Post-­‐Classical

 Indian  Empire  Economy  

 
During  the  Gupta  period  agriculture  formed  a  significant  part  of  the  empire’s  economy.  However,  the  
trade  and  commerce  activities  of  the  Gupta  Empire  grew  steadily.  The  merchant  and  other  traders  were  
organized  into  guilds.  These  guilds  were  given  concessions  in  the  taxes  that  were  liable  to  be  paid  to  the  
government.    
 
The  guilds  played  a  chief  role  in  the  goods  industry  and  also  helped  to  further  strengthen  the  economic  
condition  of  the  empire.  The  guilds  had  regulated  their  own  laws  and  all  the  member  merchants  were  
expected  to  abide  by  these  laws.  
 
At  the  time  of  the  Gupta  dynasty  rule  kings  gave  land  grants  to  the  Buddhist  church.  The  church  or  the  
sangha  took  up  the  role  of  a  banker  and  provided  monetary  support  on  interest  to  those  in  need.  During  
this  period,  borrowing  money  was  less  expensive  as  compared  to  the  Mauryan  Empire.  There  was  no  
fixed  rate  of  interest  since  there  was  none  prescribed  by  the  government.    
 
However,  the  rate  of  interest  could  be  more  than  the  existing  one  only  when  it  was  so  agreed  by  both  the  
parties  involved.  The  easy  accessibility  of  money  to  those  in  need  and  that  to  at  a  reasonable  rate  was  a  
positive  factor  which  helped  the  economy  of  the  Gupta  Empire  to  progress.  
 
There  was  industrial  development  during  the  Gupta  period.  The  textile  industry  was  an  essential  industry  
of  this  empire.  Some  of  the  major  items  of  produce  included  silk,  muslin,  calico,  linen,  wool  and  cotton.  
These  goods  were  also  exported.    
 
There  were  other  flourishing  industries  of  the  Gupta  empire  like  ivory  work,  stone  cutting  and  carving  of  
stones  like  jasper,  agate,  quartz,  carnelian,  lapis-­‐  lazuli,  etc;  metal  work  of  precious  metals  like  gold,  
silver,  copper,  iron,  bronze,  lead,  etc.  Pearl  industry  was  also  very  popular.  However,  the  most  important  
industry  was  pottery.  
 
Trading  activities  within  the  empire  were  carried  out  very  smoothly  and  efficiently.  Animals  were  used  
for  transporting  goods  from  one  place  to  another.  Goods  were  also  transported  via  sea-­‐  route  with  the  
help  of  ships.  The  Gupta  rulers  issued  large  number  of  gold  coins.  These  gold  coins  were  known  as  dinars.    
 
After  the  Saka-­‐  Kshatrapa  kingdom  of  Gujarat  was  invaded,  the  Gupta  rulers  also  issued  silver  coins.  
During  the  reign  of  the  Gupta  dynasty,  lead  and  rare  copper  coins  were  also  issued.  Gupta  Empire  carried  
out  trade  with  China,  Ceylon  and  other  European  countries.    
 
After  around  550  AD,  trading  activities  with  the  Roman  Empire  were  relaxed.  The  Guptas  imported  
Chinese  silk  and  ivory  from  East  Africa.  During  this  time,  South-­‐  East  Asia  became  a  trade  centre  for  the  
Gupta  Empire.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Post-­‐Classical  Indian  Empire  Politics  
 
The  Gupta  period  marked  an  important  phase  in  the  history  of  ancient  India.  The  long  and  efficient  rule  of  
the  Guptas  had  a  huge  impact  on  the  political,  social  as  well  as  cultural  spheres.  In  spite  of  the  Gupta  
Empire  not  being  as  widespread  as  the  Mauryan  Empire,  yet  the  Gupta  dynasty  was  successful  in  creating  
an  empire  which  is  significant  in  the  history  of  India.    It  is  purely  due  to  the  significance  of  the  Gupta  
Empire  that  this  period  was  also  popularly  known  as  the  Golden  Age  of  India.  The  lifestyle  and  culture  of  
the  Gupta  dynasty  can  be  inferred  through  the  availability  of  various  ancient  coins,  scriptures,  
inscriptions,  texts,  etc.  belonging  to  that  era.    
 
