter pilot must have extraordinary
reflexes and the ability to anticipate the moves of his enemy – both the individual enemy and
the overall threat picture. He must be able to discipline himself: to prevent himself from
making potentially lethal mistakes; to recognise dangerous situations for what they truly are
and act accordingly; to avoid becoming greedy. He must be fully conversant with his own
and all enemy machines and their envelopes under all circumstances to fully appreciate which
manoeuvres are possible and which, in conjunction with the perceived enemy mental state,
are likely in any given situation. He must feel that the machine is a living extension of his

59
body, not a strange vehicle with a mind of its own. All of these traits are critical. Few
individuals possess them all. Yet all of them can be acquired through persistent practice.
Air combat is akin to four-dimensional chess where the practitioner must be a
combination of psychology major, engineer, sharpshooter and martial arts fighter. Martial
arts in particular have a strong similarity with air combat in that both disciplines makes use
of terms such as energy (ch’i) and balance – in the air, you want to unbalance your enemy,
catch him off guard, sap his energy and retain your own. You want to kill him with a single
debilitating blow to the larynx, or cripple him by kicking his leg clean off. You will want to
defend yourself by keeping out of his range and manoeuvre so that he cannot possibly hit
you, reserving that opportunity for yourself. Or in the words of Morihei Ueshiba, founder of
the martial arts discipline Aikido:

Move like a beam of light:

Fly like lightning,
Strike like thunder,
Whirl in circles around
A stable center.

And

Left and right,

Avoid all
Cuts and parries.
Seize your opponents' minds
And scatter them all!

Your physical and mental state is of fundamental importance when engaging in any sort of
piloting. Fighting when tired or preoccupied is nigh impossible, and, what’s more, not a
whole lot of fun, which, at the end of the day, is what simulated air combat is all about.
Having sortied several times almost daily for eight years I can safely say that the times when I
felt stressed, angry, worn out or dejected, were the worst and would almost certainly lead to
another swift death. Whereas the times when I felt centred, relaxed and pleasantly taut, alert
and secure, usually ended in successful sorties. When in a good state my SA was supremely
attuned, my moves deft and precise, my decisions instant and lethal, my actions decisive and
full of purpose. When in a bad state, I might as well have stayed on the ground, for
everything I did was sloppy, incomplete, half-baked, tired.
A good pilot, however, is not (merely) a guy who can scatter his enemies at will but
one who is economical of force and resources, helpful and of good cheer, dependable and
straightforward too. When flying as a team you will want to have a partner whom you can
trust to act intelligently and predictably, promptly and safely. And you will want to fly in the
same manner yourself, for your partner.

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CH AP T ER 11 : O N G UN S A ND G UN N ER Y
“I fly close to my enemy, aim well, and of course he falls down”
The Baron Manfred von Richthofen

With one notable exception, the 45-degree upwards firing “Schräge Musik” installation in Bf-
110s and Ju-88 night fighters, pursuit planes employ fixed forward-firing machineguns
and/or cannons to defeat the enemy. In order to score a kill, one must first fly these guns to
a position where the guns are effective and then fire a concentrated volley that kills the pilot
and/or permanently disables his plane. That much is clear. The bone of contention is how to
get to that point with the least risk to yourself, and how to make that firing pass as
devastating as possible.
It is convenient to discuss gunnery in terms of an aircraft’s guns envelope – that
small sector of the airspace in which the guns may deal out a disabling volume of fire. For
the machinegun-equipped fighter, this envelope is small indeed: no more than 3-400 meters
forward of the plane. For the cannon-equipped aircraft the envelope is somewhat longer, up
to 6-800 meters, but the probability of a hit at such extreme ranges is not very great and
generally requires a forbidding ammunition expenditure. The guns envelope decreases yet
more against a target which refuses to play sitting duck: if the enemy manoeuvres, you will
have to close to minimum range to increase the odds of a hit. The effective guns range is
generally no more than 150-200 meters, and you will often find that closing to 100 meters or
less is advisable.
When considering the guns envelope you must also factor in a few degrees around
the boresight since the shooter may correct pitch and yaw while firing, and because gravity
loads causes his fire to arc below his line of sight. Imagine the guns envelope as a cone with
its highest lethality closest to the centre and with a reach of no more than 3-400 meters. As
long as you stay out of this cone, nothing can hurt you. I state this truism deliberately
because it isn’t uncommon for pilots to be totally rattled by having a bunch of enemy on
their six – if they’re not in range, they’re not a problem, so relax! Similarly, if you KNOW
that you’re turning outside the enemy guns envelope, there is no reason to be alarmed even if
there is a horde of badguys chasing you.
Concentrating your fire is of the utmost importance. Machinegun-equipped fighters
with one or more pair of guns mounted outboard of the propeller suffer from having their
fire scatter in front of and beyond the convergence point – the point in space where fire
from all guns are sighted to converge. This means that, if your convergence is set to 200
meters, your fire will be more or less spread out inside or outside of that range and thus the
great majority of fire will miss the intended target despite it being fully inside the sight
picture. Machinegun fighters scatter their fire in a “sheet” or “shotgun” pattern and thus it’s
highly advisable to fire only when the target is at or near convergence. Since that isn’t always
possible, particularly inside convergence, you’ll find that you will have to “walk” your fire
across the target or work to concentrate no more than one or two pairs of guns at the most
vulnerable spot. It is also quite frequent, for beginner pilots especially, to become excited in
the firing instance and further scatter their fire through hamfisting of the stick. If you’re
eager for the kill the higher the probability that you will hose your fire all over the sky,
leading to even less hits. If you’ve experienced such excitement and its commensurate lack of
success, you must learn to relax – lean back, control your breathing and loosen up your grip
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on the stick. Also know that anger, frustration and desperation impacts your gunnery
negatively.

Fig 15. Wingmounted guns and convergence issues

To be a good shot, you must be calm and calculating, dispassionate yet concentrated.
However, do not let your calm possess you to the point of holding fire in anticipation of the
“golden” setup. If you do, you’re highly likely to miss the “killingest” opportunity and may
even end up tailgating the bandit. The thing to strive for is a detached, natural, state of mind
that automatically seeks the best solution – then gunnery will become easy and effortless.

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 Learning how to shoot well is arguably one of the most challenging processes for
the beginner pilot. Aside from constant practice and understanding of the forces involved, it
takes a conscious effort to be calm when one is chasing a wildly bucking enemy or setting up
a sweet bounce – adrenaline, sweating palms and a thumping heart contribute to mess up
your gunnery. Be aware of your excitement! Lean back in the chair, take a deep controlled
breath and loosen your grip on the stick.
Another important thing to consider with regard to concentration of volume is to
fire “unloaded” – i.e. to avoid pulling gravity loads when firing. Even the smallest back
pressure on the stick will cause your fire to arc below the line of sight, further diminishing
the lethal volume and most likely causing the burst to miss altogether. Thus, a “perfect” guns
solution requires you to fly a straight line without the slightest elevator input up to the firing point and
until you cease fire. This is the most crucial aspect of setting up a good shot: to fly the plane so
as to avoid pulling G’s before and during the firing sequence. That is a tall order in a close-in
fight, and can be enough of a challenge for the energy fighter too. To this end it helps
considerably to engage the enemy with lead pursuit, and to engage with a relatively small
angle off tail lest the target disappear entirely below the bonnet. In the close-in fight you will
likewise have to pull a good deal of lead (deflection), relax momentarily and fire, watch the
enemy fly through your stream of fire, then haul back from the resulting lag pursuit situation
in order to set up a new lead pursuit:

In a turning fight where you're not down to stall speeds yet but have the luxury of playing with your food, it is
often comfortable to go to lag pursuit in order to create subsequent high angle off lead pursuit situations, rather
than to "haul back and reel him in". Think of it as displacing the circles slightly. This is especially useful
against slower targets, as it maintains and even improves your energy state. What you get then is a series of
full or quarter-full planform unloaded snapshots against the bandit’s engine and canopy. After each shot
you're automatically in lag pursuit, which you convert to lead pursuit with a gravity assist (in the vertical
going up, braking, or in the vertical going down, cutting the circle).

If your aircraft comes equipped with centreline-mounted machineguns or cannons, gunnery

is much easier. While it gives you the opportunity to reach out and seriously damage the
enemy at ranges exceeding the converging guns package, be wary still of using them at
extreme ranges. It is far better to close to such a distance as to guarantee a lethal volume, this
being when the enemy fills your sight entirely. If you close to minimum distance you will
seldom have to bother about bullet drop or deflection shooting – all you need to do is fill the
gunsight with enemy and light him up.
That said, being a master of deflection shooting gives you the opportunity to eke out
effective hits from 3-400 meters range and high angle off. While getting really close is
preferable, it isn’t always an option due to insufficient closure. Likewise, snapshots at less
than 50 meters range and high angle off are fleeting enough and carry with them the very real
risk of collision. Snapshots are more often presented at 150-200 meters range, and then you
really have to fire with accurate deflection.

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Fig 16. In the sequence above, a D.520 is coming in at about 150 degrees angle off against a 109 who
has his lift vector on the shooter. The D.520 is banked to the left and starts firing at approximately
400 meters, keeping it up right up to the crossing point in the last frame. As you can see, the shooter
is adjusting his aim to coincide with the bandit’s anticipated flight path, with a deflection of
approximately one full plane length. In the two middle frames the shooter is also using rudders to yaw
left somewhat. You will also note the efficacy of the firing pass – there are distinct cannon puffs to be
seen in the two middle frames, and MG hits in the final frame.

Deflection firing is difficult, no doubt about it. You will have to practice and practice again
to find the ideal ranges and amounts of lead to draw to become proficient. When to fire and
how much to lead depends on the range and rate of movement of the target across your bow
– the longer the range and the faster the rate, the more lead you need to apply, up to a point
where your fire is highly likely to be ineffective. The deflection solution is further aggravated
if you have to contend with an oblique situation (both vertical and horizontal targeting
element), and yet more so if you’re faced with having to fire while inverted. Even at such
short range as 200 meters, deflection shooting is beyond the capability of most pilots, so
don’t be disheartened if you miss a lot at first. There are no fast and easy rules of thumb,
though, as a general guideline it can be said that if you engage at 150-200 meters and with a
moderate closure and lateral rate, you need to draw about a full plane length at 90-45 degree
deflection and about one half plane length at less deflection. If you’re closer than that, aim
just forward of the propeller to hit the engine and cockpit area.

Fig 17. When you think you’re close, go closer still and fill your gunsight with enemy. This Stuka gets
whacked from less than 30 meters. Here, the wing-mounted machineguns of the Curtiss Hawk are
largely missing their mark due to the target being inside convergence, but the two cowling guns can be
scientifically applied to any part of the enemy plane.

For inverted gunnery you have to momentarily let go of your horizontal awareness and
concentrate totally on the vectors involved. It can be disorienting at first, but when you get
used to it, nothing beats the sensation of suspending spatial awareness. Think of it as firing
in a barrel scissors fight - you get lots of near-inverted snapshots in that kind of fight.

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With regard to drawing lead in the bounce, the deflection computation is somewhat easier
since your closure is generally extremely high, almost to the point of the target appearing to
stand still in the air. Let’s say that you’re coming in high and fast on a relatively slow target.
The bounce begins by flying unloaded (without pulling on the stick) towards a point some 6-
700 meters in front of the target, in his projected flight path – this is the distance he will
cover while you’re closing in. Lead decreases naturally as range decreases. When the target’s
wingtips are fully outside the outer gunsight ring, open fire just shy of his nose and keep it
up to rake the target canopy or put a devastating burst into his inner wing area from 100-150
m down to point blank.

Fig 18. In the sequence above, a 110 is vainly trying to outzoom a Curtiss Hawk who cuts across his
circle and fires a long burst from range 400 (first frame) down to range 200 (last frame). The amount
of deflection and the effects are clearly visible.

Break off the pass by letting the target’s speed carry him up through the gunsight,
momentarily ducking below him as it were. Only if the target is really slow (as in a stall,
climbing slowly or when close to the ground) should you break off by pulling up and
possibly rolling a tad to get out of his plane of manoeuvre. Most pilots have a tendency to
break obliquely UP, so ducking below is the good thing to do if your velocity vector is
anyway in that direction. This of course is only advisable when you're coming in steeply - at
other times it makes sense to break off high and roll to observe the effects of your fire, or
zoom and bank to set up a chandelle plus a rope-a-dope, depending on the situation.

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Fig 19. Here, a Bf-110 is creamed by a D.520 in a classic six o’clock bounce. The sequence is no
longer than 2-3 seconds, so you can imagine the rate of closure. In this short timespan approximately
10-12 cannon shells and 200-250 machinegun rounds, instantly flaming the port wing and most likely
killing the pilot, hits the target. In the last two frames it is evident that the shooter is breaking off his
pass in the vertical, at minimum range.

A couple of things to remember: when you’re concentrating on your quarry, know that your
situational awareness is reduced to a narrow cone defined by your gunsight view. It is
absolutely imperative to maintain good SA when setting up a shot – check six, and scan all
quarters of the sky while you’re chasing the bandit. The scan takes no more than a split
second and during that time your quarry will not get away. Immediately after a successful
guns pass, break hard away in guns defence – for you are highly likely to have a bandit on
your six.
And finally, another tip to improve your gunnery: don’t use your zoomed in
gunsight view (if any) but use your normal forward view when closing in to guns range. This
will allow you to get closer, i.e. not fool you into thinking that you’re closer than you actually
are, it will help you avoid tailgating the bandit and makes it easier to gauge speeds and
vectors in the guns solution. If you’re addicted to the zoomed in view already it will take
some unlearning, but once you free yourself of the zoomed view your kill rate is likely to
skyrocket.

Guns defence
The standard response against an enemy closing in on your six o’clock is… to panic. Without
training, practice and a fair measure of mathematical logic, the neophyte pilot will lock up
completely and remain a sitting duck when shot at. I’m here to tell you that the mere fact
that someone is firing at you is no cause for alarm whatsoever. Panic is utterly uncalled for
and you should learn to discern the difference between truly dangerous situations and those

66
that present no risk whatsoever. Remember, though: if you can’t see him, you can’t fight
him! If you can’t see him, you know nothing!

Guns defence then, is dependent on several key aspects: you have to SEE your assailant in
order to move profitably against him, you have to have ENERGY to manoeuvre against him
and you have to mind your TIMING so that you move at the most auspicious moment. If
you can manage that, defeating your enemy’s attack will be a simple matter. Furthermore,
you need to be CALM in your mind and STEADY on the hand, all the while working up
adrenaline to boost your AGGRESSIVE SPIRIT. I should say that these key points really
only matters, however, when you’re beset by a formidable enemy enjoying one or several
significant advantages – when defending against a lesser threat, the seasoned pilot
manoeuvres reflexively and with little effort to maintain security.

The classic guns defence against a bandit coming in on your six with a head of steam is to
make a radical break turn – a quick heading change – preferably with a vertical element
thrown in (i.e. you turn and either dive or climb somewhat in order to force a more
complicated gunnery calculation, one that he’s unable to solve in time to score, on part of
your assailant). Make your break turn just before he closes to guns range, and break towards
the enemy. Similarly, if the bandit is coming in at you from, say, 4 or 5 o’clock, make your
break turn towards the enemy, never away. The reflexive behaviour is anyway to break
towards the enemy so you need not worry too much about that. Should you break away from
the enemy, however, you’re serving yourself on a hot platter: you’ll present him with a simple
stern shot. Key to guns defence is to present the enemy with a shot that is as difficult as
possible, preferably one that he cannot manage at all. What happens after the first break is
totally dependent on the situation. You might want to go into a barrel roll rather than to
simply break fully away, you might want to reverse your break, you might want to disengage
with a split-S – it’s all up to you and the general situation.
The thing to remember is that guns defence is all about making the bandit overshoot
(fly past) without getting a shot opportunity. Doing so is mainly a matter of introducing
more angles to his guns solution than he can comfortably handle, i.e. getting out of his plane
of manoeuvre6 – of getting out of his performance envelope as it were. Depending on the
speeds and distances involved, it may suffice to add a few angles to the situation, something
that doesn’t cost very much from an energy perspective. It is also important to consider the
timing of the break – you don’t want to advertise your new plane of manoeuvre too soon as
this might give the bandit time to adjust his guns solution, nor do you want to break too late
for obvious reasons. One other important consideration is the RATE with which you travel
through his gunsight: you will want to move swiftly, i.e. at a good rate, so as to minimize
your stay in his gunsight or so as to defeat his shot altogether. At other times you may need
to manoeuvre radically to get yourselves out of his current and likely flight path – in such a

6 Plane of manoeuvre refers to alignment of the wingline. If the enemy is coming down with his
wingline aligned with the horizon, canopy up, and you are similarly disposed, you might want to
quarter-roll and pull to exit out the side of his sight picture. Your plane of manoeuvre is now 90
degrees offset relative to his. In order to regain a firing solution the enemy must also roll and pull to
align his wingline with yours, to get into your plane of manoeuvre.
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situation it helps a lot to consider just how many G’s the bandit may pull and where the
limits of his angle of attack are at relative to your position. As soon as he’s in front of you he
has to set up anew, thus giving you freedom to manoeuvre against his continuing game plan
– or even the opportunity to gun him down.
Other classic guns defence manoeuvres include the scissors, rolling scissors and
defensive spiral (both up and down). Employment of these manoeuvres isn’t limited to
attacks delivered from your stern quarter – the scissor or lead turn works just as well when
the enemy is to your side or coming in head on. We’ll discuss these options more in the
upcoming ACM section.

Remember though that guns defence is not a persistent state. Your objective is to defeat his
shot, not to defend indefinitely. Every guns defence situation should be viewed as an
opportunity to go on the attack – it only so happens that the enemy may be in a position to
fire first. Defeat his pass and go on the offensive!
The trickiest guns defence situation by far is when the enemy is co-E and close in.
Certainly it must be regarded as a complete failure on your part to end up in such a bad
position from the outset, but them’s the breaks from time to time. In that particular situation
anything goes. Do anything and everything to get out of guns! Here it’s a matter of
proficiency versus proficiency, of reactions and of individual plane characteristics – if your
roll rate is superior, use it to scissor or barrelroll the enemy! If you can pull more G’s and
AOA than the enemy or have a superior turn radius, use that to swing on his six! If neither is
an option, try a skid! And if he still persists, try the “Hartmann Escape”: stick forward in a
corner and full opposite rudder. This will cause the bandit to red out from negative G’s
should he try to follow your manoeuvre.

A typical rookie mistake is to regard guns defence as something that is only intended to make
the bandit’s shot as messy as possible while screaming helplessly for help all the way home to
mama. The result is often a pathetic flopping about and wishy-washy wing-waggling without
any particular plan. Key to guns defence is to regard it as an offensive move, and this move
must be executed deliberately and authoritatively. You can’t afford to take your eyes off the
bandit and simply panic – stay calm, watch his moves, feel his itchy trigger finger, reel him in
and just as he thinks he’s going to gun you down, make a single confident and aggressive
move to reverse the situation and kill him before he gets a chance to collect his wits.
Guns defence takes many forms. In its most elegant form all you need to do is
throw the bandit a few angles which he’ll be unable to parry: increasing your turn rate or
steepening a climb may be all that’s required to stay outside his guns and performance
envelope. The rookie opponent is likely to take the bait then and exceed his envelope, he’s
likely to fire his guns even though it’s clear that he hasn’t got a snowball’s chance in hell of
hitting. In both these instances you’ve won the fight already: you have gained all the
intelligence you need to defeat him; you’ve forced him to blow his energy and/or position;
you’ve forced him into a state of frustration and impatience from which he’s unlikely to
recover. Maintaining your calm and remaining in control of your aircraft throughout the
most dangerous phases of guns defence is extremely important. You have to tell yourself that
the guy behind you isn’t dangerous at all, to the contrary, he’s just another victim – he just
doesn’t know it yet!
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 Remember, always, that the enemy assailing you is actually at your mercy, however
strong he may seem and however secure he may feel (the more secure he feels the more he
fools himself!) as he comes boring in to gun you down. His idea that he is on top of the
situation is complete at fault – all you have to do is disprove him. You are gauging his
approach, setting him up and then elegantly sidestepping to capitalize on his incredulity and
brashness. For as long as you see him coming, as long as you have the energy to manoeuvre
and as long as you time your moves right, there is not a thing in the world that can hurt you.

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P AR T I I I: A D VA NC E D M AN O EU VR ES
CH AP T ER 12 : S EP AR A TI ON A N D T I M IN G
"I always thought to go around in circles, slower and slower, was a ridiculous thing… It's not the way to
fight. The best tactic is to make a pass, then break off and come back."
Brigadier General Robin Olds, USAF

A lot of discussion between pilots and indeed the bulk of what has been said thus far in this
book is centred on the fighter duel, the instance where two fighters of roughly equal
capability meet in the sky and do combat. That situation, or at least the situation in it’s pure
and unadulterated form, is extremely rare: more often than not, the duel is interrupted by
additional fighters, by ground fire, by loss of contact etcetera. Sometimes it’s hard to single
out an individual enemy for you are seldom alone in the sky and, in well-trafficked parts of
the sky, you will have to compete with any number of friendlies to score the kill. Either way,
the duel is the inferior way of fighting inasmuch it gives the enemy a chance to strike back.
You should never allow that but reserve the right to strike solely for yourself. It is by far
safer to pick off the unwary and the unseeing while they’re enroute to what they consider to
be the area of engagement, to set yourself up as bait for the unthinking and allow your
wingman to swoop down and blast them away, or to use your wingman for that purpose.
Only as a last recourse should you accept single combat. Regardless of where the bandit
appears when the engagement starts you should be able to swing onto his rear with a single
decisive manoeuvre and close the deal quickly so as to minimise degradation of your overall
situational awareness. And as soon as you have spent SA to kill a guy it is highly advisable to
break off at high speed and regain control of the airspace.
Before we go into the mechanics of a fight, it is advisable to spend some time
considering the topic of separation and timing. This is something most beginner pilots have
no inkling about, which is readily seen by their propensity for always flying “pipper on the
enemy”. While closing with the enemy is certainly the objective, the bee line is seldom the
most auspicious except of course when you start out behind your quarry. In all other aspects
you need to factor in turn radius – the lateral or vertical distance required to haul around into
the enemy stern quarter.
Consider the meeting engagement again where the opponents approach more or less
head on. The vast majority of pilots will, without second thought, commit to a head-on firing
pass – because this presents little difficulty in terms of tracking and keeping a visual on the
bandit. The target is right there in front of our trigger-happy pilot and he doesn’t have to
manoeuvre much to put the pipper on his adversary. What he doesn’t take into consideration
is that the enemy is likewise presented with a simple shot, and the encounter is thus a 50-50
crapshoot at best. At worst, your gunnery sucks and you collide too, prematurely and
unnecessarily ending your career. It is here, in the head-on encounter, that the experienced
pilot uses his head and creates separation where none was at hand from the beginning.
As you can see in the following picture, the experienced pilot points his crate well to
the side of the enemy, effectively setting up a scissors situation. It can also be regarded as the
preliminary to a lead-turn merge, in which the less experienced pilot bores in for what he
thinks is an easy shot. The experienced pilot is actually “giving away” angles for free here,
only to brutally reverse the situation at the most auspicious time. It takes the less experienced
pilot several fractions of a second to understand what is really happening to him, and when
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he does he will most likely react in the most predictable manner – by hauling back on the
stick to keep his lift vector on the bandit – which naturally only serves to make him an all the
more worthwhile target for our expert. In this little engagement wits defeats brawn, without
the slightest risk for the experienced pilot, and with little effort. This ploy has two variants.
In the first (illustrated below), the expert pilot only makes a single guns defence break
followed by a reversal. This is inherently risky as the break takes place in the enemy plane of
manoeuvre. In the second variant, the expert makes a double reversal before the merge, the
first into and across the bandit, and the last shortly before the merge, which rapidly takes
him onto the less experienced pilot’s six o’clock. This has the added advantage of forcing the
enemy to execute a quarter roll to follow through the first reversal and possibly to suffer a
negative-G redout by the time of the second reversal.
Separation is also extremely important when discussing 2 vs. 1 manoeuvres and
formation tactics. We’ll explore it later on in the respective chapters, but for now consider
the situation where you’re fighting alone against two or more bandits: as long as you can
keep them to one side, or grouped up on your six o’clock, you can basically treat them as
one. It’s only when the bandits spread out (open up separation) and attack in sequence that it
really becomes tricky – which is of course the objective for 2 vs. 1 manoeuvring.

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Fig 20. Setting up a predictable course of events.

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Timing is everything
Timing of various moves is arguably the difference between success and failure. The pilot’s
sense of timing; in the bounce, in the intercept; in the execution of reversals or any other
situation which requires split-second accuracy, is, unfortunately, something which only
comes with experience. One has to fail numerous times before getting a feel for the critical
moment in a given situation. The subject of timing is highly relative to the situation: what are
the respective energy states; what is the closure like; what are the respective turn radiuses at
this speed and altitude; is the bandit inside or outside effective range etcetera. Fundamentally,
the pilot must have a very good handle on everything pertaining to the situation in order to
make the golden decision of when and how to turn. He must know his own ship inside out
as well as the enemy’s, he must accurately asses the energy picture, the enemy awareness and
intent, and weigh these factors against his own proficiency and intent. In short, he must
“feel” the situation.

Fig 21. Plotting the turn.

Figure 21 shows the essential components of the timing calculation in a simple co-E
situation: turn radius, distance and speed. Here, the blue fighter starts his turn when the
bandit is offset one full turn radius and approximately 135 degrees angle off tail, or 45
degrees offset. This angle represents the time he needs to complete his turn at corner speed
in order to end up at the bandit’s six o’clock. If he delays his turn until the bandit is 90
degrees angle off, he will languish well outside guns range. On the other hand, had the bandit
been a slow bomber, delaying the turn until 90 degrees angle off would probably be more
productive. Clearly our bandit isn’t likely to play along with the blue fighter’s game here most

73
of the time, unless he’s running naked for home, or if his SA is in the pits or if he’s busy
chasing someone (or even busy trying to catch up with his leader!).
The point of this is also to illustrate that separation is what matters. If the blue
fighter above had gone straight at his (unseeing) enemy, he’d be saddled with a particularly
tricky deflection shot of exceedingly short duration. In the case that the enemy is aware and
goes head on to the blue fighter separation is nil, and most of the time nothing useful comes
out of such a merge. In order to get behind your enemy you must consider your turn radius,
and get into such a position so as to employ that turn radius.
Another thing to remember is the vertical offset. If the bandit is several thousand
feet above or below you will have to account for that fact when timing your attack, since you
will get a gravity assist in the dive and trade speed for altitude in the zoom. When diving in
you must consider what sort of attack you wish to execute: a high-side run with plenty of
deflection; a high six; a level six; a low six, and so forth. You must consider what kind of
speed and firing window you need, whether to make an immediate attack or a deferred one
(i.e. a set-piece attack) etcetera. In any event the diving attack usually requires you to hold
your wingover until the bandit has passed by your wingline, then you go in. Similarly, when
dealing with a low-energy bandit above your level, you need to make a swift decision as to
how to execute the attack, and initiate the attack run accordingly. Here your options are
fewer, however, the challenge is none the easier: will you opt for a more or less straight low
front aspect shot with a high six reversal behind the bandit (or a blowthrough); a level
approach with a straight-up full planform shot; a level approach with an Immelman reversal
into guns range, etcetera.

