Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 18, No. 6, 2019

Vol.18, No.
6, 2019
ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
The International Journal of the Scientia Socialis Ltd., & SMC “Scientia Educologica”
Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 18, No. 6, 2019
Editorial Board
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/
Editor-in-Chief ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Miia Rannikmäe University of Tartu, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Boris Aberšek University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof., Dr. Agnaldo Arroio University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Paolo Bussotti University of Udine, Italy
Prof., Dr. Bulent Cavas Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Prof., Dr. Salih Cepni Uludag University, Turkey
Prof., Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Dr. André du Plessis Nelson Mandela University, South Africa
Prof., Dr. Jack Holbrook University of Tartu, Estonia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Milan Kubiatko Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
Dr. Todar Lakhvich Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Jari Lavonen University of Helsinki, Finland
Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Vilnius University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Prof., Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Jongwon Park Chonnam National University, Korea
Prof., Dr. Raffaele Pisano University of Lille, France
Prof., Dr. Pavol Prokop Comenius University in Bratislava, Slovakia
Prof., Dr. Konstantinos Ravanis University of Patras, Greece
Dr. Alona Rauckienė-Michaelsson Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Dr. Dušica Rodić University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Hae-Ae Seo Pusan National University, Korea
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Science and Medical Education Research Center, Turkey
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the Scientia Socialis Ltd., in cooperation with SMC Scientia Educologica, Lithuania,
emphasizes theoretical, experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international
academic journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all contributions received are
submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The decision of the Editor on
the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered into on reasons for rejection of a submitted
contribution.
Published since 2002 Address:

The journal is published bimonthly. Scientia Socialis, Ltd.
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© Scientia Socialis Ltd., Lithuania, 2019
ISSN 1648–3898 (Print)
ISSN 2538–7138 (Online)
The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in Copernicus Index, EBSCO:
810 Academic Search Premier, Web of Science Core Collection (Social Sciences Citation Index ),
SCOPUS, ProQuest, Road, Crossref, and DOI.
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/ CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Editorial
THE CALCULATIONS OF AREAS AND VOLUMES USING THE METHOD OF ARCHIMEDES:

SOME DIDACTIC CONSIDERATIONS
Paolo Bussotti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
Articles
EXAMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SIMULATION-BASED LESSONS IN IMPROVING THE

TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL PHYSICS: GHANAIAN PRE SERVICE TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES
Elizabeth Darko Agyei, Thuthukile Jita, Loyiso C. Jita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN AND PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ KNOWLEDGE OF IBERIAN NATIVE

AND AFRICAN SAVANNAH MAMMALS
António Almeida, Beatriz García Fernández, Orlando Stretch-Ribeiro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
IDENTIFYING BARRIERS WHEN TEACHING SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS IN LOW ECONOMY

REGIONS: SWANSEA AND HAKKARI AS CASE STUDIES
Mukadder Baran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN RENEWABLE ENERGY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE:

A STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL WITH FUTURE’S EDUCATORS
Murat Genç, Mustafa Akilli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
EXAMINATION OF STUDENTS’ ENGAGEMENT WITH R-SPQ-2F OF LEARNING APPROACH IN

FLIPPED SUSTAINABLE SCIENCE COURSE
Jin Su Jeong, David González-Gómez, M. Carmen Conde-Núñez, Alejandrina Gallego-Picó . . . . . . . . 880
STUDENTS’ AND TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF SCIENTIFIC MODELS: TRANSITION FROM DAILY

TO SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE
Show-Run Lee, Yu-Ling Lu, Chi-Jui Lien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
THE IMPACTS OF A MARINE SCIENCE BOARD GAME ON MOTIVATION, INTEREST, AND

ACHIEVEMENT IN MARINE SCIENCE LEARNING
Yen-Ling Lin, Shu Wen Huang, Cheng-Chieh Chang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE RELATED TO RENEWABLE

ENERGY AND SOME OF ITS INFLUENCING FACTORS
Ibolya Markóczi Revák, Erzsébet Jász, Enikő Kovács, Károly Teperics, Judit Ütő Visi, János Máth . . . . . . 924
AN ANALYSIS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ABILITIES TO READ REALISTIC,

CONVENTIONAL, AND HYBRID IMAGES IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY
Tamara N. Rončević, Željka Đ. Ćuk, Dušica D. Rodić, Mirjana D. Segedinac, Saša A. Horvat . . . . . . . . . 943
DEVELOPMENT OF ESTONIAN UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ BIOLOGICAL

CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING AND COMPETENCES
Helin Semilarski, Anne Laius, Miia Rannikmäe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955
REGIONAL EDUCATIONAL EQUITY: A SURVEY ON THE ABILITY TO DESIGN SCIENTIFIC

EXPERIMENTS OF SIXTH-GRADE STUDENTS
Yang Xiantong, Zhang Mengmeng, Song Xin, Hou Lan, Wang Qiang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987

811
THE CALCULATIONS OF AREAS AND VOLUMES USING THE METHOD OF

ARCHIMEDES: SOME DIDACTIC CONSIDERATIONS
Paolo Bussotti
University of Udine, Italy
An interdisciplinary approach to education is nowadays considered an important aspect to improve the

critical skills of the learners so that they can guess how several aspects of the human knowledge are interconnected.
A key aspect of interdisciplinary education is represented by the use of the history of a certain subject within the
teaching of the subject itself. This is particularly conspicuous in science education. For, the appropriate and not
superficial introduction of historical elements within science education allows the pupils to discover the human
aspects of science, the problems behind the creation and development of many concepts, which are often presented
only in a formal manner. As a matter of fact, after having grasped that some problems are difficult and after having
understood and appreciated the efforts that in the course of history the scientists have carried out to solve such
problems, the learners will accept the necessity of a formalization and will not consider such a formalization as
a sort of abstract doctrine imposed by the teachers for unspecified reasons. Furthermore, history of science has
profound relations with history, mathematics, science, philosophy, physique and technique, so that it is a typical
interdisciplinary subject which can be exploited in an educative context.
The considerations which follow concern the calculations of areas and volumes of curvilinear and mixtilinear
figures. At a first glance, one might think that the problem is connected only to mathematics, to its history and its
education, but, in fact, this is not the case, because it encompasses the whole of exact sciences education insofar
as it is related to the concept of integral, which is one the mathematical basic notions used in physics and in all the
mathematized sections of other sciences.
In general integral calculus is taught at the last but one or the last year of scientific or technical gymnasia/
high schools. In most cases the concept of definite integral is introduced in the form of Riemann integral or Cauchy
integral. In both cases an enough heavy formal apparatus is necessary. Obviously the relation between the concept
of definite integral and the calculations of plane areas is explained and the fundamental theorem of integral calculus
is proved. The whole of this approach is correct, but is there a more intuitive way which allows the learners to
understand why the resort to a formal apparatus is appropriate and which, at the same time, make them guess the
background of problems which induced the mathematicians to work on the precise definition of the concept of
integral? This way exists and it passes through history of mathematics.
The first and fundamental phase of our proposed itinerary which connects mathematics and science
education with mathematics and science history takes place in Siracusa, the Sicilian city where in the third century
B.C. the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest ever worked: Archimedes.
Euclid, some decades before Archimedes, had written his Elements, the fundamental text of Greek geometry,
where, in part collecting a series of knowledge already existing in Greek mathematics, in part adding his new results,
had offered an impressive picture of Greek geometry. The width of the subject dealt with by Euclid as well as his
rigorous approach made the Elements an unavoidable reference point for all the mathematicians active after Euclid.
The problem of the areas of rectilinear flat figures is faced in the first and, after the introduction of the concept of
proportion (fifth book), in the sixth book of the Elements. Euclid is, in substance, able to solve the problem reducing
the calculation of rectilinear flat areas to the calculation of the areas of triangles. However, with regard to curvilinear
areas and volumes, things are by far more difficult. All the results obtained by Euclid are referred to in the 12th book:
in proposition 2, Euclid proved that the circles are as the squares of their diameters; in proposition 10 that the
volume of a cone is equal to 1/3 of that of a cylinder having its same base and height; in proposition 11 that cones
and cylinders having the same heights are as the bases; in proposition 12 that similar cones and cylinders are as the
cubes of their bases’ diameters; finally, in proposition 18 that the volume of a sphere is proportional to the cube of its
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diameter. In all the proofs of these propositions Euclid used a particular demonstrative method, of which probably
Eudoxus was the inventor: the method of exhaustion.
The first question to pose from a conceptual and didactical standpoint is the following: can the exhaustion
method be considered a key to calculate the areas and the volumes of curvilinear and mixtilinear figures? The answer
to this question cannot be found in Euclid, but in Archimedes because he extended the exhaustion method by far
beyond the limits within which it was used by Euclid. We will see that the logical and conceptual nuances of this
method are in themselves an amazingly interesting subject for science and mathematics education if it is true that
mathematics is not only the learning of a series of techniques and results, but also a training to refine our mind, logic
and reasoning capabilities. The impressive results obtained by Archimedes through exhaustion are summarised in
this table:
Work Main results through exhaustion
Measurement of a Circle Area of a circle

On the Sphere and the Cylinder (two books) 1. Lateral surface of a right cylinder (I, 13).
2. Lateral surface of an isosceles cone (I, 14).
3. Surface of a sphere (I, 33).
4. Volume of a sphere (I,34).
5. Surface of spherical segments (I, 42, 43).
6. Volume of a spherical sector (I, 44).
The Quadrature of the Parabola 1. Area of a parabolic segment (16, first proof).
2. Area of a parabolic segment (24, second proof).
On Conoids and Spheroids 1. Area of the ellipsis (4).
2. Volume of the paraboloid of revolution (21, 22).
3. Volume of the hyperboloid of revolution (25,26).
4. Volume of the ellipsoid of revolution (27,28).
On Spirals 1. Circumference of the “first circle” of the spiral (18).
2. Circumference of the “second circle” of the spiral (19).
3. Perimeter of arches of circles of the spiral (20).
4. Surface of the spiral described in the first and second rotation (24 and 25 resp).
5. Surface of an arch of spiral (26).
To develop our discussion, I will explain the easiest application of exhaustion method developed by Archi-
medes: the calculation of the circle’s area. Archimedes claimed:
Any circle ABCD is equal to the right triangle E of which the radius is a small side and the circumference is the
other small side.
Figure 1. The diagram used by Archimedes to find the area of the circle.
Proof: suppose that the area of ABCD is bigger than E. It is possible to inscribe the square AC within the circle
ABCD. Bisect the four arches of circumference so obtained (in Figure 1 the divisions points are indicated by F, M, G,
H). Eight circular segments congruent with that having the chord AM as a basis are obtained. If the sum of the eight
circular segments has a surface less than the value of which the area of the circle exceeds that triangle’s, the surface
Ω of the octagon FAMDGCHB is bigger than the surface of the triangle E. For, let us indicate the area of the eight
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circular segments with S. In the hypothesis of the theorem, such surface is less than the excess of which the area C of
the circle exceeds the area E of the triangle. Namely S<C-E. However, it is S=C-Ω. Thence, it holds C-Ω<C-E, that is Ω>E.
Now, let us trace the perpendicular NO from the centre N of the circle to the side AF of the octagon. The segment
NO is less than the height of the triangle E, which (hypothesis) is equal to the radius. The perimeter of the octagon is
smaller than the circumference, which is the other small side of E. You conclude that Ω<E. This is in contradiction with
the just obtained result. This absurdity implies that the surface of the circle cannot be bigger than E.
In a similar manner, it is possible to prove that the surface of the circle cannot be smaller than E, so that, it is
equal.
This demonstration induces a series of conceptual questions, which are very formative in an educative
context. Thence, the following didactical considerations can be developed in the classroom after having expounded
Archimedes’ proof:
1. In the previous proof there is a sensible point: Archimedes seems to give for granted that the perimeter of a
polygon inscribed in a circumference is smaller than the circumference. This is intuitive. But the teacher should
explain that intuition is a good guide from a heuristic point of view, but it might be very deluding if one relies only
on intuition. Many mistakes might be possible. Archimedes was an extremely refined logic and he had grasped
the problem. Thence, after having understood that, within the picture offered by Greek geometry, the proof that
the straight line is the shortest path to connect two points was anything but trivial, he posed axiomatically that
the smallest of all the lines having the same extremes is exactly the straight line (On the Sphere and Cylinder).
2. There is a further problem: in the expounded proof, it might happen that the difference between the area of the
circle and that of the regular polygons inscribed within the circumference tends to diminish while the number
of the polygons’ sides increasing, but that it has an asymptotic value different from 0. Archimedes was perfectly
aware of this question and solved it in the first six propositions of On the Sphere and Cylinder. For, he showed that
it is always possible to inscribe in a circumference a series of polygons whose area gets any ratio or difference
with the circle’s area. He also proved the same for the circumscribed polygons. These considerations might be
connected by the teacher to the meaning and the use of the so called “Archimedes axiom”.
3. The following consideration is fundamental in an educative perspective: among the historians of mathematics
there are various ideas with regard to the relation between Archimedes’ exhaustion method and integral calcu-
lus: there are historians who think that Archimedes was very close to discover integral calculus and other who,
instead, think that there are scarce relations between his method and integral calculus, that Archimedes did not
have a uniform method to calculate areas and volumes and that the relations between his exhaustion procedure
and integral calculus are extrinsic, at all. In our context, this problem has only to be faced in a didactical and
methodological perspective, not in a historical one.
Intuitively and not precisely, but to summarize: when the integral of a function of one real variable is calculated,
the surface under the graphic of the function is divided into two series of (potentially) infinitesimal elements
which can be considered rectangular without appreciable mistakes. One series approximates the required area
by excess and the other series by defect. Under appropriate and specifiable conditions, the two series converge
to the same sum, so that the required area under the function converges to the same value, as well. Analogously,
Archimedes finds “infinitely small” elements of areas, whose sum is smaller than a pre-assigned area if the polygons
are inscribed in the circle, case of those inscribed if they are circumscribed (we have analysed only the case of
those inscribed). This is conspicuous in the presented proof and things work in a similar manner for any argument
based on the exhaustion method. Therefore, the sum of infinitely small areas (obviously the locution “infinitely
small” indicates a potential infinity) is a strong element shared by integral calculus and by Archimedes’ method
of exhaustion. Here the fundamental concept of mathematical analysis in involved: the concept of limit. There is
no doubt that it is at the basis of integral calculus. But what to say with regard to Archimedes? It is possible to
claim that he had the idea of a variable magnitude which approximates a given magnitude for a difference which
is less than any pre-assigned magnitude. In this sense, he had the concept of limit. However, this is the first step
towards the concept of limit, the second step consists in the idea that, exactly because the difference (an analogous
reasoning can be made with the ratio) of two magnitudes becomes smaller than any pre-assigned magnitude,
then, at limit, such magnitudes are equal. This idea is clearly expressed by Newton in his method of first and last
ratios. There are not elements to claim if this was Archimedes’ idea, too. On the other hand, independently of
having conceived such idea Archimedes - and the entire Greek mathematics – did not have the algebraic means
to develop the calculations of the limits. For example, in the specific case, how could Archimedes calculate the
limit of the surface of the inscribed regular polygons? How could he be sure that their perimeter tends to the
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circumference and that their apothem tends to the radius? Let us remember that he proved that the difference
between the surface of the circle and that of the inscribed polygons tends to 0, but not that the surface of the
inscribed polygons, when the number of their sides tends to infinity, tends to the triangle E. Archimedes avoided
all these problems by resorting to the described ad absurdum reasoning. Thence: 1) Archimedes had some precise
ideas which will converge to the concept of limit in modern sense; 2) it is uncertain whether he guessed the full
theoretical features of this concept; 3) it is certain that he could not develop a calculation with the limits, given
the restricted knowledge of algebra typical of Greek mathematics.
These considerations are very formative in the perspective of science and mathematics education because they
accustom the learners to reason on the subtle nuances of the mathematical concepts, on their tenuous, but
fundamental differences and on the logic behind any mathematical method.
4. Finally, in several of its applications, the exhaustion method runs like this: there are two figures A and B of which
the identity of their areas or volumes has to be proven. Be known the area or volume of B. Suppose that .
It is possible to prove that an infinite series of other quantities , which are regularly constructible, exists such
that, from a certain index i, it is , being ε an arbitrarily small quantity. Given this premise, the
development of the reasoning concludes that the quantity would be both smaller and bigger than B. This is
an absurdity deriving from the hypothesis that . Thence, this hypothesis has to be removed and A=B. As
a matter of fact, there are different applications of the exhaustion method. The great historian of mathematics
Dijksterhuis (see his Archimedes. Princeton: Princeton university Press, 1987 [original edition 1938], pp. 130-133)
distinguishes two applications: the compression method, divided into two cases: when either a ratio or a differ-
ence of magnitudes is considered and the approximation method. It is not possible enters the details, but it is
possible to point out that the here presented exhaustion method is the approximation variant. In any case it is
not allowed to know a priori how the compressing figures or the approximating figures have to be constructed.
Thence, some historians of mathematics conclude that the exhaustion method is not, in fact, a true method, but
only a procedural idea. This can introduce an interesting discussion to develop in the classroom with regard to
the concept of mathematical method. The teacher should explain that, if by “method” you mean a sort of math-
ematical machine which, given some data in entrance offers the result in exit by mechanical procedures, then
the exhaustion method is not a method, but also the integral method is mechanically applicable only to some
(restricted) well specifiable classes of functions. It is, however, certainly true that the integral method is more
general than the exhaustion one. Furthermore, by an integral you can calculate the area or the volume of a figure
without having any idea a priori with regard to the value of such area or volume. Namely, the integral method is
also a heuristic procedure, whereas you can use the exhaustion method only if you have already an idea of the
result you are going to obtain. Exhaustion is – as any ad absurdum reasoning – a demonstrative procedure, not
a heuristic one. This granted, it is however undisputable that all the proofs by exhaustion share many common
elements and that you know that a series of compressing or approximating figures have to be found, which is a
very precise idea. Therefore, under this respect exhaustion is a method. On the hand, you do not know a priori
what such figures should be. This is the inventive and creative part of the method, the one which is very formative
in the context of mathematics education.
Therefore, the teacher should give the learners the general features of the exhaustion, should invite them
to reflect on how to apply the method to different cases, starting from some easy example arriving to more complex
ones. This will contribute to develop both the creativity and the fantasy of the pupils as well as their logical skills,
which is an amazingly important result for any educative process. After some lessons framed in this manner, the
teacher should explain the limitations to which exhaustion method is subject and should formalise the introduc-
tion of integral method. But now the need of such a formalization will be completely clear for the pupils and will
arrive after a very formative training of which they have been active protagonist and not passive spectators.
Received: October 18, 2019 Accepted: November 30, 2019
Paolo Bussotti PhD, Researcher, University of Udine, via Palladio 8, 33100 Udine, Italy.
E-mail: paolobussotti66@gmail.com
Website: http://www.scienzainrete.it/documenti/autori/paolo-bussotti
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EXAMINING THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF
SIMULATION-BASED LESSONS
ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
IN IMPROVING THE TEACHING
OF HIGH SCHOOL PHYSICS:
GHANAIAN PRE‑SERVICE
TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES
Abstract. Teacher-dominated approach
is still the most adopted teaching strategy
in Ghanaian high schools despite the Gov-
ernment of Ghana’s initiatives to support Elizabeth Darko Agyei,
technology-oriented, learner-centred and Thuthukile Jita,
interactive teaching practices. This study Loyiso C. Jita
examined the effectiveness of simulation-
based lessons in improving the teaching
of high school physics by adapting the
five dimensions for meaningful learning Introduction
with information and communication
technology model by Howland, Jonassen The use of technology in education has become an important issue
and Marra (2012) as a theoretical lens. in the arena of educational research due to its remarkable affordances in
Using an explanatory case study design, the classroom. Technology provides authentic and interactive platforms for
eight pre-service physics teachers from learner-focused teaching and learning process. Literature (McFarlane & Sakel-
the University of Cape Coast, Ghana were lariou, 2002; Fu, 2013) highlight the potential of technology for supporting
engaged to develop and design simulation- and enhancing teaching by facilitating access to the subject matter. In light
based physics lessons in design teams and of this, many developed as well as developing countries have taken steps to
enact these lessons among themselves in initiate information and communication technology (ICT)-oriented education
microteaching sessions. Results showed policies to advocate and emphasise the importance of technology integra-
that the simulation-based lessons were tion into curriculum documents at all school levels (Agyei & Voogt, 2012).
effective in that the pre-service teachers’ The Education Reforms launched in June 2007 by the Government of Ghana,
teaching practices improved to be learner- for example, champion the use of ICT for teaching all subjects (Ministry of
centred and interactive. The results also Education [MOE], 2007). For this reason, the Government of Ghana has since
suggested that although a combination of made provision for the initiation and implementation of the ICT in Education
all the dimensions of meaningful learn- programme, especially at the high school (Upper-Secondary School) level of
ing was key to the effectiveness observed education. This was based on the recommendations of the Ghana Informa-
with each of the simulation-based lessons, tion and Communication Technology for Accelerated Development Policy
the Cooperative dimension was found to (Ghana ICT4AD Policy, 2003) document, and purposed to improve teaching
possess a unique potential for sustaining by means of ICT. In addition, the ICT in Education programme was introduced
the other dimensions in order to facilitate to provide teachers with the needed teaching skills and competencies in the
improvements in the teaching of physics use of ICT for school and classroom work (MOE, 2008).
with simulations. The Government of Ghana has put in place many initiatives to transform
Keywords: high school physics, ICT, the current teaching practices to more learner-centred methods that involve
interactive teaching, pre-service teachers, the creation of a highly interactive teaching and learning environment.
simulation-based lessons. However, it appears that the traditional teacher-centred approach is still the
Elizabeth Darko Agyei most dominant teaching strategy adopted for teaching most of the science
University of Cape Coast, Ghana subjects at the high schools in Ghana (Buabeng & Ntow, 2010; MOE, 2010).
Thuthukile Jita Apparently, most teachers prefer to use the curriculum to engage in a purely
University of the Free State, Republic of
South Africa “chalk and talk” approach in teaching the science content, whereby students
Loyiso C. Jita play the role of passive observers (Agyei & Voogt, 2012, p. 548). Although the
University of the Free State, Republic of Ghanaian physics curriculum for the high school is designed purposely to
South Africa
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TEACHING OF HIGH SCHOOL PHYSICS: GHANAIAN PRE‑SERVICE TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 816-832)
promote learner-centred teaching approach for better learning outcomes, the opposite is practiced in the Ghana-
ian high school physics classroom. That notwithstanding, the main teaching approach being adopted in Ghana to
educate prospective teachers to teach various subjects including the sciences at the high school level is identified as
purely teacher-centred, “where trainees are largely regarded as ‘empty vessels’, with little knowledge or experience
of teaching” (Lewin & Stuart, 2003, p. 171). This seems to be the basis for the non-interactive and teacher-centred
teaching methods being adopted for the teaching of physics at the high schools in Ghana.
The prospect of utilising ICT for enabling improvement in the teaching of physics in Ghana seems encouraging.
Simulations for example, are noted for the creation of authentic classroom platforms which position the teacher as
a facilitator and stimulate learning to occur through student engagement with guidance from the teacher (Wieman,
Adams, Loeblein, & Perkins, 2010). In science classrooms all over the world, computer simulations have been of
interest to researchers for over 20 years, with findings described as highly positive (Bell & Smetana, 2008). According
to literature, simulations are of immense relevance for the development of content knowledge (Bell & Smetana,
2008), development of process skills, and provision of tools that promote scientific inquiry (Dwyer & Lopez, 2001).
The benefits of computer simulations as indicated in the literature reflect the key elements of constructivism and
advocate the type of teaching approach that is best described as a “purposeful-inquiry” (Hofstein & Lunetta, 2003),
where learning ceases to be the sole responsibility of teachers, but rather purposed to be a highly student-oriented
process. In Esquembre’s (2002) view, simulations are the most explored category of instructional software used in
physics education. Benefits of computer simulations in relation to physics teaching include promoting interactivity
in the physics classroom and affording students the space to explore a wide range of topics in physics through its
Multiple Representation feature (Podolefsky, Perkins, & Adams, 2010). These potentials seem to project simulations
as useful and interactive resource for effective teaching of physics. The effectiveness of simulations when used for
teaching and learning purposes is noted to be highly dependent on: the way and manner in which it is used in the
classroom; the design features; support structures put in place; and the alignment of the simulation-based activities
with the intended curriculum (Bell & Smetana, 2008). This suggests that teachers have crucial roles to play in this
respect, as their means of integrating simulations into their teaching practices may vary and, consequently, go a
long way to influence the anticipated learning outcomes. Inevitably, teaching strategies must be carefully chosen
to support meaningful learning of science (physics to be specific) with simulations in order for its potentials as an
ICT tool to be realised effectively. It is against this backdrop that this study examines the effectiveness of simula-
tions use as an interactive ICT tool in improving the teaching of physics in the Ghanaian high school classroom
context. Specifically, Physics Education Technology (PhET) simulations (Finkelstein, Adams, Keller, Perkins, & the
PhET Project Team, 2006) were used as the ICT tool for teaching high school physics.
Theoretical Framework
Meaningful learning is described in different terms as a way of learning that makes learners acquire new
knowledge or to understand new information or concepts based on what they already know and their personal
experiences (Jonassen, Howland, Marra, & Crismond, 2008). By this description, meaningful learning could be said
to echo the ideology of constructivism in that it promotes meaning-making on the part of learners. Literature
(e.g., Jonassen et al., 2008; Howland et al., 2012) highlight five attributes of meaningful learning: Active, Constructive,
Intentional, Authentic and Cooperative. Each of these attributes of meaningful learning were defined in Jonassen
et al. (2008, p. 7) and elucidated as follows:
•• Active is described to mean “manipulative and observant”, whereby learners are engaged actively in an
environment that allows them to manipulate objects and parameters. In addition, learners are privileged
to observe the results of their manipulations accordingly. Furthermore, activity alone cannot ensure
meaningful learning. There should be room for learners to “articulate what they have accomplished and
reflect on their activity and observations”; in other words, learners should be guided to be “constructive”.
This seems to emphasise the relationship that exists between the Active and Constructive attributes
of meaningful learning. The degree of dependency is, however, not emphasised by the researchers in
order to appreciate how the Active attribute/dimension when operationalised influences the Construc-
tive and vice versa. There may be a crucial need for the identification of elements that uniquely define
the two dimensions explicitly.
•• Intentional is defined as being “reflective and regulatory”, with emphasis on achieving a cognitive goal.
This seems to suggest that whatever activity students are engaged in for knowledge construction, it
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should be goal-oriented and should be able to inform the way they think, the decisions they take as
well as the strategies they adopt for achieving the set learning goals.
•• Authentic is articulated on the basis that “we live in a complex world” and that the context in which
ideas are based is crucial for meaning-making. Meaningful learning is therefore, in their view, complex
and contextualised; hence, authentic in nature. This emphasises the importance of helping students
relate ideas to their real-world contexts.
•• Cooperative, in their view, involves collaboration propelled by conversations— providing an atmosphere
where learners could learn from each other in order to appreciate the different ways of seeing the world.
Jonassen and Strobel (2006, p. 3) further highlighted that these attributes of meaningful learning are “interre-
lated, interactive, and interdependent” – that is, they do not exist in isolation for meaningful learning to be achieved;
rather, it is their synergetic (or systemic) effect that bears value for teaching and learning purposes. This seems to
hint that teaching and learning artefacts when considered for meaningful learning with the aid of ICT should be
designed to promote active, constructive, intentional, authentic and cooperative learning. In agreement to this,
Howland et al. (2012) proposed the five dimensions for meaningful learning with ICT (5DML-ICT) model on the
basis that technology is not left out of the meaningful-learning picture. In Howland et al.’s (2012) view, technology
plays an important role in achieving each of the attributes of meaningful learning—positioning ICT as the vehicle
by which meaningful learning is brought to bear in the classroom.
Irrespective of the seemingly positive impact that the 5DML-ICT model has on teaching and learning processes
with ICT, Koh (2013, p. 887) pointed out a number of issues to be resolved in any attempt to operationalise each of
the dimensions/attributes of meaningful learning where ICT is involved. These included the facts that:
1) being active does not necessarily imply being constructive and for that matter, there is a need to give
attention to how ICT defines the Constructive dimension by involving active learning—reiterating
Jonassen, Howland, Moore and Marra’s (2003, p. 7) assertion that “activity is necessary but not suffi-
cient for meaningful learning”. The issue raised in this regard seems to suggest a possible relationship
between the Active and Constructive dimensions of meaningful learning; however, it is not clear what
kind of relationship exists between the two, as indicated earlier. Thus, the need to clearly expatiate on
the extent to which the Active dimension informs the Constructive and vice versa.
2) there should be evidence of how lesson activities developed and designed by teachers are aimed at
involving students in order to help them fill in their learning gaps with ICT and this should be peculiar
to the Intentional dimension.
3) ICT lesson activities should be designed as a means for “personal meaning-making” (Koh, 2013, p. 889)
in the Authentic dimension.
4) the use of divergent tasks, as indicated by Harris, Mishra and Koehler (2009), would best represent the
prospects of the Cooperative dimension (Koh, 2013).
Koh’s (2013) views perhaps provided insights into how teaching and learning materials should be designed
with ICT to facilitate improvement in teaching through the creation of an interactive and learner-centred teaching
and learning environment. This informed the 5DML-ICT application adapted in this study. Specifically, the study
employed and adapted the 5DML-ICT model in line with issues raised by Koh (2013) as a framework for charac-
terising and defining interactive teaching of physics with simulations. By considering the propositions made by
Koh and informed by Koh’s (2013, p. 893) “Rubric for assessing TPACK for meaningful learning with ICT”, this study
adapted a conceptual framework that considers how the idea of ICT as the vehicular tool in instruction informs
the way a teacher teaches in an interactive manner. Interactive teaching was defined in the context of this study
to mean: a teaching method that is learner-centred, with teachers creating various avenues and structures that are
ICT-oriented in ways that stimulate learners to be active, constructive, authentic, intentional and cooperative in
a constructivist teaching and learning environment. Consequently, the following operationalisations were made
and used to measure the effectiveness (i.e., the extent to which the five dimensions were realised in the design
and implementation of the SBPLs) of the simulation-based lessons designed:
•• Active: The use of PhET simulation(s) in lesson activities to engage learners in learning the subject matter.
•• Constructive: The use of PhET simulation(s) in lesson activities to stimulate students to reflect upon the
subject matter and express their ideas and meaning beyond what is presented to them.
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•• Authentic: The use of PhET simulation(s) in lesson activities to connect students’ personal experiences
to the real world.
•• Intentional: The use of PhET simulation(s) in lesson activities to engage students in diagnosis, evalua-
tion, and improvement of the learning gap.
•• Cooperative: The use of PhET simulation(s) in lesson activities to engage students in groupwork for
divergent knowledge expressions.
By these operationalisations, this study sought to address the question: “How effective are simulation-based
lessons in improving the teaching of physics”. Also, informed by these operationalisations, the five dimensions for
meaningful learning were conceptualised as the “dimensions of interactivity” whereas the realisation of interactive
teaching with ICT (simulations) was taken as evidence for improvement in teaching.
Research Methodology
General Background
The research used an explanatory case study design of eight pre-service teachers to gain an in‑depth under-
standing into the extent to which the use of simulation as an interactive ICT tool improves the teaching of physics.
Consequently, the main entity studied (i.e., units of analysis) were the pre-service teachers. The research employed
both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis. This was done to ensure triangulation
of the data. It is important to mention that the quantitative evidence in this regard was not intended for making
statistical generalisations, but rather for arriving at a holistic understanding of the phenomenon being considered
(Yin, 2003). Data were collected over a stretch period of eleven weeks. However, within this time frame, data col-
lection was subjected to the convenient times of the participants.
Participants
Eight pre-service physics teachers participated in the research. Four of them were in their final year of the
science teacher education programme at the University of Cape Coast, with the remaining four in their third year
of the same programme. In selecting the participants, purposive sampling was used, with characteristics such as
accessibility, commitment, and seriousness as the criteria for selection, subjected to the researchers’ experience and
knowledge of the pre-service teacher participants (Kothari, 2004). The average age of the participants was nearly
28 years. The participants had not had any training before on the design and implementation of ICT‑supported
lessons. Thus, an initial training workshop was organised in order to equip them with content-focused as well as
theory-induced ICT-oriented knowledge and skills needed for the effective design, development and implemen-
tation of an ICT (simulation)‑supported lesson. Based on the knowledge and skills acquired through the initial
training workshop, the participants worked in design teams (DTs) of two to design, develop, and implement the
SBPLs (Table 1).
Table 1. Summary of simulation-based lessons developed and implemented by participants.
Design Participant Designated Topic taught Lesson Name of PhET