Apart  from  the  several  similarities  which  the  Gupta  Empire  shared  with  the  Mauryan  Government,  one  
was  the  setup  of  government  though  it  a  whole  distinct  style  of  government.  Like  the  Mauryan  system  the  
Gupta  kings  were  at  the  epicenter  of  the  entire  administration.  The  empire  was  divided  into  several  
provinces  each  of  which  had  viceroys  who  were  appointed  from  amongst  the  members  of  the  royal  
family.  These  Viceroys  undertook  the  task  of  carrying  out  the  administration  for  the  province  allotted  to  
them.  The  provinces  were  further  sub-­‐divided  into  a  series  of  districts.    
 
Each  district  had  its  own  separate  administrative  centers.  The  local  administration  of  the  district  was  at  
liberty  to  take  decisions  on  governing  the  area,  essentially  free  from  central  control,  except  in  matters  
which  may  have  dealt  with  central  policies.  The  highest  officer  in  a  district  was  known  as  the  
‘kumaramatya’  and  he  acted  as  the  link  between  the  centre  and  the  district.  Contrary  to  their  Mauryan  
counterparts,  the  Gupta  kings  were  not  concerned  with  every  nuance  of  local  administration  thereby  
leaving  such  matters  to  the  discretion  of  the  kumaramatya.  An  efficient  central  government  allowed  trade  
to  prosper  and  provided  a  stable  background  for  advances  in  learning  and  the  arts.  
 
Villages  were  organized  under  rural  bodies  which  consisted  of  the  headman  and  village  elders.  The  most  
respected  people  of  the  village  served  on  the  council.  In  the  cities  there  was  a  council  which  consisted  of  
several  officers  like  the  President  of  the  City  Corporation,  the  chief  representative  of  the  guild  of  
merchants,  a  representative  of  the  artisans  along  with  the  chief  scribe.    The  Gupta  system  of  urban  and  
rural  administration  was  based  on  encouraging  local  participation  unlike  the  Mauryan  system  where  
administration  came  to  be  carried  out  by  the  royally  appointed  councils  were  the  norm.  Initially,  women  
were  allowed  to  serve  on  councils.    
 
However,  eventually,  Hindu  law  placed  greater  restrictions  on  women  thus  excluding  them  from  any  kind  
of  such  participation.  Additionally,  the  Gupta  rulers  also  gave  power  to  local  leaders.  These  local  leaders  
were  elected  by  merchants  and  artisans.  In  each  village,  a  headman  and  councils  made  decisions  for  the  
village.  The  Gupta  Empire's  government  had  a  system  that  work  to  keep  order.  A  significant  change  which  
took  place  during  the  Gupta  regime  was  the  increasing  trend  of  paying  salaries  in  land  grants  instead  of  
paying  cash.  Land  grants  usually  gave  the  beneficiary  hereditary  rights  over  the  land,  although  it  was  
generally  the  king  who  retained  the  right  to  repossess  the  land  if  he  was  unhappy  with  the  conduct  of  the  
beneficiary.  Brahmins  were  usually  granted  tax  free  lands  which  were  another  concession  to  an  already  
existing  privileged  class.  Land  grants  undermined  the  authority  of  the  king  as  more  and  more  land  came  
to  be  taken  away  from  his  direct  control.  Also  since  the  beneficiaries  of  land  grants  were  usually  
Brahmins  or  government  officials  the  king  was  not  really  able  to  exercise  the  repossession  option  with  
the  apprehension  of  a  political  backlash.    
 
The  government  revenue  essentially  came  from  land  as  commercial  activity  was  no  longer  as  big  a  
contributor  as  it  once  was.  Land  revenue  came  from  a  variety  of  sources,  like  direct  tax  on  the  land  as  
well  as  a  tax  on  the  cultivated  produce  of  the  land.  
 