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CH AP T ER 13 : A D V ANC E D C OM B AT M A NO EU VR ES
I didn't turn with the enemy pilots as a rule. I might make one turn - to see what the situation was - but not
often. It was too risky.
General John C. Meyer, Vice-Chief of Staff, USAF

The ability to throw your crate around in the sky isn’t what makes you a successful fighter
pilot, nonetheless it’s important to know how, and more importantly still, when, to perform
one or the other aerobatic stunt. For even if your fighting style is the ultra-conservative, the
high-powered boom&zoom variety, which should theoretically never put you in harm’s way,
you can bank on the enemy having other plans for you at some time or the other.
The moves explained here are seldom used singly, as is, but are usually used in
combination as part of a grand scheme of manoeuvre in the particular engagement. That
said, it behoves the aspiring pilot to make himself solidly familiar with each one so as to gain
a feeling for his ability and the usefulness of the move.
Bear in mind that “dogfighting” is not the be all and end all of air combat. Verily,
engaging in, or being forced to engage in, single combat (or if you’re down on luck, one
versus many) is a down and out failure. Not only is dogfighting THE hardest thing
imaginable, for all its requirements of top-notch situational awareness and manoeuvring
prowess, it exposes you to risks several orders of magnitude greater than that of a more
conservative (but none the less demanding) engagement practice. Taking hits, or putting
yourself in the situation where you might take a hit, is incontrovertible proof that you’ve
failed to establish and capitalise on potential and real advantages, and ultimately, that your
decision making and threat computing processes require urgent overhaul.
Going “fangs out, hair afire” into the fray may seem glorious, brave, aggressive and
whatnot, but it isn’t what combat is about. The truly consummate air to air gunfighter is he
who never gives his enemy a chance, who kills without ever exposing himself to danger
(other than that implicit by sheer presence in a combat zone), who never allows the enemy to
get even remotely near a guns solution. As you become more proficient you can afford to
ease up on your safety margins – to the point of engaging multiple enemy at close quarters
without ever having to fear taking even a single hit. Until you reach such a level of
proficiency however, do yourself a huge favour and engage only such enemy as you can
safely handle, on your terms and on turf of your choosing. There is no dishonour in avoiding
a bad fight, no shame in disengaging. Success is what counts, and that comes in many forms
and shapes.
The manoeuvres described herein are not unique for the close quarters fight: they
apply just as much to the energy fighter as they do to the angles fighter – and they can be
seen both in the context of a highly localized and tight “personal” fight as well as in an
engagement which covers tens of miles. A Chandelle, for instance, may be used to equal
effect against a single bandit tooling around low over a frontline town as against a clutch of
enemy chasing you for ten minutes and trying to get to grips at 30,000 ft. Keep these
different scales in mind, and consider the amplitude, the scope and energies of various
moves before deciding on what’s appropriate for the situation.

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13.1 Split-S
The Split-S is used to reverse direction in a hurry with the aid of gravity. Roll inverted, and
pull back. Recover in the opposite direction. Do it a couple of times and jot down your entry
and exit altitudes at various speeds: this is your safety margin, and may just be the one ploy
you need to make a less capable pursuer take an involuntary “dirt nap”. Do know that the
radius of your turn will differ considerably depending on your entry speed and throttle
setting. In short, the faster you go the wider the turn.

Fig 22. Split-S

Perform the Split-S at or below corner velocity since the gravity assist increases your speed
considerably – at high airspeeds you will need more altitude to perform the same manoeuvre.
A variant of the Split-S is to roll inverted, pull back to true vertical, then quarter roll and pull
back. This will produce an exit heading 90 degrees left or right of your original heading. This
is useful if a bandit on your tail can be seen to lose visual contact while you perform the
manoeuvre. He might pick up your Split-S, but fail to notice the additional heading change.
Typically, the Split-S is used as a guns defence expedient. However, you should be extremely
wary of using it as such if the enemy roll rate is superior, and you WILL be exposed to a full-
planform shot if the enemy is deft enough to cut your circle, either by steepening a dive or
following your roll. In other words, the Split-S alone is a rather predictable move and it’s not
likely to take you permanently out of trouble, to the contrary.

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13.2 Immelman

Fig 23. The Immelman Turn

Named after legendary WWI ace Max Immelman, the Immelman is the opposite of the Split-
S: it reverses your heading with a vertical displacement, but this time you fight gravity. Pull
back as for a loop, but half-roll on top of the loop to exit in the opposite direction from your
original flight path. If your airspeed is low at the beginning of the manoeuvre, you will have
to make a short dive prior to zooming. Like the Split-S this manoeuvre isn’t much of a
combat move per se but rather an expedient for reversing your heading somewhat faster
than you would in a flat turn.

13.3 Cuban-8

Fig 24. The Cuban-8.

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The Cuban-8 is, as can be seen in the diagram, a figure 8 lying down, flown in the vertical
plane. It’s useful when strafing soft and squishy things, as it allows you to maintain a grip on
headings while maximising your visual contact with the target. However, this comes at a
price: you’re a very predictable target for both enemy air and ground fire, so only use it
against targets that doesn’t fight back. Make sure to extend a bit after your firing pass so as
to avoid engaging the target in a series of loops. The Cuban-8 is a rather delightful
manoeuvre as long as you’re left undisturbed, and it also retains your energy and situational
awareness very well compared to horizontal turns.

13.4 Chandelle

Fig 25. Chandelle

The Chandelle is a gentle climbing turn which reverses your heading with lateral (horizontal)
and vertical separation from your original flightpath. It’s a good way to induce a bandit to cut
across your circle as a preliminary to the Rope-A-Dope shown below. You need to have a
definite energy advantage and a fair amount of separation to any would-be pursuer when you
start the manoeuvre, as it’s otherwise a rather simple matter to cut across your circle to guns
range. Take care to maintain manoeuvre speed throughout the chandelle. In other words,
don’t max out your climb at the price of becoming near-stationary.

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13.5 The Rope-A-Dope

Fig 26. The Rope-a-Dope, as seen from the side.

The Rope-A-Dope is a very handy manoeuvre when you have a large energy or performance
advantage over a bandit engaging from behind and below your wingline. Against a much
better performing plane, you can only adopt the Rope-A-Dope with a substantial energy
overhead, and only for a limited time unless you kill him quickly or bleed his energy well
between passes. In the graphic above (viewed from the side), the Blue fighter is decidedly
slower or suffering from a performance disadvantage while the Red fighter is extending e.g.
from a botched pass.

At Time 1, the Blue fighter is in pursuit, out of range.

At Time 2, the Red fighter starts a moderate climb – the Blue fighter follows, trying to keep
his speed up by putting his velocity vector slightly below the enemy (i.e. lag pursuit).
At Time 3, the Red fighter is climbing steeper and banking slightly, effectively starting a
gentle spiral climb. The Blue fighter tries to keep up, following in his wake.
At Time 4, the Red fighter has gained a lot of altitude and is offset slightly to the side. The
Blue fighter has closed the horizontal distance, but is more or less below the spiralling enemy
– in his very low six.
At Time 5, the Red fighter is maximising his spiral, getting every ounce out of his crate. The
Blue fighter is desperately trying to get his guns on him, and can almost but not quite make
it.
At Time 6, the Blue fighter is mushing and stalling. The Red fighter sees the onset of his stall
and is already sweeping in for the killshot.
At Time 7, the Blue fighter is recovering from his stall and have most likely lost visual on the
Red fighter, who now has an amply predictable target.

Key to the rope-a-dope is to keep the enemy at or in front of the wingline during the final
phase where he sheds every ounce of energy in the climb. What you do then is essentially a
gently climbing circle around his velocity vector. Once you see the bandit mush or stall, or
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break off, you should already be on your way down. If you hold off for too long you give the
bandit opportunity to recover manoeuvrability, so stick it to him before he gets a chance to
compose himself. On the other hand, if the vertical displacement is insufficient for you to
wing in for a stable guns solution, you might as well keep trucking (i.e. save your stashed
energy and improve on it still more) and prepare to set up another rope-a-dope after he
recovers.

Defending against the Rope-A-Dope

Fig 27. Defending against the Rope-A-Dope, seen from above.

Defence against the rope-a-dope is pretty uncomplicated, but it does hinge on your ability to
recognise the enemy intent early on and taking the appropriate steps. The graphic describes
how the defending blue fighter refuses to play along with the bandit and instead forces him
to fight on his terms despite starting the fight at an energy disadvantage.

At Time 1, you’re in pursuit of a co-alt extending bandit who has a definite energy or
performance advantage. However, instead of going right after him, you go into a wide lag
position to his right.

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At Time 2, the Red fighter has increased his vertical advantage considerably (thus slowing his
forward progress). You however keep your airspeed, climbing only slightly, and are
positioned well out on his flank.
At Time 3, the Red fighter is still climbing. He has just realised that you didn’t take the bait.
You’re still climbing at a very moderate pace and have increased your lateral (horizontal)
separation yet further.
At Time 4, the Red fighter decides to attack since you appear to be extremely benign. You
see him commit to the attack and turn into him. Your lateral separation forces the Red
fighter to spend some of his smash in closing the distance. This evens out the previous
energy disparity and switches the engagement from a rope-a-dope to a frontal scissors
engagement.
At Time 5, you have continued your turn into and past the Red fighter, forcing him to adjust
his attack run to the right. The Red fighter, who no longer has an unloaded head-on shot,
must pull G’s to keep his pipper on you. Your plane is pointed well to his side still – you’re
not aiming at him.
At Time 6, the Red fighter has missed his shot window by a large margin and will either a)
extend or b) pull hard towards you or c) zoom to immediately reengage. Your options here
are to a) reverse your turn again and get on his six if the energy margin is small, or b) keep
trucking to reinstate the horizontal separation. Don’t fall for the sucker trap of trying to eke
out a shot as the Red fighter zooms – that will most likely set you up for the rope-a-dope
endgame as discussed above. However, if the bandit does turn hard after you, dumping his
smash, the wise thing to do is to reverse toward him (unless you did so already) and enter a
rolling scissors fight.

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13.6 Defensive spiral

Fig 28. Defensive Spiral.

The defensive spiral is used to force an overshoot of a bandit on your tail, allowing you to
either kill him then and there, or to disengage from the fight. The object of the spiral is to
slow down your descent as much as possible – chop throttle, increase drag by increasing
your Angle of Attack and deploy flaps momentarily. Unless the bandit is very good he will
not notice your braking action in time and simply drop below you. The defensive spiral
works best if you allow the enemy to get close before slowing down and “dirtying up” (i.e.
increasing drag) – the less time he has to determine your action, the better. Think of it as a
rolling scissors in the vertical, where you let gravity do the greater part of the job. However,
you need to present a difficult target as you do this, so you need to be in the spiral already.
This manoeuvre requires a lot of altitude – don’t try it below 3 km (9000 feet). Maintain

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visual contact throughout the manoeuvre and turn so as to position the enemy off your wing
rather than off your tail. This will induce him to try and cut across and thus overshoot all the
sooner. The more he slides forward, the better the spiral is working.
The defensive spiral or Corkscrew works just as well going up, particularly against a
bandit who comes in with a lot of energy or has a higher wingloading than you do. You need
to be at corner speed or better to initiate the corkscrew however – in all other cases, a simple
scissor or break reversal is likely to work better. The Corkscrew is essentially an oblique
spiral where you allow the enemy to cut across for a guns solution. However, since you’re
both climbing and turning at max rate, in a spiral that is not truly vertical but leaning to the
side somewhat, you are constantly feeding him a more difficult guns equation, up to the
point where he overshoots. At that juncture you should already be turning onto his high six
o’clock. The trick here is to position the enemy off your wing while spiralling up, i.e. if you
keep your wingtip pointed at the enemy while you zoom you will automagically manoeuvre
around him until such time as you see him stall out or flash past behind you.

13.7 Hammerhead (aka Military wing-over)

Fig 29. Hammerhead Turn.

The Hammerhead is useful when you have a lot of energy over your opponent or when
making strafing passes at an acute angle. Pull up gently to near vertical and make the most of
your energy. Look out to your side to determine your angle – it can be near vertical, more so
than in the illustration above. As you approach the power-on stall, tramp down on the
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rudder in your propeller torque direction (to give you a minor yaw assist) until you face
Mother Earth. You may need to correct your flight path somewhat with rudder and a
smidgeon of elevators, as the tendency is to exit the Hammerhead in a steeper angle than you
entered it. The Hammerhead is not a bread-and-butter move that you can employ every so
often, particularly against more or less equally performing enemy, as it is dependent on you
having a significant energy advantage on the order of 2:1 – something which you may have
against a bomber or when coming down on a slowly climbing enemy from several thousand
feet of altitude. Against the latter however, it is probably more constructive to use your
overhead of energy to sweep around rather than to set up the very steep high angle off shot
produced by the Hammerhead. Furthermore, the Hammerhead is rather a conspicuous
manoeuvre that takes some time to perform, which makes you a predictable target for
anyone with a stash of energy and an easy foe to defend against.

13.8 Scissors
The object of the Scissors is to force an overshoot on part of the enemy currently on your
six. The Scissors is best employed by a slower and better turning aircraft against a faster
fighter with high wingloading, but any aircraft with a decent roll-rate can scissor. The Scissor
is basically a series of reciprocating reversals with you in the driver’s seat. All the enemy can
do, beyond disengaging, is to react to your moves. The bandit will feel compelled to match
your turns and in so doing he will be a fraction late in every reversal, unable to stay in your
plane of manoeuvre (i.e. his wingline will not match yours). In addition to this, he will try to
cut across your circle, thus increasing his forward speed and further aggravating his troubles.
Before long (2-3 reversals) you will be essentially neutral, nose to nose – at which time the
enemy will either overshoot before your guns or fall prey in a stationary turn fight. You can
enter the Scissors at any speed. However, it is best initiated when the enemy is already in or
very close to guns range. If you start it too soon, all you will do is to present a comfortable
target as the enemy closes the distance, cutting across your feeble and predictable reversals.
It is also highly auspicious to make your reversals inverted, that is, instead of sticking to
turning nose-over-the-horizon, you half-roll through the current bank to inverted and pull to
reverse somewhat nose low as you complete the half-roll. This may cause you to lose sight of
the bandit momentarily as you swing him through your low cold six, but it will also make
your reversals more rapid.
Why does the Scissor work so well? It’s because simple human reaction time works
in your favour. You are the one who leads the enemy along – the pursuer must contend with
the brief span between seeing, deciding and acting on a given input – and he is thus always a
fraction late in matching your manoeuvre. The worse reactions he has, the better your
scissors works, and if his roll rate is inferior to yours the scissors will work even faster.
Key to making the Scissors work is of course timing, but first you need to keep your
eyes on the bandit! Your eyes should never stray from him, and since he’ll be behind you and
in your high rear a good deal of the time, you need to be adept at “flying backwards”. Once
you see his wingline getting out of synch relative to yours, you know the scissors is working
– keep it up and aggravate the plane-of-manoeuvre disparity until you’re canopy to canopy
with him. You’ll also see him creep farther forward in your upview during the reversals,
indicative of your forward progress being slower than his. Keep it up, and you’ll soon find

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yourself behind his wingline – the table’s reversed! Never forget that YOU are in command
of the fight. You’re not defending here – you’re attacking!

Fig 30. Flat Scissors (top view).

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A typical rookie mistake in the scissors is to make the reversals too gently, too mechanically
and without observing the enemy. Each reversal is in effect a guns defence reversal and
should be treated as such, not as a “mess-up-his-shot jink”. It is also highly auspicious to
start your next reversal at the precise time when you see the enemy labouring to follow you
previous reversal – at that point his inertia and the inescapable reaction interval will make
him lose that tiny fraction of an instant so crucial for success in the Scissors. While you’re
already halfway into your new direction, he will still be wallowing in the old one – and as he
tries to reciprocate, you reverse again! Aggravate this wingline disparity and never ever take
your eyes off the bandit in the scissors!
The Scissors can be either Flat (i.e. you reverse in the horizontal) or Rolling in the
vertical. If you have the requisite airspeed to work in the vertical, a series of short zooms and
dives in a barrel rolling manoeuvre allows you to slow down your forward progress more
effectively and put yourself behind the enemy for a nice and safe guns situation. This is most
taxing on your SA though – and the enemy’s – so be sure to know that you can handle it.

Fig 31. Scissors, continued.

You can also start the Scissor well out of range, and then you will hardly need more
than two reversals to get on his six. The key here, assuming that you’re being chased from
the scene by a bandit well outside guns range, is to make a clearly marked turn to decrease
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the angle off tail (from 180 to say, 100-120 degrees off). This will induce the bandit to cut
across your projected path, and set him up for an aggressive reversal once he draws almost
into guns range. A second reversal will bring you on his six, the timing of which can be quite
close to the first reversal. In figure 31 (not to scale), the Blue fighter makes a radical guns
defence reversal at time 1, and another at time 2 – when the Red fighter is still expecting him
to be travelling in the heading indicated by his reversal at time 1.

As your SA, your confidence and your plane-handling proficiency improves, you will gain a
fine feeling for the timing and amplitude of the breaks in the scissors. In the sucker chase
shown in figure 31, you will find that instead of executing two standard oblique breaks, one
after the other as you verify that the enemy behaves as expected, you might as well merge
those breaks into one – into a rolling scissors move, or a barrel roll attack if you wish. This
will preserve your energy and bring you much closer to a comfortable guns situation on the
enemy – on the other hand, it does require top notch SA and excellent stick and rudder
coordination. What you do, essentially, is to roll up and around his flight path, keeping him in
view through you top canopy and letting his momentum carry him through, down to your
forward quarter. At that point you’re on a parallel heading but rolled inverted so it’s a simple
matter to finish the rolling manoeuvre and slide in on his six. The vertical offset is important
here – make it large enough to give you a good guns defence at the beginning of the
manoeuvre but small enough to retain your energy for the endgame.

Look at the picture 31 again and imagine that instead of two flat reversals you’re instead
executing a single rolling manoeuvre with a certain vertical amplitude over the bandit’s flight
path. The key here is to know just how much time you need to haul up in a guns-defensive
barrel roll, and how much AOA you can pull at your present speed without blacking out or
paying an exorbitant energy price for the manoeuvre.
How do you defend against a scissors? Or rather, how do you, as the attacker, retain
your advantage? That too is quite uncomplicated. If the bandit is decidedly benign in his
moves, you might want to cut across and gun him down in a single pass, ready to use the
vertical to stay behind his wingline. If he seems to be an above-average stick, abstain from
even trying to follow his scissoring and make a short rolling zoom well behind his wingline
instead (to keep him in view) and wait for him to either tire of the flat scissors or to make a
move against you in the vertical. From there on, you’re likely to enter a classic rolling scissors
fight. In such a situation the only advice is to keep you energy and stay behind his wingline
until he makes a significant error for you to capitalize on.
Finally a small tip that may help you in the rolling scissor: when rolling with the
enemy, try to fly so that you have visual on him in your forward-corner-up view rather than
in your corner-back or straight-up view. This is important, as in the latter case you will
subconsciously “contract the barrel” and remain essentially neutral down to collision range
whereas if you place him in your forward-corner-up view you will subconsciously manoeuvre
to slide around, or corkscrew, his flight path until you can haul in and saddle up.

I go into full aggressive mode. First, a couple of tight barrel rolls. Then, as the FW comes closer, sustained
scissors with a measure of vertical thrown in. It seems to catch him unawares and on the second break I
KNOW I have him. He gets totally out of sync on the fourth break and instead of extending, he turns in the
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horizontal. Wheeee! I see him struggle against the [stall] horn in my high twelve, and close in leisurely for the
kill. I get a full two-three second guns window and make damn sure my deflection is correct before firing
HARD in his high six, slam-dunking his engine, cockpit and port wing. He goes down, wingroot afire, and
crash.
WarBirds, January 31 1999

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13.9 Lead Turn

Fig 32. Lead Turn (top view).

The lead turn is in fact a sort of scissor. The objective is to make the enemy commit to one
manoeuvre, while you’re preparing a diametrically opposed turn to turn the table on him.
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This works swimmingly in a typical head-on encounter: you KNOW the enemy will go for
the shot, i.e. fly with his gunsight right on to you (true pursuit). At time 1, you point your
aircraft well to the side of the enemy, forcing him to correct his flight path incrementally to
the point of banking hard in the turn direction.
At time 2, he’s fully committed and expecting a snapshot at the intersection point.
You however, have other plans. Turn towards the bandit and aim your flight path so as to
pass him below and to the left (in this example) – to get his guns on you, he must depress his
nose (suffering negative G’s and a red-out) or very quickly roll to the right and pull hard (the
rapidly closing distance won’t give him time enough to shoot). You can be pretty sure that
the latter will occur, forcing him into a right-hand turn. At that time, you’ve already
completed most of your turn and are working in towards him at time 3.

13.10 High yo-yo

The Yo-Yo is very difficult to explain. It was first perfected by the well-known Chinese fighter pilot Yo-Yo
Noritake. He also found it difficult to explain, being quite devoid of English.
Squadron Leader K.G. Holland, RAF

Fig 33. High Yo-Yo.

The high yo-yo is an out-of-plane manoeuvre employed when you need to shed forward
speed without sacrificing position or energy – i.e. you momentarily trade speed for altitude
and position, only to cash it in shortly thereafter by converting altitude to speed. In the
picture above, the Hawk, coming in hot, engages a defensively flat-turning 109. He misses
his first shot, and decides to continue the fight. Instead of throttling down and pulling hard
on the stick to stay in the 109’s plane of manoeuvre – which would cost a significant amount
of energy and most likely cause a black-out – he pulls up, canopy to the bandit, and keeps his
lift vector on the 109 (i.e. pulls toward him). As the 109 keeps turning, separation increases

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so that when the Hawk is on top of the short zoom, he can safely re-engage with a long,
carefully aimed salvo right into the cockpit. If need be, he can continue yo-yo’ing the 109
until the cows go home.

Fig 34. High sides attack (series of yo-yo’s)

The high yo-yo is also the basic ingredient in a fighter’s attack on a slow and plodding
bomber stuck to a fixed heading. This is known as the “high sides” attack - in essence a
series of high yo-yo attacks. At the top of the zooms, the target is just behind the wingline so
as to give the fighter a high deflection, big planform shot against the target’s eight and four
o’clock respectively. As the fighter carries through each attack, his velocity vector takes him
up high and forward of the bomber to the next attack’s starting point. As long as the fighter
keeps his energy high and takes care to match his general velocity vector to that of the
bomber (rather than getting lost well behind him), he can keep up the attacks as long as
necessary – with little risk to himself.

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13.11 Low yo-yo

Fig 35. Low Yo-Yo.

The low yo-yo is another out-of-plane manoeuvre which uses a gravity assist to cut across a
stagnant flat-circle fight. It requires a bit of altitude, but not much – 500 feet is sufficient, or
even 50 for that matter if you need a small energy boost in a stall fight. Following a low yo-
yo, it’s natural to keep swinging up and down into the enemy’s circle, and the fight is likely to
progress to a vertical scissors situation. If you’re being yo-yo’ed against, the correct course of
action is to counter it with a vertical manoeuvre of your own, thus taking the fight into the
vertical.

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13.12 The Sliceback

Fig 36. The Sliceback.

The Sliceback is an evil manoeuvre, a dirty trick to pull on a bandit who’s comfortably on
your long six o’clock. It comprises a gentle zoom with an aggressive skid near the top
followed by a nose-low opposite rudder reversal to bring you near head-on with your highly
rattled pursuer. You will need quite a bit of separation for this move since you burn a lot of
energy in the reversal – don’t try it if the bandit is anywhere near guns range. It is best
employed by a fighter with high wingloading and considerable rudder authority, in a situation
where a flat or oblique turn would most likely give the enemy a full planform snapshot. The
manoeuvre requires a good deal of rudder-aileron coordination and should not be attempted
without first having perfected the technique. The “trick” is to mask the airspeed decrease
with the low speed skid – the follow-up rudder reversal usually comes as a nasty shock.
The sliceback is useful in a standard dogfight as well. If you're energy-rich but
angles-poor in a turning fight, the reflexive behaviour is to honk back on the stick and bleed
energy to stay with the bandit. This leads without fault to black-out from excessive gravity
loads, to loss of visual contact and sacrifice of the energy advantage. A more cautious pilot
will normally zoom in the bandit’s rear hemisphere and roll his lift vector onto him for a
high yo-yo. While this is certainly good in most cases, it’s time-consuming and thus allows
the bandit a respite during which angles are lost. The outcome is generally a nose-to-nose
fight where either or both will succumb to head-on shots or collision.
In this situation it is far better to use the vertical and a bit of rudder work. E.g. in a
left turning fight where you have an energy advantage on a bandit who's breaking hard to
left, you nose up and skid right (top rudder) with a bit of left aileron to counter the roll, then
rudder hard to left, nose low while adding a bit of right aileron. This is a sort of vertical lag
displacement sliceback which doesn't cost you much energy and which gives you a low yo-yo

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snapshot at the bandit (who sustains his left turn). Follow it up with another high sliceback if
he keeps up his turn, and with a steep barrel roll (canopy to bandit) if he reverses.

13.13 Lag displacement roll

The lag displacement roll is another advanced manoeuvre to be used in lieu of a high yo-yo
when coming in with a ton of smash against a breaking bandit. It’s tricky to master at first as
it goes somewhat against the grain of reflexive behaviour, but once you recognise the utility
of it and the situation in which it can be applied, you’ll come to use it without thinking.
As in the sliceback (or pitchback) described earlier, you’re coming in hot in the
bandit’s rear hemisphere at well over corner speed. The bandit spots you coming and starts a
sustained turn towards you with a bit of vertical element thrown in for good measure. At the
point where he breaks, you can clearly see that he’ll move out of your performance envelope,
cross below your nose and continue on past to defeat your shot (in other words, he will cross
from your low port to your low starboard or vice versa). The best thing you can hope for is
an expensive and low-probability skidding high angle off snapshot. Instead, you zoom
straight over the badguy and roll away from his turn direction (e.g. he turns left, you roll
right) to inverted. This “roll-away” is what feels odd – but keep in mind that you’re rolling away
from his turn only to maintain an unbroken visual contact with the bandit. If you were to roll in the
direction of his turn, you would lose sight momentarily as he passes below your wings and
nose. You’re now zooming inverted and rolling to keep your lift vector on the bandit, who's
just now crossing perpendicularly well below you, while remaining in his high rear
hemisphere. As he finishes his break turn, haul back and down, then hack him down.