team (DT) pseudonyms name for SBPL duration environment used
designation
DTA1 Kwesi SBPL_1 Reflection and refrac- 80 minutes Bending Light

Kwame tion of light
DTB1 Kwabena SBPL_2 Structure of the atom 80 minutes Build an Atom
Esi
DTA2 Ansah SBPL_3 Deformation of solids 80 minutes Hooke’s Law
Owusu
DTB2 Darkwah SBPL_4 Frictional force 80 minutes Force and Motion:
Mofe Basics (Friction)
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As shown in Table 1, four lessons were developed and implemented in the study. The table gives an overview
of the lessons developed and implemented. These lessons were enacted in microteaching try-out sessions among
the participants. Thus, the participants who were not teaching acted as learners while the other participant pairs
were teaching.
Ethical Considerations
Participants were contacted for their voluntary participation in the study. In order not to coerce them into
participating, the participants were given in advance an Information Sheet and a Consent Form. This was meant to
provide them with adequate time to decide as to whether to participate in the study or not. The anonymity of the
participants is protected by use of pseudonyms, as indicated in Table 1.
Instruments and Procedures
Both qualitative (i.e., focus group interviews [FGIs], direct observation, and lesson artefacts) and quantitative
(questionnaire) data collection techniques were used. FGIs were used to collect data after each microteaching
try-out session with each of the simulation-based lessons developed by the participants. Four focus group discus-
sion sessions were planned and directed for the participants to reflect on: a) the appropriateness of the designed
lessons for selected topics in physics and b) the extent to which the lessons promoted interactive teaching. Thus,
sample questions of interest for the FGIs were: 1) Were the interventions appropriate for the physics topics selected
for the lesson? and 2) To what extent did the intervention promote interactivity during the lesson? Direct observation
method was also used for data collection, in which process one of the researcher’s logbook was employed to keep
vivid and detailed accounts of the activities and events that occurred during enactment of the simulation-based
lessons. This also served as a strategy for ensuring credibility of the data gathered. In addition to FGIs and the direct
observation, lesson artefacts for all four SBPLs developed by the participants were also used as sources of data.
These comprised lesson plan documents, student activity sheets, and presentation slides, all designed based on
a selected PhET simulation environment.
For the quantitative data collection, the Five-dimension Survey (5dS) questionnaire was used to measure
the extent of interactivity considered by the participants (i.e., learners) in the design and implementation of the
simulation-based lessons. Table 2 presents a sample item for each dimension.
Table 2. Sample items for each dimension from the 5dS questionnaire.
Dimensions of interactivity Sample items
I used almost all the lesson time to explore the simulation environment working with the subject
Active
matter.
The simulation-supported lesson articulated my personal understanding of the physics topic
Constructive
taught.
The simulations helped me to represent my personal experiences of the real-world phenomenon
Authentic
in relation to the subject matter.
I self-diagnosed the learning gaps of the subject matter by using the simulations which helped me
Intentional
to fill in the gaps in my knowledge.
Group activities in the lesson with the simulation environment allowed me to reflect, discuss, and
Cooperative
share ideas about the physics concept with other learners.
The 5dS questionnaire was designed to include items adapted from Koh’s (2013, p. 893) “Rubric for assess-
ing TPACK for meaningful learning with ICT”. The questionnaire contained 29 items on a 5-point Likert scale (1 =
strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree), grouped under the Active (6 items), Constructive (6 items), Authentic (6
items), Intentional (4 items) and Cooperative (7 items) dimensions of meaningful learning (Howland et al., 2012;
Koh, 2013). Koh (2013) reported that Cohen’s kappa values above 0.80 indicate high reliability of a measuring
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instrument. Since all five dimensions in this study obtained values above that (i.e., Active: 0.93, Constructive: 0.93,
Intentional: 0.89, Authentic: 0.85, Cooperative: 92), reliability was thus achieved. The questionnaire was administered
after each simulation-based lesson had been enacted. An average of 3 and above indicates a positive favourable
opinion, while below 3 indicates a negative opinion of the 5dS.
Data Analysis
The quantitative data were analysed by use of descriptive statistics (i.e., means and standard deviation),
while the qualitative data (e.g., observation and FGIs) were analysed through data reduction (Miles & Huberman,
1994). This was accomplished by identifying themes as well as patterns in line with the adapted framework for the
study. Document analysis was employed to analyse and give meaning to the word-based data gathered from the
participants’ SBPL artefacts, with keen interest in the designed lesson activities.
Research Results
Pre-service Teachers’ Reported Activeness of the Developed Lessons
The qualitative evidence revealed that the participants used their selected simulation environment to engage
their learners in learning the subject matter (i.e., Active). Table 3 shows evidence (from the FGIs) of the extent to
which the participants perceived the Active dimension to have been realised in the design and implementation
of each of the four SBPLs. Evidence was gathered from the FGIs that were conducted after each microteaching
try-out session for SBPL_1, SBPL_2, SBPL_3 and SBPL_4. For each lesson, the evidence gathered was in response
to the question: “To what extent did the intervention promote interactivity during the lesson?”. Table 3 gives example
of comments from participants (learners) from different focus groups.
Table 3. Participants’ perceptions about the four SBPLs in relation to the Active dimension.
Focus group interview Participant Response
In the course of the lesson, we were involved a lot, and we did almost everything …
FGI for SBPL_1 Esi
So, I realised it was very interactive.
It was interactive in the sense that for some of the activities, we were using simula-
FGI for SBPL_2 Kwabena
tions, so we were active.
FGI for SBPL_3 Mofe It was active because we gave them the opportunity to explore …
FGI for SBPL_4 Ansah We had the opportunity to interact with the simulations.
Results from Table 3 show that the Active dimension was realised mainly by engaging learners to interact
with the simulation environment themselves and/or to explore the manipulative features of the PhET simulation
environment. Apparently, this was intended to help them learn the subject matter. Activities that were designed on
the activity sheets by the participants (i.e., design teams) also confirmed this (see Figure 1). Figure 1 (i.e., a sample
activity for SBPL_4) shows that the participants engaged their learners to explore the Forces and Motion: Basics
(Friction) PhET simulation environment by manipulating its interactive features (e.g., speed check box, the pause
button, friction slider etc.). This was purposed to facilitate their learning of the subject matter— “Effects of frictional
force” (see underlined areas in Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Sample activity for SBPL_4 in realising the Active dimension.
Pre-service Teachers’ Demonstration of the Constructive Dimension with Lessons Developed
In determining the extent of the Constructive dimension of interactivity projected with the developed les-
sons, the results showed that the participants were able to use the PhET simulations to design lesson activities
to encourage learners to reflect upon the subject matter and express their ideas and meaning beyond what was
presented to them. In the FGIs conducted after the implementation of each of the four SBPLs, the participants
echoed that the lessons were interactive in projecting the Constructive dimension (see Table 4). Table 4 shows some
of the evidence gathered from the FGI data. Specifically, evidence was gathered in response to the question: “To
what extent did the simulation-based physics lesson promote interactivity during the lesson?” As can be inferred from
the sample comments presented in Table 4, the participants perceived the lessons to be interactive because they
were able to form their own personal meaning of the subject matter.
Table 4. Participants’ perceptions about the four SBPLs in relation to the Constructive dimension.
FGI for SBPL_1 Kwesi We built our own knowledge in doing the activities.
FGI for SBPL_2 Kwame We were able to build our own atom of a particular element for ourselves using the simulation.
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FGI for SBPL_3 Ansah Yes, it was interactive because in my last presentation [lesson], there was a particular question
on introductory activity which I was not expecting them to write, that the applied force equal
to minus [referring to the mathematical expression for Hooke’s law], but one of them
knew when he was observing the simulation that there should be a negative sign, so the
students learned the concept beyond what I was expecting.
FGI for SBPL_4 Ansah Based on the lesson, I understood the concept, especially when we say something is opposing
motion.
The comments in Table 4 also seem to hint that it was the learners’ engagement with the simulation environ-
ment in learning the concepts under study (indicated by the underlined statements in Table 4) that provoked them
to express their ideas and make meaning beyond what had been presented to them. These results confirmed what
was observed during the microteaching sessions for each intervention. Remarkable evidence of the Constructive
dimension was witnessed during the microteaching try-out of SBPL_1 by DTA1 using the Bending Light (BL) PhET
simulation. This had to do with the latter part of the lesson, where Kwesi, in his teaching, involved his learners in
a whole class discussion on a real-life application problem given under Activity 2 of the SBPL_1 activity sheet (see
Excerpt 1) after learners had worked on the activity as a group.
Excerpt 1. Real-life application question under Activity 2 of SBPL_1 activity sheet designed by the participants
in DTA1.
Led by the ‘teacher’, the learner group was asked to share their solutions with their colleague learners (the
other participants). In particular, the teacher asked the group leader to write his group’s solution on the board
and to explain how they came up with the solution they presented verbally (apparently, this was purposed to
help the ‘teacher’ determine if they had constructed their own meaning of the concepts discussed in the course
of the lesson). Interestingly, the group leader presented only the final answer to the question on the board, which
was correct as it aligned with the final answer of the ‘teacher’. When asked about their solution, the group leader
explained that they had used the BL simulation environment to solve the problem. The group leader, with the sup-
port of his co-group members, further used the simulation environment to demonstrate how they had arrived at
the final answer. Their responses, as observed, indicated that they did the following to arrive at the final answer:
•• clicked on the refresh button in the BL simulation environment—by this action, the simulation interface
changed to the fundamental state.
•• adjusted the slider on the material tab for medium of refraction from “Water” to “Glass”. This action,
the group leader explained, was informed by a hint given by the ‘teacher’ in the real-life application
question. Consequently, the colour for the medium of refraction in the simulation changed from sea
blue to violet and the value for the index of refraction in the simulation increased from 1.33 to 1.50,
indicating a change in the medium of propagation from water to glass.
•• clicked on the red button on the light source to release the light ray. Upon incident on the Air-to-Glass
interface in the simulation environment, it was partly reflected and partly refracted.
•• moved the virtual protractor from its initial location and dragged it (by use of the computer mouse)
until its centre fell exactly along the “Normal” line in the simulation environment.
•• adjusted the light source handle down until the ray of light was at an angle of 60° away from the “Nor-
mal” line, with the help of the protractor.
•• finally, measured the corresponding angle that the refracted ray made with the “Normal” line in the
glass medium.
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With these steps, the result obtained by use of the BL simulation environment with respect to the real-life
application problem was as shown in Figure 2—suggesting that at an incident angle of 60°, the angle of refraction
is approximately 35°.
Figure 2. Snapshot of the alternative solution presented by learners in relation to the real‑life application
problem using the Bending Light simulation.
After these remarkable demonstrations and explanation given by the learner group, the ‘teacher’, Kwesi,
seemed astonished at the group’s approach to solving the application question. As was observed, Kwesi stood for
over 30 seconds before making an utterance. He later hinted that he was perplexed because during the design
of the lesson, he and his team member (i.e., Kwame) had never considered using the simulation environment to
solve the real-life application problem. The following were Kwesi’s words:
I solved the real-life application question; I solved it in a mathematical way. I had to calculate, and I was expecting them
to do likewise. I never thought of using the simulation. But then, I was surprised when a group of students just simply
used the simulation, measured and they had the answer straightaway. I was very surprised, it was unexpected…; it
was a very good attempt on their part.
Apparently, Kwesi and Kwame (in DTA1) incorporated the real-life application problem thinking of a math-
ematical approach to solving the problem. This was evident in the solution they provided on a slide (as shown in
Excerpt 2) in relation to the real-life application question under Activity 2 in the course of the lesson.
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Excerpt 2. Slide presented to learners by Kwesi as the solution to the real-life application problem.
As seen in Excerpt 2, Kwesi (together with Kwame) solved the problem by employing the mathematical
expression for Snell’s law of refraction, and then substituting the parameters given in the question as well as that
provided by the simulation environment (that is, the angle of incidence [= 60°; denoted ] and refractive index
for glass [= 1.5; denoted ang], respectively) into the mathematical expression to arrive at the answer (
; where denotes the angle of refraction in degrees). Results from the lesson suggest that the
learner group, in reflecting on the subject matter to express their ideas and meaning of Snell’s law, went beyond
that which was presented to them in the course of the lesson to answer the real-life application question. Based
on the observations made, they seemed to have been actively engaged throughout in their quest of providing a
solution to the real-life application question on the activity sheet. This was a clear indication that the intervention
with the BL simulation was effective in realising the Constructive dimension and, consequently, seems to sug-
gest that the participants, in their design of the activities to engage their learners actively, created an avenue for
knowledge construction. This supports the results from the FGI data (i.e., Table 4), which suggested that the Active
dimension was essential in realising the Constructive dimension.
Pre-service Teachers’ Demonstration of the Authentic Dimension with Lessons
The SBPLs of the participants were also designed to connect students’ personal experiences to the real world
(i.e., Authentic) and hence, were effective in improving the teaching of physics. The FGI data as indicated in Table 5
support these results. The main question of interest during each of the FGIs was: “To what extent did the intervention
promote interactivity during the lesson?” This was followed up with questions like: “What can you say about the whole
lesson with the simulations?” and “Was the simulation’s use in the lesson effective?” The responses presented in Table
5 were all selected based on their projection of the Authentic dimension of interactivity.
Table 5. Participants’ perceptions about the four SBPLs in relation to the Authentic dimension.
Focus group
Participant Response
interview
FGI for SBPL_1 Esi It was authentic because it was based on what or how “reflection” really happens in the real
world.
Kwame I think this takes us from the very abstract context of teaching and learning physics. Normally,
before the simulations, we are told or the teacher just sketch on the board, so we don’t see
movement and we don’t get to see what is really happening about the laws of reflection; we
are just told: “… angle of incidence is equals angle of reflection”; but with this lesson, we did
it, measured it, so we are involved, and we realised that what has been said or what is being
said about the law is really what is happening using the simulation. So, we moved from the
abstract context of teaching and learning to the real or the hypothetical real world of teaching
and learning.
FGI for SBPL_2 Kwesi It was authentic because we solved real-world issues where we built our own element using
the protons and other subatomic particles in the simulation.
FGI for SBPL_3 Mofe It took us from the abstract way of learning the concept to a real‑life experience kind of thing.
FGI for SBPL_4 Ansah For me, I used to see the concept of friction as something weird and something abstract. But
with this lesson, we are able to see what friction is about.
Everybody wants to be associated with a concrete method of teaching. So, once we are able
Darkwah to verify the activities that the teacher was talking about practically, it is authentic.
The results in Table 5 suggest that the participants perceived the PhET simulations to be interactive because
the simulations provided a platform for them to link their personal experiences in learning the subject matter to
the real world. Apparently, this enabled a shift from learning physics concepts in abstraction to verifying physics
concepts practically; they got to see concepts being represented virtually, which encouraged them to appreciate
how the physics concepts were applied in the real world.
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Pre-service Teachers’ Demonstration of the Intentional Dimension with Lessons
Results of the study also indicated that the participants used the PhET simulations in the design of their respec-
tive lesson activities to engage learners in diagnosis, evaluation, and improvement of the learning gap; this was
an indication of the extent to which the Intentional dimension was realised (Figure 3). Each of the elements (i.e.,
diagnosis, evaluation, and improvement of the learning gap) of the Intentional dimension was realised depend-
ing on how each participant team chose to align the affordances of the simulation as an interactive instructional
tool with the content-specific learning goals in the design of the lesson activities. For example, with the lesson
designed by DTB2 on the topic: “Frictional force”, the diagnosis element of the Intentional dimension seemed to
be more pronounced). The lesson plan document (Figure 3) showed evidence of this using the Force and Motion:
Basics (Friction) PhET simulation environment (Figure 4).
Specific Objectives By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
• define frictional force. 1
Activity 1: Definition of frictional force (25 mins.)
For students to come out with the definition of
frictional force in their own words, the teacher puts
them in groups of three and guides them to:
• use snapshot from the simulation environment to help students to set up their
simulation for activity 1.
• explore the simulation for five minutes.
1
• observe the simulation on friction as they do the exploration
A & B • identify the arrows X and Y on the body of mass 50 kg as explored in the simulation.
A • record the values X and Y as shown on the activity sheet.
A, B, & C • explain why the body of mass 50 kg do not move when the force X was applied on it.
D & B• identify the nature of the surface of the floor in contact with the body
of mass 50 kg as explored in the simulation.
• define frictional force in their own words.
Diagnosis
Evaluation
Figure 3. Intentional dimension as projected by DTB2 in their lesson plan document using the Force and Mo-
tion: Basics (Friction) PhET simulation.
D B
Figure 4. Snapshot of the Force and Motion Basics (Friction) simulation.
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The labels A, B, C and D are added by the researchers for identification of the interactive features of the simula-
tion environment as used by DTB2 in design of Activity 1.
As illustrated in Figure 4, the affordances of the interactive features (i.e., labels A, B, C and D) of the Force and
Motion: Basics (Friction) PhET simulation environment were aligned by DTB2 with the various tasks enlisted under
Activity 1 in the SBPL_4 lesson plan document. This was purposed to achieve the learning goal set for Activity 1:
“Define frictional force” (labelled as 1 in Figure 3). In particular, the left and right directional arrows in Figure 4 (i.e.,
label A; referred to as X and Y respectively in Figure 3) represent the “Friction Force” and the “Applied Force”, respec-
tively; the box with the 50 kg label (i.e., label B) represents a body of mass, 50 kg; label C represents the “Applied
Force”, with specific values that are regulated either by moving the slider at the bottom or clicking on the forward
or backward buttons; label D represents the rough surface on which the weight is placed. It can be inferred from
the activities designed (Figure 3) by DTB2 using Force and Motion: Basics (friction) PhET simulation that the learners
were engaged more in the diagnosis aspect than the other two aspects of the Intentional dimension in achieving
their learning goal of defining frictional force. This seems to suggest that DTB2 in their design of Activity 1 used
the diagnosis element as the driving force for bringing to light both the evaluation (i.e., the aspect of Activity 1
in Figure 3 where, learners are tasked to “define frictional force in their own words”) and the improvement in the
learning gap aspects (i.e., the anticipated learning outcomes for Activity 1) of the Intentional dimension.
Pre-service Teachers’ Enforcement of the Cooperative Dimension with Lessons
With the Cooperative dimension, the qualitative evidence showed that the participants used their respec-
tive PhET simulation environments to engage students to work in groups for divergent knowledge expressions,
where they shared ideas about the various physics concepts that were taught. Some of the evidence in this regard
resulted from the FGIs conducted after each microteaching try-out session. For example, from the FGI conducted
after Kwesi had taught his team’s lesson (SBPL_1) on the topic: “Reflection and Refraction of light” to the other
participants, Kwesi explained in response to the question, “To what extent did the intervention promote interactivity
during the lesson?” that:
I asked them to work in groups, so it was really interactive.
Apparently, Kwesi perceived the simulation-based lesson to be interactive because he, in his capacity as the
teacher, instructed the learners to work in groups during the lesson. In response to the same question, Kwame
and Kwabena, who posed as learners during Kwesi’s teaching with the SBPL_1 intervention, supported Kwesi’s
view by adding that:
We interacted with our colleagues during the lesson. (Kwame).
We shared ideas with our colleagues during our work, so there was this cooperative element. (Kwabena).
The lesson plan documents designed and developed by all the teams as part of the lesson artefacts for their
respective SBPLs shed more light on the results from the FGI data (see Figure 5). Figure 5 suggests that per the
stipulated “attitudes” required of the learners for effective learning of the subject matter using the PhET simula-
tions, the participants envisioned the groupwork element as a necessary condition (though not sufficient) for
bringing about interactive teaching and learning throughout their respective lessons. Figure 5 also suggests that
the Cooperative dimension was not only incorporated for facilitating divergent knowledge expressions (as the FGI
data suggested), but was also situated throughout the designed lesson activities as the sustaining element for
the realisation of each of the four other dimensions (i.e., Active, Constructive, Authentic, and Intentional). Thus, it
appears that the Cooperative dimension’s position as the sustaining element in the design of the simulation-based
lesson activities served as the basis for motivating the learners to do the lesson activities.
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Figure 5. Projection of the Cooperative dimension in lesson plan documents.