 
 Post-­‐Classical  India  Intellect  
 
It  is  not  for  nothing  that  the  Gupta  regime  been  referred  to  as  the  ‘Golden  period  in  the  history  of  ancient  
India.’  A  careful  look  at  all  the  achievements  of  this  period,  it  is  amply  clear  the  reason  for  such  an  
attribution.  From  architecture  to  astronomy,  infinite  landmark  achievements  have  taken  place  during  the  
Gupta  rule.  During  the  Gupta  regime,  education  included  grammar,  composition,  logic,  metaphysics,  
mathematics,  medicine,  and  astronomy  which  became  highly  specialized  and  reached  an  advanced  level.    
 
Architecture  -­‐  Gupta  architecture  marked  the  epoch  in  the  creation  of  a  number  of  stone  temples  
dedicated  to  the  various  Hindu  gods.  Additionally,  Buddhists  also  built  shrines  to  house  the  remains  of  
select  holy  people.  These  structures  were  called  ‘Stupas.’  This  form  of  architecture  made  its  way  to  China  
where  it  was  altered  slightly  and  renamed  the  ‘pagoda.’    
 
Arithmetic  -­‐  Beginning  with  arithmetic,  the  Indian  numeral  system  which  is  many  times  wrongly  
contributes  to  the  Arabs,  who  took  it  from  India  to  Europe  where  it  replaced  the  Roman  system  along  
with  the  decimal  system  which  are  in  fact  pure  Indian  inventions  of  this  period.  This  is  the  number  
writing  system  used  throughout  the  world  today.    
 
Further,  Scholars  of  this  period  include  Varahamihira  and  Aryabhata,  who  is  believed  to  be  the  first  to  
come  up  with  the  concept  of  zero  and  also  developed  the  decimal  system  based  on  the  number  10.  They  
also  created  a  number  writing  system  that  was  later  adopted  by  the  Islamic  Empire.    
 
Astronomy  -­‐  In  the  field  of  Astronomy  also,  it  was  scholars  like  Varahamihira  and  Aryabhata  who  
believed  that  the  Earth  revolved  around  the  Moon.  They  also  made  a  detailed  study  about  solar  and  lunar  
eclipses.  Aryabhata,  a  noted  mathematician-­‐astronomer  of  the  Gupta  period  proposed  that  the  earth  is  
not  flat,  but  is  instead  round  and  rotates  about  its  own  axis.    
 
Medicine  -­‐  In  medicine,  Gupta  physicians  developed  herbal  remedies  to  treat  various  illnesses.  They  also  
developed  a  form  of  plastic  surgery  for  the  treatment  of  facial  injuries.  Physicians  vaccinated  against  
smallpox,  a  practice  later  used  in  China  around  the10th  century  and  in  Europe  in  the  17th  century.    
 
Charaka  and  Sushruta  wrote  about  a  fully  evolved  system,  which  resembled  the  works  e  of  Hippocrates  
and  Galen  in  Greece.  Although  progress  in  physiology  and  biology  was  hindered  by  various  religious  
injunctions  as  according  to  various  beliefs  contact  with  dead  bodies  was  highly  discourages  due  to  which  
scientific  dissection  and  anatomy  could  not  be  practiced.    
 
In  spite  of  all  this,  Indian  physicians  excelled  in  pharmacopoeia,  caesarean  section,  bone  setting,  and  skin  
grafting.  Doctors  also  invented  several  medical  instruments,  and  even  performed  operations.    
 
Arts  and  Literature  -­‐  Kalidasa,  who  was  a  great  playwright,  and  who  wrote  several  plays  such  as  
Shakuntala,  which  is  said  to  have  inspired  Goethe,  and  also  marked  the  highest  point  of  Sanskrit  
literature  is  also  said  to  have  belonged  to  this  period.    
 
These  stories  spread  widely  west  to  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Greece,  and  became  the  basis  for  many  Islamic  
literary  works  such  as,  Ali  Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves  and  Aladdin  and  his  Magic  Lamp.  The  ancient  
Gupta  text  Kama  Sutra  is  widely  considered  to  be  the  standard  work  on  human  sexual  behavior  in  
Sanskrit  literature  written  by  the  Indian  scholar  Vatsyayana.    
 