Fig 37. Lag displacement roll.

You can also use this same manoeuvre where the energy disparity isn't so great but where
you're fighting a radically breaking bandit who also enjoys a turn rate advantage. As he
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breaks, pitch up in his rear hemisphere, roll away to keep visual and while continuing the roll
to full inverted you tramp down hard on the inside rudder (i.e. closest to the enemy) to slew
your nose around while inverted. From there on it's pretty easy to slide down and gun his
brains out. E.g. if you have the bandit to your right as you start the manoeuvre and you pitch
up and roll right to keep in visual (this being perpendicular his heading) you will also stomp
hard right rudder to slice inside him. If you want to reduce your speed and/or separation in
the zoom, give hard top (outside) rudder while quarter-rolled towards the bandit, then
quickly give hard down (inside) rudder as you complete the turn to inverted and start rolling
toward him. Neutralise, swoop in, gun him down.

Although lacking the conspicuous roll-away, here’s a story from an encounter between a
P47-C and a FW 190-A4:

As he breaks hard to port, I relax [back pressure on the stick] and zoom a bit for a lag roll, slicing in as he
continues the flat left turn. I score a few hits on his high (right) wingtip, skid down and saddle up. Co-E and
co-alt, the stall horn blares as I pump flaps and adjust trim to nose high. Ever so slowly, the sight moves
through him as I draw lead, then I fire an extended salvo that rips off -sach-'s right wing.
WarBirds, March 21 1998

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P AR T I V: Y O U A R E T H E E N E M Y
CH AP T ER 14 : PS YC H O LOG Y
I went in, hoping to catch him unawares, but did not notice that he was headed straight for me as opposed to
away from me, so I gained on him so quick that I had to simply evade his attack to keep from colliding with
him. None of his shots during that pass hit, but it did unnerve me a bit.
Reuben D. “accip” Moore, 56th FG(v)

Psychology and morale are strong factors in aerial combat. If you can demoralize your quarry
even before the first bullet is fired, you’ve made the subsequent kill so much easier. Knowing
how people react to certain stimuli, and drawing benefit thereof through planned
manoeuvring, is a vital part of air-to-air combat.
Every engagement is a contest of wills, a comparison between egos and a measure of
morale. The “morale meter” is fickle, dependent on every move, every angle, every pound of
energy. While you may start the engagement full of balls and bravado it doesn’t take much to
sap your fortitude and plunge you into the deepest depths of despair. One false move, one
stupid mistake, one bullet even, and suddenly it’s the enemy who’s on top and brimming
with confidence.
Reading the enemy mind, gauging his fear, sensing his desperation and aggression,
feeling his hysteria or his coolness, is to me the very essence of online fighting. You don’t get
that against an artificial intelligence opponent. Online, you can actually reach out and
measure your opponent’s morale to a tee and characterise him one way or the other: this
one’s an ace but now he’s clearly rattled and becoming sloppy; this one’s a grade A rookie
without a clue – look at him burn his energy! Look at him stall! Look at him lose sight!; this
one’s deathly afraid and running hell for leather, he’s not even attempting to fight; here’s a
guy who must have numerical superiority to fight, as soon as he’s outmanoeuvred he’ll turn
tail; this guy doesn’t care one whit whether he collides or not; etcetera.
Once you learn to gauge your opponent you also learn to control your own state of
mind, to relax and become scientific rather than emotional in your approach to the fight. A
fellow who happily runs into any old fight, hell for leather, probably doesn’t have that kind
of awareness: all he’s interested in is a bit of trigger time and yankin’ and bankin’ action. That
guy is an easy mark if you can isolate him. Most opponents are easily intimidated and once
you’ve scared the daylights out of your quarry his critical mistakes won’t be long in coming.
You’ll also learn to discern the leaders and the followers – when you bounce a wingpair,
you’ll see that one guy is flying slightly ahead and more or less stable whereas the other guy is
trailing behind or working hard to format. If their separation doesn’t provide a good
overwatch already, you can pick and choose whether to kill the leader first or his hapless
consort – nailing the leader first will most likely reduce the wingman’s morale to a state of
absolute panic, whereas excising the wingman first is not likely to lower the leader’s morale
to the same extent. And then again, it might.

You are the enemy. You are your enemy’s enemy, and you’re your own enemy. You must be
the enemy, think like the enemy and feel what the enemy feels in order to defeat him. You
must observe him dispassionately, like a vivisectionist observes a lab rat. You, as the enemy’s
enemy, cannot be afraid, cannot be meek, cannot be weak. You must show an inflexible
aggression, an unbending will, an absolute command of the situation. That alone, this
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intractability, demoralises the enemy and paves the way for his demise. You are your own
worst enemy when you falter, when you break, when you hesitate, when you lose heart. Never
waver!

Laugh in the face of danger, calm your pounding heart, centre your mind and concentrate on
the task. Secure every advantage known to man and nothing, nothing, can stop you. You
shall not give the enemy the slightest chance to react or to retaliate, ever. Always on top!
Always in command!

Objectively, what are the morale factors, and how do you ensure that it is the enemy who
suffers rather than yourself? How do you avoid becoming demoralised if worst comes to
worst?

Most fighter pilots are more scared by enemy appearing high behind their wingline than by
enemy appearing below and in front of their wingline.
Obviously, pilots fear the immediate threat more than the potential as the former constitutes
a higher risk to their well-being. When the enemy is below and in front, you feel reasonably
secure and in command. Thus it makes rather good sense from more than one point of view,
to attack from the rear with a good overhead of energy. On the other hand this comfortable
belief, that contacts to their low front quarter are basically harmless, is an advantage for the
fighter who has the considerable amount of energy requisite to make a frontal climbing
attack.

Pilots fear formations more than they fear single enemy.

Few pilots relish being outnumbered. While a single bandit with a good head of steam may
play havoc with a relatively inflexible formation, at least for a while, it takes either a very
capable or a very foolhardy pilot to accept a one-versus-very-many fight. That said, being in a
formation is in no way a guarantee for survival (for the formatee) regardless of the odds.
Furthermore, the aircraft types involved determine relative morale – a fighter pilot’s wet
dream is to happen onto a massive, unescorted, bomber formation. “All these targets! Just
for me!”

Pilots who are assailed by an unseen enemy are easily rattled.

The first instinct when fired upon, is to panic. This panic, this surprise, causes an instant loss
of confidence – “how could I fail to notice the threat?”, “where on Earth did he come
from?” – and lends, right or wrong, an aura of invincibility and untouchable superiority to
the enemy. If the blow is not mortal, the stricken pilot must now not only struggle to get out
of a sticky situation but struggle to regain a semblance of confidence as well. Surviving the
bounce may prove to be the requisite shot in the arm, and then again it may not. In any case,
the defending pilot has an uphill struggle, and, if repeatedly bounced or assailed without
having seen his assailant, his morale will plummet to rock bottom sooner than his sorry crate
hits the earth.

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Pilots who are outmanoeuvred or stall repeatedly lose faith in their own capacity and in their
craft.
To realise that you’re not master of your stead is an incredibly demoralising discovery. Is it
the aircraft which lets you down, or is it the pilot who mismanages the aircraft? Most of the
time the pilot is to blame, yet the pilot likes to blame the crate. He will curse and sweat,
damning his machine and using every foul word in his vocabulary as he struggles to bolster
his faltering heart. Repeated failure to close with the enemy, gunnery which never improves,
loss of energy and seemingly untouchable enemy aircraft all contribute to lower the pilot’s
morale and make his moves shoddy, clumsy and without finesse. A pilot who doesn’t know
the limits of his proficiency and the envelope of his aircraft is most conspicuous in the air
and an easy mark for the discerning eye.

The pilot who scores the first hits, irregardless of damage, establishes a moral superiority.
Being hit and not knowing if the hits were critical or not, especially in a turning contest
where you were reasonably certain of not being hit, is decidedly unhinging. While being hit
probably won’t alter your manoeuvring at that point – unless the hits are persistent or their
origin obvious – it nevertheless swings the morale meter in favour of the enemy. He has the
audacity and the skill to land hits, on you! And here you are, struggling to keep him in view!
If the hits register well and cause your crate to lose performance, your morale will surely hit a
new low water mark. At that point many pilots simply give up. Others grit their teeth yet
harder and adapt, swearing to all that is holy, and to some who aren’t, that they – will – not –
succumb! The shooter on the other hand, may just relax his vigilance the critical amount
upon seeing that his fire has crippled or severely wounded the enemy. Never relax! The show
isn’t over until the fat lady sings.

Losing sight of the enemy is demoralising.

When you’re engaged in an especially taxing fight which requires you to keep visual contact
with one or several enemy at a time, where you must ever keep rolling, diving, zooming to
stay out of lethal volumes of fire, if then you lose sight of the enemy known to be within
easy reach of your unprotected astern, you will rapidly become demoralised, to the point of
panic. Now you see him, now you don’t. Now you hear his fire slamming into you. Where is
he! Roll, yank, dive! There he is! Roll again, break! Where is he! I can’t see him! Where is he!!!
Naturally, your panic and your inability to spot the enemy affects your ability to manoeuvre
profitably against him – and you will shortly find yourself sitting in a burning, plummeting,
hulk – unless you immediately manoeuvre so as to maximise your chances of picking him up
visually. In the following story, morale features heavily in the combat:

I sweep southeast to east and end up near Echternach where I spot two 109s climbing out on the beeline to
the front. I have at least 2km on them. Alas, my attack is completely disjointed by bad trim and a fumbling
approach. I streak past the no doubt startled trailer with but feet to spare, without having fired my guns. I
jink a bit and continue towards the leader some 2000 m ahead. I'm not bothered by the guy I left but reckon
he'll warn the bloke ahead. Verily, at the last moment he goes into a panicky guns defence. I blow past, guns
silent still, and extend southeast. Bad karma. I slap myself. Glancing back, I see them both give chase. No
surprise there.

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I shed some altitude to gain as much separation from the track as possible and lead them away to the
southeast. They retain their 2000 m separation. When the leader is near guns range, I do a sloppy rolling
scissor, lose sight and fly uncoordinated through a couple of rolls, straining to regain visual. Man I suck!
However, they suck too - the trailer manages to lose sight of me somehow, leaving me alone with the leader. I
take him through a series of easy lead turns, noting that he doesn't seem shy to stay in the fight nor adverse to
burning his smash. A couple of 7,62 splatter my empennage in a badly timed lead turn but they don't rattle
me. From then on it's my fight. I draw lead and pepper him, letting him settle fully into a state of panic. He
tries to extend, still in guns range but out of cannon range. He manoeuvres heavily as I goad him to evade,
setting himself up for several full planform shots. I insert a few 20 mm in his mid fuselage and continue to
hose him down with the popguns. I can feel his performance degrade sharply, and subject him to a few high yo-
yo's. He's right out of options now, turning desperately for his life. I've seen it coming and watch him stall out
low in a left turn, decorating the landscape with a pretty plume of oily smoke. I cut RPM's, throttle back and
hug the deck down to Metz, happy that I didn't mess up altogether.
WWII Online, December 30 2003

Losing wingmen or flight members is demoralizing.

Loss of a wingman or flight member is a personal blow. It reduces your numbers and creates
a feeling of despair, however fleeting. You must ask yourself whether you were party to the
loss somehow: did you fail in calling out a threat; could you have manoeuvred to help; were
your instructions to the lost pilot lacking in some way? And the assailant – does he have
position to cause yet more loss? Will you be able to return to base at all, or will you all die
miserably deep in enemy territory? Succumbing to such thoughts in the cockpit is
devastating! Shrug off the loss and keep fighting!

Being shot down repeatedly over your own airfield is demoralising.

Your own base should be a safe haven, right? What audacity then on part of the enemy to
loiter nearby and shoot down countless friendlies shortly after takeoff – some even before
their wheels retract! You of course see the threat, at least after having been shot down twice
already, and wow to avenge your mates. As you claw for altitude, firing your guns in
frustration at the rapidly disappearing enemy, you are creamed by yet another enemy
streaking in on your six! Have that happen to you a couple of times and you will be fit to
throw up at your own ineptitude. Don’t let it happen to you, but let it happen to the enemy
as often as you can.

It is demoralising to have an enemy follow you around, him clearly in a good guns position
yet waiting for a REALLY good shot opportunity.
Being unable to outmanoeuvre an enemy is highly irritating but not always directly lethal.
Not being able to shake an enemy off your six though, is something else. For every move
you make, he has an answer. Whatever you try, he’s right there on top of you. Even scissors
doesn’t work. He anticipates your every move and isn’t foxed by desperate attempts such as
cutting throttle or throwing out the boards (flaps). He just won’t let go. However, he’s not
firing. You’ve been dodging him for a good five minutes already, and he has yet to fire his
guns? Is he out of ammunition? Why then is he following you around? Is he trying to make
you auger in, or run you out of fuel? He keeps coming closer. You can see the individual
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blades in his propeller, the evil grin beneath those blank goggles… NOW he fires, when he
cannot miss! You dodge, you skid, you roll like crazy. Still he won’t let go. You swirl like a
dervish, and he matches your every move – not wasting a single bullet! YOU are sweating
bullets! You know that the instant you fumble, the instant you mush, the instant you become
predictable, it will be the end.
Next time you go up, you know your nemesis is around there somewhere. You hope
to never meet him again.

It is demoralising to lose altitude and position for no apparent gain.

Enroute to your primary target you are engaged by an enemy attacking from superior
altitude. He forces you onto the defensive and deflects you from your mission. While your
skill keeps you alive, the enemy effectively bars you from levelling the energy disparity and
forces you further and further away from completing your mission. At long last you shake
him off, but now you’re well below the average energy level for the area and you’ve wasted
precious fuel too. You know that if you press on to your objective you will be confronted by
numerous enemy all enjoying a substantial energy advantage. So you climb again, only to be
deflected yet again by more enemy. Disgusted and dejected, you break off your mission and
head home with bingo fuel. The enemy force as a whole takes on an aura of apparent
superiority, causing you to regard them with increased respect. Clearly your best shot is to
spend yet more time climbing and amassing a greater force to deal with them, something
which is both tedious and connected with a lot of effort.

All is not what it seems to be.

"All warfare is based upon deception."
Sun Tzu, The Art of War

In the individual fight, morale and psychology factors are at a premium. Take for instance
the situation where you’re extending from a bandit-infested area with one of them on your
long six: to appearance, you are fleeing the scene and your pursuer, sensing your fear, thereby
gains a definite feeling of superiority. After all he’s on your six with a potential guns
situation, right? He has good closure too, you can almost hear him lick his chops, hear him
gleefully report to his mates that he’s chasing one sorry fornicator and expect to kill him
shortly. His morale is so great, his superiority so evident, that he believes nothing will shake
it. Well, he’s in for a nasty surprise. For while you initially did depart the scene in something
of a hurry and with depleted SA, you have now had time to take stock of the situation: the
cloud of enemy is far behind, wheeling and looping still and not in the least a threat to you
unless this single bandit calls for assistance – which is unlikely, after all he’s in command and
he doesn’t like to share his kills – you are extending deep into enemy territory far away from
likely flight corridors and the bandit on your tail is only closing slowly. Giving you plenty of
time to consider your next move. You are calm and collected. You’ve extended in a more or
less straight path, jinking every now and then to check your six and to keep your pursuer in
visual contact, measuring his progress. This alone makes the enemy believe that he can safely
truck up to comfortable guns range where you will obligingly play sitting duck – not! As he
draws almost into guns range, you execute a violent oblique spiral or some other creative
means of transition to the attack, defeating the bandit’s shot and swooping in on his tail in
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one fell manoeuvre. The hapless bastard makes it even easier for you by keeping his lift
vector on you, blowing great chunks of energy for no gain whatsoever. Now you are on his
six, the tables are turned. The enemy, annoyed at first, now kisses his morale goodbye – he
panics. The easy mark has turned out to be his worst nightmare, he must get away! Away!
Too bad he has burned all his smash already, and you’re on his six. Sensing disaster, the
enemy makes a feeble turn away, homeward, desperately nosing down to gain speed. Too
bad the ground is already quite close. He trusts his acceleration, but no crate can draw out of
guns range that fast. A withering hail envelops him, drawing oil and coolant leaks, puncturing
his fuel tank, wounding his crate. He wriggles and waggles, to no avail, and then he litters the
landscape. But I was on his six! How the blue blazes did he do that!
Play the enemy. Lure him along. Give him false impressions and then show him
what is real, when he has no chance of redemption. Smoke and mirrors.

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CH AP T ER 15 : A G GR ES SION
“We're going to kick the hell out of them all the time, and we're going to go through them like crap through a
goose."
General George S. Patton

The fighter pilot must possess a singular will to close with the enemy. An aggressive spirit,
one that doesn’t recognise defeat, that doesn’t acknowledge the remotest possibility of
defeat, goes a long way in combat. Naturally, aggression alone won’t defeat the enemy – it
must be coupled with cold calculation, a heightened and ever awake awareness, with
determination and insight. Merely being aggressive and clawing straight into the teeth of
adversity will most likely get you killed in a hurry. What distinguishes the successful pilot is
his ability to temper his aggression when necessary and his ability to unleash it to its full fury
at the most auspicious moment, without allowing it to blind him.
Once you start feeling defensive, outflown, boxed in or pushed hither and thither by
the enemy, your aggression takes a hit and causes you to fly defensively, predictably,
benignly. At that point, or rather some time before that, you must work up a storm of
adrenaline, a holy wrath, and make your every move devastating, calculated, inveterate. Bare
your teeth, curse the enemy and kill your despair. You must be deliberate, full of purpose
and acutely aware of the slightest shift of advantages. Did the enemy miss his shot? Does he
not use his roll rate? Wasn’t he a bit slow there? Did he not fail to press his advantage in that
instance? Isn’t he stalling now? Look for every opening, jump on his every mistake and
regain your confidence little by little. The victor is not the guy who flies the best but the one
who makes the less mistakes, and every pilot makes mistakes.
A careful, defensive approach only serves to give the enemy a shot in the arm. When
it is you who hold the initiative, don’t hesitate! Exploit it without compunction, without
holding back. Overwhelm your enemy and give him no quarter for he surely will give you
none.
Adrenaline in particular is most important. You must want to win with every fibre of
your body. You must feel righteous anger boil through your veins – don’t be a sap! Don’t
just sit there, manipulating the stick as were it made of porcelain, snug in your little chair. Fly
like you’ve never flown before! You are a FIGHTER! Concentrate on the task, let your
moves flow naturally and KILL! KILL! KILL!
That said, naked aggression bluntly projected and pressed to the hilt can land you in
a world of hurt too, one of your own making. Never let your aggression carry you over the
top so that you disregard the basic tenets of air combat. For instance, pressing a diving attack
beyond the point of profitability only serves to bleed your energy. If the enemy breaks away
or otherwise slips out of your guns solution while you’re still streaking down on him, making
it obvious that you must pull excessive G’s in order to hit, immediately break off and regain
your superior position. Pressing the attack at that point, or worse, braking and trying to reel
him in, will diminish your energy and make the whole combat immeasurably more difficult.
Be aggressive, but temper your aggression. Too much aggression can cause you to take on a
bandit too many, and even if you feel confident in your ability to handle both, you’re getting
bogged down and predictable. Before long the two “easy” bandits are joined by an expert or
two, and a couple of more “easy” bandits, making the whole situation quite untenable. Know
your limits! Similarly, aggressively pursuing an enemy outside guns range puts you in a
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predictable and unproductive situation. If you cannot kill him outright, let him go and look
for more obliging targets.
Aggression is not limited to one-on-one situations, it also applies to the combat
zone at large. Ask yourself, which side is the more aggressive in general, who has the
initiative? Can you blunt the enemy drive by picking them off early, can you deflect them
from their mission, can you single-handedly turn the tide simply by posing a threat? Is the
enemy confident, desperate, relaxed, disorganised? Before taking off you should consider the
combat zone as a whole and seek to maximise your effect on it. In other words, what is
going on in the online world and where will you be of the most use?
Generally speaking, the participants in the online “war” tend to flock towards the
areas where the most action is to be had – the frontline, or what passes for a frontline. This
flocking follows a Poisson-like distribution and can be regarded as a force unto itself really, a
self-propagating meatgrinder as it were. In this frontline you will find innumerable small and
large dogfights, or furballs in pilotese, most of them at or very near the deck. As fresh
fighters appear they are inexorably drawn down and into these churning furballs where they,
for the most part, are chewed up and spat out in teensy bits and pieces. Few who participate
in this sort of combat ever makes it home, again testament to the low regard for the virtual
life. The side which manages to feed in the most fighters, or draws the most benefit from
automated and player-manned ground fire, will for the most part keep the advantage and
mangle their way forward. Diving singly into such furfests is seldom profitable, yet such
practice is by far the most common for the simple reason that pilots are impatient and
generally seek instant action: trigger time and yankin’ and bankin’ to their hearts desire.
Personally I find this practice incredibly silly and repetitive, and not in the least gratifying,
but that’s just me.
In such a setting, aggression, on a large scale, is twofold: you have the aggressive
grinder churning its way across the landscape, and you have the aggressive interdiction of
aircraft heading to the grinder. While the former is of the hyperactive and brawny sort, the
latter has a studious and selective character. The furball requires little thought or expertise
beyond that of following a crowd whereas the interdiction-based fight requires knowledge of
and adherence to bona fide tactics. Needless to say, the fighter who’s looking for a quality
fight is more likely to look beyond the furball and seek to project his aggression in a
controllable environment rather than the chaotic one. This controllable environment is
habitually found in the “cruise corridors” between enemy airfields and the most likely enemy
mission targets. Patrolling these corridors and loitering near enemy airfields is seldom
uneventful, and you get to practice your SA and energy tactics with a lot less risk to yourself.
If you’re sufficiently good at chipping away on the enemy thoroughfare, they will eventually
wisen up and send someone after you, making for some quite interesting fights. If you’re
feeling particularly aggressive, bring along a bevy of friends and make yourself comfortable
near an enemy airfield: with employment of proper team tactics you can make life of the
enemy exceedingly frustrating and strangle the flow from that particular field, temporarily
lifting the frontline siege. Here’s a short tale to illustrate the method, and its superiority over
the “brawn-fight”:

Appearing over the Abbeville climbout area again, now at angels nine, I spot a bandit low on my ten o'clock.
I go in and hit the climbing 109 full and square in the port wingroot, correcting some with port rudder to
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keep fire concentrated. -hahn- blows up as I tromp starboard rudder to clear the burning hulk. I exit the area
to the west for fresh altitude. Returning to my hunting grounds, I find yet another climber out of Abbeville
and dive down into his cold six. An FW. Frrrrrrt boom... lipfer buys the farm. Extend. A little later, the
exact fate is experienced by another Messer, driven by konrad, who fails to pick up my Mustang swooping
down at his low six. Boom! Homeward bound, I enter a fight against an FW who's running back to France.
I land a few hits but since he's all awake and rolling hard, I let go as I feel my SA become compromised. I
earn an assist when grendl turn his FW into scrap metal a while later. I earn another assist on -hahn-'s 109
in another scrap, then set course for Blighty.
WarBirds, October 25 1998

Aggression comes in many forms and shapes. Consider Erich Hartmann, arguably the
world’s most successful fighter pilot who in little over two years fighting scored 352
confirmed victories. Without knowing his story, one might think that he’d be a singularly
aggressive person with almost magical powers to dive in and sort out 50 plus bandits in one
swoop. Not so. He was a coolly calculating killer, an airborne assassin possessing superior
situational awareness and abiding by an extremely rigorous engagement doctrine. His “dicta”
was an incredible simple formula which every aspiring pilot should take to heart: See -
Decide - Attack - Coffee Break.

See. He who spots the enemy first scores a major advantage, allowing him to manoeuvre
profitably while the opponent trudges along in blissful ignorance. 90% of all kills are made
against pilots who never saw the threat. Thus, keen eyesight, all-round vigilance and the
ability to see the enemy at extreme range, is of utmost importance.

Decide. Is it safe to attack? Can you get away with it or are there factors that should induce
caution? Can you attack from your current position or must you manoeuvre? What will your
action be after the attack? When is the optimum time to attack?

Attack. Make your attack swift and merciless at the most auspicious moment. Fly close to
your victim, from dead astern or slightly below if possible, and shoot only when you're
certain to score an immediate kill. Close to minimum distance - your sight should be black
with the enemy.

Coffee Break. If you cannot attack safely or without the enemy taking drastic action to evade
you, take a coffee break. I.e. disengage and look for an easier victim. If you do attack, make it
in one single devastating pass and immediately disengage to a safe altitude or a safe area to
regain situational awareness.

What all this boils down to is a fighter who is not merely extremely aggressive at the proper
times, extremely cunning and cold-blooded but also exemplarily cautious and security-
minded. He displays an abundance of discipline, knowing full well when to engage and when
not to, the possibilities and potential effects of every last action. Erich Hartmann epitomizes
the perfect killing machine, and should do well as a role model for any up-and-coming online
pilot.

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 Fairness, or entering a fight on even terms, or flying as the enemy expects you to, is
entirely out of place in the air. If you are to succeed you must stack as many unfair
advantages as possible in your favour and never hesitate to use them. Altitude, speed,
surprise, friendly fighters, team tactics – use them all! Only a fool gives the enemy a chance
to hit back. You must seek out the enemy where he is the weakest, where he has no room to
manoeuvre, where you outnumber him and can bring every conceivable advantage to bear
with maximum force. It’s a grim business, but you must do it to him before he does it to
you.

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CH AP T ER 16 : T H IN K I NG A H E AD
In line with the “big energy” picture outlined previously and with your knowledge of where
the frontline is drawn and the likely routes to and fro likely hot spots, it is quite easy to
conjure a mental four-dimensional picture of the sky at large. You need to keep this mental
picture in mind at all times, and be acutely aware of noticeable flows and counterflows of
advantage and position. In that regard, it doesn’t take more than a few fighters to “put a lid”
on an area and shift the focus from one place to another, or for one desperately disengaging
fighter to drag along a whole gaggle of enemy fighters to his home plate, where they will
pose somewhat of a discomfort for friends just becoming airborne. The successful fighter
maintains this wide-area awareness at all times, even when engaged in single combat. He
makes careful note of the altitudes and numbers and flight profiles of friendly aircraft, he
notes how many of them who return and in what condition, he takes similar stock of the
enemy of course and always keep in mind his position and altitude relative to enemy bases
and routes. If he did not, he would always be fighting against surprise and disadvantage.
Thinking ahead and anticipating the moves of your enemy is applicable to single
combat too of course, and has much to do with psychology. Let me relate a little story which
highlights this. I was out on my standard mission of intercepting the outbound enemy lanes,
swooping enemy takeoff areas as it were, and came upon your ordinary SA-challenged Ju-87
Stuka puttering out to the front:

I swept down from 3500 meters and left him a burning wreck in a single pass, clawed up and perpendicularly
away from the outbound corridor to regain my perch. Figuring the Stuka jock would be rather miffed at this
inopportune and early ending of his sortie and thus likely to jump into a fighter to even out the score, I made
my way back to the enemy field to find him before he got too far away. Quite as expected, a single bandit was
seen climbing out towards the very same quarter of the sky, no doubt expecting to see his assailant patiently
awaiting his speedy return. He didn’t appear to check his high six very diligently – no sudden rolls, no
deviations of heading – so I swept in and disillusioned him yet again.