Pre-service Teachers’ Overall Perceptions about the Effectiveness of the SBPLs
The effectiveness of the simulation-based lessons was also determined quantitatively from the analysis of the
Five-dimension Survey. Analysis in this regard corroborated the qualitative evidence. Figure 6 provides an over-
view of the overall ratings of the dimensions of interactivity as perceived by the participants. The overall picture,
as depicted by Figure 6, points to the fact that the Cooperative dimension was the most projected in participants’
lessons; using PhET simulations to engage students in groupwork for divergent knowledge expressions. A possible
reason for this could perhaps be because the Cooperative dimension was situated as a pre-requisite for the execu-
tion of all the lesson activities for each of the four lessons, irrespective of the dimension(s) (Active, Constructive,
Intentional, and/or Authentic) the activities were designed to realise. The second most projected dimension was
Constructive, with the Intentional dimension emerging third, while the least projected was the Active dimension.
Figure 6. Overall means of the Five-dimension survey as expressed by participants for all four simulation-
based physics lessons designed and enacted.
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In all, both qualitative and quantitative results presented echo that all the dimensions of interactivity were
adequately realised in the design and implementation of the SBPLs. This seems to be an indication that the ICT
(simulation)-based lessons were effective in promoting interactive teaching of physics.
Discussion
The research examined the effectiveness of SBPLs in improving the teaching of physics by measuring
the extent to which the dimensions of interactivity were realised in the design and implementation of the
SBPLs. The overall results (from both qualitative; see Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5
and quantitative; Figure 6) suggest that the pre-service teacher participants believed that the lessons (SBPLs)
were effective in improving teaching because it promoted interactive teaching. Apparently, the selected PhET
simulations were used in the design and implementation of the all the four simulation-based lessons to: 1)
engage learners in learning the subject matter (Active); 2) stimulate learners to go beyond reflecting on the
subject matter to forming and expressing their own personal meaning of the subject matter (Constructive);
3) create learning platforms in order to link learners’ personal experiences in learning the subject matter to
the real-world (Authentic); 4) engage learners in diagnosis, evaluation, and improvement of learning gaps
by aligning the affordances of selected PhET simulations with content-specific learning goals in the design
of lesson activities (Intentional); and 5) engage learners to work in groups for ascertaining divergent knowl-
edge expressions (Cooperative). Results herein seem to emphasise the fact that the PhETs’ use for the design
and implementation of the ICT-based physics lessons by the participants tended to promote the teaching
of physics to be effective in a constructivist way owing to its vehicular and rich catalytic characteristics as an
interactive tool (Howland et al., 2012; Volman, 2005).This seems to reflect Sahin’s (2006) view that the peda-
gogical approach to be adopted with simulations could be constructive where the focus is on elements such
as experiencing, integrating and conceptual change. The results are also consistent with Bell and Smetana’s
(2008) observation that when simulations are used for teaching purposes, its effectiveness is highly and in-
evitably dependent on the way and manner in which it is used in the classroom (Bransford, Brown & Cocking,
2000). This suggests that the pedagogical approach adopted for ICT use in the classroom is key to yielding
meaningful learning outcomes.
The projection of the Active, Constructive, Authentic, Intentional and Cooperative dimensions of interac-
tivity in the developed and implemented SBPLs also suggests that the pre-service teacher participants used
the PhET simulation environments to promote a highly student-oriented learning process (Hofstein & Lunetta,
2003). This seems to be an indication that the ICT (simulation)-based lessons facilitated improvement in the
participants’ way of teaching from a teacher-centred approach to a learner-centred approach.
The results indicating that the lessons were effective in promoting interactive teaching also advocate
that the five dimensions for meaningful learning were not realised in isolation for interactive teaching (i.e.,
improvement in teaching) to be achieved. It appears that it was more of the combined effect of all the dimen-
sions in each of the developed and enacted simulation‑based lessons that provoked interactive teaching. This
seems to emphasise the specific ways in which the pre-service teacher participants used the PhET simulations
to bring into action the prospects of interactive teaching for meaningful learning to occur. This is consistent
with Ertmer and Ottenbreit-Leftwich’s (2010, p. 260) statement that “to use technology to support meaningful
student learning, teachers need … the pedagogical methods that facilitate student learning, and the specific
ways in which technology can support those methods”. The results also align with Jonassen et al.’s (2008, p.
3) assertion that “… instructional activities should engage and support combinations of active, constructive,
intentional, authentic, and cooperative learning because they are synergetic”. The results herein therefore
project the synergetic (or systemic) effect of the five dimensions as an essential and necessary ingredient for
effective teaching and learning processes with ICT.
Although the results seem to suggest that a combination of all five dimensions was key to attaining
interactivity with each of the SBPLs, their unique contributions as perceived and demonstrated by the pre-
service teacher participants seemed to differ from one dimension to the other. This was particularly so for the
Cooperative dimension, which was most projected (see Figure 6). Apparently, the participants might have
linked their understanding of interactivity more to the Cooperative dimension than the other four dimensions.
Perhaps this was due to its use in the design and enactment of the lessons as a sustaining element (i.e., the
necessary condition) for ensuring that lesson activities were executed in diverse ways to promote interactive
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teaching, irrespective of which dimension(s) the lesson activities were specifically purposed to project. This
suggests that the Cooperative dimension goes beyond providing platforms for divergent tasks as well as knowl-
edge expressions (Harris et al., 2009) to inherently sustain the other four dimensions in order to facilitate the
creation of an interactive teaching and learner-centred environment mediated by ICT; especially simulations.
Another dimension that was noticeable was the Active dimension (see Figure 6). Unlike the Coopera-
tive dimension which was perceived as the highest projected dimension among all the other dimensions in
realising interactivity, the Active dimension was perceived as the least projected. It is not clear what might
have accounted for the reported least projection of the Active dimension. However, it appears that the par-
ticipants might have misconstrued the Active dimension to imply Constructive. Perhaps, this was so because
the simulation-based activities that the participants had designed to engage learners in learning the subject
matter tended to provoke the learners to express their ideas and make meaning of the subject matter beyond
what had been presented to them by the ‘teacher’ (Jonassen et al., 2008), as the results from Table 3 suggest.
In this regard, the potential of computer simulations to facilitate knowledge construction by actively involving
the learner (Yin, Song, Tabata, Ogata, & Hwang, 2013) is emphasised, contrary to Koh’s (2013, p. 887) asser-
tion that “being does not necessarily imply being constructive”. The Active dimension appearing as the least
projected dimension also speaks to the challenge that the pre-service teacher participants of the study might
have faced in the design and implementation of the SBPLs. This could be interpreted to mean that they might
have had difficulties in clearly distinguishing between the Active and Constructive dimensions of meaning-
ful learning (interactivity). The results herein thus, reiterate the need to clearly elucidate how ICT defines the
Constructive dimension by making use of the Active dimension (Koh, 2013).
Based on the results of the study, the following propositions are suggested:
•• Institutions mandated to train pre-service teachers should consider adopting the PhET simulations
as one of the major technological tools in the preparation of pre-service teachers for their uptake
of ICT in the teaching of high school physics in Ghana.
•• In-service training programmes for practicing physics teachers at the high schools should be or-
ganised to incorporate the use of PhET simulations in developing their competencies to use ICT
to teach high school physics. The essence of this initiative would be to promote interactive teach-
ing of high school physics in Ghana. This would also serve as a remedy for reducing the current
teacher-centered approaches being adopted for teaching physics as well as curbing the problem
of learner understanding and performance in physics in Ghana.
The study outcomes also highlight issues that need to be considered in any attempt to adopt the 5DML-
ICT model as a whole and to operationalise its Active and Cooperative dimensions. These issues include:
•• Designing ICT-based lessons to uniquely project the synergetic (or systemic) effect of all the di-
mensions of the 5DML-ICT model.
•• Characterising the Cooperative dimension in the design of ICT-based lesson activities to bring to
light its characteristic potential as a sustaining element for the remaining four dimensions of the
5DML-ICT model.
•• Characterising the Active dimension in the design process in such a manner that its relationship
with the Constructive dimension of interactivity is clearly defined.
Conclusions
The research articulated the diverse ways in which the teaching of physics improved using the SBPLs.
Through the realisation of all the five dimensions of interactivity in the design and implementation of the
SBPLs, the results showed that the SBPLs promoted interactive teaching and thus, were effective in improv-
ing the teaching of high school physics. The research also identified the Cooperative dimension as the most
projected dimension of interactivity for bringing to light the synergetic effect characteristic of the 5DML-ICT
model. This was attributed to its potential to sustain the other dimensions. Based on these outcomes, the
study suggests that the SBPLs are beneficial for effective teaching of high school physics. As the results of
the research situated the synergetic (or systemic) effect of the dimensions of interactivity as an essential and
necessary ingredient for the effective teaching and learning processes with ICT, the research advocates that
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the effectiveness of simulation-based lessons in the physics classroom is mainly driven and sustained by the
collaborative platforms that are created in enforcing an interactive and learner-centred teaching strategy.
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Received: June 24, 2019 Accepted: November 15, 2019
Elizabeth Darko Agyei PhD in Science and Technology Education, Teaching Associate,
Department of Science Education, Faculty of Science and Technology
Education, University of Cape Coast, Ghana.
E-mail: elizabeth.cornah@ucc.edu.gh
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0794-6694
Thuthukile Jita PhD in Curriculum Studies, Senior Lecturer and Discipline Coordinator
(Corresponding author) for Curriculum Studies and the Research Team Leader for Instructional
Leadership Curriculum Implementation Studies, School of Education
Studies, Faculty of Education, University of the Free State, Republic of
South Africa.
E-mail: jitat@ufs.ac.za
ORCID ID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1173-5251
Loyiso C. Jita PhD in Curriculum, Teaching and Education Policy, Dean and SANRAL
Chair in Science and Mathematics Education, Faculty of Education,
University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa.
E-mail: jitalc@ufs.ac.za
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SAVANNAH MAMMALS
António Almeida, Abstract. The present research compared

the knowledge of primary school children
Beatriz García Fernández,
and pre-service primary teachers about
Orlando Stretch-Ribeiro various native mammals of the Iberian
Peninsula (IP-Portugal and Spain) and
the African Savannah. For this purpose,
a questionnaire was administered to 420
children and 215 pre-service teachers from
these countries asking for the identifica-
Introduction tion of animals through photos and
whether they had native status on the IP.
Humans have been related to other animals during their entire evolution- The pre-service teachers performed better
ary process, using them as important promoters of their wellbeing. But this than the children. The Savannah animals
instrumental relationship is only one part of the human-animal connection, were better identified than those of the IP.
since it also develops curiosity about living beings and a propensity to gener- The results were similar in both countries,
ate empathy and even fear about them. According to the biophilia hypothesis even though the Spanish performed a little
proposed by Wilson (1984), through this contact over many thousands of better. Children from both countries had
years, humans developed an innate tendency to affiliate with other living more difficulty identifying the native status
beings and life processes. In fact, over time and in different cultures, people of the animals, with a high percentage
have established a strong connection with animals, and many cultural tradi- of them thinking that Savannah animals
tions imbue them with a symbolic value (Walsh, 2009). This seems to be the lived in the wild on the IP. This error was less
reason why the relationship established with animals has no parallel with the frequent among the pre-service teachers
one which occurs with beings from other kingdoms, primarily through the but, even so, with a percentage for certain
possibility of interaction and reciprocity of their behaviour, especially with animals that can be considered of concern.
the more complex ones. This issue is absent in the training courses
Of the animals, mammals seem to have a special place in human cultures, in both countries, a conclusion based on an
since they receive human attention more than any other taxonomic group, analysis of the syllabuses. The importance
perhaps with the exception of birds (Kellert, 1996). This researcher explains of improving knowledge of native fauna
that these animals generate a positive aesthetic response in people, and they though formal and informal learning is
can even contribute to an appreciation of the landscapes which they inhabit. discussed as a way to promote a conserva-
Therefore, it seems that animals can function as inductors for the ecosystems tionist attitude with direct repercussions on
where they belong. the recognition of the importance of local
or regional biodiversity.
The Interest in Mammals
Keywords: pre-service teachers, primary
school children, native fauna, savannah
Knowledge of the characteristics and habitats of animals is essential for
mammals.
understanding zoological, ecological and environmental issues (Patrick &
Tunniclife, 2011). Thus, the knowledge of and interest in different taxonomic
groups of animals has been an important research issue, and the results of António Almeida
NOVA University of Lisbon, Portugal
different studies have shown great knowledge and preference for mammals, Beatriz García Fernández
which starts early in child development. For instance, Huxham, Welsh, Berry, University of Castilla–La Mancha, Spain
and Templeton (2006) found that Scottish children, aged from 4 to 12, had Orlando Stretch-Ribeiro
Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon, Portugal
greater knowledge about mammals than about birds or invertebrates. Also, a
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study by Patrick et al. (2013), carried out in six countries (Brazil, England, Finland, Iceland, Portugal and the United
States) found that students of different ages, 6, 10 and 15, given the task of naming as many animals as possible,
were more aware of mammals as examples. These results were explained by the presence of mammals in the
media, toys and books. And this presence reflects the fact that they are in general bigger than other animals and
can easily harness human attention, a reason for their being used, along with birds, as flagship species in nature
protection (Clucas, McHugh, & Caro, 2008).
A study by Batt (2009) also found that students from a University in England had a strong attraction to mam-
mals, but this researcher highlights another explanation for this preference relating to the bio-behavioural traits
we share with certain groups of animals; a similarity based not only on the physical features but on a broader per-
ception that we share the same needs and interests. In fact, as Stephan and Finlay (1999) stated, among humans,
empathy is essential to develop positive attitudes and behaviours towards others, helping to reduce discrimina-
tion. Since mammals are phylogenetically similar to humans, they provoke similar feelings, thus favouring more
prosocial behaviours towards them. This evolutionary proximity is also responsible for the recognition that we
both share similar emotions, establishing a strong connection with animals, a trend that is not free of forms of
anthropomorphization (Jacobs, 2009).
Knowledge about Animals and Age
Another issue in animal-related research has focused on how knowledge about and interest in animals change
with age. Huxham, et al. (2006) found in a study carried out in the UK that knowledge about different species
increased with age and peaked at age 9, declining a little thereafter. The same trend was confirmed by Randler
(2008) with German students but the peak of knowledge was at the age of 14. This researcher related the pattern
to the waning of interest in biology during puberty. Even so, a subsequent study by this author found that the
generational decline in interest in zoology during the last three decades was residual when compared with the
one in botany (Randler, Osti, & Hummel, 2012). A similar trend was found in a study focused on birds with Slova-
kian students, aged 10-19, which concluded that the younger had more knowledge about these animals than the
older (Prokop, Kubiatko, & Fančovičová, 2008). The result of a study by Prokop and Rodak (2009) with a Slovakian
sample composed of primary school students, mean age 12.3, and university biology students, mean age 21.2, is
also remarkable. The knowledge of both groups did not differ significantly when identifying 25 bird species, and
two-thirds of the participants failed to identify common species. Even knowing that birds and not mammals were
the focus of this and the previous study, their results suggest that knowledge about animals tends to stagnate after
a certain age or even to decline. Thus, Patrick and Tunnicliffe (2011) argued that adults and children have a different
understanding of animals but their actual knowledge about them shows only small differences. Even so, a study by
Yli-Panula and Matikainen (2014) involving Finnish lower-and upper-secondary students and pre-service primary
teachers concluded that the respondents of both groups knew the animals, especially mammals and birds, which
lived in four distinct ecosystems: spruce-dominated coniferous forest, Finnish fen, savannah, and tropical rainfor-
est. However, the number of animals mentioned increased with the age of the participants and level of schooling,
with pre-service teachers performing better than the respondents from the other groups.
Knowledge about Native versus Non-Native Animals
Finally, another interesting subject of research is focused on knowledge about native or non-native species. This
field, together with the other two highlighted above - preference for taxonomic groups and change of knowledge
about animals with age -, are sometimes included in the same study. For instance, Huxham, et al. (2006) found that
English children´s knowledge of native species was very poor. A similar result was obtained by Paraskevopoulos,
Padeliadu and Zafiropoulos (1998) with Greek students from the 5th and 6th grades, and these researchers concluded
that children had little interest in wild living beings, which cannot explain the poor knowledge about native spe-
cies. Studies by Bizerril and Andrade (1999) and Bizerril (2004) focusing on the knowledge of students about the
Brasilian Cerrado Biome (savannah-like vegetation), also found that the participants could not identify a number
of animals native to Brazil. More recently a study by Almeida, García Fernández, and Strecht-Ribeiro (2018) with
Portuguese and Spanish students concluded that children had a better knowledge of the Savannah animals than
of the Iberian fauna. Similar results were obtained in studies involving pre-service teachers from different European
countries (Lindemann-Matthies et al., 2011; Sánchez Emeterio & García Fernández, 2013).
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However, other studies reported, at least partially, opposing results. It is the case of a study by Patrick and
Tunnicliffe (2011) with a sample of English and American children: the first group named more exotic animals and
the second more indigenous ones, which opens the possibility of different results according to the cultural context.
Randler (2010) found that knowledge about native species is correlated with age, level of schooling, frequency
of nature walks, reading of thematic books or visiting game parks. But from these factors several authors highlight
the decline of contact with nature across the world, especially among the younger urban generation (Kellert, 2005;
Louv, 2010; Patrick & Tunnicliffe, 2011; Soga & Gaston, 2016). Louv (2010) stated that school does not reverse this
tendency, since children know a lot about the rain forest and its threats but know nothing about their own for-
ests. Frequently, they are not even familiar with the fields near school that offer so many forms of life that could
be studied. Kellert (2005) has highlighted the tendency to be familiar with places where nature is managed, like
zoos and aquariums. This contact seems to favour the knowledge of exotic species, since the majority of animals
included in their collections are non-native (Consorte-McCrea, et al. 2017; Skibins & Powell, 2013).
Research Focus
Since the results of different studies are not always coincident, further research is needed in the present field.
This need is also due to the few studies focused on the kind of mammals that are better known in different ages,
according to their biogeographical distribution. Therefore, the present research aimed to evaluate the knowledge of
native mammals and savannah animals in two different age groups. Three objectives were defined with this purpose:
1) to compare primary school children’s and pre-service teachers’ knowledge about these two groups
of mammals;
2) to establish the same comparison, now involving two subsamples of children and pre-service teachers,
according to their country of origin, Portugal and Spain, the two countries that compose the Iberian
Peninsula;
3) to discuss the implications of the results for science education and also for teacher training courses.
The assessment of the first objective tries to check which group of animals - Iberian Peninsula or African
Savannah- is better known in terms of the identification of the names of different animals and of the recognition
of their being native or not to the Iberian Peninsula. The second objective tries to check whether possible differ-
ences exist according to the country of origin of the participants, since each country, Portugal and Spain, has its
own educational system with similarities and specificities. The third objective sets out to discuss the implications
for science education and also for teacher training courses, due to the relevance of knowledge about native spe-
cies and ecosystems.
General Background
The research had a quantitative approach and aimed to check statistical differences between the knowledge
of the groups considered: children and pre-service teachers of the two countries and between the same partici-
pants only considering their country of origin. The research scope is the follow-up to a previous one included in
the same research project, which intends to check the knowledge of native fauna in students of different ages and
in different countries (Almeida, et al., 2018).
Sample
The participants in the present research involved primary school children from Portugal and Spain attending
the 6th year of schooling, and pre-service primary teachers from two Higher Education Institutions from these two
countries (Table 1). These countries share similar ecosystems and have several autochthonous mammals in com-
mon, an ideal situation for a comparative study with the present focus. The children´s sample from the previous
study was used but this time with completely different objectives as explained in the introduction.
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Table 1. Description of the sample of the present research involving children and pre-service teachers from
Portugal and Spain.
Spanish sample Portuguese sample
Children Pre-service teachers Children Pre-service teachers
Boys/Men 106 46 105 102