Games  –  The  game  of  Chess  is  also  believed  to  have  been  originated  in  this  period,  where  its  early  form  in  
the  6th  century  was  known  as  caturanga,  meaning  the  "four  divisions  [of  the  military]"    
 
 Post-­‐Classical  India  Military  
 
The Gupta Empire was established around 320 CE and lasted until 550 CE. The Gupta
period is known as the Golden Age as it was during their rule that there was political
unity and harmony, there was peace and prosperity in the kingdom.

During the Gupta kingdom rule, the chariots had been substituted by mounted cavalry.
They continued using mounted cavalry despite the fact that their opponents like the
Scythians, Parthian and Hunas were using horse archers. The Gupta rulers maintained a
standing army and the use of cavalry and horse archery was given importance.

During the Gupta period, the territories on the border of the empire were kept under
watchful eyes. The Gupta rulers largely depended on infantry archers. The bow was one
of the primary weapons in the Gupta army. The longbow used by the Gupta army was
made either from metal or bamboo. The longbow was considered to be a potent weapon
and was capable of cutting through the thick armor worn by the soldiers.

The longbow also provided a long range to counter the enemy. It also had a good
resistant quality and they were designed in such a manner that they would be less
exposed to damaging in the damp and moist conditions. Thus, the shell- life of these
weapons was very long.

The use of fire arrows during that period is also known. The Gupta army used iron shafts
against armored elephants. Like the longbow, steel bow was also considered to be
capable of long range and cutting through the thick armor. However, the steel bows
were rare and were only used by the noblemen. Some of the steel weapons used by the
Gupta army were broadswords, axes and the khanda.

The usage of breast plate and helmet was common. The archers generally provided
protection by infantry equipped with shields, javelins and long swords. The Gupta army
was aware of sophisticated war machines like siege craft, catapults and other weapons.
The coastal areas were guarded by the navy. The Gupta Empire was however defeated
by the Hunas. This defeat marked the end of the Gupta Empire.
 Post Classical Indian Empires Social Issues

Still, traditional societies in Southeast Asia had some clearly hierarchical characteristics. At the top of the social
ladder were the hereditary aristocrats, who monopolized both political power and economic wealth and enjoyed
a borrowed aura of charisma by virtue of their proximity to the ruler. Most aristocrats lived in the major cities,
which were the main source of power, wealth, and foreign influence. Beyond the major cities lived the mass of
the population, composed of farmers, fishers, artisans, and merchants. In most Southeast Asian societies, the
vast majority were probably rice farmers, living at a bare level of subsistence and paying heavy rents or taxes to
a landlord or a local ruler.

The average Southeast Asian peasant was not actively engaged in commerce except as a consumer of various
necessities. But accounts by foreign visitors indicate that in the Malay world, some were involved in growing or
mining products for export, such as tropical food products, precious woods, tin, and precious gems. Most of the
regional trade was carried on by local merchants, who purchased products from local growers and then
transported them to the major port cities. During the early state-building era, roads were few and relatively
primitive, so most of the trade was transported by small boats down rivers to the major ports along the coast.
There the goods were loaded onto larger ships for delivery outside the region. Growers of export goods in areas
near the coast were thus indirectly involved in the regional trade network but received few economic benefits
from the relationship.

As we might expect from an area of such ethnic and cultural diversity, social structures differed significantly
from country to country. In the Indianized states on the mainland, the tradition of a hereditary tribal aristocracy
was probably accentuated by the Hindu practice of dividing the population into separate classes, called varna in
imitation of the Indian model. In Angkor and Pagan, for example, the divisions were based on occupation or
ethnic background. Some people were considered free subjects of the king, although there may have been legal
restrictions against changing occupations. Others, however, may have been indentured to an employer. Each
community was under a chieftain, who was in turn subordinated to a higher official responsible for passing on
the tax revenues of each group to the central government.

In the kingdoms in the Malay peninsula and the Indonesian archipelago, social relations were generally less
formal. Most of the people in the region, whether farmers, fishers, or artisans, lived in small kampongs (Malay
for “villages”) in wooden houses built on stilts to avoid flooding during the monsoon season. Some of the
farmers were probably sharecroppers who paid a part of their harvest to a landlord, who was often a member of
the aristocracy. But in other areas, the tradition of free farming was strong. In some cases, some of the poorer
land belonged to the village as a collective unit and was assigned for use by the neediest families.