Five high-explosive cannon shells sent him packing into the ground. Now, having been
bushwhacked twice, I reckoned the enemy pilot would be fairly steaming and not quite as
likely to repeat his past mistakes from the very same spot, especially since there were no
friends of his to help him along or call his six. Another enemy field not far remote would
most likely be his next choice, wherefrom he might get some altitude and come looking for
the pesky swooper who had made his day so bothersome. All of this went through my head
as I zoomed back to altitude, now at greater speed and less angle to cover the intervening
distance to the other enemy field.

You may appreciate my satisfaction when I encountered a bogey on my low 1 o’clock making best time toward
the original perch. I cleaned up (nose down for speed, trim tabs forward) and let him move past and below my
nose some 4000 meters distant. He was no more than a speck at this time. Then I swept in in a lazy lead
pursuit curve, coming in with good closure on his low seven o’clock where his stern view was the worst. I half
expected him to check his six at this point, to make it more interesting, alas he didn’t. Closing in to 150
meters, I clobbered him with a judicious amount of cannon and machinegun fire, again sending him earthward
trailing black smoke and flame. I then returned to base.

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While this all sounds frightfully self-indulgent and uninteresting, and perhaps it is, it
nevertheless serves to highlight the need for putting yourself into the enemy’s head and
acting accordingly. Following the first kill, I could very well have loitered and made myself
more conspicuous, and after the second I could very well have remained at my original
hunting ground – but I didn’t. I reckoned the enemy would be looking for me, that he would
be bent on revenge, that he would act in a predictably human manner, and he did.
You get all kinds of clues in the air which you must process and use as the basis for
your decisions. Predictability of behaviour and action-reaction is not hard to gauge, and
should be what governs your behaviour and flight profile at all times.
Tracers are dead give-aways in the sky, as are smoke plumes and various spilled
fluids. Take due note, figure out whether they are friendly or enemy based on their headings,
and move to intercept. Since a crippled aircraft attracts would-be finisher-offs like nothing
else, be on the lookout regardless whether you’re the one helping a friendly or finishing off
an enemy, or flying cover for those below.
“Thinking ahead” is always a factor. Consider the situation when you and your
wingman happen upon a low bandit: rather than going in more or less at the same time, with
but a few hundred meters separation, thus effectively fighting as one, think ahead! If the first
fighter misses his shot or doesn’t deliver a killing blow, the target is highly likely to make an
immediate guns defence break. The second fighter is then faced with a particularly tricky
shot for which he is ill prepared – he simply doesn’t have the requisite reaction time or the
AOA to line up for a good shot. And if the first fighter does deliver a killing blow, the
second fighter is redundant anyway. The better practice is to open up separation between the
two fighters in the attack, to about 10-15 seconds or about 1000-1500 yards, by having the
second fighter “hang back” at the point of winging into the attack. The net effect of this is,
in the case the first fighter botches his pass, that the second fighter will be streaking in on the
bandit just as he recovers from his fright and is pointing his crate at the rapidly disappearing
assailant. Ergo, a simple shot for the second fighter. And should the first fighter succeed in
his pass, the separation is easily closed by cutting across the post-attack disengagement curve.
Thinking ahead is also in evidence when you’re hanging about a particular killing
zone, such as an enemy airfield, ground feature or part of a traffic lane. If you loiter in any
one area for too long, and particularly if you’re obnoxious enough to down a large quantity
of enemy there, you’re running a definite risk of overstaying your welcome. You’re fast
becoming predictable and will eventually be faced by enemy who have amassed numbers and
altitude to deal with you. Thus, if you find a particularly sweet spot, don’t make the mistake
of thinking that it will last forever. Make a few kills and then relocate in anticipation of the
enemy response. Take the little story I told earlier in this chapter as an example of how to
avoid overstaying your welcome.
A typical rookie mistake is to fight in the present without having a real idea or plan
of what to do other than what is imminently possible or dictated by reflex. Thus the rookie
points his crate at the enemy at all times (“hey, flying towards the bandit is aggressive,
right?”) and always works to fly the shortest route to the enemy regardless of cost and
practicability. Consider the guy who, having orbited an enemy field for several agonising and
frustrating minutes without contact (heh), spots a bandit on the runway and immediately
swoops down to gun him down – ignoring the fact that the enemy field is literally bristling
with hungry barrels or that he’s likely to lawndart from a combination of excessive speed and
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target fixation. Or consider the guy who flies towards his opponent, then to turn expensively
around to face him again while the wily foe seemingly effortlessly dances around him outside
his grasp, plays him like a bullfighter plays a bull, until he’s out of breath and out of options.
When entering a fight you should have your next two-three moves plotted out in
advance, and keep plotting the next few moves while you’re executing any one of them. Thus
you play the enemy, force him to adjust to your game plan, and, in the unlikely case that the
enemy is leading you about, you will know who’s in possession of the initiative. This way of
fighting pertains both to the offensive and the defensive alike. Let me give a few examples:

Approaching the enemy head-on I decide to double-fox him, then to work in the vertical.
Thus I point well beside him, forcing him to adjust to my decision of how to run the fight.
As he turns towards me, I turn into him and beyond him, again forcing him to comply. I see
him roll to match my new heading. Now we’re getting close. He’s gunning for a tracking
head-on shot, just as expected. I won’t give it to him. Just outside effective range, I roll to
reverse across his nose and pitch up a little bit to get well outside his plane of manoeuvre.
His shot ruined, he has no choice but to roll and pull his lift vector onto me. We’re well past
each other now and I know exactly where he’s going – he’ll be pulling hard to the left to
come around after me, because I passed him on his left. I know I have him already, from the
moment I saw him try to track a shot. As we merge, I zoom and roll again to pitch up right
above him while he’s still in the process of collecting his wits. I see him turn below me. I’m
waiting for the right moment. Will he lose sight completely and go straight, or will he regain
visual and zoom after me? If the former, all I do is pull down on him and gun him down. If
the latter, the fight will continue in a rather more gratifying manner. So he sees me now and
zooms. My energy advantage is now 2:1 or greater depending on how many G’s he pulls in
the reversal and initial zoom. So, I can afford to go from my floating position to a lazily
spiralling one. I quarter-roll and put him just in front of my wingline, quite near the wingtip,
and climb gently without losing too much airspeed. This is the rope-a-dope, and he’s buying
it. And so it goes – more or less according to plan.

Decisions must come swiftly. High bandit, crossing from 11 to 5 o’clock. Pretty slow. I have
energy. Altitude difference is acceptable. Low front aspect shot, reverse for seconds at co-E
state. Execute.

Furball, unknown composition. Wildcards from east, all altitudes. Check out top layer, clear
out approaches out to 2-3 minutes flight time. All clear. Blow through furball to west, take
any shot, chandelle and repeat. After second run, go back to clear out high east approaches.
Execute.

Bandit approaching high nine, looking me over. Turn slightly to keep in vis and proceed as if
unobserved. Play sitting duck and surprise him. Here he comes, get set. Wait for it. Wait.
Wait. Now - barrel roll!

Bogey low 10 o’clock, opposite heading, level. Good speed, non-manoeuvring. In in in! High
seven run, convert quickly to low seven, gentle zoom past the shot, roll to float.

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Bad shot. Release, disengage.

He tags along. No closure. Pull aside, then chandelle if he persists.

Bad move. Lost vis. Regain! Extend to clean up and start over. He pursues – good! Moderate
closure. Plenty of time. Scissor time, set him up. He cuts across, increasing his closure –
good! Here we go, pitch and roll! Guns guns guns!

Talk to yourself. State your intent, comment your actions and map out your choices, in real
time. Talking to yourself may seem daft but it’s a great way to learn and to become aware of
the choices you make, and, ultimately, the errors you make.

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CH AP T ER 17 : CO M MO N S IT U AT IO NS
Although every engagement is unique with regard to energy, angles, detection, numbers,
skills and so forth, it is nonetheless possible to identify certain situations as commonly
recurring. In this section, we explore some of the many possibilities open to the single pilot
encountering another single pilot of equal skill, in situations that tend to pose the greatest
problems for fledgling pilots.

17.1 The Merge

We’ve discussed the level head-on merge already to some degree in previous chapters, but
there are more ways to deal with it than the lead turn. On the whole though, I venture to
propose that the lead turn will nearly always be successful (it haven’t failed me yet!),
especially with regard to avoiding the sorry spectacle of head-on crapshoots and the risk of
collision. If YOU avoid the collision, it won’t happen. Simple as that. The merge variants
discussed here presupposes that the opponents both choose to fight.
The level merge is somewhat of a chicken race even when you’re eschewing the
head-on run. The question is who will make the first move, who will show his hand first? In
the case of the lead turn, it appears as if the lead turning fighter is acting defensively whereas
in reality he’s only allowing the enemy to set himself up for a quick kill. The same is true for
other gambits as well, but in those situations observation and reaction is at a much higher
premium than in the leisurely planned lead turn.
As a rule, the post-merge manoeuvre is rarely if ever played out in the vertical going
down (Split-S and subsequent zoom). Such a move defies logic, particularly when the merge
is at or over corner velocity: it sacrifices altitude while making the reversal extremely
expensive in terms of G forces and turn radius due to the high speeds. Similarly, a flat turn
reversal is also a rare occurrence except when the fighters are merging at speeds which rules
out vertical moves. Should your opponent be such a fool as to reverse in the horizontal you
will naturally swoop in on his six immediately by way of a vertical or oblique reversal – the
gravity assist allows you to cut him off.

Fig 38. Vertical reversal.

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The most frequent merge manoeuvre is the vertical or oblique reversal. If you both haul in
and stick your lift vectors at each other, the result is an inverted head-on pass. That’s a big
no-no. It is here that the chicken race is manifest – who will commit to hauling in first, and
what are the possible responses? The trick is to observe the enemy closely and make a split
second decision based on his likely and apparent action, right before the merge and right
after the merge. This is also dependent on your relative position in the run-in to the merge,
your attitude at the merge and your “advertised” action. An important thing to remember is
the urge to fight “upright”. Most pilots dislike the inverted second merge, instead they
struggle to half-roll to fight the enemy “sunny side up”. Here’s opportunity staring you right
in the face: eschew the half-roll and go straight for the kill while inverted. You will get more
time in the gunsight for a steady, unloaded shot whereas your opponent will barely have
righted his crate before it’s time to get down to guns.
Personally, the times when I don’t use the lead turn, I usually go for a low merge.
This means that I nose down to pick up as much speed as possible (if it’s a short range
encounter) and pass close to the bandit below his port wing in a slightly banked state,
preparatory to zooming. This forces the opponent to look forward-down and roll a tad to
maintain visual, keeping his velocity vector forward-down for a critical instant, and usually
results in myself getting a slight head start in the reversal. In addition, thus I can expect to
maintain visual after the merge in my high rear as I initiate the reversal. Passing above him
would mean that he would automatically keep his lift vector up at the merge, thus inducing
him to turn after me without delay. That fraction of a second gained in initiating the reversal
is usually all it takes to gain angles for an inverted canopy shot on the bandit.

Fig 39. Low merge, vertical reversal.

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What happens after that is largely up to what the bandit does: if he’s slow on the reversal, but
does reverse, I’m already on his six with a purely vertical or oblique move. Should he haul
around steeply, I will most likely haul around too after the initial snapshot and move into his
low cold six, there to half-roll into him – this generally resolves into a rolling scissors, going
up, with an interesting near-stall situation on the top. Whoever burns the most energy in this
part of the fight is likely to flop down first with the opponent hard on his tail. In the case
that he makes a gentle zoom away, I may either do the same to increase separation and
match his zoom foot for foot, or haul after him if I’ve already earned enough angles on him,
for a stern chase.
In a long range encounter at max speed it doesn’t make much sense to stick to a
level merge. In such a situation it’s far better to climb at a good pace with sufficient lateral
separation to ensure that the upcoming merge is conducted at corner velocity, should he
match the climb. If the opponent doesn’t climb with you, you’ll have an altitude advantage
but will be at a slightly lower speed (given a co-E starting position and similarly performing
fighters). In that situation the bandit generally goes for a pipper-on zoom which you can
defeat by spiralling around his turn vector near stall speed. The margins are extremely small
however, so you really need to pay attention to his energy state and attitude in defeating his
last-gasp shot. What follows after that is either an immediate minimum-range engagement,
going down, or, if you’re careful, a continued spiral climb to establish a significant energy
advantage while the bandit flops down at the top of his zoom.
There are any number of “ideal” tactics to employ in a classic co-energy head-on
merge between similarly capable fighters. The problem is that those situations where you can
employ them are few and far between. Usually you will face odd and disjointed situations
with the enemy coming in before you’re prepared, where you’re forced to manoeuvre with
what you’ve got in terms of energy and possibly a damaged crate, where there are more than
one bandit in the merge to reckon with and so on. Thus, approach each situation with a
fresh mind and determine the particulars as they are given: who has the energy trump, what
are your options, what are his options, does your aircraft dictate a specific tactic to be
employed, do you really want this fight, where is your exit etc. There are no fast and simple
answers – it’s all in the situation as it presents itself and how it unfolds. One thing I can say,
however, is that it is exceedingly important to establish an immediate and powerful
psychological advantage early in the fight. If you can scare or rattle your opponent, if you can
flaunt your absolute confidence in yourself, if you fly effortlessly and laugh scornfully at the
pathetic flapping of your enemy, then you will have conquered him already. The actual
shooting down business is merely something that happens as a matter of course.
How do you deal with a one-versus-two situation where the bandits are somewhat
separated, i.e. coming at you with some distance between them? Do you turn with the first or
with the second? Do you turn with the second guy, or do you refrain from turning
altogether? Well, assuming that you’re co-E and equally capable (rare, but it happens!),
fighting the first guy is a definite no-no, because, if you reverse you’re setting yourself up for
an easy shot by the second guy. You will want to pass the leader as closely as possible, inside
his turn radius but defensively enough to avoid the collision and the head-on shot, essentially
forcing him to pay a steep energy price when he reverses after you. Just think “fly past, no
guns” to avoid the collision. This will limit your options against dude number two, since he’s
probably flying pipper-on-you. Thus he too is coming at you more or less head-on.
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Meanwhile guy #1 is busy reversing. I’d blow by #2 as well and keep going, for should you
zoom on dude #2 you will most likely get nailed near the top of your zoom, or at least
patently disturbed, by the leader. That fellow too (pesky guy #2) will reverse expensively,
leaving you with a slight energy advantage over both of them. Maximise it by cleaning up
(unloading the stick) and if you do have the extra edge, which is plain to see after a few
seconds of fruitless tailchase on part of the enemy, consider whether to chandelle them or to
make a clean level getaway. They’re out of range, so no worries, and you have plenty of time
to radio in help.
If you’re feeling gutsy, by all means rope them in. However, you will need quite an
energy overhead to be safe against a plain old cut-across-the-circle zoom: when you
chandelle around them they must be unable to close to guns range at manoeuvre speed.
Since you may be unable to secure that much of an advantage following the first neutral
merge, you will have to fake them into breaking or stalling (by executing a fake rope-a-dope
or by making a very aggressive high-sides run after your chandelle) so that you can make
another clean extension before setting them up anew. And so it goes.

17.2 The Bounce

Setting up a bounce is always a pleasure. How to execute it is highly dependent on the overall
situation however, what type of quarry you have before you, relative energy states and flight
profiles. If the target is a fast mover you may have to drop in from whatever angle is
presented and switch between lead and lag pursuit to line him up properly, and the attack is
generally quite shallow and predictable. If the target is slow you have the luxury to
manoeuvre around to his stern and set up a proper run. In any case, you generally have the
option of choosing between a high six, a level six and a low six bounce. They all have their
respective pros and cons, so which ever you choose is really up to you and the situation as it
presents itself. In these examples we will assume that you have an unholy amount of smash
to begin with and that the bandits are totally unaware of your presence. In most such
bounces you will have to reduce throttle in the initial dive so as to avoid compressibility
effects and potential damage from disregarding VnE7.

The high six bounce.

The high six bounce is delivered at an acute vertical angle to yield a shot which offers as
much enemy planform as possible, i.e. a big fat target with lots of exposed wing and the
entire fuselage area. You will be coming down at anything from 60 to 30 degrees angle off
canopy in a near-straight lead pursuit approach where your elevator input is minimised to
concentrate fire in an unloaded state. Since your closure is great you will need to open fire at
about 3-400 meters and press the attack to minimum range in order to deliver a crippling
blow. Depending on the target’s vulnerability, i.e. location of engine(s) and fuel tanks, you
should aim either for the engine and cockpit area or the wingroot, taking care to draw proper
lead according to target rate and distance. You’re coming in fast, so aim just ahead of the
propeller and let the target slide through your gunsight. As you close to minimum range,
break off the pass by letting the target’s own speed bring him up through your gunsight.

7 Velocity Never Exceed, maximum permissible true airspeed for your particular crate
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Thus you slide behind and below him momentarily before bottoming out of the dive and
zooming away, either to disengage or to re-engage for a subsequent pass.

Fig 40. High bounce.

The level bounce.

Fig 41. Level bounce.

To make a level bounce you must let the target motor out a bit. When he’s about 45-60
degrees off vertical and perpendicularly offset to your side, dive in with lag pursuit until
you’re about to hit the enemy plane of manoeuvre, then level off and use your excess speed
to close the distance. Close to convenient range depending on your closure and gun him
down, aiming at his wingroot or centre fuselage. The greater the closure the farther out you
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need to press the tit. It is auspicious to make the attack with good closure and break off high,
rather than to match speeds for a long firing window, because if you miss you will then be
roughly co-E.

The low six bounce.

The low six bounce is the most profitable as it exposes you the least to enemy observation.
Here the trick is to spend as little time as possible in his high and level six by diving in at an
acute angle, and bottoming out well below and behind the target. There you use your
superior speed to close the distance in his very low and very cold six, the place which most
pilots have a hard time to clear visually. Manage your closure with throttle as necessary so
that you get a comfortable firing window. The last part of the pursuit can be made to his
dead six – the angle shown below should actually flatten out somewhat to simplify the guns
solution. Break off high and observe.

Fig 42. Low six bounce (not to scale).

So, tooling in at 17K near the enemy base, I spot a sleeper down below, happily climbing to whack Yanks
down south, or so he thinks. Boom time! I wing over and go in, throttle fully closed, and dive way below in his
low six. It's a big black brute. He appears to slip somewhat, checking his six, but I'm fairly certain that I'm
well below still. Closer... closer... it's an Aichi D3A2 Val. When he's fully in my sight, I tap the cannon
and let fly two rounds in quick succession. The first narrowly misses, but the second hits him squarely at the
starboard wing root. Whoof! A puff of grey smoke! Surely he must blow? Aye, as I swing clear, a solid black
burst flit past below my port wing as -toad- falls messily into the sea. Poketa poketa! Muahahah!
WarBirds, December 6 1998

17.3 Six o’clock high!

Being assailed from six o’clock is most pilots’ worst case scenario, quite needlessly. Assuming
that you spot the bandit in time to manoeuvre there is precious little to worry about. Fact is,
the high six attack is extremely easy to defend against, as we have already discussed to some
extent in the ACM section. Now, as the bandit comes streaking down, the first thing to do is
to NOT PANIC. If he’s close to guns range already the decision is easy and reflexive:
immediate guns defence! Break decisively toward him, or, in the worst case, 90 degrees and
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down, to defeat his shot. The idea is to increase your lateral (sideways) rate through his
gunsight. By adding a slight diving angle to the guns computation, you make his shot
extremely difficult. What’s more, the time required for him to see, appreciate and
compensate for your new vector is usually more than he has at hand when coming in hot
from high six, resulting automagically in an overshoot. I.e. he blows by your wingline without
a shot, placing himself in front of you (although you may not have a shot yourself). You
KNOW this. Don’t fear the bandit behind you. Laugh at him and treat him as your victim,
not your assailant!
If he’s still a ways out you have plenty of time to consider your gambit. My personal
favourite is to play sitting duck – naturally while keeping him in sight – and to break for a
barrel roll just prior to guns range. If that is out of the question because you’ve already
demonstrated that you’ve seen him (as in making any kind of violent manoeuvre or in
making a significant change of heading), then he’ll quite naturally assume that he’s been
detected and can expect a break in your current bank, and thus you have lost the element of
surprise already. If so, you might as well start your response without further delay. What you
do depends on your plane, proficiency and mission: you might set up a scissor, a rolling
scissor, a standard break turn or even a simple split-S to get out of Dodge, should the
situation warrant it. Personally I ascribe to the notion that it’s better to have a bandit on your
tail than none at all, and prefer to duke it out rather than turn tail – but that’s just me. The
thing to remember is to turn the bandit’s speed and vector against him: if he’s well out to
begin with, there’s nothing stopping you from turning into him and forcing him to deal with
a much steeper angle, or a perpendicular angle that he cannot pursue as that would require
him to pull excessive G loads. Most likely he’ll abandon his pass at that point, unless he’s
stupid enough to press it, and regain position for his subsequent attack. What happens after
that is entirely up to the situation at hand.
If the bandit does press his attack, reel him in and defeat his shot, then immediately
counter-attack by rolling back into him. Beware the risk of overdoing it, however. You will
want to come out nearly parallel to his flight path with a suitable amount of lead for a long
tracking shot. When you, “the hapless victim”, act confidently to ruin his fine attack and
even have the audacity to fight back, his morale will suffer a serious blow, even if you don’t
hit him, even if you don’t fire. The mere fact that you can easily defeat his best attack and
turn it into an opportunity for yourself immediately destroys any hope he might have had of
an easy victory. His false sense of security switches instantly to a very real sense of fear and
inferiority, it turns his bones to jelly and before long he will be duck soup.
The thing to watch for is the early break. That is, while you perform your violent or
otherwise SA-taxing guns defence, the enemy breaks off his attack and repositions himself
for another go. If you lose the bandit in this instance it is highly likely to go noticed, and you
will then be forced to defend blindly against an unseen attack. That is very, very, dangerous.

17.4 The extending bandit

You’re chasing a bandit whose energy and/or performance is substantial enough to level or
take away your closure, still you persist in the vain hope of him turning around to give fight.
Ain’t gonna happen, at least not until he’s dragged you through sheets of flak or until he’s
increased his separation enough to dare turn back. Yet you press on, hoping beyond hope or
fearful that he’ll turn around and pluck you from the sky the moment you let him go. And
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right there is your opportunity! If your closure is nil or negative, make a highly conspicuous
break away – he’s sure to be looking – as if you were giving up the chase, all the while
keeping him in sight. Make your turn about 30-45 degrees, quickly roll level or nearly so to
keep him in sight, and throw in a vertical element too for shits and giggles. Of course you
have no intention of letting him go, you’re only giving him that impression. The moment
you turn away you can be reasonably sure that he’ll cackle with delight and come after you.
This is precisely what you want. If his energy is superior, give him enough angles and closure
to entice him deep into the chase, then reverse into him. Or give him even more rope to
hang himself with, by presenting what appears to be a simple dead six shot – you’re playing
sitting duck only until he draws just outside guns range – then bite into him. Most of the
time he’ll take the bait and turnfight you, which you’re aware of and already converting your
first break to a lead turn. If his energy isn’t all that superior from the get go, you might as
well reverse your false break away turn immediately and go for a frontal lead turn as
previously described, and then directly to the endgame. Piece of cake!

17.5 The low quarter lag

Sometimes you just don’t have the smash to catch a bandit, but the difference in energy is
not great enough to give him an immediate advantage. The situation is generally such that
you’re stuck some 1000 yards behind while the extending bandit is in a gentle bank to keep
you in visual contact, and he’s most likely climbing a bit as well. Rather than staying in pure
pursuit at that point, which is an exceedingly unproductive thing to do, or risking a potential
rope-a-dope by cutting across his circle in lead pursuit, you might want to go to lag pursuit
instead. This puts you in his blind spot below the tailplane and forces him to spend a bit of
energy to reacquire you, and if he’s really inept he might even burn a whole lot of smash by
breaking hard in any direction. In such a case it’s fairly simple to cut across the intervening
distance and convert your energy to position with a continued lag chase and subsequent
vertical reversal. Just take care to avoid a potential head-on situation and you’ll do just fine.
If, on the other hand, the bandit isn’t deceived by your cold lag repositioning but hangs on
to his energy and starts a proper rope-a-dope, well, then you’ll just have to deal with it as
previously discussed (see chapter 13.5).

17.6 The vulture

Sometimes you’re out of luck and must launch from a field where vultures hang about to
smack the unwary. A typical rookie mistake is to accept that situation at face value and start
fighting soon as they’re wheels up. Bad mistake. When you’re just airborne you have
absolutely no smash to manoeuvre profitably. The proper thing to do is to sneak out any
which way you can, preferably just as the vulture concludes a pass one some other hapless
bastard and must spend some time to regain altitude, and exit the general area in the weeds.
If he comes after you, fine, go for an energy-efficient guns defence. If he doesn’t come after
you, even better. Keep in going and secure altitude sufficient to deal with the vulture on
equal terms or better, then return to sort him out with a good head of steam. Piece of cake!

17.7 Getting stuck

Getting IN a fight is easy. Getting OUT of the fight isn’t. What if you, despite having wowed
never to get stuck in a furball, get stuck in a furball and cannot deal with it? Wheeling and
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cavorting in an almighty mix-up of friendly and enemy fighters can be a lot of fun to be sure,
but it’s seldom conducive to longevity. Furballing is arguably THE hardest thing you can
engage in, and the most risky not only due to the immense task overload it produces but
because of the extremely high risk of collisions, and not least the likelihood of catching an
unlucky snapshot. Thus you will want to disengage as soon as humanly possible. Fact is, you
will want to disengage the moment you engage.