Girls/Women 99 85 110 3
Mean age 11.3 22.4 11.7 23.9
SD Age 0.55 2.92 0.81 4.50
In both countries, the children were from primary schools where pre-service teachers do their teaching train-
ing practice. The children were randomly chosen from a group of schools: five state schools in the Lisbon area
(Portugal) and six from the Ciudad Real area (Castilla-La Mancha, Spain) that cooperate with the higher education
institutions attended by pre-service-teachers in the final year of their degree course. The schools are attended by
children from different socioeconomic levels and none of the classes were involved in any project related to animals.
The existence of natural spaces in both regions had differences and similarities. Ciudad Real is a smaller city
when compared to Lisbon, and therefore access to the countryside is easier. Even so, both regions have a number
of nature or national parks and other green areas with native fauna, some of them included in the questionnaire
that will be presented in the next section. The Lisbon region has more thematic parks where non-native animals
can be observed. Nevertheless, the good transport connections of Ciudad Real, less than one hour from Madrid
by train, makes it easy to visit zoos or other parks to observe more exotic fauna.
Pre-service teachers were predominantly female, a trend that can be found in Education courses in both
countries. In the case of Portugal, students first attend a bachelor’s degree course in Basic Education, a compulsory
condition for admittance to the master’s degree course in education. They are urban students (95%), living in the
metropolitan area of Lisbon. In the Spanish case, they were in the last year of teacher training, and they have access
to the studies mainly after finishing high school and, in a minority, when finishing a vocational training programme.
Many of them were born and brought up in rural areas or have family in towns nearby.
Instrument and Procedures
A questionnaire was administered during the school years of 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 to both groups
composed of primary school children and pre-service primary teachers from Portugal and Spain. The question-
naire included photos of 22 mammals, half of them from the Iberian Peninsula and the other half from the African
Savannah. The choice of mammals was based on the studies already presented, which show that these animals
are preferred by humans and may be better known by students of different ages. The final selection of animals is
presented in Table 2, which includes their common, scientific names and mean mass in Kg.
Table 2. List of animals presented in the questionnaire, and their mean mass.
Iberian Animals Savannah Animals
Mean mass Mean mass

Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name
(kg) (kg)
Badger Meles meles 13 Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis 1500

Bear Ursus arctos 80-230 Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus 21-72
Fox Vulpes vulpes 10 Elephant Loxodonta Africana 6000
Genet Genetta genetta 2 Giraffe Giraffa reticulate 800
Iberian lynx Lynx pardinus 8-13 Gnu Connochaetes taurinus 250
Mongoose Herpestes ichneumon 3 Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibious 1400-3500
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Iberian Animals Savannah Animals
Mean mass Mean mass

Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name
(kg) (kg)
Otter Lutra lutra 11 Hyena Crocuta crocuta 44-64

Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus 1.5 Leopard Panthera pardus 31
Red deer Cervus elaphus 80-200 Llion Panthera leo 130-190
Wild boar Sus scrofa 35-175 Thomson’s gazelle Gazella thomsonii 23
Wolf Canis lupus 35 Zebra Equus quagga 400
Note: The mass value was given in average Kg. A range of values is shown when the weight of the animals can vary greatly between
their minimum and maximum, sometimes due to differences between males and females. Main sources: Purroy and Varela (2016) and
Stehr and Burrel i Florida (1983).
The Iberian animals were selected from the list of mammals from Portugal and Spain made by Purroy and
Varela (2016), and only the bear exists exclusively in the wild in Spain nowadays. The genet is not exactly native
to the Peninsula, but its introduction occurred centuries ago. How it happened is still an object of debate, but it
was probably during the Muslim invasion of this territory, since the genet used to be a Muslim pet (Alves, 2012). A
similar situation can be described concerning the mongoose, introduced during the Roman occupation of Hispania
(Detry et al., 2018).
The African Savannah animals were selected after analysing a variety of sites dedicated to this ecosystem
(e.g. Secrets of the World, n. a.; Savanna Animal Printouts, n. a.). A number of these animals occupy a part of the
collections of the zoos of the Iberian Peninsula: Lisbon (Portugal) and Madrid, Valencia and Barcelona (Spain).
High-quality photos of the animals were placed randomly on four A4 pages. All the animals were shown in their
habitats, allowing a certain perspective of scale. However, the size scale of the animals was not respected, since the
Iberian fauna include smaller animals when compared with those from the African Savannah. Iberian animals also
have a lower body mass, with the exception of the bear, the red deer and the wild boar (Table 2). Even so, in both
cases, the selection includes large animals normally easier to identify, which means that several common micro-
mammals of the Iberian Peninsula were excluded. The photos were chosen from websites with images of free use.
The questionnaire was organized in two parts. The first aimed to collect a few personal data from the par-
ticipants: age, gender, school or higher institution. The second part, included, for each animal, the two following
questions: 1) What is the name of the animal in the picture? (Open Question); 2) Does this animal live in the wild
on the Iberian Peninsula? (Closed question with the possibilities of yes, no and don´t know). In primary school,
children from both countries had to study different classes of animals, from vertebrates to invertebrates, their main
features, and adaptations to the environment. Accordingly, the syllabuses of pre-service teachers training courses
were analysed to check for the presence of the issue under discussion, especially in Science and Environmental
Education curricular units.
Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire
The instrument was used and validated in a previous research project (Almeida et al., 2018), but the validity
was tested again in this research. The content validity of the questionnaire was analysed by four experts in Science
Education after being informed of the main aims of the research. For content validity it is especially important to
check whether the questions included are relevant to the purpose of the research (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison,
2006). In the present case, the list of animals included was considered representative of both regions, according
to the parameters defined for the selection, but in this analysis.
The reliability of the questionnaire was checked on the basis of consistent results production (Field, 2009).
The instrument was applied to 24 children and to 24 pre-service teachers not included in the final sample in order
to identify any difficulties in the understanding of the questions and in the identification of the photos. After this
process, two photos were not considered fit for the purpose and were substituted, due to the doubts raised by
several students and pre-service teachers as to their sharpness and contrast in relation to the animal’s habitat. Also
based on the queries of the children, it was decided to show during the administration a few pictures of animals in
the wild and in captivity. This strategy allows a better understanding of the meaning of “living in the wild”.
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The reliability of the closed questions of the test was also tested by calculating the Kuder-Richadson 20 test,
the general version of the Cronbach’s alpha due to the non-Likert scaled variables (Cortina, 1993; Feldt, 1969). The
result, 0.931, shows an excellent reliability of the instrument. Thus, the questionnaire was approved as a valid and
reliable instrument for the purpose for which it was designed.
Research Ethics
An authorization from the schools’ head teachers was required and none of them considered that the content
of the questionnaire, related to scientific knowledge, posed any ethical problems. The same opinion was shared
by the children’s teachers, who considered the issue of the questionnaire and the results relevant for their teach-
ing practice. Therefore, both school directors and teachers considered that the questionnaire could function as a
diagnostic activity related to the science syllabus. Even so, the children were informed about the raison d’être of the
questionnaire, as related to a research project with no impact on their assessment. Accordingly, the questionnaire
was anonymous, and the names of the schools involved were also not included in the dissemination of the results.
The research follows the principle of beneficence applied by O’Reilly, Ronzoni, and Dogra (2013) to all studies
that can improve students’ learning and have an impact on curricular changes which in turn could also have an
impact on the educational system. The positive reasons for these impacts are explained at the end in the conclusion
section, related to the importance of knowing and valuing the native fauna of a country or region.
In relation to the pre-service teachers’ sample, all the participants were informed of the aims of the research.
All the students were over 18 and participation was voluntary. Turnout was high and one of the main reasons could
be related to the fact that the students are also involved in research studies at the end of their training.
Data Analysis

The frequency (absolute and relative) of correct answers related to the identification of the animals of the
Iberian Peninsula and of the African Savannah was calculated, firstly for the children and the pre-service teachers
and secondly for the children and the pre-service teachers of each country. The same comparison was made for
the correct answers concerning the animals that live in the wild on the Iberian Peninsula. For this second calcula-
tion, consideration was only given to respondents who identified the animal correctly or left a blank space in the
first question. The main reason for considering this latter situation was due to the fact that features of an animal
might give clues as to its native status on the Iberian Peninsula. For example, a participant might not remember the
name “giraffe” but consider correctly that these animals do not have the common characteristics of Iberian fauna.
Statistically significant differences between groups concerning the identification of each animal and its
existence in the wild in the Iberian Peninsula were calculated using the chi-square test, since we are dealing with
nominal variables. The Bonferroni correction was considered for the initial value of significance (p=.05), since a
number of tests were performed on a single data set. To do this, the critical p value was obtained by dividing the
initial value by the number of tests, 22. With this adjustment the p value considered was p=.002.
Also, a global score of correct answers for each group of animals was calculated by giving two points for each
animal correctly identified, one point when there was a blank answer but not a misidentification, and zero for a
wrong answer. The total scoring for each group of animals was 22 points (2 x 11 animals), when a participant cor-
rectly identified them all, and a mean was obtained for each group of participants. The global score for the ques-
tion concerning native status on the Iberian Peninsula obeyed the same rule. The means obtained by the groups
of participants already mentioned for each question were compared applying a Mann-Whitney U test, after the
use of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, which indicated a non-normal distribution of the data and the relevance of
using non-parametric statistical tests.
Research Results
The results obtained by the children and pre-service teachers of both countries regarding the identification
of the Iberian Animals and the Savannah Animals are shown in Table 3.
In the case of the Iberian Animals, the differences between groups were statistically significant for the genet,
the otter, the red deer, the wild boar (all with p<.001), and the lynx (p=.001), since a higher percentage of pre-service
teachers successfully identified these animals. However, even considering this better performance of pre-service
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teachers, very few students identified the badger, the genet and the mongoose. In relation to the Savannah animals,
the performance of both groups was more similar and statistical differences could only be found in relation to the
gnu and Thomson’s gazelle (both with p<.001).
Independently of these statistical differences the body mass of the animals was not a determining factor in
a better identification of the animals of the two biogeographic reasons. This means that the larger animals were
not always better identified, both by the children and the pre-service teachers.
Considering now the same question by country, Table 4 shows the results for the comparison between the
Portuguese children and pre-service teachers in relation to animals of the Iberian Peninsula and of the African
Savannah.
Table 3. The absolute and relative frequency of correct identifications of the animals of the Iberian Peninsula
and of the African Savannah in children (n=420) and primary pre-service teachers (n=236), from
Portugal (P) and Spain (Sp).
Iberian P+Sp P+Sp Savannah P+Sp P+Sp

p p
Animals Children Pre-serv. Animals Children Pre-serv.
32 33 384 229
Badger .009 Black rhinoceros .005
(7.6) (14.0) (91.4) (97.0)
415 235 245 142 .646
Bear .427 Cheetah
(98.8) (99.6) (58.3) (60.2)
398 228 417 236
Fox .277 Elephant .557
(94.8) (96.6) (99.3) (100)
4 14 411 236
Genet <.001 Giraffe .024
(1.0) (5.9) (97.9) (100)
260 176 75 90
Lynx .001 Gnu <.001
(61.9) (74.6) (17.9) (38.1)
2 3 406 233
Mongoose .356 Hippopotamus .111
(0.5) (1.3) (96.7) (98.7)
157 134 287 183
Otter <.001 Hyena .012
(37.4) (56.8) (68.3) (77.5)
418 236 196 114 .687
Rabbit .539 Leopard
(99.5) (100) (46.7) (48.3)
290 209 406 233
Red deer <.001 Lion .111
(69.0) (88.6) (96.7) (98.7)
339 219 139 115
Wild boar <.001 Thomson’s gazelle <.001
(80.7) (92.8) (33.1) (48.7)
359 220 416 235
Wolf .003 Zebra .659
(85.5) (93.2) (99.0) (99.6)
Note: The level of significance was p=.002 due to the Bonferroni correction.
The Portuguese pre-service teachers identified the animals from the Iberian Peninsula and from the African
Savannah with a higher relative frequency when compared with the children of this country. However, in the case
of the African Savannah the percentages obtained by the two groups for each animal were, in general, closer.
Even so, and considering the Bonferroni correction, the differences were only statistically significant between
the two groups for one of the Iberian animals, the red deer (p<.001), and for one animal from the Savannah, the
hyena (p=.001). A very similar tendency was found between the Spanish groups and statistical differences were
only found, respectively, for the genet (p=.001), the otter, the red deer and the gnu (p<.001). It is also important
to highlight the very low percentage in the identification of the badger, genet and mongoose by children and by
pre-service teachers of both countries, a result even more relevant since these three animals are not in danger of
extinction and are quite common in the wild. In the case of the Africa Savannah animals, only the gnu has a very
low percentage of identification, but only in the Portuguese sample.
Concerning the body mass of the animals, it is difficult to identify a clear trend in participants from each
country. This means that factors other than size are more important in the identification of the different animals.
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In relation to the recognition of the animals as native or non-native to the Iberian Peninsula, the results ob-
tained by the children and the pre-service teachers of both countries are systematized in Table 5. It is important
to remember that in this analysis only the participants who identified an animal correctly and also those who left
the space blank were considered, since the visible morphological features could help in this assessment.
Table 4. The absolute and relative frequencies of correct identifications of the animals of the Iberian Penin-
sula and of the African Savannah in the Portuguese sample - P (children - C, n=215, and pre-service
teachers - PST, n=105) and in the Spanish sample - Sp (children - C, n=205, and pre-service teachers
- PST, n=131).
Iberian P P Sp Sp Savannah P P Sp Sp
p p p p
Animals (C) (PST) (C) (PST) Animals (C) (PST) (C) (PST)
17 16 15 17 Black rhinoc- 193 103 191 126

Badger .043 .085 .008 .244
(7.9) (15.2) (7.3) (13.0) eros (89.8) (98.1) (93.2) (96.2)
213 105 202 130 144 68 .694 101 74
Bear 1.000 1.000 Cheetah .196
(99.1) (100) (98.5) (99.2) (67.0) (64.8) (49.3) (56.5)
199 101 199 127 213 105 204 131
Fox .208 .947 Elephant 1.000 1.000
(92.6) (96.2) (97.1) (96.9) (99.1) (100) (95.5) (100)
0 0 4 14 212 105 199 131
Genet - .001 Giraffe .554
(0) (0) (2.0) (10.7) (98.6) (100) (97.1) (100) .085
116 73 144 103 18 14 57 76
Lynx .008 .089 Gnu .165 <.001
(54.0) (69.5) (70.2) (78.6) (8.4) (13.3) (27.8) (58.0)
2 0 0 3 208 104 198 129
Mongoose 1.000 .058 Hippopotamus .215 .296
(0.9) (0) (0) (2.3) (96.7) (99.0) (96.6) (98.5)
71 49 86 85 132 84 155 99
Otter .018 <.001 Hyena .001 .994
(33.0) (46.7) (42.0) (64.9) (61.4) (80.0) (75.6) (75.6)
215 105 203 131 115 55 81 59
Rabbit - .523 Leopard .852
(100) (100) (99.0) (100) (53.5) (52.4) (39.5) (45.0) .316
117 80 173 129 214 105 205 131
Red deer <.001 <.001 Lion 1.000 -
(54.4) (76.2) (84.4) (98.5) (99.5) (100) (100) (100)
167 96 172 123 Thomson’s 66 46 73 69
Wild boar .003 .006 .021 .002
(77.7) (91.4) (83.9) (93.9) gazelle (30.7) (43.8) (35.6) (52.7.)
185 100 174 120 213 104 203 131
Wolf .013 .069 Zebra 1.000 .523
(86.0) (95.2) (84.9) (91.6) (99.1) (99.0) (99.0) (100)
Note: The level of significance was p=.002 due to the Bonferroni correction.
Table 5. Absolute and relative frequencies obtained by children and pre-service teachers of Portugal - P +
Spain – Sp, who correctly identify the Iberian animals and the ones of the Savannah. Statistically
significant differences between the two groups were calculated using a Chi-square test.

n n p n n p
32 26 Black rhinoc- 218 206

Badger 150 98 .345 413 235 <.001
(21.3) (26.5) eros (52.8) (91.2)
202 89 153 121
Bear 417 235 .009 Cheetah 260 151 <.001
(48.4) (37.9) (58.8) (80.1)
316 214 247 215
Fox 413 228 <.001 Elephant 418 236 <.001
(76.5) (93.9) (59.1) (91.1)
39 24 258 207
Genet 317 161 .426 Giraffe 416 236 <.001
(12.3) (14.9) (62.0) (87.7)
220 161 87 103
Lynx 380 214 <.001 Gnu 285 163 <.001
(57.9) (75.2) (30.5) (63.2)
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n n p n n p
40 149 12 205 205

Mongoose 358 .292 Hippopotamus 414 234 <.001
(11.2) (8.1) (49.5) (87.6)
126 83 186 150
Otter 343 206 .406 Hyena 401 226 <.001
(36.7) (40.3) (46.4) (66.4)
387 230 144 103
Rabbit 420 236 .006 Leopard 268 136 <.001
(92.1) (97.5) (53.7) (75.7)
236 174 251 210
Red deer 331 218 .025 Lion 419 236 <.001
(71.3) (79.8) (59.9) (89.0)
246 205 Thomson’s 117 98
Wild boar 379 224 <.001 347 199 <.001
(64.9) (91.5) gazelle (33.7) (49.2)
261 201 210 198
Wolf 396 224 <.001 Zebra 420 236 <.001
(65.9) (89.7) (50.0) (83.9)
Note: The level of significance was p=.002 due to the Bonferroni correction; “n” corresponds to the number of participants who did not
misidentify each animal in the first question.
An important result was that a number of animals of the Iberian Peninsula were not identified as native by
both groups. This occurs not only with the animals that were wrongly identified, like the badger, the genet and
the mongoose, but also with the otter and the bear. Even so, the statistically significant differences between the
groups were for the fox, the lynx, the wild boar and the wolf (all with p<.001), since the pre-service teachers had
a much higher number of correct answers. In relation to the Savannah animals, the differences between the two
groups were statistically significant for all the animals (p<.001), with a greater percentage of children tending to
consider these animals as native to the Iberian Peninsula. For instance, only the cheetah, the elephant, the giraffe
and the lion were considered non-native by a majority of the children but, even so, with a percentage of around
60%. The percentage of pre-service teachers that wrongly considered Savannah animals as native is between
10% and 20%, but the value increases to more than 30% for the hyena and more than 50% for Thomson´s gazelle.
The results comparing children’s and pre-service teachers’ answers by country are in Table 6 for the animals
of the Iberian Peninsula and the African Savannah.
By country, the general tendencies in the recognition of the Iberian animals were also similar. The pre-service
teachers tended to identify the native animals from this region better than the children, but the statistical differ-
ences occur only for four animals in the Portuguese sample, the fox, the wild boar, the wolf and the bear (in this
later case with the children performing better) and for two animals in the Spanish sample, the lynx and the wolf
(all with p<.001). The Portuguese pre-service teachers had considerable difficulty in recognizing that the badger,
the bear, the genet, the mongoose and the otter are native, and their Spanish counterparts had difficulty with the
badger, the genet, and the mongoose.
As for the Savannah animals, the pre-service teachers from both countries were better than the children at
identifying these animals as non-native to the Iberian Peninsula, with statistically significant differences for almost
all the animals. In fact, among the Portuguese children, only the lion and the cheetah were identified as non-native
by more than 60% of the participants, and among the Spanish children only the giraffe.
The means obtained by the children and pre-service teachers globally and by country concerning the iden-
tification of all the animals from each region were compared using a Mann Whitney U test and the results can be
found in Table 7.
Overall, the pre-service teachers revealed a greater knowledge in the identification of the animals from both
regions, and this tendency is the same considering the country of origin of the future teachers. Consequently, all
the differences between the children and the pre-service teachers are statistically significant. Both groups also
obtained a better mean in the case of the Savannah animals, and the children’s means are closer for these animals
to those obtained by the pre-service teachers. Nevertheless, in the identification of the animals, the Spanish groups
performed better than the Portuguese. In the case of the correct identification of native and non-native animals
of the Iberian Peninsula, the children revealed much greater difficulty than the pre-service teachers, a tendency
also present in the participants of both countries. Even so, the pre-service teachers also had difficulty with this
identification, which was more evident with the Iberian animals and within the Portuguese sample.
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The syllabuses of the different curricular units in both countries did not include any reference to the study of
native fauna or flora on the Iberian Peninsula, and in fact very few curricular units were related to Biology, Ecology
or Environmental Sciences. This can be explained by the fact that primary teacher training courses have a multi-
disciplinary approach due to the need to cover a variety of different areas of knowledge.
Table 6. Absolute and relative frequencies of children and pre-service teachers from Portugal - P and Spain –
Sp who correctly identified the Iberian animals and those of the Savannah. Statistically significant
differences between the two groups from each country were calculated using a chi-square test.
Iberian P P Sp Sp
n n p n n p
Animals Children Pre-serv. Children Pre-serv.
14 9 18 17
Badger 64 46 .769 86 52 .124
(21.9) (19.6) (20.9) (32.7)
91 19 111 130 70
Bear 214 105 <.001 203 .882
(42.5) (18.1) (54.7) (53.8)
151 96 165 118
Fox 209 101 <.001 204 127 .003
(72.2) (95.0) (80.9) (92.9)
9 2 30 22
Genet 171 78 .336 146 83 .301
(5.3) (2.6) (20.5) (26.5)
98 67 122 94
Lynx 190 99 .009 190 115 <.001
(51.6) (67.7) (64.2) (81.7)
18 9 22 3
Mongoose 187 75 .568 171 74 .036
(9.6) (12.0) (12.9) (4.1)
62 24 64 59
Otter 180 93 .145 163 113 .033
(34.4) (25.8) (39.3) (52.2)
196 105 191 125
Rabbit 215 105 .002 205 131 .395
(91.2) (100) (93.2) (95.4)
75 49 161 125
Red deer 145 87 .497 186 131 .009
(51.7) (56.3) (86.6) (95.4)
102 92 144 113
Wild boar 193 97 <.001 186 127 .009
(52.8) (94.8) (77.4) (89.0)
129 91 132 110
Wolf 203 101 <.001 193 123 <.001
(63.5) (90.1) (68.4) (89.4)
107 92 111 114
Black rhinoceros 212 96 <.001 201 130 <.001
(50.5) (95.8) (55.2) (88.5)
92 61 61 60
Cheetah 151 75 .002 109 76 .001
(66.9) (81.3) (56.0) (78.9)
126 100 121 115
Elephant 214 105 <.001 204 131 <.001
(58.9) (95.2) (59.3) (87.8)
122 95 136 112
Giraffe 215 105 <.001 201 131 <.001
(56.7) (90.5) (67.7) (85.5)
39 35 48 68
Gnu 121 66 .005 164 97 <.001
(32.2) (53.0) (29.3) (70.1)
98 96 107 109
Hippopotamus 213 104 <.001 201 130 <.001
(46.0) (92.3) (53.2) (83.8)
90 67 96 83
Hyena 200 104 .001 201 122 <.001
(45.0) (64.4) (47.8) (68.0)
78 53 66 50
Leopard 154 66 <.001 114 70 .065
(50.6) (80.3) (57.9) (71.4)
130 100 121 110
Lion 214 105 <.001 205 131 <.001
(60.7) (95.2) (59.0) (84.0)
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Iberian P P Sp Sp
n n p n n p
Animals Children Pre-serv. Children Pre-serv.
66 48 51 50
Thomson’s gazelle 188 102 .047 159 97 .002
(35.1) (47.1) (32.1) (51.5)
99 88 111 110
Zebra 215 105 <.001 205 131 <.001
(46.0) (83.8) (54.1) (84.0)
Note: The level of significance was p = 0.002 due to the Bonferroni correction; “n” corresponds to the number of subjects who did not
misidentify each animal in the first question.
Table 7. Statistical comparison between the means obtained by all the children and all the pre-service teach-
ers and also by these two groups considered according to their country of origin using the Mann
Whitney U test.
Man Mann Spanish Mann