Women and the Family The women of Southeast Asia during this era have been described as the most fortunate
in the world. Although most women worked side by side with men in the fields, as in Africa they often played
an active role in trading activities. Not only did this lead to a higher literacy rate among women than among
their male counterparts, but it also allowed them more financial freedom.
 Post Classical India Religion

The Chinese pilgrims who traveled to India during the Gupta era found a Buddhism that had changed in a num-
ber of ways in the centuries since the time of Siddhartha Gautama. They also found a doctrine that was
beginning to decline in popularity in the face of the rise of Hinduism. The transformation in Buddhism had
come about in part because the earliest written sources were transcribed two centuries after Siddhartha’s death
and in part because his message was reinterpreted as it became part of the everyday life of the people. Abstract
concepts of a Nirvana that cannot be described began to be replaced, at least in the popular mind, with more
concrete visions of heavenly salvation, and Siddhartha was increasingly regarded as a divinity rather than as a
sage. The Buddha’s teachings that all four classes were equal gave way to the familiar Brahmanic conviction
that some people, by reason of previous reincarnations, were closer to Nirvana than others. Why was Buddhism
unable to retain its popularity in its native India, although it became a major force else- where in Asia? Some
have speculated that in denying the existence of the soul, Buddhism ran counter to traditional Hindu belief.
Perhaps, too, one of Buddhism’s strengths was also a weakness. In rejecting the class di- visions that defined
the Indian way of life, Buddhism appealed to those very groups who lacked an accepted place in Hindu society,
such as the untouchables. But at the same time, it represented a threat to those with a higher status. Moreover,
by emphasizing the responsibility of each person to seek an individual path to Nirvana, Buddhism undermined
the strong social bonds of the Indian caste system.

Islam first reached India through the Arabs in the eighth century, but a second onslaught in the tenth and
eleventh centuries by Turkic-speaking converts had a more lasting effect. Although Arab merchants had been
active along the Indian coasts for centuries, Arab armies did not reach India until the early eighth century. When
Indian pirates attacked Arab shipping near the delta of the Indus River, the Muslim ruler in Iraq demanded an
apology from the ruler of Sind, a Hindu state in the Indus valley. When the latter refused, Muslim forces
conquered lower Sind in 711 and then moved northward into the Punjab, bringing Arab rule into the frontier
regions of the subcontinent for the first time.

Like their counterparts in other areas that came under Islamic rule, many Muslim rulers in India were relatively
tolerant of other faiths and used peaceful means, if any, to encourage nonbelievers to convert to Islam. Even the
more enlightened, however, could be fierce when their religious zeal was aroused. One ruler, on being informed
that a Hindu fair had been held near Delhi, ordered the promoters of the event put to death. Hindu temples were
razed, and mosques were erected in their place. Eventually, however, most Muslim rulers realized that not all
Hindus could be converted and recognized the necessity of accepting what to them was an alien and repugnant
religion. While Hindu religious practices were generally tolerated, non-Muslims were compelled to pay a tax to
the state. Some Hindus likely converted to Islam to avoid paying the tax, but they were then expected to make
the traditional charitable contribution required of Muslims in all Islamic societies. Over time, millions of
Hindus did turn to the Muslim faith. Some were individuals or groups in the employ of the Muslim ruling class,
such as government officials, artisans, or merchants catering to the needs of the court. But many others were
probably peasants from the sudra class or even untouchables who found in the egalitarian message of Islam a
way of removing the stigma of low- class status in the Hindu social hierarchy.

Seldom have two major religions been so strikingly different. Where Hinduism tolerated a belief in the
existence of several deities (although admittedly they were all considered by some to be manifestations of one
supreme god), Islam was uncompromisingly monotheistic. Where Hinduism was hierarchical, Islam was
egalitarian. Where Hinduism featured a priestly class to serve as an intermediary with the ultimate force of the
universe, Islam permitted no one to come between believers and their god. Overall, the Muslims continued to
view themselves as foreign conquerors and generally maintained a strict separation between the Muslim ruling
class and the mass of the Hindu population. Although a few Hindus rose to important positions in the local
bureaucracy, most high posts in the central government and the provinces were reserved for Muslims.