First of all you must cast aside every thought of hurting the enemy and concentrate on
rolling and scissoring your way to the fringes of the furball, and then to keep barrelling your
way out altogether. In some cases you may disengage furtively without drawing attention,
whereupon you may straighten out somewhat and add to the distance. In other cases you
may acquire a “groupie” or four who sees an easy kill trying to slip away. In such a case you
have no option but to keep opening up separation from the melee while dodging your
pursuers’ attention best as you can – barrel rolls are great for this – then to deal with the
remainder as soon as you’re out of sight from the melee. Another great way of getting out of
a general melee area is to dive out, right through the brouhaha in an aileron roll, then to
scoot out in the most unpredictable direction. You’re highly likely to attract a couple of
groupies anyway, but here you have at least got some energy to work with as opposed to
trying to slip out furtively. Remember now, staying in or in the proximity of the furball is
NOT an option. Running straight with multiple enemy in guns range is NOT an option. And
running while attempting some sorry excuse of distance-covering mild evasives is NOT an
option. You have to fight, and fight on your terms.
Dealing with three or four pursuers isn’t very much different from dealing with a
single bandit on your six, you’ll just have to work a bit harder is all. The good thing about it
is that they’re all on your six – that much is certain, and that is a lot better than having them
all around you. The bad thing is that they’re all firing at you and getting closer all the time.
Well, say the fun that lasts!
Assuming that you’re set upon by a gaggle of bandits here, you must try to reduce
their numbers yet further. Rolling scissors is great for messing up peoples’ SA, so use that to
throw the SA-challenged in the pursuing party whenever the competition gets too close for
comfort. You’ll soon see the SA-deficient wander off without a clue as to where you went!
Furthermore, those of your pursuers who fail to stay with you in the scissors will have to
spend precious energy in recovering and reacquiring you. Exit with the remainder using the
time-honoured barrel roll until you’re down to one or two bandits, then start picking them
off. Note though that you should expect to make a lot of wholly or partly unsuccessful
disengagement attempts before being able to reduce the opposition to a manageable level.
Because, while you’re busy trying to dodge the last remaining pursuers, those that you threw
off initially may have gotten the scent again and rejoined the chase. If you have some
distance (and terrain) to play with, make an abrupt heading change to confuse the distant
pursuers yet more.
While running away you have to take stock of the situation: how many enemy, how
close, what types, what options? Keep your cool! You’ve thrown the gaggle and you’ve
thrown the bulk of pursuers already, dealing with the last two or three shouldn’t be too hard.
OK, three is cutting it closely but two isn’t much of a challenge! Flummox one of them by
switching from straight out scampering to engaged manoeuvring – odds are you’ll catch one
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of them with his pants down and unable to convert from easy pursuit to hot combat. Watch
him sail sightlessly away or hurl himself disorientedly into the ground, then exit with the
remaining two. Once they start getting into range again, jink and yank slightly to put some
more distance between you and the thrown party, then convert again from supposedly
panicked flight to fangs-out fighting.
My personal favourite for converting from flight to fight is the rolling scissor closely
followed by the oblique spiral, either of which are extremely tough on the pursuer. The
oblique spiral or corkscrew requires a crate that turns well, however, preferably better than
your opponents’, and one that doesn’t stall too easily. If you’re in a plane with high
wingloading you probably won’t be able to pull the requisite AOA or spiral tightly enough –
go for the rolling scissor instead. The scissor usually leaves you fighting one guy while the
other tries to gather his wits, enough for you to send the one packing or burning while
preparing to receive the other. If you do manage to clean out one of them you can be Pretty
Damn Sure that the remaining guy will be fairly stressed out and ripe for plucking.
When corkscrewing you’re presenting a very difficult target, but you’re also choosing
to become more or less stationary. Thus you give the bandits an opportunity to zoom and
subject you to one boom and zoom attack after another until you’re down and dead – on the
other hand, few bandits can resist the urge to plough right in and gun you down in the spiral.
If they opt for the latter, you’ll be spiralling around their performance vector and actually
execute a rolling scissor in the vertical. Use the spiral against the leader just as he comes into
guns range but be prepared to switch over to the trailing guy – he’s your priority target at this
time as he has more time to react to your move and will arrive in guns range when you are at
your most vulnerable. The spiral must be extremely aggressive, you have to develop max turn
rate and max climb rate while keeping your wingtip pointed at the enemy, and utilize every
last ounce of energy to twist onto the back of the vainly pulling bandit.

Some of my most memorable fights have been disengagement battles, singly or alone. I
remember particularly one funny episode where I, in a slow but well-turning Curtiss H75’s
(P-36), fought a 109E somewhere deep inside enemy territory. My wingman having augered
in or been shot down and myself completely out of ammunition, I had to break free and
return to base. Only the 109 wouldn’t let me and being 50 km/h faster he had the means to
enforce his decision! So we would turn a couple of flat circles a few feet off the deck until I
could climb onto his back and show him the futility of turning with me, he’d try to shake me
off without success, and finally he would try to make a run for it at which I demonstrably
turned away for home. And of course he would double back to try and shoot me down. I
would let him close until just outside range, then swiftly spiral onto his back and remain
there until he scampered off again. I believe I had to demonstrate this a good six or eight
times before he finally lost sight of me in a reversal and I could make good my escape. Well,
he got A for effort at any rate!
If you succeed in breaking free from a 10+ bandit melee, and as long as your crate
isn’t in too bad a shape or extremely underperforming that isn’t too hard unless of course the
bandits are Sierra Hotel8, you can safely regard yourself as having attained a very high level of

8 Shit Hot
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SA and proficiency. A final tip: when fighting a gaggle or several opponents, make sure to kill
the best guy first. Leave the sad sacks for last – they aren’t much of a threat anyway!

17.8 Common errors

Every sortie is a learning experience. Hardly any sortie is 100% faultless but once in a blue
moon you’ll come home with a bagful of kills and make a perfect landing, knowing that you
did everything right. And then again, you probably didn’t. You almost collided with one guy,
you wasted your ammo at one point, you lost sight, you failed to capitalize on an advantage,
you lost your wingman und so weiter. There’s always room for improvement, and taking
stock of your performance both during and after the sortie is material to your gunfighting
progress. Get used to writing after action reports, use gun camera programs to analyse your
gunnery, and keep track of what sort of error caused this or that loss of life. If you don’t,
you’re destined to be stuck in a rut and will eventually become bored and/or disgusted with
yourself and/or the game.

Wishful thinking
The main fault of nearly all casualties is to accept a bad fight despite better knowledge (or
due to lack of the same), or that of sustaining a manoeuvre that has already been proven
faulty. Some pilots won't even break off when they’re taking fire – incomprehensible to me –
because they still think, or worse, hope, that they will somehow magically prevail. Hope has
no place in air combat. Once you see that you’re being out-turned, once you see that odds
are piling up against you, you MUST take immediate and radical action. Don’t wait for the
final confirmation, for it is highly likely to be accompanied by a fistful of shells. The sky is
full of inept pilots who fail to recognise when a situation is about to turn sour – you will see
them all over the place, flying predictably and benignly, not checking their six or worse,
disregarding obvious threats. Gun them down without compunction. Another case of
wishful thinking is when you’re being chased off a scene by a faster aircraft: the great
majority of pilots hold off manoeuvring until the enemy is in guns range, whereas it would
have been infinitely more productive to start manoeuvring while they still had some
separation to play with. Likewise, once a pilot loses sight of the enemy he is apt to STOP
manoeuvring – “out of sight, out of mind” seems to be the case here – whereas the correct
course of action is to manoeuvre radically to regain visual contact without delay. A steep
spiral looking around and behind is usually enough, although you don’t want to do that in a
particularly bandit-infested area. In such a case, a long barrel roll or a couple of significant
turns should suffice to clear you visually and regain visual contact.

Fighting the enemy’s fight

It’s easy, particularly when aircraft performance is dramatically different (such as a slowpoke
Hurricane against a FW-190 or a zippy Thunderbolt against a Zero), to lapse into fighting on
the enemy’s terms. It really doesn’t matter whether you have the advantage or disadvantage
in any performance area, or whether you’re closely matched: never ever accept a fight where
the enemy is allowed to use his best trait against your worst. To the contrary, you must
impose such a condition on him. If you’re in a fast, high wingloaded aircraft, you must use
energy tactics against an angles fighter, and conversely if the situation is reversed. Similarly,
you must learn to identify the enemy intent – such as seeing an upcoming rope-a-dope or a
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pending drag-and-bag situation – and move to avoid it. This all ties into knowing your own
and the enemy crate inside out, of correctly assessing energy states, and correctly identifying
the opposing pilot’s proficiency and game plan. Once you accept a fight on the enemy’s
terms, you’re becoming predictable and an accident waiting to happen. Break out of it and
manoeuvre so as to gain the initiative, or disengage entirely.

Head on
You will already have noted that rookie pilots tend to fly “pipper on the enemy” until they
learn otherwise. The most common, and most disappointing, example of this is the pure
head-on merge which plays itself out again and again with equally predictable results. You
must realise that the head-on attack is the worst imaginable kind of attack. It’s a craps shoot.
If you fly a steady path right at the enemy, and he does likewise, the odds for your survival
are as low as his. Even if you don’t take damage the risk of collision is considerable. And
even if you happen to outgun the enemy by a factor of 10:1 the odd chance of a single bullet
entering your brain simply isn’t worth it, and it does happen all the time. The thing to do is
to bank on the fact that the bad guy will make this rookie mistake, and use it against him
with a lead turn that defeats his shot and puts you on his six o’clock before he has a chance
to recover. Never ever, EVER, accept a head-on encounter – not in the merge, and never in
a nose-to-nose turning fight. Fly to defeat his head-on by putting your velocity vector outside
his flight and guns envelope, and you will never have to suffer either a guns death or a
collision. I cannot repeat this often enough: never accept a head on!

Firing too soon, firing out of range

It’s self-evident really that you should only fire your guns when you have a reasonable chance
of hitting the enemy. Anything else is a waste of ammunition and, what’s worse, tells the
enemy volumes about your proficiency and mental state. There’s but one exception to this
rule, and that is when you’re closing fast on the target or when you have a fleeting snapshot.
In both these cases you need to open fire shortly before maximum lethal range or shortly
before the bullet path-bandit convergence point so as to maximise the volume of lead at the
most auspicious moment. Firing too soon in a dead-six chase only tips off the enemy: get
closer and closer still. Firing out of range, to annoy or in the hope of maybe hitting him with
a bullet or two, is the mark of the inept – just don’t do it.

Helping the already lost

Throwing good money after bad makes no sense. You will often happen into the situation
where a squadmate or otherwise friendly fighter does the inexplicable and bites off more
than he can chew, usually at low altitude and at the worst possible place: in enemy transit
corridors or over enemy-held localities. You may be able to help him for a little while by
booming and zooming through the furball, but the results are usually poor at best. If you
commit fully to clearing his turning crate you are more than likely to be wrestled down
yourself – the odds are simply too bad. In that case it is far better to leave the poor friendly
to his own devices and cut your losses. It may sound cynical, and it will make you feel bad
for a while, but it’s the only sane thing to do. In short: if YOU get in a fix, YOU are
responsible for getting out of it too. Clearly there are borderline cases: sometimes two can

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prevail over five, sometimes just a single bandit is too much to handle. You make the
decision, you live with the consequences.

“Just one more kill, then I’ll RTB”

Greed kills. Need I say more?

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P AR T V: N E V ER A L O N E !
A single fighter is as good as dead.

Flying alone is the norm in the online skies, for several reasons. First of all, players are
undoubtedly individuals who sit around their lonely computers and decide for themselves
when to launch and where to fly. Joining up is anathema to the great majority of sim pilots.
Secondly, few sim pilots are even aware of the stunning benefits of teamwork mainly because
they haven’t studied air tactics at all or because they believe that the ornery procedure of
finding someone to fly with isn’t worth their while. After all, all they want is a few hours of
good old fashioned entertainment. Thirdly, those who are aware of teamwork benefits and
may even have experienced it a couple of times, perhaps as a target if nothing else, still prefer
the lonewolfing practice because flying as a group requires discipline and a level of
professionalism that more resembles work than leisurely entertainment.
To be sure, formation flying and formation combat does require discipline, restraint
and a greater level of proficiency than going it alone, no mistake there. But once you’ve
mastered the practice – and it’s far easier than you think – once you’ve experienced the
benefits and reaped the rich harvests of teamwork, you will never want to fly alone again,
ever. Outside of that, flying as a group, in formation as it were, adds a whole new level to
online combat that is simply too beautiful and enriching to pass up. The pre-flight routine of
lining up on the runway, of assigning wingmen and going through mission particulars, the
“start engines” command, the thundering roll down the runway and the soothing, almost
hypnotic, sight of a squadron arrayed in combat spread, bobbing in time and weaving like a
flying mat against the wind, is quite simply awe-inspiring. I wish everyone would have such
an experience all the time. And there is truly nothing more exhilarating than engaging in a
formation versus formation fight, regardless of the outcome.
The difference between formation tactics and single pilot tactics or even gaggle
tactics is as that of night and day. Whereas the survivability of a single pilot depends on his
machine and his ability to control it (and his intelligence), the survivability of a unit depends
on the ability of ALL its pilots to work in concert. For this to happen, the unit must be
trained and act according to a theory which your ordinary lonewolf generally finds far too
taxing - it must be disciplined, it must act promptly and as a body with a single
consciousness. Whereas the lonewolf engages with abandon and employs a wide variety of
individual manoeuvres such as rope-a-dopes, hammerheads and what have you, such antics
are simply not on when fighting as a unit – because the unit fights in an entirely different
fashion.

CH AP T ER 18 : CR O W DS A ND G AG GL ES V E RS US FO R MA T IO NS
Simply attaching yourself to the nearest crowd (in the air) will not make you part of a
formation nor will it substantially improve your chances of survival, mainly because such
crowds generally doesn't have a recognisable mission or an acknowledged leader nor does it
ever have an established internal structure. It rarely communicates and everything it does is
predicated by group dynamics as opposed to authority or will. You can hide in a crowd and
draw some benefit from being but one of many available targets, but the overall efficiency of
a crowd is small. It may dissolve at any time, leaving you high and dry.

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 Gaggles, on the other hand, are meta-cohesive units that mimic the behaviour of the
organized formation. A gaggle may launch as a whole and have a semblance of a plan,
though seldom one which survives first contact with the enemy. It may have a leader, but is
seldom graced with a structure. Voice communication may be partial, loadouts may differ
and deployment for combat is generally a great unknown. The gaggle usually becomes
stationary at the first enemy encounter, and is seldom able to extricate itself at will. It is
highly likely to fail in its mission, and few of its pilots can look forward to a safe landing.
Needless to say, you should avoid being part of a gaggle if you cherish a long (virtual) life
and career advancement.
Gaggles often end up flying a ragged line astern formation. This "string" formation
is easy on the pilots as it doesn¹t call for much expertise in maintaining, however, it also sets
them up for swift annihilation. The Germans called the formation "idiotenreihe" - the idiot
trail. And verily, it is just that. From the outset, the pilots are frantically attempting to close
the distance to the flight leader and thus burn fuel at an alarming rate. Navigation is slow and
cumbersome, and the flight leader is invariably barely even aware of the status of his force,
because he cannot see them.

In the following story, I come upon one such gaggle:

Crossing the Zuider Zee and over the strip of land that separates it from the Dogger Banks, I spot one, two...
six... seven, EIGHT specks ahead. Correcting west, I let down from 22 to 18K and pick up 300 knots.
They inch slowly closer - they're level now, at 16K, and closure is GOOD. The old pump is thudding I can
tell you! OK, calm down now, concentrate. One guy is straggling a bit to the left and rear of the formation,
another is further ahead out on the left flank, there's one guy in sucked trail to the right... and a close gaggle
of five ships in the middle. Coming closer, I identify them positively as 109-K's. Quick decision: who to take
on first? The straggler. That will leave the others with 3-5 seconds to react, but I might get a snapshot at
them as they break, or a full six salvo if I'm really lucky. Still no reaction. Are they all sleeping? Why don't
they split? They MUST be sleeping, or concentrating on keeping that nice tight formation! Am I upsun?
Perhaps! Sort of! I figure that the straggler has all of his concentration on joining up. Mmmm! I dip slightly
lower and motor up... closer... closer.. 200 yards FIRE!
WarBirds, Jan 31 1999

The gaggle leader often rolls and weaves to scan the sky, which invariably breaks up the
formation - because the guys in the back are trying to format at 2-400 yards (while those in
the very rear are sweating to catch up). Thus, they are much too focussed on their leader and
lose SA accordingly. When encountering the enemy, the pilots are often at a loss as to what
to do and invariably become totally "locked up" or lost in a furball with the enemy - despite
the best intentions. A gaggle usually fights without a plan – its only tactic is to bring
overwhelming numbers to the fight and wrestle the enemy to death in a free-for-all melee
where the formation as such is redundant - because every guy is more or less on his own.
The outcome of such a fight is quite unpredictable: the formation may come out smelling of
roses but it may also fall like so many flies. And enroute to the gaggle fight, the gaggle/line
formation is meat on the table for anyone who happens to fall on them. A single smart
bandit is all it takes to throw them into disorder and uncharted depths of low morale. Pilot
experience aside, single line astern or gaggle formations are extremely vulnerable because:

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1. Despite its quantity of eyeballs, it cannot see well enough.
2. Despite its perceived strength, it cannot defend itself except by going static in a melee or
by bugging out, both highly unpalatable options under the circumstances.
3. Despite its perceived cohesion, it cannot attack efficiently.

Formations then, are distinguished by having all the key features missing in the cases above.
It has a leader and an executive leader to assume command should the need arise. It has a
strict internal organisation which clearly delineates responsibilities, tasks and deployment for
combat and cruise. The formation launches as a unit with a uniform configuration and
adheres to a strict formatting regime in order to guarantee its security. The formation
engages deliberately and with a view to succeed in its mission, which measure is survival of
its parts and as a whole. The formation communicates to a much higher degree than the
crowd or the gaggle, and employs time-honoured formation tactics to accomplish its
mission. That said, these are the hallmarks of a formation which does everything right. Far
from every formation manages to do everything right all the time, or even some of the time.
It takes a lot of effort and a lot of practice to succeed – but when everything comes together,
it comes together beautifully.

Why bother with formations at all, and what kind of formation should one employ?
Formations are employed to bring maximum firepower to bear with the greatest time/space
concentration and with the greatest overall security. The origin of and cause for formations
can be traced down history to Roman legions, the Phalanx and such, whereas in the air,
formations were not the norm until 1917 when it was recognised that sheer numbers in the
engagement had a decisive influence on the air war as a whole. From then on, formations
have been an integral part of all military flying and it is indeed unthinkable to consider any
situation where fighter aircraft will not be employed in at least wingpair formation. It should
be borne in mind however that formations do tend to become a burden unto themselves if
the numbers exceed that which can profitably be employed or comfortably directed. Since
this is seldom the case in the online environment though, we can safely dispense with that
discussion. One important distinction that remains to be made however, is the difference
between a formation and a unit. A unit (which confusingly enough may also be dubbed a
formation!) may consist of anything from 2 to 400+ pilots but doesn’t automatically imply
the use of any one formation. A formation in this regard is rather how the unit, adhoc or
not, deploys in the air.

Recognised units are more or less universally known as:

Wingpair or Element – 2 pilots
Flight or Division – 2 elements
Squadron (or Staffel if you’re German) – 2 to 4 flights/divisions
Group or Wing (or Geschwader in German WWII parlance) – 2 to 4 squadrons

Let's assume that you have enough bodies to form a standard fighter squadron of 16 aircraft.
It will be disposed thus:

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1st Flight
Commanding Officer (CO): squadron leader
Wingman
2nd element leader (executive flight leader)
Wingman

2nd Flight
Flight leader (3rd in command)
Wingman
2nd element leader (executive flight leader)
Wingman

3rd Flight
Executive Commanding Officer (XO, 2nd in command)
Wingman
2nd element leader (executive flight leader)
Wingman

4th Flight
Flight leader (4th in command)
Wingman
2nd element leader (executive flight leader)
Wingman

The most convenient formation for a 4-ship flight is the "combat spread", also known as
"finger four" or the "schwarm" which is its origin. Maintaining a good spread requires a lot
of practice, but once learned and mastered, there is no substitute. Other formations, such as
Vee, Vic, Line Astern, Echelon or Double Column, are all decidedly inferior to the combat
spread for various reasons mainly relating to command and control, visual security and
tactical flexibility, therefore this author assumes that you will only want to learn the best
practice and will without further ado dispense with covering the lesser alternatives.
Before we go deeper into how the formation flies and fights, let’s have a look at its
smallest component, the Element.

18.1 The Fighting Element

The Element is the smallest unit to take to the unfriendly skies and its fighting doctrine is
also that of any greater formation – Flight, Squadron, Group. In the best of worlds you
should never consider a sortie in anything less than an element and indeed that practice will
become second nature to anyone who has ever seen the beauty, utility and efficacy of the
fighting wingpair. Going out alone is simply not on.
The standard formation for element is the combat spread, meaning that the aircraft
fly beside each other in line abreast. The distance between ships is very much up to the
situation and the numbers employed, although at no time should the distance be so close as
to blind the pair from stern attacks. When cruising around in squadron or group formation
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and in relatively calm skies, the lateral separation can be quite small – 25, 50, 100 meters.
When the formation is limited to element or flight, or when the squadron or group can
expect battle at any time, separation should increase to 150-300 meters between ships. A
squadron or group so disposed covers a whole lot of sky, and any formation in such a
combat spread is virtually invulnerable to surprise attack from any quarter of the sky. This is
due to the scanning procedure of the combat spread: rather than anxiously rolling and
yawing around to keep the individual six o’clock visually clear, and spending an unholy
amount of attention on formatting on a single leader up front, the formation flies coolly and
calmly wings level in the given direction while looking over the wing to visually clear the
neighbouring aircraft’s stern quarter. This cross-scanning is continuous, almost to the point
of the pilot looking exclusively over the wing rather than straight ahead. Certainly the pilot
needs to scan all parts of the sky, including the forward quarter, and check his instruments
too from time to time, but the majority of his scanning is over the wing and behind his
wingman’s stern. In such a manner every last piece of sky is always under observation,
without the need for significant manoeuvres. Thus the blind spots below and behind the
stern and below the wings are virtually nonexistent even for aircraft with notoriously bad six
views. So disposed, the team can handle multiple bandits in any direction, at any energy state.
However, while cruising, if you lose separation or position (i.e. sliding behind or drawing
ahead) you're effectively blinding yourself and your wingman. Always work with throttle,
separation and comms to maintain the spread.

Fig 43. The benefits of line abreast formation.

Never ever fly in line astern formation. If you find yourself in trail, make a simultaneous 90
degree turn to regain combat spread, then return to the desired heading through an in-place
turn or a tactical turn, explained below.
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Tactical Turn or Crossover Turn
The tactical turn allows the element to change heading swiftly while retaining the combat
spread and maintaining visual coverage to astern. The trick is to trade places in the turn by
allowing the "outside" fighter to turn first. As the "inside" fighter, still on the old heading,
observes his wingman sliding into his seven or five o'clock, he too initiates the turn. It's easy
once you get the hang of it. Maintain speed throughout the turn - don't lose energy by
pulling too hard. You may need to work a bit with throttle, lateral separation and small
changes in altitude to reform. With practice, you should be able to turn together as swiftly
and efficiently as you do on your own. The same practice is used for minor and greater turns
than 90 degrees shown here. For a 45 degree turn, the inside ship holds his turn until he sees
the outside ship pass behind and appear at about 20 degrees off his tail. For a greater turn,
say 120 degrees, the inside ships initiates his turn well before the outside ship passes behind
his tail in order to keep the spread after the turn. 180 degree turns are executed either as two
90 degree turns (which is rather cumbersome and time consuming) or as a cross-turn: the
pair makes a simultaneous turn 180 degrees toward each other. Remember that turns should
be made at a sustained rate, and level. While this practice appears laborious it has the distinct
advantage of always keeping the entire sky under observation, even in the turn.

Fig 44. Tactical Turn (Crossover)

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18.2 Fighting Doctrines
Having and following a doctrine for fighting may sound corny to the casual observer, but
when you consider that most if not all ad-hoc formations out there don’t have one and when
you observe how they fare, when you hear and see their confusion, then you realise that
having a previous notion of what’s expected of you may not be such a bad thing after all. If
you don’t have a doctrine, you don’t know how to format, how to fight, how to support your
leader – you don’t know anything, and will become more of a liability in the fight than an
asset. So, what doctrines are there? They’re called “Welded Wing”, “Double Attack” and
“Loose Deuce” – but they might as well be called “Follow me!”, “Stand off!” and “Separate
and take advantage!”. The separate doctrines all have their distinct advantages and
applications, and have evolved naturally in step with experience and the opposition. While
today most (consummate) pilots automatically fights the Loose Deuce fight, the Welded
Wing and Double Attack doctrines still have some distinct advantages in particular
situations. Thus, being familiar with them all and switching freely between them is a great
advantage.

Welded Wing
In the dawn of organised fighter combat, in rickety biplanes over Flanders fields, and early
on in the Second World War when combat experience was lacking both in individuals and in
formations, wingmen flew close to their leaders and followed their every move as best they
could. The general practice was to snuggle up with your wingtip but a few feet or even inches
from your leader’s, and somewhat below, and to stay there come hell or high water. Beyond
sticking with his leader, it was the task of the wingman to look out for enemy and to keep his
leader clear at all times, something which must have been an enormously difficult task given
the slight separation. Entire squadrons flew such “welded wing” formations, twelve high-
performance aircraft sweeping the sky as one single entity, normally in echelon formation.
When combat occurred however, the squadron would shatter into wingpairs and sometimes
not even that, because formatting so closely on a wildly bucking and manoeuvring leader
took virtually every ounce of concentration and naturally pilots failed in keeping station. You
can try it anytime you like in the online sky – I assure you it’s no mean feat to stay formatted
that way. It’s a great formation to fly for airshows and simple ferry missions, but its
application in combat is next to nil. There is one instance though when a tightly packed
formation, particularly of the element and flight/division size, is useful and that is in
attacking dense bomber formations and other static or slow moving targets such as troop
concentrations and surface vessels. In such a situation the welded wing serves two purposes:
it keeps the formation together for coordinated and repeated attacks, and it masses
firepower.

Double Attack
Having experienced the shortcomings of the welded wing theory through practice, air
tacticians understood that merely bringing numbers to a fight wasn’t enough – you also had
to be able to surround the enemy, attack him in sequence, and bring a ready reserve for
contingencies. Thus evolved the Double Attack doctrine in which flights were treated as
homogenous entities in their own right, and brought to bear sequentially to the fight. Thus,
one or two flights would do the attacking business while one stood off to the side, ready to
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pounce or bail out the committed flights as necessary. Within flights and elements, individual
pilots still flew welded wing. Still later, prompted by tactical innovation in the Luftwaffe,
pilots of all nationalities learned to fly “Schwarm” or “Finger Four” formation within flights.

