Module 1 Networking Fundamentals
Module 1 Networking Fundamentals
Module 1 Networking Fundamentals
Data Flow
Network Topology
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The effectiveness of data communication system depends on:
Delivery: The system must deliver the data to the correct destination.
A point-to-point connection
provides a dedicated link
between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link
is reserved by those two
devices.
Ex: TV Infrared Remote
Control
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For “n” nodes in a fully connected mesh topology with duplex mode, the number
of links required = n(n-1)/2.
No of I/O ports needed = n-.
I/O ports = 4.
Advantages:
1) Eliminates traffic problem.
2) Robust.
3) Easy fault detection and isolation.
4) Privacy/Security - Prevents other user from gaining access to messages.
Disadvantages:
1) Number of cabling and I/O ports is high.
2) Reconfiguration is difficult.
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Star Topology
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Dedicated point-to-point link to the central controller called hub.
Devices are not linked to one another.
Unlike mesh, star does not allow direct communication between devices.
Controller acts as an exchange.
Advantages:
1) Less expensive than mesh in terms of cabling and I/O ports.
2) Installation and reconfiguration is easy.
3) Robust.
4) Easy fault deduction and isolation.
Disadvantages:
1) Dependency on hub.
2) Hub goes down then entire network is dead.
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Oldest topology.
Provides multipoint connection.
Advantages:
1) Easy installation.
2) Less number of cables than mesh and star.
Disadvantages:
1) Fault detection and isolation is difficult.
2) Reconfiguration is not possible - adding new devices are not possible. This limits
the number of devices.
3) Adding new devices needs a replacement of main cable.
4) Bus goes down then the entire network is dead.
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Ring Topology
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Developed by IBM.
Provides point-to-point connection.
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There is no single correct answer. The most commonly installed networks currently
are the star bus and the bus. A hub-centered star bus seems to be the best choice
because of the ease of troubleshooting and reconfiguration. Although a bus network
might be chosen for its low cost or ease of installation, it does not offer the
centralized troubleshooting or administrative advantages of a hub. A ring is
probably more complex than is necessary for this network.
Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)
Information Sharing
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
Search Capability (WWW)
Communication
Email
Message broadcast
Remote computing
Distributed processing
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Introduction to Computer Networks
Network Applications
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o E-mail
o News Groups
o Video Conferencing
o Chat Groups
o Instant Messengers
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
o Internet Radio
Categories of Networks
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Classification of
network
PAN HAN
A Personal area network (PAN) is a
A House area network (HAN) is a
computer network used for
type of local area network that
communication among computer and
develops from the need to facilitate
different information technological
communication and interoperability
devices close to one person. Common
among digital devices present inside
Technologies used are USB, Bluetooth
or within the close vicinity of a home.
and Infrared. Range is ~10m
Smartphone Headphone
Laptop PDA
Mouse Printer
Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
• Security problems
• All the computer-
owning residents of • As the network consists
the area have equal of many computers over
ability to go on line. the span of a city, the
connection can lag or
become quite slow.
carried by open
connections or virtual
circuits in some larger
network (e.g., the Internet)
instead of by physical
wires.
An enterprise private
network is a network build
by an enterprise to
interconnect various
company sites, e.g.,
production sites, head
offices, remote offices,
shops, in order to share
computer resources.
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64 bits
ii)Semantics
- Refers to the meaning of each section of bits.
- how is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be
taken based on that interpretation.
iii) Timing
a. When data to be sent
b. How fast it can be sent
Eg. If a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data
at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and data will
be largely lost.
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Commonly Used Protocol
Protocol Remarks
Point To Point (PPP) Used to manage network communication
over a modem
Network Models
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It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part
of the process of moving information across network.
6. Presentation
5. Session
4. Transport
3. Network
2. Data Link
1. Physical
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Division of Layers
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7. Application
Upper Layers
6. Presentation
5. Session
4. Transport
3. Network
Lower Layers
2. Data Link
1. Physical
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
OSI Reference Model
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The data units on this layer are called bits.
Responsible for physical connection between devices
Movements of individual bits from one node to next
• Repeaters & Hub are used in physical layer.
Functions:
Converts bits into signals
Bit Synchronization
Manage physical connection
Bit rate control
Line configuration
Physical topology
Transmission mode
Multiplexing
Switching
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Date Link Layer (DLL)
The data unit on this layer is called frame (Group of bits
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)
This layer divided into two sub layers:
Media Access Control (MAC )
The MAC sub-layer controls how a computer on the network gains
access to link resources and grant permission to transmit it.
Logical Link Control ( LLC )
The LLC layer controls frame synchronization flow control and
error checking.
DLL taks:
Framing
Physical Addressing
Error Control
Bridge used in DLL.
Functions:
Segmentation and Reassembly
Connection Management
Reliable and Unreliable data delivery
Flow Control
Connection Multiplexing
Segmentation is the process of breaking large data file into smaller files that can be
69 accommodate/supported by network.