Pre- Portuguese Portuguese Spanish
Children Whitney p Whitney p Pre- Whitney p
service Children Pre-Service Children
U U Service U
Identification of the animals

Iberian Animals 17.366 18.233 33069.5 <.001 17.055 17.904 7559.5 <.001 17.692 18.496 8988.5 <.001
Savannah Animals 19.078 19.682 39418.5 <.001 19.027 19.504 9514.5 .020 19.131 19.824 10212.0 <.001
Native or non- native
Iberian Animals 10.909 15.305 8880.0 <.001 10.227 14.761 1568.5 <.001 11.624 15.740 2906.5 <.001
Savannah Animals 14.607 16.690 35008.0 <.001 14.614 16.771 7839.0 <.001 14.600 16.620 9606.5 <.001
Even so, on the Portuguese course, pre-service teachers have a short curricular unit (only 13.5 contact
hours) devoted to ecological knowledge related to Maths, and focused on the levels of organization in Ecology,
biotic and abiotic factors and different types of ecological pyramids.
The Spanish teacher training syllabus includes a specific subject of 3 ECTS (Biology), in which the ecosystems
are addressed, with particular mention of trophic chains, together with contents on anatomy and physiology
of human nutrition, healthy habits and human evolution. Nevertheless, there is no specific mention of native
or non-native fauna.
Discussion
In the present research, the pre-service teachers were better able to identify the animals of both regions
and scored much better in the case of the Iberian animals. Even considering that knowledge differences in
the identification of animals between the two groups were not so marked in the case of the African Savannah
animals, proving their popularity and greater prominence in different sources of information, the pre-service
teachers continued to perform better and the differences between the two groups, including by country, were
always statistically significant. The fact that they are older students increases the possibility of contact with more
sources of information, which can improve their knowledge about the animal world, even knowing that their
courses do not address native or exotic fauna. This result is contrary to the idea that the increase of knowledge
of animals tends to stagnate after a certain age, as concluded by other studies described in the Introduction.
The Portuguese children and the Portuguese pre-service teachers also revealed more difficulties in the
identification of the Iberian animals than the Spanish. Apparently, this could be explained by the fact that the
Portuguese sample is from a more urban area with less contact with nature. But in fact, in the nature areas
around Lisbon, the least identified animals, like the genet, the mongoose and the badger, exist in the wild.
However, these animals are not easily seen due to their behaviour and period of activity, especially if children
or pre-service teachers are not involved in outdoor activities which could, at least, provide them with indica-
tions of animal activity. Therefore, even knowing that a number of factors influence this lack of knowledge, it
seems relevant to mention the idea of Pergams and Zaradic (2006), namely that this kind of result supports
the possibility of a disconnection of the participants with their local environmental. And several studies have
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shown how the connection with local fauna and flora can enhance children’s knowledge and interest in nature
(e.g.; Eshach, 2006; Gelman, 2009; Heezik, Dickinson, & Freeman, 2012; Lindemann-Mathies, 2005; Mateos
Jiménez & García Fernández, 2016; Patrick &Tunniclife, 2011). To this end, there is a need to move from the
usual visits to zoos and other thematic parks, where there is normally an absence of native fauna, to wilder
places (Almeida et al., 2018).
Overall, the children’s difficulties with the identification of Iberian animals can be also related to the lack
of approach to native species at school. In fact there is no reference in the curriculum of either country to the
importance of the native fauna (see, e.g. the essential learning for the 5th year of schooling in Portugal, Di-
reção Geral de Educação, n.a.; The Royal Decree of minimum contents in Spain, Ministry of Education, Culture
and Sport of Spain, 2014). Even so, the pre-service teachers also revealed difficulties with the identification of
these animals despite their higher score. As they are soon to be qualified teachers, a principle advanced by
Bizerril (2004) also seems important for the present discussion: the less a teacher knows about a subject, the
less inclined they will be to approach that subject with their students.
There was no trend of an improved identification of animals of species with a high body mass in the global
sample and in the samples of each country. This could be related to the fact that the species chosen were all
large, even retaining the differences already stated between the Iberian and Savannah species, and to the
influence of the above-mentioned aspects already discussed.
Globally, the lack of exposure to local or regional biodiversity, both in class and outside school can affect
awareness of the threats faced by native species (Caride & Meira, 2004; Consorte-McCreaa, et al. 2017), a conse-
quence to be expected both in children and future teachers. According to Kansky and Knight (2014), knowledge
is not enough to develop a positive attitude to a certain species, but concern for local species is also unlikely
when they are totally unknown (Dixon, Birchenough, Evans, & Quigley, 2005). A study by Ballouard, Brischoux
and Bonnet (2011) with French students from urban and rural areas, aged 7-11, found that exotic species were
better identified than local, and the children showed great interest in protecting the former.
The performance by both groups in identifying the animals as native or non-native to the Iberian Peninsula
revealed even more difficulties, in particular among the children of the two countries, with a lower score for the
Portuguese. In this respect, the number of participants who considered a variety of animals of the Savannah
as native to the Iberian Peninsula was high. In fact, other studies involving children and even adolescents also
obtained the same result with the participants considering that lions or elephants are part of the native fauna
of countries like the United States or The Netherlands (Strommen, 1995; Verboon, Kraling, & Meier, 2004). But
the present research showed that the inclusion of African Savannah animals in the native fauna of the Iberian
Peninsula also occurred among pre-service teachers. It had a lower incidence, but the percentages may still
be considered of concern.
Several explanations can be offered to explain this surprising result. Maybe children have greater difficulty
in understanding the meaning of living in the wild, especially if their contact experiences with animals are
confined to thematic parks where nature is managed. But probably many of them have difficulty in associating
an animal with a certain biogeographic area. This can be related to the curricular syllabus of primary school in
both countries, more focused as it is on the features of different taxonomic animals than on their ecosystemic
insertion. And teachers may tend to narrowly meet the established goals even because the system periodi-
cally uses assessment tests. Pre-service teachers seem to show a lack of ecological knowledge, at least partially
related with their academic training.
Conclusions and Educational Implications
The results of the present study show scant knowledge about native mammals both in the children and the
pre-service teachers of the two countries, with the participants having even greater difficulty in determining
the native status of the animals than with their identification. This is explained by the higher presence of African
animals in media, and by a lack of opportunities to see some Iberian native animals in the wild. The pre-service
teachers performed better than children, what is contrary to the idea that the knowledge of animals tends to
stagnate with the age, as pre-service teachers had more possibilities to get contact with different sources of
information (also the environment) to improve their learning on this topic. Nevertheless, they also revealed
gaps in their knowledge, specially related to native animals. Spanish children and pre-service teachers score
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better than their Portuguese peers. Considering that native and exotic fauna does not appear in the syllabus
for any group, we conclude that the presence of more urban areas in Lisbon might have limited the contact
with the ecosystems, determining the results in this research. The body mass of the animals seems not to be
determinant in the identification of the animal and the classification as native or not native.
Therefore, a more contextualized science education is needed, highlighting the local and regional natural
heritage, and this can be achieved through more outdoor activities. Changes in teacher training courses in
both countries can contribute to this improvement, following the trends just mentioned for children. Since
these students will soon be fully qualified teachers, a change in their outlook will help to contextualize this
curricular change and stimulate young children to preserve their native fauna.
Further research is needed in other education contexts (urban or rural), education levels (e.g. secondary
education) and countries, to identify if the patterns found in the present research are exclusive of the context
studied, or if they can also be found in other frameworks.
Acknowledgements

A special thanks from the researchers to all the children and pre-service teachers inquired in the present
study for their collaboration and willingness to participate, and also to the facilities given by the directors of
the different schools involved.
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Received: August 24, 2019 Accepted: November 20, 2019
António Almeida Ph.D. Coordinator Professor, Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon / CICS.

NOVA, NOVA University Lisbon, Campus de Benfica do IPL. 1549-003
Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail: aalmeida@eselx.ipl.pt
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-3594-1324.
Beatriz García Fernández PhD, Professor, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Science Education,
(Corresponding author) Department of Pedagogy, Faculty of Education of Ciudad Real, Ronda
de Calatrava, 3, 13071, Ciudad Real, Spain.
E-mail: Beatriz.Garcia@uclm.es
ORCID ID: 0000-0003-3541-1718.
Orlando Strecht-Ribeiro Master in Education, Polytechnic Institute of Lisbon / Interdisciplinary
Center of Educational Studies, Campus de Benfica do IPL. 1549-003
Lisboa, Portugal.
E-mail: joseorribeiro5@gmail.com
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-5133-9958.
847
IDENTIFYING BARRIERS
WHEN TEACHING SCIENCE
AND MATHEMATICS IN LOW
ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/ ECONOMY REGIONS: SWANSEA
AND HAKKARI AS CASE
Abstract. The purpose of this research was STUDIES
to identify the barriers that upper-secondary
school science and mathematics teachers
face during the teaching process in eco-
nomically disadvantaged regions (Hakkari,
Turkey and Swansea, UK). The research Mukadder Baran
design was comparative case research
and pursues qualitative methodological
approach in collecting and analyzing the
data about the barriers that teachers are
encountering during the teaching process.
The research sample consisted of 24 science
Introduction
and mathematics teachers from different
upper-secondary schools in Hakkari and
Swansea. Semi-structured interview forms, Knowledge has become one of the main sources of power in the global
were developed and employed to collect world and is necessary in order to be the part of global economy. In a way, it
the data. The thematic analysis was used has become a global investment, and this makes education more important.
to analyze the obtained data. The results The quality and equity of a country’s education system can help shape its
revealed different categories in under- future. An education system in which all students have opportunities to learn
standing the situations that science and can strengthen the capacities of individuals and societies that can contribute
mathematics teachers confront in both to economic growth and social well-being (OECD, 2014). Despite its necessity
cases; student-related issues, pedagogical in the construction of a knowledge-based society and human development,
issues, teachers’ lack of subject knowledge educational systems confront serious problems in many countries, even
and socio-economic and cultural-based in European countries which are highly developed (EACEA, 2018; Simões,
issues. As student-based barriers, lack of Lourenco, & Costa, 2018). For example, teachers in both Turkey and Wales
prior knowledge, students`attention span, face certain barriers in the teaching process (Donaldson, 2015; Estyn, 2013;
and interest; and regarding teachers-based MEB, 2017; Ozyilmaz; 2017). These barriers, however, seem to vary from one
barriers, teachers` lack of class manage- country to another but share some common points. Different reports identi-
ment and communication skills, and lack of fied some barriers as teacher-based issues, curriculum-related issues, mono-
student-centered methods found as similar lingual education issues, and racial and socioeconomic segregation issues.
barriers. Language and socio-economical These barriers affect teachers, students, administrators, financial resources,
problems were also shared barriers for both
the learning environment, families and other stakeholders. Among those
cities. In addition to those barriers, political
barriers, socioeconomic status is an important factor during the teaching
and family-based issues which hindered
process. Socioeconomic status is not just about income. It also indicates social
educational attainment found as the main
class, educational attainment, perceptions, and the physical and psychosocial
barriers by science and mathematics teach-
statuses of societies. Bourdieu (1973) also defined the environment in which
ers in Hakkari.
Keywords: comparative case research,
groups live and flourish via the term “habitus.” He argued the role of schools
mathematics teachers, science teachers, in social reproduction and supported his view by claiming that students from
teaching barriers. different social classes have different habitus and ways to access the cultural
resources that affect students’ academic achievement. Douglas (1964) also
emphasized in “cultural deprivation theory” that parental attitudes, family size,
position within families and the scant care of babies in crowded families with
Mukadder Baran less socioeconomic resources have a great impact on students’ disposition
University of Oslo, Norway in school and life. According to the PISA 2015 results, the students who so-
cioeconomically had advantage tended to outscore disadvantaged students
by large margins (OECD, 2016a).
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Teachers as part of the teaching process they are confronting those socioeconomic barriers and they have
an important position in the development of the teaching process, which strongly affects teaching quality.
Due to the characteristics of their profession, teachers are also in a position that shapes the future of society
(Sisman & Acar, 2013). Therefore, teachers are responsible for helping students reach their academic poten-
tial. In this sense, teachers need to equip their students with a variety of skills and knowledge required for the
future and for life; even more important is the need to nurture students in the ideals of a modern democratic
society (Dewey, 1927 in Tirri & Kuusisto, 2016). Developed and developing countries need individuals with 21st
Century skills such as creativity, teamwork, technology use, problem-solving, and critical thinking to become
integrated into the knowledge-based society. To meet this need, students should also be equipped with sci-
ence, technology, mathematics and engineering (STEM) skills. As a result, in order to train individuals who are
experts in their field, to educate future scientists and engineers who will contribute to the development of the
country and to produce science-based technological innovations, students should be equipped with science,
mathematics and technology literacy skills (Miaoulis, 2009), which is the responsibility of teachers. Hence,
teacher education should give priority to teachers, and the curriculum should be arranged in a way to consider
the barriers faced by teachers since it has strong/direct influence on the quality of education (Brouwer, 2007).
Research Problem
The discussion provides a valuable context in understanding the issues related to the barriers during the
teaching process; however, less attention has been paid to the barriers for teaching at the local level - especially
in regions where there are diverse social-cultural and economic values. Furthermore, the focus was not specifi-
cally on the issues related to teaching in general or on the problems that science and mathematics teachers
encounter during the teaching process. Also, due to the importance given to STEM education, more work
has been loaded on the shoulders of science, mathematics and technology teachers at schools. Therefore, in
this research, comparisons were made between secondary science and mathematics teachers in Hakkari and
Swansea where there are depressed economies.
Research Focus
Studies conducted in the field claimed that there were similar barriers encountered individually by
teachers, such as the length of the curriculum, lack of time, unsuitable laboratory facilities, insufficient tools
and materials for experimental studies, students’ lack of discipline and their low level of interest in learning
science. Teachers’ lack of professional development was also referred to as a constraint that seems to play an
essential role in this process (Vasconcelos, Tores, Moutinho, Martins, & Costa, 2015, p.2). Furthermore, student
absenteeism, the gap between the academic curriculum and the local labor market, and the time available
for working with students with special needs are other barriers that have been found that are related to the
classroom during the teaching process (Heaviside, Carey, & Farris, 1994; Cano, 2016).
This research took a closer look in this respect in two regions, Hakkari in the Kurdish part of Turkey and
Swansea in the Welsh part of the U.K. The problems regarding the teaching process become especially evident
in Turkey. A lot of studies carried out in different cities in Turkey found that the barriers reported by teachers
mostly included inequality regarding the selection of principals, lack of training for teachers, poor teaching
quality, employment problems, insufficient infrastructure and equipment, crowded classrooms, influence of
politics on educational policies, ideological issues (ideological discrimination and favoritism), difficulties ex-
perienced by teachers in their careers, transition to secondary education or higher education, problems with
students’ learning, problems related to nationalization in education, differences between public and private
schools, funding for education, central exams, memorization-based learning, an insufficient number of teach-
ers, lack of school-parent cooperation, violence at schools, lack of technical professionalism (e.g. working
with ICT), inequalities between students in accessing education and the overload in the curriculum (Akinci,
Uzun, & Kisoglu, 2015; Ayvaci & Durmus, 2013; Balbağ & Karaer, 2016; Kösterelioğlu & Bayar, 2014; Metin, 2013;
Özyılmaz, 2017; Yılmaz & Altınkurt, 2011).
In the case of Wales, there are relatively few studies in this field. In general, these studies were related to
the problems encountered by teachers in Wales during their teaching process: the overload in the curriculum,
heavy work, heavy stress, difficult classroom management, long working hours, lack of security due to pos-
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sible redundancy and problems with student behaviors (Barmby, 2006; Smithers & Robinson, 2008; Whitehead,
Preece, & Maughan, 1999). The purpose of selecting these two cities, which discussed in detail, was that both
cities did poorly in the PISA test conducted in 2015 (OECD, 2016b), the socio-economic development level is
quite low when compared to the rest of the country and both cities are bilingual.
In terms of the achievement levels in both regions, it was thought that it would be useful to compare the
PISA results. It was seen from the PISA results in 2015 that both regions did relatively poor compared to the
rest of the country. As it can be clearly seen from Table 1 and Table 2, both regions achieved lower scores than
the OECD average, which was 500 points.
Table 1. 2015 PISA results of the regions in Turkey.
Middle
West West Mediter- East Middle West Northeast East Southeast
2015 PISA Aegean İstanbul east
Marmara Anatolia ranean Marmara anatolia Blacksea Anatolia Blacksea Anatolia
Anatolia
Science 448 443 438 436 436 434 420 416 414 413 387 382
Mathematics 442 433 432 431 430 429 422 411 409 399 385 370
Reading 458 446 443 441 437 436 427 414 406 404 390 384
Table 1 shows the PISA results for Turkey. Hakkari belongs to the Middle Eastern Anatolia region that did
relatively poor in the PISA test compared to the rest of Turkey (OECD, 2016b).
Table 2. 2015 PISA results of the regions in the United Kingdom (UK).
2015 PISA England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales
Science 512 500 497 485

Mathematics 493 493 491 478
Reading 500 497 493 477
Table 2 shows the PISA 2015 results for the U.K., and the results of Wales were also relatively poorer than
the rest of the U.K (OECD, 2016b).
Both regions are underdeveloped regions in the two countries. In Wales, the unemployment rate is 5.9%
(U.K. 5.2%, South East 3.7%). Also, in Wales, only 4% of households fall in the wealthiest percentile compared
to 11% in the South East (Office for National Statistics (ONS), December 2015). This situation can be one of the
reasons that 29% of Welsh children lived in relative poverty between 2014-2015 (Welsh Government Report,
2016). Hakkari is in a similarly disadvantaged region in Turkey, which is among the provinces where public
investments are the least and the rural unemployment rate is the highest (SEGE, 2011; TOBB, 2017).
Another reason for choosing those two cities were bilingualism. Wales is a county where approximately
19% of its population speaks the Welsh language and which is known as a bilingual area. Also, approximately
16% of pupils attend Welsh-medium schools and study Welsh as a first language. Ten percent of students that
attend are bilingual, dual-medium, or English with a significant Welsh provision. The statistics have showed that
in 2014, 22% of the seven-year-old learners were assessed through the medium of Welsh as a first language and
17% of the 14-year-old learners were assessed with Welsh as the first language. Ten percent of the learners in
colleges identify themselves as Welsh speakers, and about seven percent of learning experiences are studied
in Welsh or bilingually (Estyn, 2017; Jones, 2016). Also, the results of the survey that investigated linguistics
skills has ensured that there are enough staff who can teach through the medium of Welsh, but studies have
showed that there is still a shortage of Welsh-speaking staff (Estyn, 2017).
On the other hand, Hakkari is a city which is in the Kurdish part of Turkey. According to the CIA`s World
Factbook (2019) report, Kurds constitute 19% of Turkey`s population. Among all residents, 12% of Kurds can
speak Kurdish (Ceyhan, 2012; cited in IAGCI, 2019). Kurds in Turkey cannot get education in Kurdish. They can
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only take Kurdish lessons as optional courses. The Kurds in Turkey do not constitute a homogeneous group
(Ozfidan, Burlbaw, & Aydin, 2018). Some Kurds barely speak Kurdish but have accepted their Kurdish genetics.
Other groups do not know any other language except Kurdish, and this group represents the older men and
women who did not have a Turkish education. The last group represents the bilingual Kurdish group in Turkey.
This group can speak both Turkish and Kurdish fluently. This group consists of two parts, one of which are na-
tives who cannot professionally speak both languages, the other is the one that speaks only Kurdish until six
or seven years old, but after that receive all formal education in Turkish (Smits & Gündüz-Hoşgör, 2003). Even
though the law has allowed the Kurdish to take optional courses in Kurdish, there are still challenges such as
a lack of sources and a lack of teachers who can offer Kurdish at the schools (Ozfidan, Burlbaw, & Aydin, 2018).
Classroom Climate in Turkey and Wales
According to the TALIS results (2018), during the teaching process teachers in Turkey view the classroom
disciplinary climate rather negatively when compared to the other 23 countries. A certain amount of class time
is lost due to disruptive student behavior or administrative issues. Also, according to the same report, 43%
of the teachers lack pedagogical preparation, 31% of the teachers are in schools where the principal reports
that teachers arrive late and 35% of the teachers are in schools where absenteeism is reported by principals
as hindering instruction a lot or to some extent.
According to an OECD report (2014), despite the positive climate of the school and good teacher-student
relationships, not all Welsh teachers have such skills as adequate content and pedagogical knowledge to meet
students’ current or future needs. Also, based on the report prepared by Furlong (2015), the Welsh teachers did
not possess the skills necessary to help students meet the innovations of the 21st Century curriculum. Accord-
ing to the reports above, similar to many other countries and regions, both regions have had some challenges
and barriers for teachers that make their practices more difficult.
Concerning these challenges, it was found that there is not much focus on the comparison between the
barriers that science and mathematics teachers encounter during the teaching process even though science
and mathematics teachers are important for STEM education to meet current society’s needs. Therefore, it is
believed that the present research would contribute to the related literature. Aware of this gap, the research
aimed to identify the barriers regarding the student-related and teaching-related issues which science and
mathematics teachers face in these regions and which influence their teaching process. In order to serve the
aim the following questions were asked:
1. What are the students-based barriers during mathematics and science teaching?
2. What are the teachers-based barriers during mathematics and science teaching?
General Background
The research focused on the barriers that science and mathematics teachers face in regions that are socio-
economically disadvantaged, such as Hakkari and Swansea. Therefore, the research design was based on the
comparative case study, and a qualitative methodological approach was used. The research relies mostly on
primary sources which are collected from interviews held with 24 mathematics and science teachers from both
regions. The data collected from different upper-secondary schools in both regions and the process took six
months. The research was conducted during 2016 - 2017 academic year.
Sample / Participants / Group

The research included two groups of participants, and one of the groups included 12 teachers from Hakkari
and the other included 12 teachers from Swansea. The permission was obtained differently in the two cities. In
Hakkari, the permission was obtained from the Director of National Education Manager of Hakkari. In Swansea,
the permission was obtained from the Ethics Committee of University of Wales Trinity Saint David (UWTSD).
All fields of science and mathematics were covered in both regions equally such as physics (n=6), chemistry
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(n=6), biology (n=6) and mathematics (n=6). These participants were determined based on ease of accessibility
from different upper-secondary schools in Hakkari and Swansea. All the participants were teaching at public
schools in both cities. The schools were public secondary schools selected based on ease of accessibility. More
detailed information about the participants can be seen in Table 3 below:
Table 3. Teachers’ demographic background.
Gender
Teachers in Hakkari Age Experience as a teacher/ years
Female Male
Physics 1 2 30-40 5-20
Chemistry 3 - 25-40 3-15
Biology 2 1 25-35 3-10
Mathematics 2 1 25-40 3-15
Teachers in Swansea
Physics 2 1 30-40 5-20
Chemistry 3 - 45-55 20-
Biology 2 1 40-55 10-20
Mathematics 1 2 25-50 5-10
According to Table 3, the teachers from Swansea were older and had more working experience than those
in Hakkari.
The research data were collected via semi-structured qualitative interviews. The interviews were conducted
in Turkish (Hakkari) and English (Swansea). The interviews were held once during the Fall Term (2016) and were
digitally recorded.
The questions included the perceptions and aspects of the science and mathematics teachers, such as the roles
and responsibilities of teachers, students, cultural and other issues that impact on teaching decisions and barriers
while teaching science and mathematics at the secondary level. The questions in the semi-structured interviews
were prepared based on the problems identified in the related literature, and after the approval of five academi-
cians in the field of science and mathematics, a pilot study was carried out. An appropriate interview guideline was
prepared and used to ensure reliability in data collection. The interview guideline included seven semi-structured
questions which were developed in line with the related literature and were all related to the research questions.
All the participants were asked to provide fully informed consents prior to the research process, and they had the
right to withdraw at any time in the research process. The research data collected were discussed with the partici-
pants for validation. Each interview lasted approximately 15-30 minutes.
Data Analysis