Fig 45. Finger Four.

In the Double Attack doctrine, which also applies to the single Element’s fight, one part of
the formation (wingman, element, flight) “stands off” at altitude to watch against wildcards
and ready to assist the engaged party when required, such as clearing out pursuing enemy
when the engaged party disengages or recovers position. Such a tactic works fine when the
combat is largely stationary and the combatants engaged in a typical wrestling match, or
when the engaged party is subjecting a hapless prey to repeated slashing attacks. It is less
suited for a co-altitude, co-energy fight, or for any fight which covers a lot of airspace. Still,
Double Attack has its merits in situations for which it was evolved. Say that you’re engaging
a couple of low bandits with your four-ship flight: if you have another flight with you, it will
certainly be overkill to bring them all down. Better then to have the second flight stand off
and loiter at altitude while your first flight sorts out the enemy below. Same thing if all you
have is a wingman – you might feel confident in managing a lone bandit on your own and
judge that your wingman is better employed as lookout against possible wildcards while you
deal with your quarry. Should things turn foul, you can always call him down to have a go
while you disengage.

Loose Deuce
The pinnacle of tactical evolution is the Loose Deuce doctrine, which nowadays is the only
tactic worth discussing at length and to which we will devote all our attention. The
fundamental notion here is that every part of the formation is to manoeuvre in such a way as
is most profitable at any one time, be it as individual in a team of two, or as a four-ship flight
in a squadron of sixteen. The key to Loose Deuce is separation: how to use space and the enemy’s
predictability to overwhelm him in the least amount of time. Loose Deuce tactics properly
employed is a thing of beauty to behold and is indeed an aerial ballet, a game of four-
dimensional chess which leaves the unsuspecting or less knowledgeable enemy completely
stymied and very soon extremely dead. In the Loose Deuce doctrine, when combat occurs,
the normal leader-wingman relationship is dissolved. Instead, you have two equal
opportunity fighters who support each other and complement each other, either of which
can be either “engaged” or “free”. These roles may switch at the blink of an eye depending
on the angles involved, and one thing that sets the accomplished pair aside from the less
experienced is the instantaneous knowledge and radioed acknowledgment between fighters
regarding who is engaged and free at any one time. Henceforward, the tactics discussed all
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deal with this “Loose Deuce” arrangement. The story below is from a textbook sortie where
a wingpair in Dewoitine D.520s engage with team tactics against multiple enemy aircraft:

Formed with Starry after he shot down a 109E low off Montfaucon after an attempted vulch, swept the area
clear. Three 109s had been reported in the area earlier. Formed in line abreast climbing east. Spotted con long
6 in pursuit which turned out to be an Emil. I chandelled on him then dragged him east for Starry who got
an easy kill. Reformed and headed north in line abreast. Starry spotted con south and somewhat low,
immediately went in with starry in trail. Con turned out to be 109 coming in head-on. I chandelled around
him, barrelled for a solution but had to abandon that fight when one other Emil appeared, near co-alt but low
on smash. Both were looking at me, well out of range, so again I dragged east. Saw Starry come sweeping in
off their high seven o’clock going for the low and far trailer first. He got a pilot kill on that fellow, the other
was seen fleeing north on the deck. Reformed to east, then north. We arrived Bertrix and set up shop at 3km,
Starry remaining at 5km.
Three cons on the runway with two rolling, so I called Starry down to low orbit. I went in on Stuka
heading north but failed my pass grossly by pulling too much lead. The now well alerted bandit hugged the
Libin ack for a while, then set out northwest again. Boomed him in three or four passes before setting him
afire. Back to the field. Starry engaged an 87 who managed a burning ditch well outside the drome limits. I
next went in on 109 and 87 heading out north but missed the 109 who broke at the last moment. I
chandelled up and lost vis on the bandit. Meanwhile Starry also went in to north. Shortly afterwards I spotted
a con to north at about 2km and engaged, finding Starry in pursuit of two cons near Libin. Starry went for
the high 09, I went for the Stuka. Stuka flamed in one pass. Starry took care of the 109 while I engaged a
110 who joined the fight. Pursued him towards Wellin before finally downing him. Starry nailed the 109.
Reformed in vicinity of Wellin, spotted con to north assumed to be Starry. Proved to be 110, weaving
desperately. Starry beat me to the kill. RTB to Maubeuge low on ammo. EXCELLENT sortie in all
respects, particularly in comms and engagement discipline. Final tally: bmbm 4 kills, starry 5 kills and a 6th
attrited (Stuka). Mission duration 1:10.

Before we go into details however, it should be borne in mind that the Fighting Element, or
the Flight, or the Squadron, deployed in combat spread and fighting according to the Loose
Deuce doctrine, is ALWAYS but always offensive. There is no such thing as defensive
manoeuvring. While the formation may perform guns defence or manoeuvre to avoid an
enemy attack, its outlook is ever offensive. Every seemingly defensive move is a transition to
attack. Even when disengaging from a fight, the formation is actively attacking or getting
ready to attack its pursuers. It should also be borne in mind, again, that individual
manoeuvres such as discussed in the ACM section have precious little application in the
formation fight. Realise this when looking at the diagrams. In order to make the Loose
Deuce work properly the fighters must retain a largely similar energy state: once one of them
bogs down and blows his energy by manoeuvring too sharply or engaging in single combat
against an enemy, the relationship becomes disjointed and suffers accordingly. In Loose
Deuce combat you have to fight in a totally different manner, in a teamwork dimension
which is entirely separate from that of the single fighter. Remember that always: keep your
energy up, watch how your moves affect that of your partner and that of the enemy, and you
cannot go wrong.

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18.3 The bracket attack
The bracket attack is a bread-and-butter tactic used by the element or larger formation when
encountering the enemy in their forward quarter. It epitomizes the philosophy of the “free –
engaged” doctrine and clearly shows why and how separation is such a powerful tool. By
forcing the enemy to split his attention and engage just one part of the element at any one
time (the “engaged” fighter) the “free” fighter gets a clean shot. Throughout the engagement
the roles of the free and the engaged fighter switches back and forth depending on which of
them has the enemy attention, until the enemy is defeated. The opening move sets the scene:
from the cruise spread, the fighters angle out to put the enemy in the middle and then turn
into him at the point where energy, closure and range dictates. At that point, if not before,
the enemy must choose which of the pair to defend against – he cannot defend against both.
The next picture shows (not to scale) the mechanics of the bracket. Shortly after the
blue fighters open up separation (on the command “Bracket! Go!”) it becomes apparent that
the red fighter chooses to manoeuvre against the dark blue fighter – probably because he
opened the manoeuvre first, thereby causing the red fighter to react out of reflex against the
bandit who yields angles. The red and dark blue fighter merge as per usual, the dark blue
fighter avoiding the temptation to line up a shot and instead performing a low guns defence
break. Meanwhile, the light blue fighter (the “free” fighter) has already started his pursuit
curve and is closing in on the red fighter’s six. At this point the red fighter is already dead –
it’s now just a matter of time and gunnery skills on part of the light blue fighter. As you can
see in the picture, what begins as a pretty even fight is ruthlessly transformed into a turkey
shoot.
The notable thing here is that the dark blue fighter makes a point of getting outside of
the bandit so as to force the bandit to keep his lift vector on him after the merge – which
sets the enemy up in a most conspicuous manner for the free fighter’s shot. This is most
vital, as the instinct to keep your lift vector on the closest and most immediate threat is
overpowering and thus something you can count on happening. Should he have passed the
bandit on the inside (relative to his wingman), the bandit would be turning towards the free
fighter, something which would be less desirable as you would then have a head-on situation
instead of a tailchase.

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Fig 46. Bracket attack: 2 versus 1

Now, this manoeuvre is just as applicable for a flight of two elements or a squadron of four
flights engaging a single enemy or an enemy formation which flies as a single group. Once
the enemy formation also splits up however, the bracket becomes more interesting.

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Fig 47. Bracket attack: 2 versus 2

Here, the same mechanics are at play. The difference is that instead of going into two
separate single combats, the blue team concentrates on knocking out one of the enemy by
ganging up on him while leaving the other high and dry. The technique is similar to that of
the 2v1 engagement: both fighters merge on the outside of the enemy so that the blue team’s
guns defence turns are made toward each other. By default the enemy will strive to keep
their lift vectors on their respective targets, thereby forcing them outward and creating a
separation which is too great to close before the blue team has annihilated the chosen target.
The key here is for the blue team to select and communicate between each other which of
the enemy to single out for immediate destruction. Ideally, the selected target is defeated in
the opening stage of the combat, and with one of the badguys out of the way, it’s a simple
matter to wrap things up and deal with his wingman as in the 2 vs. 1 bracket.

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 Again, this tactic applies also to greater formations (flight, squadron, group) in the
same manner versus enemy formations of virtually any size. However, if the force disparity is
too great, the element or flight had better blow right through and fight another day – unless
of course a significant energy advantage is at hand.

Fig 48. High Bracket.

The same theory of separation can be applied in the vertical plane with the same cheerfully
predictable results: the High Bracket. Here, the lead fighter calls out the manoeuvre and
starts a sustained zoom, slightly offset to keep the bandit in view, forcing the red fighter to
choose between taking on the high or the low threat. Most pilots act instinctively and go for
the high threat, shown below, but either is fine. What happens is that the free fighter gets a
million-dollar shot against the red fighter’s low cold six, at a particularly destructive angle off
too. Should the free fighter miss however, which is rather unlikely, it’s not overly
catastrophic as it’s a rather simple matter for the engaged fighter to spiral around the red
fighter’s lift vector and dodge his stall-speed shot. In the case the red fighter goes for the
level target, he makes a simple guns defence while the high fighter uses his gravity assist to
fall in on the bandit. Piece of cake!

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Fig 49. Low Bracket.

Similarly, separation can be created by sending one fighter below for a Low Bracket – the
engaged fighter makes a standard guns defence, outside break, sending the bandit careening
outward and a prime target for the now zooming low fighter. It is quite unlikely for the red
fighter to go for the low fighter initially – it is rather more likely that the bandit will blow
through and not accept the fight at all, in which case it’s a slim matter for the free fighter to
use the overhead energy and roll up on his extending six o’clock. All of this will become
apparent well before the merge, so there’s plenty of time (2-3 seconds!) to detect and prepare
for the upcoming move.
The only thing that can really mess things up is the great temptation a pilot feels to
manoeuvre individually against the bandit. When engaging in a loose deuce fight the main
thing to remember is separation. Once the fighters close separation they lose the ability to
support each other and to attack sequentially. That said, the separation should ideally never
be bigger than one turn radius or one major manoeuvre away – if separation becomes too
great the team likewise loses the ability to support each other and to attack sequentially. It
takes a lot of flying hours to hone this team, a lot of communication and a lot of post-action
discussion to fine tune moves and responses. Don’t expect any odd team to succeed with
loose deuce tactics from day one.

18.4 Trailing attack

When the element has the drop on an unsuspecting low bandit it is auspicious to open up
separation “artificially” by having the wingman “hang back” a few seconds before following
the leader. If the leader misses, the wingman gets a clean planform shot at the breaking
enemy or an opportunity to nail the startled bandit as he recovers his wits and concentrates
on the disengaging leader. It’s quite uncomplicated really – the only thing to keep in mind is
that the wingman should duplicate his leaders’ attack, i.e. if the leader goes for a deep six
pursuit, so should the wingman, in order to not cut him off or allow the bandit to gain visual
contact. After the attack, should the bandit still not be defeated, the blue team should make
their next moves in opposite directions, i.e. once the wingman concludes his attack, he
zooms away from the leader to create the necessary separation for another sequential attack
on the bandit.

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Fig 50. Trailing attack

18.5 Cross Split

The Cross Split is a great example of how the fighting wingpair is always on the offensive,
even when it may seem like they’re on the defensive. While the team starts out with a bandit
on their six, the transition to the attack is swift and merciless. Key to the manoeuvre is to
detect and act against the threat before the bandit draws into guns range, which, as long as
you’re in line abreast, is a simple matter. The team makes a sustained turn toward each other,
observing the enemy. The turn creates separation, forcing the bandit to make a fast choice of
whom to attack – he cannot attack both at the same time. This, the bandit’s choice, will
become apparent in the turn, or, if the engagement starts at long range, as range decreases. If
the manoeuvre is started at extreme range, you treat it as you would a standard bracket attack
– make sure to maintain a sufficient separation between fighters so as to force the bandit to
make a choice rather than to attack both fighters as one. Once the bandit’s intent becomes
clear, the engaged fighter performs guns defence as in the bracket (taking care to pass the
bandit on the outside so as to send him careening outward) while the free fighter motors up
on his six o’clock. From there on it’s a short distance to the endgame. If endgame does not
occur and the situation allows for engaged manoeuvring, make sure to continue working the
bandit from different directions in order to make him break or overtax his SA. In other
words, maintain separation.
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Fig 51. Cross Split

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18.6 Sandwich
Separation is useful however you employ it. If you had rather not make a full reversal into
the enemy for reasons of avoiding a particularly bandit-infested area, forcing the enemy to
commit to one of the fighters always gives the second fighter a free shot. Merely opening up
separation produces the opportunity to “sandwich” the enemy. In the picture below the
engaged fighter gives away a lot of angles, whereas a mere 30-45 degree turn is usually
sufficient.

Fig 52. Sandwich, or Defensive Split, against a high-closure bandit.

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The free fighter must time his reverse carefully, preferably so as the bandit shows him his
cold six at the time of the reversal. If he reverses too soon the bandit may switch targets, if
he reverses too late the engaged fighter is put at risk. Generally speaking this manoeuvre
should be initiated well out of guns range and with moderate bandit closure so as to give the
wingpair sufficient reaction time. These illustrations are not to scale with regard to range – if
at any point the engaged fighter is inside enemy guns range, he must perform guns defence.

Fig 52. Same manoeuvre against a bandit with low closure: the setup can be made more leisurely at a lesser cost in
energy.

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The Sandwich is dangerous inasmuch as it relies on baiting the enemy with what appears to
be an easy kill – the engaged fighter is banking on the fact that his wingman is on top of the
situation and can close the distance before the enemy does. Therefore, always use the
Sandwich with caution, and when closure and the ranges involved are manageable.

18.7 Half Split

The Half Split is virtually identical to the Sandwich – but here the red fighter goes for the
extending wingman instead. Timing the reversal is the critical part here – if the splitting team
member reverses too soon, he will have a hard time lining up the bandit and may even slide
in in front of him, clearly not the desirable thing. The engaged fighter should facilitate the
destruction of the enemy by angling his path so as to make the free fighter’s attack easier –
i.e. reducing angle off tail slightly. Again, this manoeuvre is best employed when ranges and
closure are manageable – if the bandit is too close to guns range, engaged manoeuvring is
preferable (e.g. the cross-split).

Fig 53. Half Split, with the bandit going for the extending defender.

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18.8 Thach Weave
Named after its inventor USN Commander Jimmy Thach, this manoeuvre is best described
as a team scissors – reciprocating S-turns - with the enemy at or very close to guns range. It
can only be executed by formations of at least element size, you cannot perform it on your
own, and you need to have practiced it a lot too.
The Thach Weave, or Beam Defence as it was initially known, is an excellent and
extremely unnerving (for the enemy!) defence against single or multiple enemy aircraft in a
situation where your own craft are inferior or where your main concern is to disengage
promptly. Note that you absolutely must be flying line abreast to perform the Thach Weave!
An important point is to make your initial turn 45 degrees (or thereabouts) off the general
heading. If you're forced to turn more than 90 degrees (i.e. 180 degrees for the subsequent
turns) relative to your general heading, you're becoming stationary and about to be engaged
in a dangerous turnfight – and then the weave stops working. Maintaining forward progress
is therefore incredibly important. Every time the scissors “closes” the free fighter gets a very
brief high angle off snapshot – with plenty of deflection and a judicious outlay of
ammunition, preferably in an unloaded state, the bandit, whose entire planform is exposed,
must fly through a curtain of fire.
The Weave can be used by formations as well (i.e. with elements or flights where
individual planes are shown in the illustration), and both at high and low airspeed. At higher
speeds and longer ranges, the weave must open up and become flatter, i.e. with less marked
turns and with greater separation. In this manner, the team, both fighters hotly pursued, can
“shoot bandits off each other’s tail” almost indefinitely.
What if you’re not in line abreast but in trail (wingman following the leader) when
you’re hotfooting it out of enemy territory? Simple. Picture yourself 1000 yards behind your
leader. Not far behind is the evil enemy, though still out of guns range. You’re pedalling as
hard as you can, running scared, knowing that he’ll shortly overhaul you and gun you down!
And then you think of the Thach Weave, why not try that one for a change? Surely it must
be better than being shot down screaming like a girl? So, you tell the front guy to angle out
some 30 degrees while you too angle out a similar amount, to create lateral separation
between the two of you. Once well spread out, get back on the previous common heading.
Now the enemy is forced to commit to one of you, leaving the other free. Hey, all of a
sudden you’ve reduced the threat to half your force and created an opportunity to
counterattack! You are now parallel with your wingman but several thousand yards apart, the
bandit back there is straining to get in range. Now tell your friend to make a sustained
(gentle) turn towards you – you do the same, turn toward your wingman. The bandit
attempts to cut the circle and close the distance but there aren’t enough angles! And here
comes your wingman, caroming in with a nice 30 degree lead on the bandit. Frrrrrrrrrrrrrt!
It should also be easy to see by now that the less distance you have between the two
arms of the scissor the easier it is for the free fighter to get into a rolling fight with the
enemy. In other words, it’s fairly uncomplicated for the free fighter to pitch up a bit, roll
inverted and then haul down in the bandit’s stern quarter for a low-deflection shot.
The real utility with the Weave is in the few-against-many fight, provided you’re in
aircraft that can take a few hits and still keep ticking. If you’re four against fourteen you
cannot afford to saddle up even for an instant. Picture the Weave then where both the arms
of the scissor are under attack. In order to survive you must jink, bob and weave somewhat
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until you get to the point where the scissors close, where the other half of your team can
close the distance and gun down the enemy.

Fig 54. Thach Weave.

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18.9 Engagement and Disengagement
“Locating Trimcz near Herbeaumont, I help him disengage from two 110s and commence the homeward leg
in the vicinity of Mouzon. The group returns singly or in pairs from the area. Woolef makes an early RTB
after sustaining wounds from a rear gunner, Hammered suffers a collision after about an hour on station,
Duff is lost in action, but the remainder returns more or less safely to home plate. Group scores 25 confirmed
kills for 2 losses in a mission lasting 2 hrs 15 minutes. Pretty good return ratio.”
WWIIOL, February 2003

As stated before, it’s easy to get INTO a fight but all the more difficult to get OUT of it. To
that end, it behoves the astute flight commander to keep the exit in mind even before the
fight is joined. Adhering strictly to the “one pass, haul ass” principle helps immeasurably, as
does having a team which recognises this principle. It only takes one flight member to muck
it all up – everyone must be on the ball and stick to the rules. Time after time you will come
up on formations that know very well how to get into the fight but knows nothing about
getting out of it – in very short order the formation will become bogged down and break
down into a series of individual combats where no one is supporting the other.

The formation engages

Having been in innumerable formation versus formation engagements, the thing that strikes
me as the most significant is the extremely small window of opportunity and how little it is
that separates a good engagement from a bad one: the formation leader must make a split-
second decision, communicate his orders, preferably communicate with the force
commander, and manoeuvre himself and his formation – all within the space of a few
seconds.

“I was in Boomer’s flight, flying second-in-tail [we didn’t know any better] of the second column, having just
reached 33,000 ft somewhere in the Hannover area – our Mustangs were wallowing at that altitude,
although cruising at 400 knots our crates were balancing on a stall – indicated air speed around 180 knots.
One false move, one moment’s inattention and you’d be stranded hopelessly behind. Everyone was hollering at
the laggards: “Close up! Close up!” Just then, off our long 10 o’clock, appeared a ragged bunch of contacts,
growing rapidly bigger. “Cons! 9 o’clock!” – “Bandits?” – “Red Flight?” – “Focke-Wulfs!” – “Bandits
9’clock!” We had barely time to become afraid before they swept past us, no more than 500 foot above and as
much in front, streaking from our left to our right, never wavering a foot from their heading. Supposedly they
were as surprised as we were, for they turned as little as we did, hardly even waggled their wings. And even if
we had turned we wouldn’t have had the slightest chance of catching up with them.”
Operation Pointblank, WarBirds 1997

Things happen incredibly fast in the air. One second you may be in the grandest of
formations and in the next you may be scattered to the winds, everyone frantically trying to
get a grip. How well you cope with opportunity and surprise is the true mark of your
proficiency both as a group and as individuals. Know that a chain is never stronger than its
weakest link: one guy lagging behind may put the whole group in jeopardy, one guy blowing
a pass or getting bogged down low and slow may kill the whole formation through his
ineptitude. While it’s bad form to leave a formation member in the lurch, the leader must
consider what’s best for the group as a whole: sometimes this means sacrificing the weak to
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save the strong. It’s indeed a frightening thing to be left alone in a patently hostile sky,
particularly after having enjoyed the relative security of a formation. At once you feel naked,
vulnerable and slow – a target for anyone who happens to look crosswise at you. As a
formation leader you need to have contingency plans for such occurrences: a “bugout
vector”, a Rally Point, or simply an order to return to base for the offender. At times you
may have the luxury to bail out the laggard or the critically engaged, because you don’t have a
particular mission or can afford to shed altitude. At other times you may have a pressing
engagement with a bomber box or are getting close to bingo fuel9 and must choose whether
to save one guy or to fulfil your primary mission. These decisions are never easy, but they
can be as long as your formation members are made aware of your Rules Of Engagement.

“We were heading southwest, at 28-30 K, deployed in a ragged bunch as most others though supposedly in
two sections, looking for a gaggle of Spits reported to be in the Ramsgate area. Horrido! Tally twelve plus
bandits, low to front and heading northish – here we go! Our flight leader winged over into the attack, the rest
following suit. I made a sweeping attack towards the middle of the gaggle, they were in a lazy turn to left,
apparently at odds as to what to do. I saw strikes on one, then he broke hard to left, breaking formation. I
zoomed up, seeing most of my flight members chasing the bandits lower, lower… lower, going into single
combats, shattering formation integrity. I stood the aircraft on its wing, trying to stay above the action, discern
the general flow We never reformed as a unit after that..”
Blitzkrieg! Scenario, WarBirds 1999

When a formation doesn’t have an engagement doctrine other than to “mix it up and see
what happens”, catastrophes small and big are bound to happen. You, as a formation leader,
must instruct your pilots and make sure that they understand the merits of formation
combat. Typically, as soon as a single pilot forgets or disregards formation combat practices
and engages in single combat, the formation is on the slippery slope of piecemeal
destruction. The leader absolutely must enforce discipline, lest he won’t have a formation at
all. That said, it’s quite over the top to expect an ad-hoc formation to perform as well as a
battle-honed group, so moderating one’s expectations and thereby adjusting to the actual
capabilities of the ad-hoc formation rather than pursuing the ideal, is probably the difference
between an effective ad-hoc group and an ineffective one. Or, in other words, the less the
collective experience, the more basic (as in more disciplined and more security-minded) and
brief the engagement must be. Most of the time you will do pretty well as long as you have a
single good pilot to act as your second-in-command and leader of your second flight: divide
the rest between your two flights and tell them to follow the leaders no matter what.
At other times you will have the distinct pleasure of setting up a near-scientific
bounce with plenty of time to consider your approach and team tactics. There’s nothing
quite as rewarding as having a whole enemy formation to deal with from a position of
absolute advantage – savour them, for these engagements will stick to your mind forever. I
recall several such engagements and count myself lucky to have had the opportunity to
experience them. The feeling of having absolute control over a potentially sticky situation,
and coming out smelling of roses, is indeed exceptional.

9Minimum remaining fuel to effect a safe return to base, should include a small allowance for engaged
manoeuvring.
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“Climbing out over the Owen Stanleys in our Iron Dogs (P39s), flights in line abreast, we turned north to
sweep past Dobodura at 25,000 ft. A flight of Zekes came to greet us: we blew right through them. We could
see them literally stop in the air, expecting us to turn around and give fight. No Sir! Another flight was
encountered, high on our 11, now sweeping in on our long six and gaining fast. I gave the order: “1st flight,
keep going, 2nd flight gentle turn northeast, follow me!”. The zeke-gaggle all went after 1st flight. Seeing them
cut the distance I told my flight to stick close and broke into them, cutting them off as it were. 1st flight was
about to get chopped up! We closed the range, 1st flight now in a state of panic, diving gently to pick up speed,
shooting as we came. One, two zekes went down with 37mm hits and then we were through them, catching up
with 1st flight. We didn’t stop to look back but made poste haste for Port Moresby to refuel and rearm. We
didn’t lose a single kite in that encounter, but some were damaged and most shook up.”
New Guinea Scenario, WarBirds 2000

In the engagement above, a less experienced leader would most certainly have lost control
over his group and been the first to wade headlong into the first encounter. The outcome
would have been quite predictable: while the formation MIGHT have scored a few kills (the
Zeke’s being more than a little fragile) one can easily imagine how the formation would have
been forced down to the deck and turned to death in penny packets. A few lucky survivors
on the fringe of the fight might make good their escape, but the formation would be no
more and would therefore have failed abysmally in its mission. I’ve seen it happen a hundred
times. As it were, we opened up separation between flights and watched closely which one
the enemy would commit to, then sandwiched them by closing separation. This high-speed
half split requires excellent timing and coordination, and we were lucky to have it that day.

The formation disengages

“As I gave my 110 a last squirt I heard Hammered say “I think it’s time to boogie”, and indeed it was.
“Yes, let’s disengage south”. Nose down, roll and roll again, out south. I picked up Hammered: he had two
109s and a 110 in trail. No big deal! Picking up speed, I came in hard and forced them all to break. The
110 and one of the 109s wouldn’t let go though. As I streaked past, Hammered zoomed to scrape them off
my six. Seeing them break again to his attack, I reversed to clear Hammered’s tail. Thus we cleared them all
away, downing two, and returned safely to base.”
Disengaging from the Metz area, WWIIOL 2003

The key to disengaging is to remain in motion. This sounds awfully trite – after all, the planes
are moving aren’t they? Nevertheless, a formation can easily become more or less stationary
in an area with individual pilots struggling to overcome the enemy in a series of
uncoordinated single combats. The formation must always be kept moving as a body, and if it does
become stationary the leader must recognise this and order an immediate disengagement in a given heading.
When the disengagement order is given it’s up to each pilot to untangle himself and proceed
without delay in the designated heading, all the while defending himself and helping his team
mates to extricate themselves. He who turns back to give battle and he who stays behind in
the vain hope of getting just one more kill, will surely delay the disengagement and make it
all the more difficult.
Once a few fighters have exfiltrated they should regain energy and positional
advantage, ready to help clear off pursuers from extending friends. Once that happens the
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formation is again moving and employing formation tactics or drag&bag, sandwich etc to
regain its integrity. A successful disengagement battle is as rewarding as a frontal engagement
and often scores the easiest victories. The difficult thing is to make the breakaway at the right
time – in general, it’s always better to retreat hard on the heels of a great attack. As the
enemy goes defensive or tries to regroup, disengage! Trying to extricate oneself from an
engagement already gone sour is exceedingly difficult not merely because the enemy is
already on your six in guns range but because you’re so obviously trying to get out of the
fight. The enemy will read this as a defeat on your part and will be all the more motivated to
gun you down. Thus, start the disengagement when the enemy is reeling. Sometimes you
only get to make one proper attack before having to disengage, so make that attack telling.
The disengagement should be made either toward a previously arranged Rally Point,
or, if the RP is compromised or simply out of reach, in a cardinal heading perpendicularly
away from the most likely enemy avenues. If the enemy expects you to run for home, run the
other way. If the enemy is coming from the south, head east or west.. If the enemy is usually
at medium to high altitude, exit in the weeds.