To understand this process think about a 700 MB movie that you want to download
from internet. You have 2MBPS internet connection. How will you download a 700MB
movie on 2MBPS internet connection?
ANSWER:
In this case segmentation process is used.
On server, transport layer breaks 700MB movie in smaller size of segments (less
than your internet connection speed). Assume that 700Mb movie is divided in 700
segments. Each segment has file size of 1Mb that your PC can easily download at
current connection speed. Now your PC will download 700 small files instead of one
large file. So next time when you see download progress bar in browser, think it
about segment receiver progress bar. Once your browser receives all segments from
server, it will pop up a message indicating download is completed. Transport layer
at your PC will merge all segments back in a single 700Mb movie file. End user will
never know how a 700Mb movie makes its way through the 2Mbps connection line.
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Ready/not ready signals
Windowing
Suppose server has a single IP address, how will it perform all these different
functions for all the hosts that want to connect with it?
ANSWER:
To make this possible transport layer assigns a unique set of numbers for each
connection. These numbers are called port or socket numbers. These port numbers
allow multiple applications to send and receive data simultaneously.
Port numbers are divided into following ranges by the IANA
0–1023 [Well-Known]—For common TCP/IP functions and applications
1024–49151[Registered]—For applications built by companies
49152–65535 [Dynamic/Private]—For dynamic connections or unregistered
applications
TCP UDP
FTP – 20,21 DNS-53
Telnet-23 DHCP-67,68
SMTP-25 TFTP-69
DNS-53 NTP-123
HTTP-80 SNMP-161
POP-110
HTTPS-443
Tasks:
Data Translation/ Formatting
Compression/Decompression
Encryption/Decryption
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) — Used to control the connected networking
devices.
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) — Used to transfer the files rapidly.
DNS (Domain Naming System) — Used to translate the name with IP address and vice
versa.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) — Used to assign IP address and DNS
information automatically to hosts.
Telnet— used to connect remote devices.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) — Used to browse web pages.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) — Used to reliably sends/retrieves files.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) — Used to sends email.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol v.3) — Used to retrieves email.
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
NTP (Network Time Protocol) — Used to synchronizes clocks.
Data Exchange Process
On sending computer
Sending application access the application layer.
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Application provides data to the presentation layer.
Presentation layer format the data as per network requirement and forward it's to
session layer.
Session layer initiate the connection and forward the data to the transport layer.
Transport layer broke down the large data file in smaller segments and add a
header with control information, which are bits designated to describe how to
determine whether the data is complete, uncorrupted, in the correct sequence, and so
forth.
Segments are forwarded to the network layer. Network layer add its header, with
logical address and convert it in packet. Network layer forwards packet to data link
layer.
Data link layer attach its header and footer to the packet and convert it in frame.
Frames are forwarded to the physical layers that convert them in signals. These
signals are loaded in media.
OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting as a TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around which the
communication gateway between the network and end user. Internet has developed. It is a communication protocol, which
allows connection of hosts over a network.
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In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the delivery of In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not guarantees
packets. delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model is more reliable.
OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and Session layer. TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or Session
layer.
OSI is a reference model around which the networks are built. TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI model.
Generally it is used as a guidance tool.
Transport layer of OSI model provides both connection oriented The Transport layer in TCP/IP model provides connectionless
and connectionless service. service.
OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols into the model. TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily replaced as In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
the technology changes.
OSI model defines services, interfaces and protocols very clearly In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not clearly
and makes clear distinction between them. It is protocol separated. It is also protocol dependent.
independent.
Networking Devices
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Dr. H.
A bridge does notSanthi,
changeAssociate Professor,
the physical SCOPE
(MAC) addresses in a frame.
How Bridges Work
• Bridges work at the Media Access Control Sub-layer of
93 the OSI model
• Routing table is built to record the segment no. of
address
• If destination address is in the same segment as the
source address, stop transmit
• Otherwise, forward to the other segment
•
Bridges
Advantages of using a bridge
– Extend physical network
– Reduce network traffic with minor segmentation
– Creates separate collision domains
– Reduce collisions
– Connect different architecture
• Disadvantages of using bridges
– Slower that repeaters due to filtering
– Do not filter broadcasts
– More expensive than repeaters
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Two and Three layer switches
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(host-to-host addressing)
• A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the
Internet and has a routing table that is used for
making decision about the route.
• The routing tables are normally dynamic and are
updated using routing protocols.
Routers connecting
independent LANs and
WANs
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Advantages and Disadvantages of
• Routers
Advantages
–100Routers
provide sophisticated routing, flow control, and traffic
isolation
are configurable, which allows network manager to
make policy based on routing decisions
allow active loops so that redundant paths are available
• Disadvantages
– Routers
– are protocol-dependent devices that must understand
the protocol they are forwarding.
– can require a considerable amount of initial
configuration.
– are relatively complex devices, and generally are more
expensive than bridges.
Dr. H. Santhi, Associate Professor, SCOPE
Routers versus Bridges
• Addressing
101 – Routers are explicitly addressed.