The interviews were transcribed, and the data obtained were analyzed by the researchers, who were working
in the physics and chemistry departments. The data were analyzed using the thematic analysis method. In the-
matic analysis, the data are analyzed mainly in a deductive manner and in accordance with previously determined
concepts. The concepts (categories and codes) were determined based on the previous studies (Akinci, Uzun, &
Kisoglu, 2015; Ayvaci & Durmus, 2013; Barmby, 2006; Little, 2005; Smithers & Robinso, 2008), and on the review of
the related literature.. After that, the categories and the codes were prepared according to the research questions
as follows: student-based issues, teacher-based issues, curriculum-based issues and cultural and language-based
issues. In light of the research questions for this study, the teachers’ interpretations in Swansea and Hakkari were
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compared and analyzed. In addition, in order to show which teacher represented each view, the teachers were
coded as T1, T2, T3, and so on. To represent the cities and the teachers’ subject fields, the first letter of the cities
and the first letter of the subject field were used together, and the symbolic number of the teacher was added.
Research Results

Student-Based Issues in the Classroom
As one of the result of the interviews held with 24 teachers, the student-based issues in Swansea and Hak-
kari within the teaching process were determined as a barrier. The views of the teachers working in Swansea and
Hakkari are given in Table 4.
Table 4. Student-based issues during teaching.
Hakkari Swansea
Total
Physics Chemistry Biology Mathematics Physics Chemistry Biology Mathematics
Category Code Explanation
Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers
Prior Prior knowl-

knowledge is 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 1 19
edge insufficient
Student-
Students
based Lack of
have Lack 1 3 3 1 1 2 2 1 14
issues interest
of interest
Attention
Not Enough 1 3 3 1 3 2 1 0 14
span
The results presented in Table 4 show that according to a great majority of the teachers in Hakkari (11 teach-
ers), the students came into the classroom with a lack of prior knowledge. Parallel to this data, a great majority of
the teachers (eight teachers) in Swansea also mentioned students’ lack of prior knowledge. As a result, 19 out of
24 teachers stated that students came into the classroom without any prior knowledge. Regarding this issue, a
biology teacher and a chemistry teacher in Swansea said:
T8Sb: We do have children who do not read much, and they have not got very good background knowledge of science.
T6 Sc: So little prior knowledge, chemistry is quite a hard subject for them anyway. I assume that they all know nothing.
They do not realize that the science they have seen at school is chemistry
According to the interviews held with the science and mathematics teachers in Swansea, the teachers had
problems regarding the students’ prior knowledge as can be seen in the views of T3Sb and T6Sc: “they have not got
very good background of knowledge of science” and “I assume that they all know nothing.” It obviously shows
students` lack of prior knowledge.
On the other hand, the views of the teachers about the lack of prior knowledge, unlike Swansea, are rooted
from different cultural backgrounds. The views of the teachers in Hakkari about the reasons for the lack of prior
knowledge can be seen in Table 5 below.
Table 5. The reasons for lack of prior knowledge
Physics Chemistry Biology Mathematics

Comments Total
Teachers Teachers Teachers Teachers
Indifferent and crowded families 1 1 2 2 6
Influence of political state 1 - 2 2 5
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According to Table 5, the reason for the students’ lack of prior knowledge in Hakkari are mainly based on cul-
tural issues, such as crowded families and the influence of political issues, which also cause absenteeism in class.
In relation to the results found in the table above, a biology teacher in Hakkari made a more detailed comment on
students’ family backgrounds and on the influence of political situations on students’ prior knowledge:
T13Hp: Well, I do not know if it is because of lack of teachers, or because of teachers who come to school and
leave a year later after their training period is over. When this is the case, I do not expect the children to be ef-
ficient or things to be permanent. Also, there are such families: for example mothers, women who get married at
the age of 14 or 15; for example, my students have eight or nine siblings. I ask them how old their mothers are,
and they say 34. I am 35. Now, in such a situation, the woman has lack of education; she does not ask the child
“what are you doing, what did you learn at school?”, um, the father is also not interested. Families do not care,
they just want their children to go to school; they do not want them to spend their time outside doing nothing.
They say it is enough for them to know that they are at school; they do not want anything else, and they are
unbelievably indifferent. It is not only lack of children’s prior knowledge; it is also families’ indifference. I do not
associate it with anything else. Children do not, um, have intelligence problems.
T19Hb: In addition, sometimes, students do not come to school due to political issues. Lessons become discon-
nected then. When that happens, there occurs lack of prior knowledge, which in turn causes the student to
experience difficulty understanding the subsequent subjects. Err, these are student-based problems that we
meet. There are also family-based problems such as not motivating the students enough for school, not making
them conscious enough, for example not coming to school consciously also affects learning.
Those two teachers from Hakkari expressed the barriers related to cultural issues as the lack of inter-
est of families towards education, students without their families` support, and the crowded family including
eight to nine kids. All of these factors have negative influence on prior knowledge.
In addition, two physics teachers from each city and a chemistry teacher in Hakkari stated that the
students were not successful in physics/chemistry courses due to their lack of prior knowledge about math-
ematics; moreover, the physics and chemistry teachers in Hakkari associated this situation with the sociocultural
structure such as a lack of the mother tongue in the education system in Turkey, and they expressed this as
a problem as follows:
T16Hc: It is not only mathematics, it is also literature, I mean because of their lack of Turkish, students cannot
learn the verbal parts of my course as they are not proficient in Turkish. There is also one other thing peculiar to
our area, our school. It originates from the students’ mother tongue.
T14Hp: That is, mathematics is actually a skill that should be acquired at primary or elementary school. That is
the biggest problem we are having. In other words, when I read and evaluate the students’ written papers, I see
obvious mistakes of children especially about four operations and about basic algebra! I mean, it’s hard to do
something about this. I mean, how can I teach Newton’s Law of Motion to a child who knows almost nothing
about algebra?
Regarding lack of mathematical skills, the physics teacher in Swansea described his/her ideas as follows:
T2Sp: Sometimes some other pupils who are not good at maths may not enjoy the physics, you do come across
that problem that they don’t like physics they tend to prefer biology.
According to physics teachers from each cities lack of mathematical skills was a barrier that prevented
and decreased students` learning and interest in physics.
In the case of teachers in Swansea regarding cultural issues that affect prior knowledge, a physics teacher
in Swansea described his/her ideas as follows:
T1Sp: You certainly find that within this school, most of the children we have come from a rural community, from
farming backgrounds. So as far as their subject knowledge is concerned, they are very much into environmental
projects. Like windfarms, the cost of them, location … It’s something that they have a real interest in. It’s a bit
more difficult in physics, because most of the work we do, such as stuff like space, has no real relevance to them.

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According to Table 4, when the data regarding the student-based issues in the learning process are
examined, it is seen that eight out of 12 teachers in Hakkari stated that the students were not interested in
lessons and that the same rate was true for the teachers in Swansea. A chemistry teacher in Hakkari made the
following comments about the issue:
T16Hc: Whether these students are teenagers, the personal problems of teenage students are also reflected in
their courses. A ninth grade student is a little bit more childish. Grade 10 students, even our best students, may
not show enough interest in lessons due to the teenage psychology.
Another chemistry teacher in Swansea expressed his/her feelings as follows:
T6Sc: That changes. A-level, because they have chosen the subject, they are interested. GCSE, they have to do
chemistry and some do find it difficult. You know you have to talk about formulas and similar things. They find
equations difficult and sometimes calculations difficult. They do not enjoy it as much, then so they have interest.
According to the comments of the teachers from each city, it could be stated that the teacher from Hakkari
identified the barriers based on the students’ physical and psychological development. On the other hand,
the teacher in Swansea defined the problem as a lack of interest based on the difficulties of the subject. The
teacher from Swansea related the students’ lack of interest to the difficulty level of the course.
In addition to the student-based barriers in the learning process, the data in Table 4 were obtained re-
garding the students’ attention. When these data were analyzed, it was seen that among the 12 teachers in
Hakkari, eight of them said the students had little attention span and that six of the 12 teachers in Swansea
gave the same answer. In relation to this, a mathematics teacher in Hakkari described the situation as follows:
T23Hm: Attention span is related to the students’ level of loving the subject and the teacher, and it`s also related
to the students` interest in lessons. In other words, if the student loves his teacher, he has more attention span
in his lectures and he then starts to love the course. He can do more for his teacher, especially if he loves the
teacher. Any student who is already interested is interested in any kind, but a student who is not interested is
forced by his/her teacher. Therefore, sometimes, things go on with the teacher’s support
Regarding the attention span, a chemistry teacher in Swansea made the following comment:
T5Sc: The attention span is probably lower than it was when I first started teaching. Sometimes, when you do a revi-
sion lesson, you do need to stand up and do a bit of lecture, and I find it harder to do that now than in the past. Also,
that is probably because of all the distractions they face. Teaching means a lot more activities for students and much
less lecturing these days, so I do find it more difficult to listen for prolonged periods of time. But saying all of that, I
can conduct revision lessons with them, and I can stand and talk to get it done if necessary. I just feel I’m very hasty,
because I feel I’m losing their attention a little bit more quickly than I used to.
The teacher in Hakkari related the attention span of the students to the degree of students` love for
their teachers. The teacher in Swansea related attention span to innovative teaching methods that distracted
students`s attention more than before.
According to the results in Table 4 and Table 5, the science and mathematics teachers from both countries
expressed the barriers that are based on students, such as a lack of prior knowledge, lack of interest, short
attention span, lack of family care and the negative influence of sociocultural and political issues on students.
Teacher-Based Issues During the Teaching Process
Table 6 presents the teachers’ responses to the question of “How do your skills and experiences influence
your teaching?.”
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Table 6. Teacher-based issues during the teaching process.
Hakkari Swansea
Mathematics
Mathematics
Total
Chemistry
Chemistry
Teachers
Teachers
Teachers
Teachers
Teachers
Teachers
Teachers
Teachers
Category Code Explanation
Physics
Physics
Biology
Biology
Subject knowledge Enough 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 24
Enough 2 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 21
Pedagogical skills
Not enough 1 - - 2 - - - - 3
Communication Enough 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 18
Skills Not enough 1 1 2 1 - - - 5
Teacher-based issues
Enough 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 15
Class management
Not enough 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 0 9
Only Traditional 2 1 1 2 - - 1 - 7
Both method but
- - - - 1 2 1 2 6
mainly traditional
Teaching Styles Both method but

mainly student - 1 1 1 1 - - - 4
centered
Both method used
1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 7
equally
When the interview results in Table 6 were examined, it was found that all of the teachers in both Hakkari
and Swansea stated that they did not have any problems with their own subject knowledge and that they had
enough subject knowledge. Similarly, all of the teachers of science and mathematics in Swansea reported that
their pedagogical skills were enough and that they did not encounter any pedagogical skill-based problems during
teaching. However, when the responses of the science and mathematics teachers in Hakkari were analyzed, it was
seen that except for three teachers, nine considered their pedagogic skills to be enough. A mathematics teacher
in Hakkari and a physics teacher in Swansea made the following comments regarding a lack of pedagogical skills:
T22Hm: Of course, I have problems with pedagogical knowledge, so, for example, before the class, what I do, let’s say before
I have a video of it. How can I transfer it? So I cannot pass it off. I use the Internet or I had a friend who teach mathematics
in the same way. I have a very close friend from my branch, and I can contact him. That’s how I’m trying to solve a problem.
In relation to the same issue, a physics teacher in Swansea made the following comments:
T1Sp: I think that you learn it during the teaching practice, and you try to put it in place, but it is quite difficult at times.
It is something that you develop over years. In the way that you question and answer in sessions. Some people are
naturally gifted at that type of thing, and others have to work on it. It all depends on the person and their personality.
As can be seen from the teachers’ comments, pedagogical skills were seen as a skill that develops over time.
When the section related to communication skills was examined in Table 6, it was found that seven science
and mathematics teachers in Hakkari and 12 science and mathematics teachers in Swansea said they had enough
communication skills. However, a chemistry teacher and a biology teacher in Hakkari expressed their problems
regarding communication skills as follows:
T17Hc: In terms of communication skills, um, as I said, how does that happen, err when we communicate with students um,
unavoidably, as I said, err the age difference between the teacher and the student can also cause communication problems.
Sometimes we do not understand the students. Except that, as I said educational sciences, we begin to understand the
students through our experience. Err, we use our pedagogical knowledge, and we have to try it just like the experiments in
the laboratory. We try, we fail, for example, we don not do those mistakes in the next lesson.
T20Hb: Communication skills are very difficult to enter with students and with the students here because they im-
mediately connect the political dimension and relate to Turkish-Kurdish part. Now I came from the west part of Turkey.
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When you come from the west, you do not know the problems here in the east. You know, you cannot understand
them. In class management, our students are already a little violent. I mean, they like to break the lesson and hit their
friends in class. I sometimes cannot establish communication with them.
According to the comments of the two teachers from Hakkari, a lack of communication skills was associated
with the age differences between the teachers and the students as well as with the political issues that made com-
munication harder between the local students and the non-local teachers. On the other hand, it could be asserted
that, as seen in Table 6, there is no problem with the communication skills of the teachers in Swansea.
When the teachers’ class management skills were examined, it was seen that seven science and mathematics
teachers in Hakkari and eight sciences and mathematics teachers in Swansea said they had enough class manage-
ment skills. On the contrary, one mathematics teacher in Hakkari and one chemistry teacher in Swansea who had
problems with class management expressed their thoughts as follows:
T6Sc: Class management, I would say sometimes I am not good at it if the children are naughty and playing up because I
do not like shouting. Boys they can, they do not, they take longer to get on the task. Not all boys, but some, they are not so
keen. Girls are good, they come in, they have their pencil case and books, I mean they are prepared. The boys, not all of them,
they do not bring their books, they forget their pencils, so they are not in the mode to learn, they are thinking of other things.
T22Hm: Class sizes, 34 people is too much in a very serious sense. When I was here in upper-secondary schools, we had
15-20 people in class. We had two science classes, so we all got in the way, we could do what we wanted, so our heads were
a little bit better. So, now, including these children, we have 34 students, and we have more difficulties with them. It is very
extremely difficult.
According to the comments of the teachers from both cities, it could be stated that class management viewed
by the teacher from Hakkari is a gender problem. The teacher reported that in comparison to the male students,
the female students were more manageable, while for the teacher from Swansea, class management becomes
harder due to class size and the population of the classroom.
Based on the data obtained, it could be assumed that the teachers’ subject knowledge, pedagogical knowl-
edge, communication skills and classroom management skills had an impact on the teaching process. It could
be asserted that in both cities, the teachers considered their subject knowledge and pedagogical skills to be
sufficient. Also, it was revealed that the teachers who thought their communication skills were not enough were
mainly from Hakkari. Furthermore, the teachers who thought that they had difficulties in class management were
almost quantitatively equal in both cities.
Preferred Teaching Styles During Teaching Process
According to Table 6, the science and mathematics teachers used traditional and student-centered methods
in different percentages. Among them, six teachers in Hakkari and one teacher in Swansea stated that they used
only the traditional method when they taught. A biology teacher in Hakkari expressed his feelings as follows:
T21Hb: Unfortunately, we still have to implement the traditional method based on the curriculum. I mean, I cannot
apply the student-centered method here. Why? Because, for example, we always, as teachers, have to follow the cur-
riculum and we have to teach the subjects in the curriculum in each term, so if I apply a student-centered method,
then I cannot reach (means finish) the curriculum. That`s why I am just using the traditional method.
In relation to this, a biology teacher in Swansea reported as follows:

T8Sb: I think I am teacher-centered. I know I am using the chalk and talk. I show many things on the board, so it just
does not go only telling something. I do not support the method of student-centered education because it is difficult
to prepare students for the exam. For example, if I go to them and ask them about water, they come to me with a piece
of interesting information, which is ‘a beautiful thing’, but the things they found are not true. Therefore, the student
cannot prepare for the exam with the wrong information they have found.
As it is obvious according to the comments of both teachers, the reason for choosing the traditional method
was the strict curriculum and the exam-based education system.
Another code related to the methods used in the teaching process is that the teachers who stated that they
used both methods but mainly the teacher-centered method were the science and mathematics teachers in Swan-
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sea as it can be seen in Table 6. A mathematics teacher in Swansea described this as follows:
T10Sm: It depends again on the child, but it tends to be, for me, more the traditional method. I do use the others, it’s just I
find the traditional, which works better in my class. But I use a lot of questioning, whereas I do tend to do the introduction
and I am standing there teaching them, I am trying to draw as much out of them as possible as well. So I ask lots of ques-
tions, open-ended questions, to get them to respond. So it’s not just me standing there talking for 30 minutes you know.
But I do like the board and say ‘come on let’s all do this together now’. But there are times when we do problem-solving
questions. I give them the question and then I give them prompts, just to try and get it all out of them. I use different styles
depending on what it is. I am trying to get out of the lesson. But if I were to go for one, I think I would go for more traditional,
as a teacher myself.
As it can be seen from the comments above, the teacher reported that the reason for using both methods
was related to the students’ background, but he/she also admitted that he/she mainly used the traditional method.
In addition, it can be seen in Table 6 that some teachers often used the student-centered methods, but they
also had to use the traditional method in some cases. A biology teacher in Hakkari expressed her/his thoughts
about the subject as follows:
T19Hb: I am trying to use two methods, frankly, I am not just the student-centered or traditional. Our classrooms are
crowded. The curriculum is overloaded, if you were just student-centered, you cannot go on to the next unit. So the
unit has to be finished, and the curriculum should be completed. In some places, for example, I use the write-tell-and-
ask method, I’m writing, I’m telling and I`m just passing the subject like that, but in some cases, I ask them to prepare
a project or a material. That’s how we are on our smart boards. Because of the overloaded curriculum, in some cases,
I use the traditional method.
A physics teacher in Swansea reported his/her views regarding the same code as follows:
T2Sp: It`s mostly student-centered. So changing the activities as often as possible keeps them busy. It`s more activities for
them to do mostly, with a little bit of explaining at the beginning, but mostly student-based.
According to both teachers’ comments, the teachers preferred to mainly use the student-centered methods,
but due to the curriculum, they sometimes had to use the traditional methods in order to complete the curriculum.
Lastly, when you look at the analysis of the data about the methods used in the classroom environment as can
be seen in Table 6, seven teachers stated that they applied both methods equally. Among those teachers, three of
them were from Hakkari and four of them were from Swansea. In Hakkari, a biology teacher reported as follows:
T21Hb: Now, I usually use all the methods. I choose the method according to the subject, and there are some subjects
that are very comprehensive. For example, it must be tidied up, should be transferred to the student, for example, the
traditional method is more successful for doing that, but there are some, for example, experimental or work-based or
mathematical issues, and the student should be centered here. That’s what I’m trying to do.
A chemistry teacher in Swansea expressed his/her thoughts about the situation as follows:
T5Sc: I like to use both methods. I would say that I prefer not to use a single method. I do not always choose the
traditional method or the student-centered method. I am in the middle of two more. We sometimes work with the
student, which allows them to work together as they love. But sometimes, I have to demonstrate new materials to
them, and I explain and tell them on the board.
According to both comments, those teachers preferred to use both methods equally. They related that situ-
ation to the subjects they taught.
The comments showed that the teachers used both methods equally depending on the subject and on the
course given. For certain courses, they preferred to use the traditional method. To ensure the students could work
together, they used student-based methods. In light of the findings, the problems encountered by the teachers
during the teaching process were examined based on students and teachers. It is seen in Table 4 and Table 5 that
these problems are related to the students’ prior knowledge, lack of interest and attention span, which are big
issues for both cities. According to the teacher-based issues, which can be seen in Table 6, it is possible to say that
these barriers are related to the subject knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, communication skills, classroom
management skills and the teaching methods used during the teaching process.
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Discussion
Student-Based Barriers During Teaching Process
As one can see in Table 4, the student-based barriers mentioned by the teachers in both cities were grouped
under three categories: lack of prior knowledge, lack of interest and little attention span. As one can see in Table
4, a great majority of the teachers interviewed in both cities stated that the students had lack of prior knowledge.
When the related literature was reviewed, it was seen that similar results were obtained in previous studies. It is a
common barrier encountered by researchers, teachers`, and teachers`educators, who stated that students had lack
of prior knowledge that hindered their learning (Basturk, 2012; Incikabi & Serin, 2017; Kates, 2014; Lopez, Freed,
& Kijai, 2003; Svinicki, 1993). Prior knowledge has an important place in students’ learning, and when it comes to
teaching it can be an important barrier too. In order to solve this problem, it is important for teachers to create rich
learning environments, because prior knowledge also affects how a student perceives new information (Svinicki,
1993). Ausubel (1968) expressed the importance of prior knowledge as, “If I had to reduce the whole educational
psychology to just one principle, I would say this: The most important single factor influencing learning is what
the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him accordingly” (p.18).
Concerning this finding obtained in the research, prior knowledge is considered to be one of the most impor-
tant dynamics that provides ideas about how learning takes place. This situation was clearly expressed by Piaget
(1983), who described learning as constructing and adopting new meanings based on previous experiences. In that
sense, it is important that in the process of teaching science and mathematics subjects, teachers should create or
adopt students’ prior knowledge assessment tools to diagnose and stimulate their prior knowledge. Furthermore,
it is thought that having an outline about students’ existing knowledge prevents a great number of barriers such
as surface learning, misconceptions, and direct memorization (Hailikari, Katajavuori, & Lindblom-Ylanne, 2008).
Hansen (2005) defined interest as the expression of liked or disliked activities (p.281). In the present research,
a great majority of the teachers ((n=14) stated that the students were not interested in science and mathematics.
According to teachers from both cities, lack of interest was found as a barrier that effected students` learning, at-
tention span, and students` attitudes towards the subjects. The conducted research also showed that the science
and mathematics teachers defined the barriers that decreased students` interest as difficulties of the subjects, lack
of mathematical skills, and monolingual education. Similar results can be found when the literature is reviewed. For
instance, in their study conducted with 62 science teachers, Chan, Luk, and Zeng (2014) found that according to a
great majority of teachers, students’ lack of interest was caused by their thoughts that the subject is difficult. In a
study carried out with 94 teachers, Jovanovic, Simic, and Rajovic (2013) reported that 85.7% of the teachers said
students had a lack of interest. A similar result was found in a study conducted with 19 teachers by Vasconcelos et
al. (2015). Little interest in physical sciences results in having a low motivation to learn, less success, and these, in
turn, negatively affect the training process of scientifically literate individuals, which is one of the most basic targets
of the present day (Acar & Yaman, 2011). For this reason, it is thought that multilingual teaching, the used methods,
seating arrangement, should be developed in a way that they attract students’ interest and arouse their curiosity
and which can be helpful to decrease the barriers that prevent their interests towards science and mathematics.
In the present research, of all the teachers, 58% (n=14) of them stated that the students had a lack of attention.
Ding, Li, Li, and Kulm (2008) showed lack of attention as one of the behavioral disorders seen in the classroom.
Stephenson, Linfoot, and Martin (2000) conducted a survey with 130 teachers of grades K–2 at 21 primary schools
in Sydney, Australia. They found that distractibility or attention span, is among the most worrying problems (in
Ding, Li, Li & Kulm 2008). Studies also demonstrated that lack of attention is an important barrier among second-
ary school students (Beaman, Wheldall, & Kemp, 2007; Little, 2005). The reasons for the lack of attention include
time-related problems experienced by teachers, technological equipment, students’ moods and climatic conditions
(Aburahma, 2015; Dear, Kim, Candido, & Deuble, 2015; Ding, Li, Li, & Kulm, 2007; Haddad, Osmond, & King, 2016;
Pereria & Smith-Adcock, 2011; Schneider, 2002). Lack of attention is thought to be both the result and the cause
of a lack of motivation, indifference and failure. Thus, in order to eliminate the lack of attention, environments and
contexts that can attract students’ attention should be emphasized. In addition, teachers should spend extra time
and effort on students who have a lack of attention.
When the results of the research are examined, it can be seen that in addition to the views of the teachers in
Swansea, the teachers in Hakkari said student-based issues such as family structure, socioeconomic background,
monolingual education, political factors and lack of attendance in class affected the students’ prior knowledge and
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learning environment. Bourdieu (1977) stated that cultural capital shapes pupils’ success in an education system.
Also, Douglas (1964) notes that family size and parental attitudes influence children`s achievement because en-
couragement and interest in children’s education in larger working-class families are less than in smaller families.
Based on this, it could be stated that socioeconomic and cultural issues are effective on students, and can be
barrier on their learning (Basturk, 2012; Chevalier & Lanot, 2010; Gürlen, Cihan, & Dogan, 2019; Hamid & Baldauf,
2011; Hamid, Sussex, & Khan 2009, p.298; Vasconcelos et al., 2015). For this reason, teachers can support racially
and ethnically diverse students’ academic learning by engaging their cultural and sociopolitical understandings
(Bortkeviciene et al., 2018; Gay, 2013; González, Moll, & Amanti 2005; Lee 2001).
The Influence of Teachers-Based Issues on Teaching Process
Teacher knowledge is certainly a component of the teaching profession, and professional competency does
not just involve the knowledge itself. Skills, attitudes, and motivational variables also contribute to the mastery
of teaching and learning (OECD, 2016b). As it can clearly be seen in Table 6, the teacher-based issues mentioned
by the teachers in both cities were grouped under four categories: subject knowledge, pedagogical skills, com-
munication and class management skills and teaching methods.
The results of the research showed that all of the teachers in both Hakkari and Swansea said they had enough
subject knowledge. Recent studies have shown that teachers’ subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge
have strong influence on students’ learning a subject well (Ball, Lubienski, & Mewborn, 2001; Kleickmann et al.,
2017; Metzer & Woessmann, 2010¸ OECD, 2016b). Given the importance of teacher knowledge for student progress,
teacher training can be regarded as a key target of an educational reform (Kleickmann et al., 2017).
In the literature, the characteristics of a good teacher generally include the following: a good classroom
manager, the ability to set the environment according to different learning styles, good pedagogical content
knowledge, the ability to detect students’ prior knowledge and misconceptions, having a positive perception of
the classroom environment, possessing enthusiasm for his/her teaching, being aware of the situations that affect
learning both in and outside of school, respecting the students, making good decisions, preparing the learning
environment and encouraging the students to learn (Coe, Aloisi, Higgins, & Major, 2014; Ida, 2017; Millar, 1987).
Teacher’s sufficient subject knowledge and pedagogical knowledge mean that one of the prerequisites for quali-
fied education has been fulfilled.
The results of the research showed that 42% (n=5) of the teachers in Hakkari found their communication
skills as a barrier. They related it to social and psychological differences. Communication has an important role
in society, it is “the ground of meeting and the foundation of the community” (Montagu &Watson, 1979, p.vii).
When the teachers ignore this meeting point during teaching process learning can not be accomplished by
students (Krasnoff, 2016). As it was also found in the literature review, a great majority of the teachers were
found to have communication problems (Krasnoff, 2016; Öztürk, 2000; Valverde, 2005). In a study conducted
with inspectors by Özgan and Yılmaz (2009), it was found that inspectors considered teachers’ communication
skills to be inefficient. As stated by Yavuzer (2003), “in education, communication is the most important indi-
cator of education. Communication is quite effective in teaching academic skills, target knowledge and class
management. A teacher should have knowledge about psychology and communication so that he or she can
be good in his job” (p.145).
Teachers have various roles in class and at school. One of the most important of these roles is class manage-
ment. In conducted research, five out of 12 teachers in Hakkari and the same number of teachers in Swansea said
they were unsuccessful in class management. In a class environment in which class management is weak, effective
learning and teaching cannot be expected (Nemenzo, 2018; Ünlü & Aydos, 2008). Brophy and Good (1994) stated
that class management increased student participation, decreased negative behaviors and contributed to students’
success by maximizing the time allocated to learning (p.169-180). Thus, it is thought that teachers should be sup-
ported in relation to effective class management and trained accordingly. In addition, teachers’ quality of educa-
tion should be increased for a radical solution to this problem. A common point frequently reached that cannot
be ignored in academic studies is related to the finding that despite the undeniable importance of teachers in a
qualified education, there are not enough qualified teachers (Hirsh, 2001; Kösterelioğlu & Bayar, 2014). According
to these researchers, a great number of teachers do not have enough training during their pre-service period, and
they graduate before they are ready to teach as required (Ipek, Turgut, & Tunga, 2016; Palardy & Rumberger; 2008;
Porter & Brophy, 1988 as cited in Kösterelioğlu). This situation causes gaps in education.
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Teaching styles are important since they show the results of teachers’ views and behaviors. Teaching styles also
reflect the quality of teaching during the teaching process since teachers’ styles also show how much students can
learn (Zhou, 2011). To make learning meaningful and to equip students with the desired qualifications, a matching
teaching method is used as an important mediator. Therefore, in the present research, the science and mathemat-
ics teachers expressed the mediators that they used in the classroom. As it can be seen from the results (see Table
6), despite encouragement to apply constructivist-based innovations which are also emphasized in the education
policy in both countries (Donaldson, 2015; MEB, 2017), the teachers preferred to use traditional teaching styles.
They reported that by using these methods, it was easy to follow the curriculum and was the safest way to prepare
students for the “general/national exams.” Similar results can be seen in previous studies (Avci &Kayabasi-Ketenoglu,
2018; Okur Akcay, Akcay, & Kurt, 2016; Skutil, Havlíčkova, & Matějíčková, 2015; Utkur, 2016; Yuksel, 2007; Zhou,
2011). From these perspectives, it could be stated that the reluctance of teachers not to abandon their teacher-
centered styles was also related to the formal curriculum and the education policy which forces teachers to assess
their students through traditional ways such as paper-based assessments. In addition, the learning of science and
mathematics must be constructive and student-centered. On the other hand, the results revealed that there was
also some teachers who use the student-centered method or who used both the traditional method and the stu-
dent centered method. Relying on the results, teachers in both cities expressed the formal curriculum needs as a
barrier to change their teaching methods in order to create an inclusive learning environment. The literature gives
us valuable resources about the reasons why teachers use different styles during the teaching process: restricted
time, overloaded curriculum, the size of the classroom and lack of knowledge about how to apply new methods
(Yuksel, 2007). For an effective teaching process, teachers should adopt a variety of teaching styles and methods
that give an equal chance to a wide range of students’ learning.
Conclusions and Implications
The research’s findings indicate that student and teacher related issues and socioeconomic conditions are the
underlying factors that form barriers for science and mathematics teachers that work in disadvantaged regions,
such as Swansea and Hakkari. The research’s outcomes showed that the student-based barriers in Hakkari and
Swansea share similar characteristics, which are in particular related to a lack of prior knowledge and a lack of
interest or short attention span. Despite this, the students in Hakkari also experience [further] socioeconomic and
political difficulties and barriers, compared to the students in Swansea. The student-based barriers in Hakkari, in
this context, are socially and economically related to crowded families, a low level of education in families, language
issues and lack of parental care. The barriers are also politically related to the problems lead by the armed conflict
between Turkish security forces and Kurdish militants.
The results also indicated that both Hakkari and Swansea science and mathematics teachers experience/have
teacher-based barriers, in particular during the teaching process. This included a lack of class management, peda-
gogical skills, and communication skills. Despite this, both regions showed variance in the degree of teacher-based
barriers. Teachers in Swansea believed that they had sufficient pedagogical and communication skills, while the
teachers in Hakkari found their pedagogical and communication skills quite insufficient, and they defined lack of
pedagogical skills as a barrier to communicate with students’ cultural backgrounds. Furthermore, the results also
suggested that, although science and mathematics teachers in Hakkari considerably prefer to use teacher-centered
teaching styles, the teachers in Swansea prefer to use both student-centered and teacher-centered methods.
Furthermore, the results also suggested that, although science and mathematics teachers in Hakkari considerably
prefer to use teacher-centered teaching styles, the teachers in Swansea prefer to use both student-centered and
teacher-centered methods.
In summary, in the light of the results, it was seen that the science and mathematics teachers grouped the
barriers affecting the teaching process as student-based, teacher-based, curriculum-based, and a sociocultural
issue. In addition to that, it was found that the political structure of the city negatively affected the teaching
process and that the continuity of teaching and learning could not be ensured in the regions where the war and
the political conflicts were dominant. Based on the results, the following suggestions can create a better teaching
process: preventing changes in the curriculum which requires continuity, developing cooperation between schools
and education departments, decreasing the curriculum-based overload and solving the time-restriction problem,
teaching students through practices and using blended teaching methods based on classroom needs, improving
physical conditions at schools (laboratory, class attendance, technological devices), trainings for effective use of
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technological devices and providing teachers with workshops, conferences and seminars, increasing the control
over the teachers and teacher candidates during their teaching practices to make sure that they meet learners’
needs, training teachers who are theoretically and pedagogically insufficient, revising teacher training centers and
departments of teacher education, and organizing the educational environment according to sociocultural values.
In order to make more comprehensive recommendations, it would be more useful to work with more teachers from
different cities, and to include teacher’s trainers, students`families and policymakers in both countries.
Acknowledgements
First or foremost, many thanks to Dr Howard Tanner for the help and contributions to the present research.
Many thanks to Dr Deniz Ciftci and Dr Nils Fredrik Buchholtz for their supports.
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Received: September 07, 2019 Accepted: December 02, 2019
Mukadder Baran Dr., Researcher 1, Department of Teacher Education and School

Research, University of Oslo, Norway.
E-mail: mukadder.baran@ils.uio.no
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4407-2164
865
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN
RENEWABLE ENERGY
KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE: A
STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL
WITH FUTURE’S EDUCATORS
Abstract. It is important to create positive

attitudes and enough knowledge for pre-
service science teachers about renewable Murat Genç,
energy for future. The aim of this research
was to show the correlation between
Mustafa Akilli
renewable energy knowledge and sub-
dimensions of attitude towards renewable
energy with Structural Equation Modeling
(SEM). The research was conducted by
the analysis of 1145 pre-service teachers’
Introduction
answers to questionnaires data using SEM.
Two questionnaires used for data collec-
The rising world population, the development and increased use of
tion which first was renewable energy
technology, and the use of more energy for a comfortable lifestyle have re-
knowledge scale that Cronbach’s alpha
sulted in a constant increase in the need for energy, and the energy problem
was .82 and the second was renewable
has now become a global problem. The quality of education to be provided
energy attitude scale that Cronbach’s alpha
for the correct and effective use of energy resources, which is likely become
was .87. Initially, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin and
a greater problem day by day, is of great importance. Considering that the
Bartlett’s tests were done with SPSS to test
supply of resources such as coal, oil and natural gas, which used to be widely
appropriateness of subdimensions to factor
used in the past, is becoming limited, and the scale of destruction that they
analysis. Exploratory factor analysis was
cause to the planet (climate change, wars started for fossil fuel resources,
done for the subdimensions that were seen
etc.), it can be seen how essential orientation towards renewable energy
to be suitable for factor analysis and then
sources has become. The first step towards educating generations who are
structural model was tested with LISREL. At
informed about renewable energy sources is to have teachers who inform.
the end of the SEM test, it was found that
Countries’ energy needs are rising day by day and yet this increasing
there are positive relations between renew-
energy need is predominantly met by fossil fuels such as oil (Koroneos, Spa-
able energy knowledge of preservice teach-
chos, & Moussiopoulos, 2003; Satman, 2007). A major result of the use of these
ers and their attitudes towards renewable
fuels is the increase in the rate of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogenous
energy. The more knowledge and attitudes
derivatives, known as greenhouse gases, in the atmosphere. The increase in
about renewable energy can be improved,
the rate of retention of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere brings with it a
the more positive attitudes and behaviors
number of negative events such as global warming, acid rain, climate change,
will be provided to individuals and the
disasters and migrations. Moreover, climate change affects the future of the
efficient use of renewable energy types will
planet by creating environmental, social and economic threats. Therefore,
be realized.
for the future of the earth and sustainable development, it is necessary to
reduce the use of fossil fuels and increase the use of renewable energy (RE)
Keywords: renewable energy knowl-
sources. When the related literature is examined, the known renewable energy
edge, attitude towards renewable energy,
sources appear before us as solar, wind, hydroelectric, hydrogen, geothermal,
structural equation modelling, preservice
marine (wave, tidal and current energy) and biomass energies (Koroneos et al.,
science teachers.
2003). Renewable energy sources are known to be environmentally friendly
and the harm they do to the environment is less than that done by fossil fuels
Murat Genç (Koroneos et al., 2003). Moreover, renewable energy sources are regarded as
Duzce University, Turkey alternatives to the reduction of gases known as greenhouse gases such as
Mustafa Akilli carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogenous derivatives (Liarakou, Gavrilakis,
Uludag University, Turkey
& Flouri, 2009). The importance of using the renewable energy (RE) sources
has steadily increased recently.
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STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL WITH FUTURE’S EDUCATORS
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 866-879)
Literature Review
The renewable energy sources are resources such as solar, wind, wave, hydrogen, hydroelectric, biomass
and geothermal energies (Liarakou, Gavrilakis, & Flouri, 2009). Solar energy, which forms the world’s main
energy source and is effective in the creation of other renewable energy sources, is, with thermal solar technol-
ogy and solar batteries, the most commonly used energy source (Bayraç, 2011; Varınca & Gönüllü, 2008). Wind
energy is motion (kinetic) energy that uses warm and cool air currents and, via wind turbines, this energy is first
converted into mechanical energy and then into electrical energy. Biomass energy is the energy obtained from
combustibles released as a result of the processing of urban, industrial, agricultural, wood and forestry wastes,
ethanol and biodiesel (Hatunoğlu, 2010). Hydrogen energy is an energy source obtained by utilising primary
energy sources (water, biomass, fossil fuels), and is stored with compounds that it makes with minerals in nature
and, due to combustion, is released into the atmosphere only in the form of water vapour (Tutar & Eren, 2011).
Geothermal energy comes from natural hot water sources heated by the core at the centre of the earth and is
an important energy source for tourism and greenhouse cultivation (Külekçi, 2009). Hydroelectric energy is the
energy obtained by the conversion of kinetic energy created by the movement of water into electrical energy
(Aksu, 2009). Wave energy is the energy obtained from the waves created by winds formed as a result of different
warming of the oceans, seas and land masses on the earth. Wind speed and wave size determine the amount of
energy obtained (Gülsaç, 2009). As can be seen, renewable energy sources depend either directly or indirectly
upon solar energy.
If countries aim to use RE sources and to increase the use of these resources, then they need to determine
strategies for creating more knowledge, attitudes, awareness, perceptions and behaviour regarding these resources.
It is possible for individuals’ knowledge, perceptions, awareness and attitudes to be developed by means of educa-
tion (Liarakou et al., 2009). It can also be understood from this that in order to increase the use of RE sources, it is
necessary for teachers who have the duty to educate, and the preservice teachers who will have this duty later, to
have sufficient knowledge about RE sources and to have positive perceptions and attitudes towards the use of these
resources. The importance of increasing knowledge and improving positive attitudes of teachers and preservice
teachers with regard to RE sources is frequently stressed in the literature (Liarakou et al., 2009). Increasing knowledge,
perceptions and awareness of teachers and preservice teachers and developing their positive attitudes towards
RE sources will also be reflected in their in-class teaching practices (Liarakou et al., 2009). However, it is reported in
studies conducted on the subject that teachers’ knowledge of RE sources is limited (Liarakou et al., 2009; Zyadin,
Puhakka, Aphonen, & Pelkonen, 2014). For example, in their research, in which teachers’ knowledge and attitudes
regarding RE sources were examined, Liarakou et al. (2009) determined that teachers had knowledge about RE
sources and that they had positive attitudes towards the use of RE sources, but they found that the teachers did
not sufficiently regard the use of resources such as solar energy or wind energy as alternative energy sources in
the future. Therefore, they stated that teachers with this characteristic would not choose to teach their students
about RE sources in their classes, nor would they choose methods that could enable the development of positive
attitudes about this subject in their students.
Moreover, in a research conducted by Zyadin at al. (2012), the knowledge, perceptions and attitudes of stu-
dents, in a country that is overdependent on fossil fuels despite the presence of many renewable energy sources,
were investigated. The results of this research reveal that the students had limited ability to distinguish renewable
energy sources from non-renewable sources.
Similarly, in Saraç and Bedir’s (2014) research, primary school classroom teachers’ knowledge and perceptions
related to renewable energy sources were examined. The research findings revealed that some classroom teachers
lacked knowledge and had misconceptions about renewable energy sources. It was revealed that some teachers
confused renewable and non-renewable energy sources with each other. Moreover, it was concluded that educa-
tional trips, materials and seminars related to the teaching of energy sources were needed.
In Çolak, Kaymakcı, and Akpınar’s (2015) research, it was revealed that preservice teachers did not have an
adequate level of knowledge about renewable energy sources. Moreover, in Cırıt’s (2017) research, the knowledge
of preservice science teachers at different grade levels regarding renewable energy sources was examined. The
findings of the research showed that the teacher candidates did not have sufficient knowledge about renewable
energy sources. In a research made by Güven and Sülün (2017), the awareness and knowledge of preservice teachers
with regard to renewable energy were investigated. Knowledge levels related to RE were examined among different
departments. According to the research findings, it was seen that there were differences among the knowledge
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levels of the preservice teachers according to their department, and that the preservice teachers’ knowledge levels
and awareness about this subject were positive.
Besides these studies, there are other studies examining knowledge and attitudes related to RE. For example,
in a questionnaire research by Zyadin et al. (2014) conducted with 260 classroom teachers in Jordan, the teachers’
knowledge, perceptions and attitudes related to renewable energy were investigated. The research findings revealed
that the teachers had limited levels of knowledge about renewable energy. On the other hand, it was seen that
the teachers had open positive attitudes towards renewable energy development. Similarly, in Keramitsoglou’s
(2016) research, the knowledge, perceptions and attitudes of adolescents towards renewable energy sources were
examined in order to determine certain educational needs. In a research carried out by Liarakou, Gavrilakis, and
Flouri (2009), the knowledge and attitudes towards renewable energy sources, especially towards wind and solar
energy, of secondary school teachers in Greece were explored.
In Cebesoy and Karışan’s (2017) research, the aim was to explore the knowledge and attitudes of preservice
teachers towards renewable energy sources, as well as their self-efficacy perceptions regarding teaching this
subject. The research findings revealed that the knowledge levels of the preservice teachers towards renewable
energy sources were insufficient, whereas their attitudes were shaped according to various variables. In a research
by Németh, Jakopánecz and Törõcsik (2013), the attitudes of the public towards traditional and renewable energy
sources were examined with regard to different variables.
In Çelikler, Yılmaz, and Aksan’s (2016) research, the knowledge and attitudes of students in different schools
in a province towards renewable energy sources were examined. The research findings revealed that there were
significant differences among the attitude levels of science high school students towards renewable energy sources
according to different variables.
In a research by Us, Florkowski, and Klepacka (2015), the factors affecting knowledge about renewable energy
types among 200 inhabitants of 13 villages in a province, and their attitudes towards RE sources, were investigated.
The findings showed that among five types of energy, the participants were best informed about wind energy and
that they were least well-informed about biofuels.
Besides these studies, there are other studies examining attitudes towards to RE sources. For example, in a
research made by Bilen, Özel, and Sürücü (2013), the attitudes of preservice science teachers towards renewable
energy sources were investigated. The questionnaire was applied to a total of 254 preservice science teachers. The
analyses revealed that the teacher candidates had positive attitudes towards renewable energy sources. Similar
to this research, in Clare et al’s (2012) project carried out between the years 2010 and 2011, the attitudes of rural
and urban people in Pennsylvania towards renewable energy, their views about the effects of renewable energy
production facilities and their opinions about their willingness to pay for renewable energy were examined. It was
determined that especially their attitudes towards renewable energy varied.
In their research, Fırat, Sepetcioğlu, and Kiraz (2012) investigated whether or not the attitudes of preser-
vice teachers regarding renewable energy differed significantly according to certain variables. According to
the research findings, it was determined that the preservice teachers’ environmental attitudes varied based on
their department, gender, grade level and environmental education they had received at university, whereas
the variables of parental education level and environmental education received at high school did not make
a significant difference.
As can be seen from the above studies, different studies exist related to the knowledge and attitude dimensions
regarding renewable energy. However, at this stage no studies are found that express the relationship between
the knowledge and attitude dimensions. It is seen that educating conscious and sensitive individuals who are
aware of the importance of environmentally-friendly renewable energy sources is vital for the sake of bequeath-
ing a liveable world to future generations. Considering that raising informed individuals depends on education,
more place must be given to subjects containing information about renewable energy sources at every level of
education. Indeed, the importance of starting renewable energy education at the earliest possible age in order to
increase knowledge levels and to develop positive attitudes in individuals regarding renewable energy sources is
stressed in the research by Zyadin et al. (2012).
Importance of the Research
Renewable energy sources appear to be mankind’s most suitable alternative solution to all these problems.
When an evaluation of the past is made, it cannot be said that education systems are very helpful in our under-
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standing of choices of energy sources and of the effects of energy on the environment and society. Education,
which has an impact on social changes, plays a vital role for a sustainable society.
With education, in increase in knowledge and attitudes about new developments can be enabled. With
education, the professionals who will develop the systems and tools to be used in the future can be trained (Jen-
nings, 2009). Increasing the use of renewable energy sources will reduce the dependence on fossil fuels and lower
the cost of renewable energy sources. For this reason, information and positive attitudes created in society about
renewable energy sources are very important to be able to have clean, sustainable and environmentally-friendly
energy resources in the future. The importance of key elements such as attitudes and knowledge about renewable
energy sources is constantly increasing. It is very important for the correlations among these variables to be de-
termined and revealed. Consequently, it is important for knowledge, perceptions, awareness and attitudes related
to renewable energy sources to be developed. Therefore, in this research, a model was established for examining
the relationships between the knowledge and attitudes about renewable energy sources of preservice teachers.
Research Question
Is there a correlation between preservice teachers’ renewable energy knowledge and attitudes towards
renewable energy?
General Background
This research carried out based on analysis with structural equation modelling (SEM) to find out how and to
what extent preservice teachers’ knowledge of renewable energy sources affected their attitudes towards renew-
able energy sources. Structural equation modelling is a comprehensive statistical approach for testing models in
which causal and correlation between manifest and latent variables exist together, and it enables correlation sets
between one or more independent variables and one or more dependent variables to be examined (Anagün, 2011;
Yılmaz, Çelik, & Ekiz, 2006). Considering that direct measurement of the variables affecting knowledge and attitude
is not possible, in order to explain these variables, it is necessary to measure clearly observed variables that define
or are believed to define them. Since using latent variables also facilitates determination of errors in the variables
in question, the variable values estimated in SEM studies can be calculated much more reliably (Şimşek, 2007).
Moreover, the strength of SEM is that it permits both confirmatory factor analysis for the measurement models and
path analysis for processing latent variable models at the same time (Jöreskog & Sörbom, 1996; Kelloway, 1998).
Path analysis also enables estimation of the correlations between latent variables. For any model, the acceptance
intervals of the measures most commonly used in the evaluation of goodness of fit and correctness of the estab-
lished model are shown below (Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger, & Müller, 2003, p. 52):
Table 1. Evaluation of SEM fit.
Fit measure Perfect fit Acceptable fit
χ2 0 < χ2 ≤ 2df 2df < χ2 ≤ 3df