Fig 55. The wingman view of another victory for the author.

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Depending on the proficiency of your enemy and your own skill, you will most likely lose
half of the enemy force at the time of the breakaway. The remainder will chase you, possibly
forcing you to take heavy evasive action and to reverse in aid of flight members. The most
important thing here is to keep the disengagement going, to get well away from the bulk of
enemy, and to get back into a tactically sound formation without delay (i.e. line abreast).
Adjust your disengagement vector 45-90 degrees away from the initial bugout heading (that
which has been communicated to the enemy gaggle by your pursuers!) when you’ve
successfully detached yourself from the main enemy concentration. Eventually, through team
tactics, you will reduce the pursuers to a handful, all the while regaining your situational
awareness and formation integrity, and at that time it should be obvious even to them that
they’ve been led down the garden path. They started out as pursuers, thinking they had an
easy kill coming, now they’re nothing but meat on a stick. Reverse and hack them down!

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CH AP T ER 19 . M I SS IO N S
"No battle plan ever survives contact with the enemy."
Field Marshal Helmuth Carl Bernard von Moltke

A formation which sets out without a mission isn’t likely to last long or perform particularly
well, much as a formation without a fighting doctrine really isn’t anything but a bunch of
hapless targets. Getting everyone on the same page and clued in to how the mission is
supposed to be flown, what its rules of engagement are, how to act in general and specific
situations, is very much part of the formation leader’s job. In the best of worlds all or most
of this information is disseminated in the preflight briefing. Now, if your squadron functions
well already and have performed a particular mission over and over again, this briefing can
be short indeed: target, climbout vector, flight organisation. If on the other hand your
formation is an ad-hoc beast, the formation leader must make himself exceptionally clear as
to the particulars of execution. And since the majority of online pilots are totally or
somewhat new to organised (as in disciplined) flight, the briefing takes on a character of
utmost importance.
The more complicated the mission (and most missions are complicated enough even
without enemy intervention!) the more uncomplicated the execution must be. Just getting
people to understand that they must stick together and not get lost in individual combat is
tough enough: The urge to remain in combat until all ammo is shot off or all enemy downed
is incredibly strong, even though it generally comes at the price of being shot out of the sky
before either of the previous occur. Resist this urge in yourself and work like a devil to make
formatting and combat as uncomplicated as possible. In other words, fly straight and level
without unnecessary rolls and weaves, and limit yourself and the formation to single passes
on the enemy. Once you start turning the formation is shot, its integrity blown away.

Regardless of the mission, go through these points in your briefing:

• Airdrome to launch from, and time to launch.
• Platform and loadout.
• Mission type and target.
• Routes and altitudes for ingress and egress.
• Rally Points (locality or landmark).
• Flight organisation in flights and elements.
• Formation, power settings and rules of engagement.

When everyone’s sorted out, proceed to launch by forming up on the runway in elements
and flights. The few minutes spent taxiing and arranging yourself on the runway are well
invested, as it is a lot tougher to form up in the air. When properly arranged, state the initial
heading after takeoff and whether you’ll make a left or right turnout onto the heading (unless
you’re already formed on the initial heading). Power up, countdown, and roll as a body. A
well-oiled squadron can make it through this process in a couple of minutes whereas an ad-
hoc group may require anything from 10-20 minutes simply getting organised. Nevertheless,
go through with it! Don’t take the easy way out by launching as is – it will come back to bite
you in the posterior right away. Another “don’t” is to spend precious fuel orbiting the field
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seeking to form up in the air. It is far better to get going on the first leg of the route
immediately after takeoff, at reduced power settings. This naturally supposes that you took
the time to form up on the runway first – if you didn’t, you’ve already committed the
formation to the first of many debilitating mistakes that will get it killed at the first whiff of
combat.
You might not believe this, but navigation is actually the hardest part of formation
flying. You’ll soon notice that merely sticking to an unerring speed, heading and rate of
ascent is difficult enough. And at the first major turn, the ad-hoc formation is highly likely to
start losing members who weren’t paying attention. Therefore, announce upcoming turns
well in advance, and fly as steadily as you can to facilitate formatting and observation.

Fig 56. Heading to the target area, an ad-hoc formation of Hurricane IIC’s deploys in extended line abreast.

What rules of engagement?

The ROE protocol must be simple, and you must be adamant in enforcing it. A typical ROE
for a high altitude sweep might include the following:
• The formation engages and disengages on MY order only.
• Hard deck is 10,000 ft (the altitude you are never to go below).
• Soft deck is 15,000 ft (go below at your peril, and immediately regain cruise altitude).

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 • The formation engages as a group in a single pass.
• Wingmen, stick to your leaders at all times!

19.1 Fighter sweep – Ramrods and Rodeos

The basic and most prevalent of fighter missions, the sweep is a free-ranging foray into
enemy territory with the express intent of interdicting and disrupting enemy concentrations,
thereby imposing your will unto the enemy. This is the classic air superiority mission, and it
doesn’t even have to net a bagful of kills to be successful. Success lies in direct and indirect
ownership of the sky: even if the sweep is ignored or never even seen by the enemy it
performs, at least hypothetically, a vital role in denying certain routes and chunks of airspace
to the enemy for, and sometimes beyond, the duration of the flight. Should the enemy
however direct resources to deal with it (resources which could be better employed
elsewhere) even the mere tying up of enemy is productive - kills should be regarded as a
bonus. Naturally, a sweep is all the more productive if the enemy is found and defeated, but
that may not always be the priority – when the sweep precedes a bomber formation for
instance, it is certainly enough to make sure that there are no enemy aircraft ready to pounce.
The key to a successful sweep is to maintain momentum over enemy territory and
avoid becoming stationary at all cost, since the enemy is free to box you in and pile up the
odds against your safe return. The objective remains to make your kills swiftly, to goad the
enemy to commit against you, and to keep the flight going at all times.
Plan your sweep routes and altitudes well before setting out. Take into consideration
where enemy is likely to be climbing and cruising, the inbound and outbound routes of
friendly aircraft which are likely to attract enemy, the location of and distances to enemy
airdromes etc. When the enemy is encountered defeat him quickly with only so many aircraft
as are necessary, while the remainder keeps a lookout, and regain the forward momentum as
soon as possible.
The sweep can be performed by as little as a single element but, naturally, the more
the merrier. Under the best circumstances you have two flights of four deployed in line
abreast. Following this formation, and ideally parallel to it, you have several other 8-ship
formations scouring the skies. For, even though one brush of the broom might catch a few
bandits, it can only cover so much sky and only for a limited time. To really own the sky you
need to have consecutive and parallel flights covering enemy airspace at all times, and at all
altitudes too.
The sweep is an important part of a strategic bombing mission (RAMROD). As
such it precedes the bomber box with a separation of a few minutes, clearing a path for it as
it were. Sweeps should ideally be conducted both in front and on the flanks of the bomber
route and, yet more ideally, be backed up by a second and even third wave of fighter sweeps.
In such a mission it is crucial to stay in radio contact with the bombers and to cruise at a
reduced speed so as not to outstrip the plodding box entirely.
A RODEO is somewhat different. The historical Rodeo was a small bomber force
heavily escorted by RAF Spitfires with the intent to entice the enemy to fight, or, in other
words, a wolf in sheep’s clothing. The British banked on the Germans to scramble their
fighters, thence to be dispatched by the escorts. As it usually played out however, the wily
enemy took the opportunity to make a few high-speed “gun and run” passes. The usefulness

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of the Rodeo is debatable: close escort is one of the most difficult missions imaginable and
sheer numbers is as much a handicap as it may be a blessing.

19.2 Combat air patrol - CAP

CAP is a point-defence (or attack support) mission tied to certain landmarks or map
references. The mission is usually defence of an installation such an airfield, port or
marshalling yard but all kinds of beneficiaries are possible, including friendly ground forces,
convoys and trains. CAP can also be performed over an enemy airfield or piece of contested
ground in order to facilitate the attack by other arms or squadrons.
CAP is the doorkeeper, the janitor who keeps the pesky enemy at bay. The mission
may take place directly over the place in question, or along a more remote racetrack route in
the most likely direction of enemy interference, although still within visual distance of the
contested feature.
A CAP flight normally flies a predesignated track, usually in a box pattern with
specific waypoints. Thus, if combat occurs, an engaged element can easily pick up the track
again after concluding the battle – or call for help from hitherto unengaged parts of the
patrol. The CAP flight should comprise enough pilots to deal with any threat the enemy
might bring to bear lest it be overpowered and unable to fulfil its mission. The minimum is,
as always, the fighting element, but a flight of four divided into two elements is of course
preferable. If strong enemy pressure is expected, several flights of four may be required, and
at varying altitudes to boot. It should also be borne in mind that a CAP flight requires timely
reinforcement due to combat and the resulting loss of airspace control, ammunition and fuel
expenditure, combat losses etc.
The most difficult part of flying the CAP pattern is to make positive identification
between friend and foe. Many times the CAP must shed position and energy to ID bogies
which often turn out to be friendlies passing through.
One of the most worthwhile and satisfying CAP missions is conducted at or in the
direct vicinity of enemy airfields. Here, identification is rarely a problem except when the
formation breaks up or when the elements are circling outside maximum identifiable range:
everything can be assumed to be enemy. The destruction and disruption of enemy assets at
the source is the most effective form of air superiority short of a tank on the runway – by
engaging the enemy before he has the opportunity to spread out, while he’s suffering under
every conceivable disadvantage, he can be controlled and defeated with almost scientific
precision.
This “Iron Hand” type mission requires excellent wide-area SA and a careful sense
for when the force is about to overstay its welcome. While the force may appear and get to
work with a sizeable element of surprise, this is quickly eroded in pace with the number of
burning enemy aircraft. It generally doesn’t take long for the enemy to wise up and contest
your presence, even so, until that happens you’ll get a lot of sweet shots on nonmanoeuvring
outbound bandits. And when the jig’s up, you can still claim ownership to the high ground
and smack down anyone who comes to challenge it – until the numbers turn against you. On
the other hand, if you bring sufficient numbers on your own you can be reasonably sure of
extending your visit for hours on end (been there, done that!), or until such time as the
enemy treats you with pertinent respect and amasses a likewise sizeable force to oppose you.

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This force is likely to arrive from the next nearest enemy airfield, so, if you can spare the
bodies, detail an element or two to BARCAP that field too.
Key to efficient airfield suppression are, in no particular order: unfailing voice
communications and radio discipline; target designation (i.e. the element next in turn to
engage specify which of the many targets below they intend to engage and in which direction
they’re engaging); aircraft and pilots capable of producing one-pass kills; discipline in
disengaging from failed attacks and the subsequent teamwork required to sandwich the
enemy; the unbroken ownership of the high ground through maintaining at least an element
at high altitude (top cover) at all times; discipline in formation disengagement.

There comes a time when the formation must break contact, and the call to disengage should
ideally be made well before the situation gets out of hand. Here’s one such encounter:

56th FG spent some time in the Metz area today, forming up over the target in wingpairs consisting
bmbm/trimcz and hammered/salvo. Previously in the sortie we had been smacking down Metz pretty good,
though at this juncture in the story some four-five 109s were observed taking off below. Rather than continue
the orbit against a wide-awake enemy who would be evading and dragging us down in single melees, I decided
for a change of plan: let the 109s take off while we disengage and head west, then we double back in two
elements and bracket them. Thus we formed up in line abreast heading west at 4 km. Due south of Etain,
we reversed and headed back, now with the elements wide apart. Too wide, as it transpired.
As trimcz and I passed Jarny (heading east) I spotted one bandit on our low 10 o’clock, then two
more and following closely on their heels, two more. All headed west and climbing. I called the contact and
winged over into the attack, trimcz following. I knew hammered and salvo would be some distance to the
south and hoped they’d pick up the trail. The 109s scattered as I dove in. They were in two elements as well,
the left in decent spread but the right in trail. The fifth contact was off to the right I believe. I went for the
right pair in trail, but they broke off just in time. I kept on trucking, keeping my energy, knowing the 109s
would take the bait. Trimcz worked through them as well, making them lose more energy in evasives. By now
hammered and salvo were streaking in, but still out of visual.
I chandelled around to clear trimcz, seeing four 109s in pursuit. The left element broke as one, one
high and one level. I passed them without as much as a glance though they were hardly more than 400 yards
distant. The two closest bandits to trimcz were certain to get sixcalls and verily, they broke off just as I drew
into range. I disregarded them as well and kept trucking again. Now trimcz reversed, just as hammered and
salvo started to get in range. This the 109s had not reckoned with!
Hammered scored two 109s in this classic sandwich, alas, Salvo in a H75 was unable to keep pace
and became saddled with three 109s (possibly another crew) near Etain while the rest of us proceeded to clear
out the two remaining bandits. A swirling high-altitude battle commenced just east of Verdun, a slow motion
ballet with infinitesimal opportunities at 7 km. Trimcz got a shot at one of the 109s who was seen diving out
north trailing smoke – Trimcz followed him down and completed his demise. I was unaware of that at the
time, knowing that maybe as many as three 109s were still around at 5-7 km – I wasn’t fully aware of the
fact that hammered had gunned down two already.
We eventually concluded that we were clear however, and proceeded home to land at Montfaucon
and Reims. This was an awesome battle, a truly nerve-wracking experience of WWIIOL at its best.

The routine for whacking unaware outbound bandits is quite uncomplicated. Circling the
enemy airfield at 3-4 km altitude (10-12,000 ft) it takes a very suspicious or wide-awake
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enemy to spot the formation. Most bandits aren’t aware at all, to the contrary, most pilots
expect their own field to be some sort of sanctuary. Error one. Since most bandits truck out
on their lonesome (error two) and without rolling or essing to check their six (error three),
and climb at max rate on a steady heading (error four), they present extremely simple targets
for the high six bouncer. If the enemy doesn’t climb radically or is in possession of a
particularly fast aircraft the swooper does well in employing a low six bounce. Normally one
lets the bandit take off and set out before swooping in, and if you’re feeling particularly
devious you may want to let them get out of visual range from the airfield proper so as to
not tip off those still on the runway. Flame these easy targets in one fell swoop, break off
perpendicularly to the enemy flight lane and regain orbit altitude before returning to the
pattern.
One cardinal error most swooper-wannabees commit is to try and finish off enemy
in the flight lane after a failed pass, or worse, fighting in the airfield AA. This ensures that
other enemy flocks to the scene to overload the wannabee’s SA and wrestle him down. If
you botch your attack, break off and use team tactics to defeat the bandit. Drag and bag (i.e.
sandwich) works great. And if the enemy should manage to wiggle out of control of the CAP
force altogether and work up to co-altitude, it’s a minor concession to sidestep until the area
grows quiet again, then to return and set up the CAP one more time.

Organising the defense of an entire area, as opposed to setting up a basic CAP (the nature of
which is a part rather than the whole) is a tough job that requires a fair bit of leadership and
coordination between elements, particularly with regard to logistics (combat losses, fuel and
bullets issues) and target handoff between elements. Figure 57 below outlines the basics of
area defense at a hotly contested locale, comprising:

• Low CAP, more or less directly overhead in a tight orbit of, say, a couple of miles
between turns. This force should comprise sufficient numbers to take care of any
threat that manages to filter through the outlying defense, at the least one flight of
four and preferably a full squadron of 8-12 ships. Make sure to designate a Rally
Point for this flight in case pilots get separated for any reason, and have the flight
stick together and fight as one: this makes identification of single bogeys and other
formations so much easier. Low CAP is the last line of defense and relies mainly on
overwhelming numbers and gaggle fighting to defeat the enemy: make sure your
selected group understands what’s expected of them.
• High CAP, two to four elements making simple tracks E-W and N-S in a box
comfortably remote from the defensive objective. You will want to keep these tracks
sufficiently distant in order to have at least a minute or two to identify and defeat
inbound threats. High CAP makes sure that Low CAP can go about their close
defense without having to worry overmuch about badguys coming in hard on their
six. In this case we assume that friendlies are out in force, so make sure to have at
least one wingpair assigned to the “rear” of the area to guard against enemy trying to
attack from the least expected direction.
• BARCAP, two or more elements patrolling astride the main enemy ingress route.
Their task is of course to defeat the “lone truckers” but also to own the highest
altitudes by pushing down the enemy below High CAP altitude, thereby making
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 their job all the more easier. Whatever threat they cannot easily handle without
sacrificing position and/or mission integrity, they report to the main force.

Fig 57. The Defensive Battle Plan.

19.3 Barrier combat air patrol - BARCAP

BARCAP is a combination fighter sweep and remote CAP used against known and
suspected enemy points of ingress to a contested locality. This is generally an ad-hoc mission,
but a major planned offensive benefits greatly from the advance planning and staffing of
several BARCAP locations insofar as it blocks the enemy from entering the combat area
proper. Barrier CAP buys time for the main force, delays and disrupts the enemy and, in the
best case, destroys him altogether. While the BARCAP might not be able to stop every
enemy plane from getting through it certainly plays a very important role in reducing the
enemy threat. Merely denying the enemy access to certain altitudes or vectors may be
sufficient.
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 The BARCAP is, like the CAP flight, flown as a box or line pattern between specific
waypoints at specific altitudes. The BARCAP team has a somewhat easier time in correctly
identifying bogies since the bulk of outbound aircraft are likely to be enemy. Here, extra care
must be taken to avoid extended combat: the closer the BARCAP is positioned to the enemy
airdrome the greater the risk of it being overpowered.
Personally, I prefer flying BARCAP tracks perpendicular to and crossing over the
expected enemy route. This allows me to sight the enemy over the wings, whereas a parallel
track may hide the bandit below the bonnet and below my tail. The perpendicular track also
facilitates better timing of the bounce in my opinion, but this is of course subject to personal
preference.

19.4 Close Air Support - CAS

The crunchies love air support when it's on their side, and hate it when it's used against
them. CAS (Close Air Support) flights should have their own escort (or draw benefit from
CAP and BARCAP missions already in progress) since it's asking too much of the CAS flight
to perform two missions in one.
That said, the CAS flight needs to have a standard response for the advent of enemy
interception, or enemy presence at the target. If attacked enroute to the target, it is advisable
to jettison any external ordnance and prepare to receive the enemy as in any other fighter-vs-
fighter situation. If the enemy is encountered co-altitude or better (from your point of view),
simply blow past or ignore them until you've delivered your goods.
Always attack the ground feature on a homeward heading in order to avoid energy-
consuming turns in the presence of an angry opposition. Make one pass and go home, unless
of course the feature is totally undefended. In such a case it can be highly entertaining to
strafe enemy troops and transports, antitank guns and so forth. A measure of caution is
advisable however as your wide-area SA degrades quickly when you’re on the weeds. Make a
habit of checking your six at all times, even when strafing, and make the occasional sweep
around the area at somewhat higher altitude to clear it from airborne threats. The most
odious threat is naturally poised by enemy AA (apart from trees and terra firma). If such
obstacles to your strafing enjoyment is encountered, make certain to attack them with more
than one aircraft: the AA usually targets the closest threat and is then vulnerable to a follow-
up attack on the heels of the first. Should you, God forbid, be all alone in the area, either stay
well away from AA, cast your eggs (if any) on them or attack them creatively: if your first
attack was high, exit in the weeds and return in the weeds from another direction to strafe
them dead.
Communication with friendly ground forces is auspicious, particularly as you will
not have much chance of noting the difference between friend and foe. Attacking your own
forces is not appreciated by anyone except the enemy. If possible, have the crunchies mark
the target with smoke or tracer. If you make repeat sorties to the same target, be sure to vary
your ingress direction and altitude to make yourself less predictable.
Keep your speed up when performing CAS! The AA gunners positively love slow
and predictable targets while drawing lead on fast fighters who expose themselves only for a
few fractions of a second is nigh impossible. Don’t listen to pilots who say that they slow
down and throw out the boards (flaps) when strafing, they are clearly delusional. You will
want to fly as fast as you possibly can, and remain as unpredictable as possible.
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 When you’re doing CAS you are well served by having at least an element out on
BARCAP reasonably high in the most likely enemy ingress vector. They may not be able to
deflect every bandit but they should be able to give timely warning of impending party-
crashers. That too is a reason to remain at high speed: you can’t very well perform adequate
guns defence when low and slow. Jam that throttle forward!

19.5 Armed reconnaissance - Rhubarb

If you have nothing better to do, and fancy a lingering thrill, consider going out on a low-
altitude armed recon run. Like all others, armed recon missions should be well prepared and
briefed since the likelihood of things going catastrophically wrong is much higher the closer
you get to the ground!
Route planning and memorizing of prominent ground features are essential - you
will not have much time or opportunity for detailed map studies in the cockpit.
Armed recon missions are generally flown at minimum altitude and at best sustained
speed, although it is eminently possible to go in at 5-6000 feet. Be advised that the higher
you go, the less you see, and the better you are seen. Staying down in the weeds is a good
bet, but you will only get very brief firing opportunities.
Should you happen unto a juicy target such as an undefended convoy or troop
concentration, why, feel free to zoom, stay a while and go wild before exiting the stage, again
in the weeds.
Another way to maximize your firing opportunities is to have a point flight a minute
or so up front to report on targets of opportunity, allowing subsequent flights to adjust their
headings for a clear run.
Avoid known AAA installations and only make single passes on high-value localities
such as enemy airfields, for your own good. If pounced upon by enemy enjoying a higher
energy state, use separation between flights and weave them to death. That, short of a
miracle, is your best bet of seeing home turf. Avoid becoming stationary at all cost. Flights
should maintain line abreast formation unless the territory force you to employ line astern.
This takes a lot of effort and discipline, but should be second nature for the veteran pilots.

19.6 Bomber interception

This mission is pretty straight-forward: follow directions from ground- or airborne
observers, gain as much altitude as needed depending on the enemy escort situation, and set
up a good clean run against the bombers. It is auspicious to manoeuvre yourself into a
position with the enemy escort (if any) in line with the bombers so that you may blow by
them with a minimum-separation pass either before or after you blast the bombers. If you
have the energy advantage, extend away from the escorts and set up another high-speed pass.
Rinse, repeat.
Never ever climb up toward the bombers within escort range - it's certain to
ventilate you in any number of undesired places. Whether you target the bombers or the
escorts first is wholly dependent on the situation: performance, relative energy states and
estimated time to target should be the primary considerations. If you have plenty of time, get
some altitude and clean out the escorts. If you're in a hurry, target the bombers. If there are
no escorts, woe betide the bombers! The actual attack has as many options and gambits as
combat in general. Against unprotected bombers, as described in the ACM section, a high
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sides attack is generally the most profitable. This exposes the enemy the most while
presenting his gunners with a particularly tricky solution.
In the best of scenarios you occupy the high ground already and may choose your
type of attack. In the second best scenario you engage the bombers either head-on or from
their forward quarter, and have energy enough to swing around and go for seconds (beware
the escorts however!). The most common situation however is a stern chase. It is here that
you must fight the urge to motor up on their low or level six o’clock for what seems a lazy
low-closure gunning session. In this case you’re the most vulnerable not only to tail gunners,
belly gunners and dorsal gunners but to the escorts as well. Your situational awareness will
be in the pits as you hesitate to err from your pursuit heading; you will be low, slow and
utterly predictable.
If you are indeed coming in from astern, take a vector that will bring you alongside
the bombers at slightly more than a full turn radius away. Climb beside them and when
you’re at their ten or two o’clock high, wing over into a high sides attack that brings their full
planform into your sights. Completing the attack, dodge whatever defensive fire is brought
to bear and regain your high side position on the opposite flank. Repeat until they’re done
for. If there are escorts present, initiate the attack with an element or two to draw their
attention while holding your main force back for the real attack. Only rarely will you have
enough fighters around to completely annihilate the escorts: your best bet is to draw them
away from the bombers with but a small part of your force.

19.7 Bomber escort

Bomber escort is a science unto itself, and we will only explore it briefly here. Escort is
arguably one of the most difficult missions you can sign up for, but also one of the
potentially most rewarding. A thoroughly planned and staffed bomber mission include
several types of escort and supporting missions, fighter sweep being one of them. The actual
escort missions are:

Remote escort
While the fighter sweep cuts a deep swathe in enemy territory and poses a threat to enemy
climb out vectors, the remote escort's chief mission is to detect and deflect enemy
interceptors directed against the bomber formation. This is best performed at a distance of a
few minutes ahead and out on the flanks of the bomber box - not too close, and not to far.
Knowledge of the bombers' route and progress is paramount: the flight leaders should be in
communication with the bombers at all times in order to position themselves correctly and
to defeat inbound enemy.
The remote escort’s mission is NOT to seek the absolute destruction of any enemy
encountered unless the opportunity presents itself. Rather, its mission is to maintain the
integrity of the bomber box by deflecting enemy interceptors and deny them access to
position from which they can pose a threat to the bombers. A simple bounce or even a
moderately threatening gesture may be enough to force the enemy to abandon their mission
and/or cede altitude. As always, however, circumstances dictate whether the remote escort
should maintain position relative to the bombers or go balls out against the enemy: if the
bombers are at risk, anything and everything should be done to reduce or neutralise the
threat.
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Close escort
While sweeps and remote escorts (if any!) may be able to deal with some of the enemy, the
bomber crews very much appreciate a close escort and rely on them to sort out those who
leak through the screen. Close escort should place themselves ahead, well above and out on
the flanks at the box's 10 and 2 o'clock, with the bombers comfortably within visual distance.
Be advised not to fly too close however, as you will need some time and distance to ward off
high-speed attacks. Maintaining these stations is imperative for several reasons:
Ease of identification and ease of leadership. Any bogey spotted outside of the escort
stations can be assumed to be hostile and the appropriate measures leveraged against him.
Reduced SA load. It is far easier to keep track of the bomber box, and of bogeys and
squadron elements, if they are kept continuously over the wing in comparison to a flight
profile where you wander all over the sky.
Reduced fuel consumption. Keeping pace with the bombers allows you to cut back on boost
and RPM, thus increasing your range and combat effectiveness.

Always attack with the enemy placed between yourself and the box, and break off as soon as
you see the enemy abandon the attack. Your mission is to protect the bombers, not to
become locked in individual combat well behind and below the box. Keeping a healthy
distance to the bombers is vital: if you fly too close you’re essentially part of the same target
group and will be largely forced into frontal attacks against engaging enemy – or forced to
chase the enemy away from the bombers after they’ve successfully attacked the bombers
already. Thus, you need to maintain a distance to the bombers that allow you to spot,
identify and react to enemy fighters. You need time to communicate the threat to the other
escorting elements, time to decide on the best course of action, time to wing over into the
attack, time to close the distance, time and distance to defeat the enemy before they get to
guns range.

In the following picture, the 2 o’clock high station escort spots a low closure threat in the
bombers’ rear hemisphere. The escort turns gently back and executes a standard high rear
attack against the threat. If the enemy is any good he’ll break off his attack as soon as the
escort makes a threatening move – in that case the escort should resume his station while
keeping an eye on the bandits. If the enemy is fixated on the bombers he’ll be set up for
swift annihilation in a single attack, whereupon on the escorts are free to regain position. On
no account should the escorts sacrifice their energy advantage – which is considerable even if
they’re motoring along at reduced power – and pursue the enemy away from the bombers.
Merely bouncing them away or scaring them sufficiently to abandon the attack is more than
enough. However, care should be taken to fully engage high-energy threats until destroyed or
neutralised! Thus, if a low-energy threat is judged to remain in the fight and eventually
become a high-energy threat, defeat him while you still hold a significant energy advantage. If
not, things will become all the more trickier later on.

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Fig 58. Escort stations and reaction to enemy fighters.

If your numbers are low, break up the squadron into elements so that you cover both flanks.
If there are several escorting squadrons, assign one sector to each. It is also good form to
have a small reserve high on the box's rear quarter, if you can spare the manpower.
The really critical part of the escort job is when the escorts themselves are singled
out for attack, and found at a disadvantage. Although you're morally bound by your
obligation to protect the bombers you should never hesitate to save your own skin - if you
die there's one less escort anyway so you might as well save your country the expense and get
the hell out of Dodge! With any luck and a measure of cooperation, your wingman might
even save your bacon and allow you to rejoin the mission.
At or shortly after the target is where close escort earns their pay. Here the bombers
will be subjected to a mass of attacks from all quarters, taxing the escorts to the max.
Whereas a fraction of attacks will be delivered from a position of advantage the bulk of
interceptors will be attacking or preparing to attack from low astern of the bomber box.
Now the escorts must perform a split second triage and prioritize among threats. As always
the high-energy bandits should be your first concern.
Attack the enemy who are in the most threatening position first, taking care not to
pursue them futilely so that other low-priority threats are given time to become high-priority
threats. If you cannot kill them outright, forcing them to abandon comfortable positions for
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subsequent attacks is about the best you can hope for. Threaten them only so much that they
must spend time and space in preparation for subsequent attacks, all the while keeping your
energy up in the direction of the bomber heading.
Attack the enemy who are about to get in guns range to the bombers. These bandits
will most likely be approaching from low or level astern to the bombers and will be highly
focussed on their targets – often to the point of ignoring or not noticing escort intervention
altogether. Approach with high closure and blow right through them, don’t stop to defeat
them entirely but only blast them so much that they are unable to carry through their attack.
Often this translates to a handful of easy kills anyhow.
Sort out the bandits who latched on to your six without resorting to stationary
dogfighting, through employment of wingman tactics, and regain SA for your primary
mission.
After the initial flurry of action most close escort missions evolve into a running
fight after the bombers, friendly and enemy fighters interlaced. If you find yourself in vain
pursuit of a bandit that you know will get to the bombers before you get to guns range, you
might as well break off, check six and gain position to deal with anyone further back in the
queue. Staying in touch with your wingman is paramount in this long drag&bag situation.
You can also use the bombers as “wingmen” to split the attention of a pursuer: if you’re
alone and have a bandit on your six, vector some 30-45 degrees away from the bombers to
force the enemy to choose between futilely chasing you or productively pursue the bombers.
Once he breaks off (if he breaks off!) toward the bombers you can swing back into him and
defeat his pursuit. Be wary of the vectors involved and the timing of this manoeuvre! It is
not uncommon to end up way behind the bandit and thus being without a say in the
proceedings. The wise escort plots his intercept so as to keep the bandit off his wing while
flying “pipper on” the bombers – in this manner you fly an “automatic” lead pursuit on the
badguy and can fairly easily cut in behind him as long as he stays focused on the bombers.

Fig 59. Tactical use of bomber box to shift pursuing enemy’s interest from outnumbered escort.

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Reception escort
Since close escorts have a tendency to become stripped from their charges, a full-blown raid
should include a friendly reception party. This mission launches well behind the bombers
and rendez-vouses with them at a previously arranged spot and time, generally located three-
quarters of the distance to the target (provided the fighters have sufficient range).
Communication with the bombers is recommended so that the reception can position itself
to deal with any remaining interceptors. From there on the reception escort continues as
close escort. If contested, the bombers are certain to have stragglers with ailing engines, in
which case you'd do well by assigning a pair of fighters to each cripple.

19.8 Ground attack

We have the enemy surrounded. We are dug in and have overwhelming numbers. But enemy airpower is
mauling us badly. We will have to withdraw.
Japanese infantry commander reporting to headquarters, Burma, WW II.

Ground attack is different from Close Air Support insofar as the ground attack mission is
more a one-off mission as opposed to the more persistent CAS mission. Both, however,
require the establishment and maintenance of air superiority – this is ALWAYS the case, as
stated by Air Marshal Tedder in the 1943 Casablanca conference, in point 5 of his dicta:

The fighter plane is the basic weapon of an air force. It should be used for the following
missions in this priority:
a. Fighter sweeps to clear the enemy out of the sky.
b. Escort for light and medium bombers.
c. Interception of enemy aircraft.
d. As a fighter bomber to provide CAS for ground forces.

The ground attack mission, quite as any other mission, requires mass to be effective: the
discerning party sorties in strength and attacks in a disciplined and concentrated manner
against an identified feature or target. Simply winging along and attacking any old target of
opportunity on your lonesome is NOT a proper way of doing it, mainly because your
singleton performance is less than likely to produce adequate results and because it only
takes one enemy fighter to render the whole endeavour futile. Go in force!

Leadership, control and discipline is what makes the ground attack effective, and with that in
mind several factors become apparent as being partial to mission success:
• Intelligence: Type and location of target, type and location of AA, overall air
situation, time available.
• Loadout and mission profile: Is it a guns only attack? Do we bring bombs? Rockets?
Ingress direction; cruise altitudes etc.
• Coordination with ground observers and/or ground controllers: exact location of
target relative to conspicuous ground features; is smoke available to mark the target?
• Air superiority: who has it; coordination with fighter cover; time allotted for creating
a window of opportunity?
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 • AA suppression: how to minimize threats from ground fire.
• Ordnance delivery: area attack; attack individual targets; how many passes are
allowed etc.
• Rally point and egress: where to recover and/or reform etc.

From this simple template it should be obvious that ground attack is something more than a
simple “dive in and chuck that egg” routine: it should be conducted with as much
preparation and teamwork as anything else to ensure success. Let’s look at how a sample
mission might be conducted from a “best practice” perspective.
You have been alerted to the presence of a strong enemy armoured force
approaching a key point. The call goes out to the air force to reduce the threat. The enemy
air force is out in strength so you need to coordinate your arrival with the air superiority
fighters – and you need to get moving PDQ lest the armoured column arrives intact. You
assemble your squadron, plus a number of freelance fighters of unknown capability, on the
runway of the nearest available airfield. Sitreps keep coming in on all frequencies – the
armour column is closing fast and enemy air is highly active. You have six bomb-carriers,
and the support of an unknown number of friendly air superiority fighters at the objective. It
is reasonable to assume that you will encounter little in the way of AA, and that you will only
have the opportunity to make a single attack without enemy intervention.
Time is of the essence so you get going with a gentle climb to altitude, keeping your
speed up – though only so fast as to keep the strike force together. Wingmen are assigned on
the fly. You get in touch with the fighters on the scene, announcing your time on target and
requesting maximum support for your attack. A pair of air superiority fighters attach
themselves to you during the ingress, flying herd on the flanks of your little formation. You
swing round the objective area at altitude to gain a feel for the overall situation: the fight
appears to be low and not directly over the road in question. Now, where are those tanks?
Somewhere southeast of the town is the last known location. You need better confirmation
than that, and you’re loath to go down and blow your energy and surprise with a bunch of
enemy fighters around. As you curve around onto the enemy ingress direction the necessary
spotrep is given: “30+ tanks, 500 meters east of the wood straddling the E-W road east of
town X, all tanks on the road in column.” That’s all you need to know.
You issue your orders quickly: “Fighters, take up station over town X to clear our
egress. We will attack from east to west. Squadron, follow me in trail! One pass!” You see the
fighters peel off to take up station, widen your turn to give them some time and tip your
wing to line up with the E-W road. You’re attacking from 3000 meters so you will want to
do it at a pretty low angle: 20-30 degrees. There’s the road. Angle looking good. Your
squadron is falling into trail behind you, nervously checking six and flipping their safeties off
in preparation for the attack.
In in in! Winging over and diving down you roll the trim wheel forward and pick up
the road. There it is, and down there somewhere is the armour column. Passing through
1500 meters you spot the telltale dust clouds and then the great metal mass – here goes! Aim
for the head of the column, hope to nail the leader. You’re hurtling down at 550 km/h, your
aim is true, you pickle both bombs as the gunsight passes over the lead tank, trim the nose
up and scram west, going lower and lower until you buzz past below the treetops. Dull thuds
behind you, pillars of dirty black smoke rising. Past the town you quarter-roll and check six:
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five planes behind you, no enemy as far as you can see. Your covering fighters report: clear!
You reduce throttle to facilitate formation and continue home on the deck, your pilots
shaking out in the familiar wide line abreast. Done!
The mission just described takes little more time than had you gone on your
lonesome to the target. Not only does your survival rate skyrocket, you make a wonderful
appearance and have fun too. You return safely to base, load up fresh bombs and assemble
on the runway for a second helping of whup-butt. Stragglers delay your takeoff by a few
minutes, and the climb to 3000 meters may seem excessive to pilots otherwise accustomed to
dodging trees, however, the results (and the experience) should make it all worthwhile. Try it
why don’t you!
When attacking a locale defended by AA, it makes a lot of sense to draw their
attention and (ineffective) fire with a couple of “stooges” while attacking them with planes
held higher in reserve. Once the AA is down, go about your business as usual.

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P AR T V I: C O M MU N IT Y
“If it wasn’t for the community I’d have quit the game years ago”

The difference between entertaining yourself with a single-player flight simulation facing
artificial intelligence enemies and that of a massively multiplayer online roleplaying game lies
not merely in the quality of the opposition but in the interaction with friends and foes alike.
The MMORPG is a world in and of itself whereas the stand-alone simulator is just… a
game. The MMORPG world is a dynamic, chaotic, universe where anything can and does
happen. It’s full of surprises and whacky encounters, dependencies and teamwork, grand
operations, fog of war and friction. In a stand-alone sim you can be pretty much sure that
things will happen in a certain way; that you will have a preset amount of time and support
for your mission against a known number of enemies. It just doesn’t happen like that in the
MMORPG.
Take a simple fighter sweep for instance. In a stand-alone game you may be leading
a flight of four ships but not really feeling “in command” or feeling any particular kinship
with your flight members. They are no more than a couple of lines of computer code, set to
act in a certain way. You cannot joke with them or tell them to behave in a particular
manner, you can’t ask them whether they have your six covered or ask them to drag a bandit
in a certain way. They’re just drones and you’re just manipulating computer code. Fun? Not
in my humble opinion.
In the MMORPG your flight members are real people. They often fail in keeping
formation, fail in scanning diligence, they often err in navigation and make catastrophic
errors of judgement. On the other hand, they may follow you slavishly and spot bandits way
before you do, they will surprise you with acts of sudden brilliance and comments that will
leave you writhing on the floor. When they’re dragging a bandit you can direct them so as to
clear them, you can devise ruses and play gambits, totally surprise the enemy and on
occasion, get more than you bargained for or ever thought possible. No mission is ever the
same. You will experience anticipation, pride, fear, anger, cowardice, bluster, joy, glee and
next to every conceivable facet of human emotion in this game. Your sphincter will pucker,
your cheeks will blush, your palms and armpits will break a sweat, your heart will pound and
you will be jumping up and down for joy… or frustration. All of that and more is part of the
game, of the game world.

Then suddenly I spot a shape in my slightly high 2 o'clock. Thinking it was Mick who had slid ahead I was
just about to say something and power up to adjust formation when I saw that it was a 109, not Mick. I
nearly fell off the chair! He was flying parallel no more than 250 yards out, slightly high and perfectly true.
LOL! "109 my two o'clock, he hasn't seen us!". I went through the gate and slid to right, putting myself
directly astern and somewhat low at perfect range. I fingered the tit, then hesitated. This one's Mick's! "Mick!
You take him! See him? You have a shot?"
"Yar, I'm behind you, I'll give him a plink from long range to wake him up" came Mick's
deadpan reply. I was laughing so hard I nearly shot him down myself but restrained myself diligently hehehe. I
saw Mick's tracer pounding the 109 dead astern, bits and pieces flying off, producing a trail of smoke. The
109 shuddered somewhat and slowly went into a steepening dive, opening up distance. I followed suit, going to
continuous RPM to increase speed in the dive. And then *poof* he was gone, evidently a pilot kill. We
recovered over Neuvillette and motored home, laughing lustily all the way!
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In the dynamic and persistent game world real people form friendships and forge alliances,
devise strategies and tactics, agree on joint operations and engage in diplomacy, out-of-game
communication and community building that transcends the suspicious hostility between
opposing camps. The community arranges real-life meetings and even conventions, the
community argues, bickers and taunts, it creates artwork, poetry, events and programs.
Without the community the game is nothing.
It is hard to engage in a MMORPG without making friends, without starting to
recognize players or without making a “name” for yourself. Sure, some folks are more
talkative or conspicuous than others, some keep a low profile and a lot of players never
become community entities at all. But if you stick around for a couple of weeks and frequent
the discussion forums and, better yet, become a part of a regular formation, you’re highly
likely to find new friends and new dimensions to the gaming experience. You’re likely to
have the time of your life. So much in fact that it becomes a very real part of your “other”
life – for better or worse!

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CH AP T ER 20 . S QU AD R ON L IF E
After you’ve mastered the flying and fighting part of the online game you will begin to
appreciate the benefits of teamwork and community so much that you will want to be part of
a formed unit. You’ve been around for a while now and know that there are squads of
various makeup and composition in the game: funseekers, grognards, posturers, men of
leisure and men of intense devotion to their steads and chosen allegiance. Take a pick, and if
you’re not perfectly happy with your choice leave and try another.
Leading a squadron is very much similar to leading a small firm or enterprise. As the
commanding officer you get to define the formation in every respect from name and concept
to mission types and guiding principles. The decision to form a squadron of your own is, I
suppose, borne out of disappointment with how things are done in your present squadron
or, in case it’s your first shot at leading a squad, an urge to assure yourself of teamwork in
order to excel or, if you will, increasing and sharing your enjoyment. I guess motives vary:
mine certainly did.
As commanding officer of an outfit you accept a certain responsibility: to keep the
unit in being; to gather your squadron and provide leadership in the game and outside of it;
to expand your ranks and to provide enjoyment. You are the focal point of the squad’s
activities, you set its agenda and modus operandi, you decide how and when to play the
game. Such an endeavour requires your full attention: you need to provide adequate
communication channels, define the standards of membership, train new pilots and educate
the unit in unit lore and fighter tactics. You can take this to any extreme: some squads have a
stringent code of conduct and participation requirements, others are happy to remain a loose
confederation of brothers in arms who get together whenever they feel like it.
Squadron life has a strong social aspect, as one might expect. It’s hard to run a squad
without sharing experiences, without learning where people are from and what they do for a
living, without sharing a common ground with regards to the game and how to relate to it.
There are no rules for how to run a squadron: you make your own. Personally I
subscribe to the notion that flying becomes a whole lot more fun if you attempt to do it with
a measure of excellence in execution and style, meaning, a thing worth doing is worth doing
well. That leads implicitly to doing things “properly” with regard to tactics and mission
profiles, rather than a slapdash or “gamey” approach to the challenges of online flying.
There is no doubt in my mind that if you do things properly – such as is taught and
expected in the real world – you will do a whole lot better in the game enjoy it so much
more. Consider also that when you make an effort to fly in a realistic and efficient manner
(think formations here) you also provide your opponents and onlookers with enjoyment.
Surely it’s a lot more fun to encounter a full-size formation that acts in a professional manner
than a slew of unorganised singletons. Achieving such a level of teamwork takes effort, an
effort which not everyone is prepared to accept, an effort which, when it’s flaunted, makes
all the difference between recreation and experience.
Morale is an important factor in the success or failure of your group as a whole. If
your missions repeatedly end with the utter destruction of your squaddies, if objectives are
but rarely met, if accusations are bandied back and forth, if no one communicates… then
you have a morale problem that needs solving ASAP. Achieving mission success (however
you define it) is imperative for keeping your guys happy: take them out, fly in style, down
enemy by the bushel and bring them all back safely and you’re certain to have a house full of
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happy campers. Building good morale, or esprit de corps if you will, is an ongoing task that
will leave you stumped from time to time, as it’s sure to plummet if left unattended. Running
a weekly mission and keeping track of participation is a good start. Next, running survivable
missions with clearly delineated objectives and responsibilities is another. There’s more:
writing after action reports; giving praise and encouragement where applicable; handing out
virtual rewards for accomplishments and maintaining a visible and benevolent leadership
profile – all of this and more serve to keep your blokes happy, cooperating and
communicating.
Nothing succeeds like success. When your formation delivers or otherwise excels,
boast and revel in your success! The highest mark of success is when your crowd is
mentioned with respect and awe by the community, and when your inbox starts filling up
with requests to join. Be aware, however, that morale is fickle and needs constant attention.
A good leader delegates without relinquishing control, he nips conflicts in the bud and takes
the faintest whiff of discontent as a cue to step up his community-building activities.

20.1 Training
By definition, a squadron operates as a unit and must practice to become proficient in its
chosen role. Merely taking off together and possibly sharing a voice communications channel
is far from enough: you as commanding officer are responsible for the performance of your
outfit and you’d be a sorry officer if you didn’t endeavour to improve on the performance of
your squadron. This book contains enough topics to keep you occupied for years to come
<grin>, the question is rather how do you train and where to begin?
Clearly you must start by assessing the ability and potential of your squadron
members: can they fly at all; what’s their SA like; do they know how to fly formation; are
they familiar with team tactics; do they know how to execute standard missions; do they
return to base on a regular basis etc. Once you’ve ascertained the training needs you can go
on and create a simple training programme.
A lot of training can be conducted individually, offline. Take off, landings, advanced
manoeuvres, strafing, performance testing etc is easy to practice on your own. One thing in
particular that I like to recommend is flying (offline) while looking backwards only, including
takeoff and landing. This simple exercise helps the pilot get to know his plane, his speed and
attitude, by feel rather than by looking out front and watching the horizon, and it is also a
good primer for flying “backwards” when keeping visual contact with a bandit in a scissors
or barrel roll.

The things I normally do when faced with a new pilot are:

• confirm that the pilot has his controllers set up appropriately
• confirm that the pilot can taxi and takeoff without messing up
• confirm his SA level by flying “follow the leader” and simple mock combat
• confirm his ability to format in line abreast and navigate using tactical turns
• confirm that the pilot can perform guns defence and basic evasives to stay alive

The real mark of squadron proficiency, in my opinion of course, is its return ratio. Can the
formation remain combat effective throughout a mission, does it return to base intact and

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what sort of damage did it deal per loss (if any). If you realise that your squad isn’t
performing too well along any of these criteria then you have some serious training to do!
It seems to me that a lot of groups are reluctant to train at all: they are content with
going out to do combat as best they know how and that’s it. That’s too bad, for every
mission offers a whole host of training opportunities, if realised: formation takeoff;
formation ascent and cruise; navigation; change of formation; engage by elements; employing
top cover; voice comms practice; gunnery; evasives; drag&bag etc.

Critique your missions! Write after action reports and discuss what went wrong and what
went well. Talking about situations and engagements is one of the best ways of learning and
imparting knowledge, and in this racket you can’t know too much.
When running a mission, make sure to hook up the rookies as wingmen to the
accomplished pilots. Putting two greenhorns in an element of their own is likely to result in
both their losses without offering a learning experience in turn. If a guy is notoriously bad at
formation flying, format on *him* to show how it’s done rather than keep goading him over
the blower.
There will be certain missions that your unit likes more or is particularly good at.
Practice these missions heavily so that everyone knows what an ideal performance looks like,
practice until the mission can be executed reflexively and can be led by anyone in the group.
At one time my outfit had one such “showcase” mission: we loaded up our P47s to the gills
with bombs and rockets, moved out in immaculate formation and attacked as a body in a
single run. The spectacle of 8-12 Thunderbolts hurtling down and letting off one hundred
rockets simultaneously, and then dropping a barrage of bombs before streaking out in line
abreast, was indeed something to be a part of, and something to behold. Such an attack may
not cause massive destruction but it certainly raises morale tenfold!

20.2 Communications
Air combat in general and formation tactics in specific requires crisp, clear and unfailing
voice communications. In an environment where fights are literally won or lost in the bat of
an eye you simply cannot rely on text commo. Aside from increasing the immersion effect
voice comms increases unit efficacy by several orders of magnitude. However, for it to be
useful, you need to enforce a strict radio transmission protocol. Voice communications must
be brief, clear and to the point. With eight, twelve, sixteen pilots in the fight the chatter can
become quite intense and it only takes one radio hog to mess it all up.
On the other hand, at certain times you can’t talk too much on the radio. The
“blower” is your primary means of maintaining control of your outfit and to keep up a wide-
area SA, and when an element is engaged detailed comms may make the difference between
death and victory. Thus, knowing when to speak and when to hold your tongue is critical.
In general, it’s advisable to stick to the established format of RECIPIENT,
SENDER, MESSAGE, however, if there’s but you and your wingman or a flight of four
where the pilots are intimately familiar with each other’s voices then you can clearly dispense
with such formalities.

Example transmissions using the standard format:

“Keyworth, this is Yardstick, follow me”
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“Red Two from Red One, bracket”
“White Flight, this is White Leader, disengage north”

In combat, keeping your wingman appraised of your own action is paramount. He needs to
know where you’re at, where you’re heading, what you intend to do – it’s extremely easy to
get lost and lose element integrity. E.g.
“Going in north, stay high”
“Off east, dragging”
“On your nine, clear”

The following table of radio transmission terms does not claim to be complete. It does
however contain the most frequently used and useful transmissions and should suffice to
establish a common language for your squadron, should you not already have one.

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Radio communication Meaning
[your, my] Six! Enemy on [your, my] six
AA Anti-aircraft (battery)
Bandit Enemy aircraft
Bingo Remaining fuel sufficient for RTB only
Blow through Continue straight on after merge, do not turn
Bogey Unidentified aircraft
Break Break, enemy on your six
Buster Best speed
Copy Message received and understood
Clear Your six is clear
Close up Tighten formation
Cross turn Execute level 180 degree turn towards wingman
Disengage Break off combat in stated direction
Disregard Carry on
Drag, dragging (direction) Drag (am dragging) enemy on your six straight in the
stated direction
EA Enemy Aircraft
Extend (extending) Open up separation to enemy
Free I am not engaged
Friendly or blue Friendly aircraft
Grab (grabbing) Climb (am climbing)
In Going in on enemy
In, in, in All engage
Kick out Increase formation width
No copy Message not understood, please repeat
No joy No visual (of enemy)
No tally No visual contact
No threat Enemy is not a threat, ignore
No vis No visual contact
North, east, south, west – go! Execute level 90 degree turn in specified direction
Off (Off off) Breaking off attack (All break off)
On the runway On the runway ready to take off
On the way Heading to you
Out (heading) Breaking off engagement (to regain energy)
Pancake Land
Reform Expedite formation over given landmark or on given
heading
Repeat last Repeat last transmission
Reverse Turn around (to engage)
Roger Message received and understood

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Radio communication Meaning
Roll Take off
Stand by Stand by (for further communications)
Tally Visual contact gained
Unable Unable to expedite or answer request
Up Airborne
Winchester Am down to last few rounds of ammunition

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IN CL O SI N G

One pass, haul ass.

YOU and you alone are responsible for your six o’clock. Never expect a six call and you
won’t miss the one you never got.

Don’t be shy to wallop the enemy with more than is required to down him.

If you take a hit, take it as a hint to return to base immediately.

Don’t assume anything.

Greed kills.

Fly gently, kill swiftly.

Don’t play with your food.

Live to fly, fly to live.

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SEL E CT B IBL IOG RA P H Y

Bekker, Cajus: The Luftwaffe War Diaries, Da Capo Press

Bond, Charles R & Anderson, T: A Flying Tiger’s Diary, Texas A&M University Press
Boyington, Pappy: Baa Baa Black Sheep
Clausewitz, Carl von: On War, Princeton University Press
Demoulin, Charles: Firebirds!, Smithsonian Institute Press
Franks, Norman: The Greatest Air Battle, Grub Street
Frederick Blesse: No Guts, No Glory
Freeman, Roger A: Zemke’s Wolfpack, Orion Books
Gabreski, Francis: Gabby, A Fighter Pilot’s Life, Schiffer Military History
Galland, Adolf: The First and The Last, Buccaneer Books
Johnson, Robert S: Thunderbolt!, The Honoribus Press
Lipfert, Helmut: The War Diary of Hauptmann Helmut Lipfert, Schiffer Military History
Lundstrom, John B: The First Team, Naval Institute Press
Milward, Alan S: The German Economy at War, London University Athlone Press
O’Leary, Michael: VIII Fighter Command At War, Osprey Aviation
Rudel, Hans-Ulrich: Stuka Pilot, The Noontide Press
Shaw, Robert L: Fighter Combat, Tactics and Manoeuvring, Naval Institute Press
Smith, R T: Tale of a Tiger, Tiger Originals
Spick, Mike: Luftwaffe Fighter Aces, Greenhill Books
Spick, Mike: The Ace Factor, Naval Institute Press
Spurdle, Bob: The Blue Arena, Crecy books
Toliver and Constable: The Blond Knight of Germany, McGraw Hill

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