p value .05 < p ≤ 1.00 .01 < p ≤ .05
χ /df
2
0 ≤ χ /df ≤ 2
2
2 < χ2 /df ≤ 3
RMSEA 0≤ RMSEA ≤.05 .05 < RMSEA ≤ .08
SRMR 0 ≤ SRMR ≤ .05 .05 < SRMR ≤ .10
NFI .95 ≤ NFI ≤ 1.00 .90 ≤ NFI < .95
NNFI .97 ≤ NNFI ≤ 1.00 .95 ≤ NNFI < .97
CFI .97 ≤ CFI ≤ 1.00 .95 ≤ CFI < .97
GFI .95 ≤ GFI ≤ 1.00 .90 ≤ GFI < .95
AGFI .90 ≤ AGFI ≤ 1.00 .85 ≤ AGFI <.90
Note: AGFI=Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit-Index, CFI= Comparative Fit Index, GFI = Goodness-of-Fit Index, NFI = Normed Fit Index,
NNFI=Nonnormed Fit Index, RMSEA=Root Mean Square Error of Approximation, SRMR= Standardized Root Mean Square Residual
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Sample
The research sample consisted of 1145 preservice science teachers (51.7% females, 48.3% males). In this re-
search, sampling error was determined as (d) = ± 0.05 (p = .5; q = .5). Accordingly, in this research, the sample size
capable of representing the universe is 964 (Yazıcıoğlu & Erdoğan, 2004, p.50). Non-volunteer teacher candidates
were not included in the research. In this context, 1200 prospective teachers were reached, but 55 inaccurate and
incomplete questionnaires were not included in the study and 1145 scales were analyzed. The sample group was
chosen from pre-service teachers receiving education in different cities in Turkey (Bursa, Edirne, Düzce, Kars, Afyon
and Bolu) in the 2018-2019 academic year. In this research the data were collected directly by the researchers from
the students on a voluntary basis, so for sampling, convenience sampling was used, since this allows for participants
to be selected by availability (McIntyre, 2005; p. 106).
Data Collection Tools
The instruments used to determine the preservice teachers’ knowledge of renewable energy and attitudes
towards renewable energy were as follows:
Renewable energy knowledge (REK) scale: This scale, which was developed by İpekoğlu, Üçgül and Yakut (2014)
and consists of 16 items, was used to assess the sample’s knowledge levels on the subject of renewable energy. In
this scale, as well as questions directed towards how energy sources such as wind turbines, geothermal energy,
biodiesel, bioethanol, hydroelectric power and wave energy are obtained and what they are used for, items are
also included inquiring about the effects of systems using renewable energy sources on the environment, humans,
plants and animals. In the scale, 5-point Likert-type scoring, with responses ranging from “I strongly disagree” (scor-
ing 1 point) to “I strongly agree” (scoring 5 points), was used. The Cronbach’s alpha value of the scale in the original
research carried out by İpekoglu et al. (2014) was found to be .82, and the item factor loadings ranged between
0.845-0.422. The findings obtained for the present research are given in Table 3.
Renewable energy attitude scale: This scale was developed by Güneş, Alat and Gözüm (2013). The scale contains
26 items and consists of 4 subscales: application request (AR), importance of education (IoE), country interest (CI),
and environmental awareness and investments (EAI). The scale items are of the 5-point Likert-type and responses
range from “I strongly disagree” (scoring 1 point) to “I strongly agree” (scoring 5 points). Reverse scoring is used in
negative items. In the original research for the scale, which was developed to determine the attitudes of preservice
science teachers towards renewable energy, the Cronbach’s alpha value of the whole scale was stated to be .87.
For the subscales, the reliability coefficients were calculated as .97 for application request (factor loadings between
.85-.46), .80 for importance of education (factor loadings between .87-.47), .78 for country interests (factor loadings
between .70-.56), and lastly, .72 for environmental awareness and investments (factor loadings between .71-.46).
The findings obtained for the present research are given in Table 3.
Data Analysis

Firstly, to determine whether or not the scale items were suitable for factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) and Bartlett’s tests were performed. Next, to clarify the factor structures of the scale and to calculate the
factor loadings of the items, explanatory factor analysis (EFA) was used. As a result of the EFA, items with factor
loadings below 0.40 and double-loaded items were removed from the research model. Following the EFA, all
variables were included separately in the model and tested with LISREL. Finally, again with the aid of LISREL, con-
firmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied in order to determine the effects of renewable energy knowledge on
attitudes toward renewable energy. In the analyses, maximum likelihood was used as the estimation method and
RMSEAs were reported with 90% confidence intervals. Path analysis further allows chains of association between
latent variables to be estimated. The theoretical structural model and latent variable path models in this research
are shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Theoretical structural model for effects of renewable energy knowledge on sub-dimensions of at-
titudes towards renewable energy

Research Results
Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA) Results
Prior to the EFA, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s tests were performed to determine whether or
not the data set was suitable for factor analysis, and the results of these are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Results of examination of suitability of scale for factor analysis.
Bartlett’s test
KMO test
χ2 SD p
.895 15255.924 861 < .001
As can be seen in Table 2, the KMO test value was calculated as .895 and the results of the Bartlett’s test
(χ2 = 15255.924; SD = 861; p <.001) were found to be significant. A KMO value greater than .60 and a significant
Bartlett’s test show that data are suitable for factor analysis (Çokluk, Şekercioğlu, & Büyüköztürk, 2010). Factor load-
ings, Cronbach’s alpha values, and skewness and kurtosis values for each sub-dimension are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Item codes, factor loadings, and Cronbach’s alpha values for whole factors
Cronbach’s
Standard Factor
Factors Item code Mean Alpha Skewness Kurtosis
Deviation Loading
α
rek1 4.39 .80 .71 -2.08 2.91

rek2 4.44 .75 .85 -1.94 2.54
rek3 4.41 .83 .70 -2.26 2.04
rek4 4.11 .93 .76 -1.07 1.14
rek5 4.05 .90 .44 -.83 .60
rek6 3.83 .99 .57 -.84 .91
rek7 4.16 .91 .43 -1.37 2.36
Renewable rek8 3.67 .97 .63 -.39 .33
Energy .82
Knowledge rek9 4.14 .88 .42 -1.10 1.79
rek10 3.33 .79 .43 .30 2.16
rek11 3.70 1.06 .56 -.60 -.02
rek12 3.70 1.40 .75 2.01 2.74
rek13 3.70 1.14 .94 -.63 -.43
rek14 3.77 1.11 .85 -.79 .05
rek15 3.66 1.04 .59 -.55 .03
rek16 3.26 1.13 .64 -.12 -.66
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Cronbach’s
Standard Factor
Factors Item code Mean Alpha Skewness Kurtosis
Deviation Loading
α
att4 3.62 1.25 .59 -.76 -41

att6 3.68 .93 .53 -.55 .19
att10 3.98 .83 .64 -.92 1.34
Application
att14 4.08 .86 .55 .65 -1.24 2.28
Request (AR)
att17 4.03 .81 .49 -1.14 2.28
att19 3.84 .95 .44 -.77 .34
att21 3.86 1.12 .54 -1.00 .35
att1 4.48 .72 .68 -2.11 2.64
att8 3.34 1.00 .48 -.36 -.12
att11 4.04 .87 .61 -1.14 1.81
Importance of
att20 3.97 .87 .59 .66 -1.01 1.54
Education (IoE)
att23 4.22 .96 .62 -1.55 2.35
att24 4.09 1.14 .55 -1.39 1.11
att25 4.33 .79 .40 -1.66 2.96
att2 3.90 1.14 .40 -1.03 .34
att5 3.71 1.15 .52 -.77 -.21
Country Interest att13 4.09 1.03 .57 -1.34 1.45
.71
(CI) att18 3.85 1.22 .59 -.98 -.04
att22 4.21 .99 .60 -1.58 2.42
att26 4.29 .95 .58 -1.62 2.44
att3 3.97 .98 .47 -.89 .43
Environmental att7 4.00 .96 .55 -1.02 .92

Awareness and att9 3.80 1.35 .53 -.92 -.46
.70
Investments att12 3.78 .98 .40 -.55 .01
(EAI) att15 3.99 .92 .53 -.80 .50
att16 4.01 .99 .55 -1.04 .79

After examining the explanatory factor analysis results, it was decided that all the items used in the scales
were suitable to be included and tested in the structural model. However, in model studies to be made using latent
variables, it is necessary to test each measurement tool separately before starting the analysis. The measurement
tool testing should be similar to a confirmatory factor analysis and no unconfirmed measurement model should
be included in the structural model. Therefore, each sub-dimension (latent variable) used in a research must be
tested separately and its suitability for the structural model must be proven. The goodness of fit values obtained
with the aid of LISREL for each factor are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Goodness of fit values for variables to be included in model.
Factors AGFI GFI NFI CFI RMSEA SRMR
REK 0.86 0.90 0.86 0.88 0.093 0.070

WA 0.95 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.078 0.038
IoE 0.78 0.89 0.81 0.82 0.073 0.030
NI 0.96 0.98 0.96 0.97 0.073 0.037
EAI 0.88 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.059 0.071
Examining Table 4, it is seen that the goodness of fit values of the variables considered for inclusion in the
model were within the fit limits according to the measures included in Table 1. Therefore, it was decided that the
data sets for all the variables were suitable for SEM analysis and could be included in the model.
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Results of the Measurement Model Testing
In the second stage of the research, the structural model defined for revealing the correlations between re-
newable energy knowledge and the components of attitudes towards renewable energy were tested. As a result
of the tests, χ2=1811.34, df=775 and p= .001 found and the goodness of fit values are given in Table 5.
Table 5. Goodness of fit values for measurement model.
AGFI GFI NFI CFI RMSEA SRMR
0.88 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.075 0.080
Examining Table 5, it is seen that these obtained values were within acceptable intervals for the goodness of
fit measures (Table 1), and that therefore the structural model had an acceptable level of fit and the established
model was valid for all data sets. Moreover, the χ2/df value was found to be 2.33. The fact that this value is between
2-3 also shows that the model had an acceptable fit. The t values for the structural model of the research are given
in Figure 2.
Figure 2. t values for structural model adopted in research
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Examining Figure 2, it can be seen that all t values are significant at a level of .1. The standardised values for
the structural model of the research are given in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Structural model showing correlation between renewable energy knowledge and components of
attitudes towards renewable energy.
According to Figure 3, correlation coefficients showed that renewable energy knowledge has positive effects
on renewable energy attitude and its sub-dimensions.
Discussion
This research was carried out with structural equation modelling (SEM) with the aim of analysing how and to
what extent preservice teachers’ knowledge of renewable energy sources affected their attitudes towards renew-
able energy.
The research findings reveal a correlation between the teacher candidates’ knowledge of RE sources and their
attitudes towards them. Studies exist in different fields which state that when there is positive correlation between
knowledge and attitude, they have effects on each other (Abu Bakara et al., 2010; Bradley, Waliczek, & Zajicek, 1999;
Brossard, Lewenstein, & Bonney, 2005; Prokop, Tuncer, & Kvasničák, 2007).
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While there are a number of studies on attitudes towards renewable energy sources in the literature (Gök-
men, Atik, Ekici, Çimen, & Altunsoy, 2010; Halder, Pietarinen, Nuutinen, & Pelkonen, 2010; Halder et al., 2012;
Kılınç, Stanisstreet, & Boyes, 2009; Yuenyong, Jones, & Yutakom, 2008; Zyadin, Puhakka, Ahponen, Cronberg, &
Pelkonen, 2012), only a limited number of studies can be found that examine attitudes of preservice teachers
towards renewable energy sources. Although studies have examined attitudes towards renewable energy sources
according to different variables (settlement area, environmental education received, parents’ educational status,
class level, etc.), there is a need for further studies examining different variables such as attitudes, knowledge
and awareness about this type of energy especially in the teachers and preservice teachers who will shape the
future. At the same time, there is a need for studies like the one conducted in Greece by Kaldellis, Kapsali and
Katsanou (2012) which showed that as public knowledge about renewable energy increases, they have more
positive attitudes about this issue.
Some studies made about attitude have reached different conclusions related to the effect on attitude of
gender in particular. For example, in their research, Fırat et al. (2012) stated that male students’ knowledge and at-
titudes were better than those of female students. However, as a result of the research, they stated that in general,
students’ attitudes towards renewable energy were positive. In contrast to this finding, in a research by Karatepe
et al. (2012) conducted with engineering students, it was stated that no significant difference was found between
attitudes of male and female teacher candidates towards renewable energy, whereas it was determined that
female students’ knowledge and awareness of the subject of renewable energy were higher than those of male
students. Similarly, in Akçöltekin and Doğan’s (2013) research, it was stated that there was no significant difference
in attitudes of male and female teachers towards renewable energy.
In a research made by Bilen, Özel and Sürücü (2013), it was revealed that preservice science teachers had posi-
tive attitudes towards renewable energy. The obtained results revealed that gender and place of residence did not
make a difference to the preservice teachers’ attitudes, while it was seen that the grade level variable produced a
significant difference. A significant difference was found between first and fourth grades.
Studies can be found which state that attitudes towards renewable energy vary according to the programme
in which education is received. In their research, Fırat, Sepetcioğlu and Kiraz (2012) reported that preservice teach-
ers’ attitudes towards renewable energy differed on the basis of department, gender, grade and environmental
education received at university. They stated that there were significant differences among departments in at-
titude scores related to renewable energy sources and that students in the geography teaching department had
higher scores. Similarly, Çelikler and Kara (2011), in their research examining attitudes of preservice elementary
mathematics and social science teachers towards renewable energy, revealed that the attitudes of the preservice
social science teachers were more positive.
When attitude scores according to the period of receiving education are compared, Fırat et al. (2012) observed
in their research that attitudes of preservice teachers studying in the first grade towards renewable energy were
lower than those of preservice teachers studying in higher grades. This finding does not correspond to the find-
ings in a research conducted by Zarnikau (2003). They state that this difference is because preservice teachers in
the final year in particular had knowledge about renewable energy due to the lessons related to the environment
that they had taken and that for this reason they were deduced to have positive attitudes.
It is known that for recognition, knowledge and development of positive attitudes regarding renewable energy
sources, education is an important factor. It is stated that students do not have adequate knowledge of renewable
energy (Yıldırım, Tanık-Önal, & Büyük, 2019). If teachers and preservice teachers have more knowledge related to
renewable energy sources, this will also help students to acquire adequate knowledge, estimation and behaviour
with regard to these energy sources. Teachers who have sufficient knowledge of renewable energy sources can
serve as guides for their students in gaining suitable qualifications to be able to use these resources in their daily
lives (Liarakou, Gavrilakis, & Flouri, 2009). The attitudes, awareness, perceptions and behaviours, especially of
classroom and science teachers, towards renewable energy sources will also affect the perceptions, awareness,
attitudes and behaviours about this subject in the students that they teach. It is suggested that especially in these
subjects, environmental education (Genç, 2015) and education about renewable energy types (Çelikler & Aksan,
2016; Çolak, Kaymakçı, & Akpınar, 2015; Keramitsoglou, 2016) are important.
On the other hand, in the research carried out by Zyadin et al. (2012), it was stated that students did not have
sufficient levels of knowledge about renewable energy sources, whereas 87% of students regarded renewable
energy as one of the energy choices for the future and they generally had a positive attitude regarding adopting
renewable energy despite its high costs. They reported that in general, young women became informed about
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renewable energy at an earlier period than young men did. In their research, Güven and Sülün stated that there
were differences among departments in knowledge levels related to renewable energy. Similarly, in the research
by Çolak, Kaymakcı, and Akpınar (2015), it was revealed that preservice teachers did not have sufficient knowledge
levels with regard to renewable energy sources. In Cırıt’s (2017) research, it was stated that preservice teachers did
not have adequate knowledge about renewable energy sources.
According to the findings of the research by Zyadin et al. (2014), it was revealed that teachers had limited levels
of knowledge about renewable energy. It was determined that they had neutral perceptions related to renewable
energy use. On the other hand, it was seen that the teachers had open positive attitudes towards renewable energy
development. It was determined that in general, while male teachers had slightly higher knowledge levels with
regard to renewable energy, female teachers had more positive attitudes towards it. It was stated that a number
of sociodemographic factors and factors related to work areas affected the teachers’ knowledge and attitudes
about renewable energy. It was stressed that teachers needed personal training in the subject of renewable energy
before they began their professional lives.
Besides these, studies are seen which examine knowledge and attitudes about renewable energy together.
However, in these studies, knowledge and attitude are examined only according to different variables without
considering the correlation between them. For example, in a research conducted by Németh, Jakopánecz, and
Törõcsik (2013), it was stated that there were differences between knowledge and attitudes related to renewable
energy in males and females. It was determined that males had more knowledge about renewable energy sources,
and that they had developed more attitudes towards these resources. It was also determined that economic reasons
hindered women with regard to further modernisation, that they were more inclined towards saving money, that
they were more sensitive towards the environment, that they went into action in a shorter time, that they were
more optimistic, and that they were more affected by the activities of companies.
In their research, Çelikler, Yılmaz, and Aksan (2016) examined the knowledge and attitudes about renewable
energy sources of students in different schools in a province. The research results showed that according to dif-
ferent variables, attitudes towards renewable energy sources were at a significantly different level among science
high school students. The research results revealed that although the participating students generally displayed
a positive attitude towards renewable energy sources and the power stations that use them, their knowledge of
renewable energy sources was lacking in various respects. It was found that this lack of knowledge caused ground-
less anxieties among the students with regard to these energy sources.
In a research by Us, Florkowski, and Klepacka (2015), the factors affecting knowledge about renewable energy
types among 200 inhabitants of 13 villages in a province, and their attitudes towards renewable sources, were
investigated. The findings showed that among five types of energy, the participants were best informed about
wind energy and that they were least well-informed about biofuels. It was also stated that their attitudes were at
medium levels.
In a research carried out by Liarakou, Gavrilakis, and Flouri (2009), it was revealed that although teachers
were informed about renewable energy sources, their knowledge about various subjects related to wind and
solar energy technologies and farms was lacking. It is seen that since subjects such as these are not included in
teaching programmes, it is difficult for them to be taught. This shows that teachers cannot develop their students’
views about renewable energy systems. Therefore, it is recommended that authorities make more investment in
teacher training related to environmental education. It is stated that older teachers have developed more attitudes
towards renewable energy than younger teachers. It is also determined that males look more favourably upon
nuclear energy than females do. In Cebesoy and Karışan’s (2017) research, it was observed that the knowledge
levels of preservice teachers towards renewable energy sources were insufficient, whereas their attitudes were
shaped according to various variables.
The above studies show that while various studies have been conducted related to knowledge and attitudes
about renewable energy, the correlation between the two variables has not been examined. When cognitive levels
of individuals receiving education change, these affective factors are also affected. Therefore, importance must be
given to increasing students’ knowledge levels. Education programmes should be implemented in a more effective
and meaningful way. Moreover, more comprehensive information related to renewable energy subjects must be
included in teacher education. In this way, students can be provided with education on these subjects from an
early period onwards. As stated in the research by Zyadin et al. (2012), the importance of implementing renewable
energy education as soon as possible is emphasised in order to encourage the renewable energy development
required for minimising the risks arising from environmental problems related to fossil fuels.
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The greatest barrier facing individuals in society towards adopting and internalising the subject of renewable
energy is the level of their attitudes and knowledge about it. The more that knowledge and attitudes about the
subject of renewable energy can be developed, the more individuals will be able to acquire positive attitudes and
behaviours about this issue, and in this way, the effective and efficient use of renewable energy types can be realised.
Conclusions
According to the results of the research, it is determined that there is a relationship between the knowledge
and attitudes of the preservice teachers about renewable energy sources. It is important that Renewable Energy
is known, accepted and supported in order to meet the needs of today. Different factors for renewable energy
are effective and it is important to determine the effects of these factors. However, there is no study showing the
relationship between these variables. The relationship between knowledge and attitude was determined with this
study. In this way, the importance of better knowledge of renewable energy and developing a positive attitude
towards it has emerged. The more knowledge and attitudes about renewable energy can be improved, the more
positive attitudes and behaviors will be provided to individuals and the efficient and efficient use of renewable
energy types will be realized.
Acknowledgements
This research was conducted within the scope of the project named “Modelling the Pre-Service Teachers’ Per-
ception and Attitude towards Renewable Energy” with the number 2018.10.07.853 which is supported by Düzce
University Coordination of Scientific Research Projects.
The authors like to thank Düzce University. The authors also wish to thank the referees and editors for their
suggestions for improvements to the original manuscript.
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Murat Genç PhD, Associate Professor, Duzce University, Faculty of Education,

(Corresponding author) Konuralp Yerleşkesi, Konuralp, 81620 Düzce, Turkey.
E-mail: muratgenc@duzce.edu.tr
ORCID ID: 0000-0002-9742-1770.
Mustafa Akilli PhD, Associate Professor, Uludag University, Faculty of
Education,
Özlüce Mahallesi, 16059 Nilüfer/Bursa, Turkey.
E-mail: akilli@uludag.edu.tr
ORCID ID: 0000-0003-0492-0317.
879
EXAMINATION OF STUDENTS’
ENGAGEMENT WITH R-SPQ-
2F OF LEARNING APPROACH
IN FLIPPED SUSTAINABLE
SCIENCE COURSE
Abstract. The students’ engagement was

Jin Su Jeong,
deemed significant to research due to the
changing study structures from course-
David González-Gómez,
based to student-centered and compe-
M. Carmen Conde-Núñez,
tence-based in sustainable science higher Alejandrina Gallego-Picó
education. Still, its change and coping strat-
egies is considered as somewhat unfamiliar
learning environment. Research examined
students’ engagement to the learning
approach of a flipped-classroom model for
sustainable science course with the Revised
Two-Factor Study Process Questionnaire
(R-SPQ-2F). It assesses research proposals, Introduction
which students are utilizing to learning,
and engagement and individual abilities as Currently, changing study structures in science education make stu-
well. The research was conducted with the dents’ engagement to be deemed important to research. Many researchers
students enrolled in the “Atmospheric Pol- have mentioned that student engagement in every educational institution
lution” course of the Environmental Science is his/her active commitment in learning activities (Carini, Kuh, & Klein,
undergraduate program (n=64). The results 2006; Christenson, Reschly, & Wylie, 2012; Symaco & Tee, 2019). Educational
obtained through the R-SPQ-2F showed the institutions should teach the students that they are learning from adaptive
students’ number reaching higher “deep engagement to passionate engagement for knowledge attainments and
approach” in their learning increased at the long-term learnings (Biggs & Collis, 1982; Jang, Kim, & Reeve, 2016). In the
course end, while it can be observed that classroom, engagement is a gauge and a guide of students’ affirmative
the students’ number marking “surface ap- educational performing and performs as the mechanism and instrument
proach” below the mean value was slightly via which the students show educational improvement, as a consistent
lower (pre- and post-test comparison). It and reliable interpreter of educational accomplishment (Ladd & Dinella,
can be concluded that students are em- 2009; Reeve & Lee, 2014; Skinner, Kindermann, Connell, & Wellborn, 2009).
ploying more engagement in their works However, a concern has been raised by itself for good reason among educa-
and enhancing their personal skills as well tors, which have been mainly intensified for students in science education
with the teaching methodology. Results with the substantiation of their science declines (Gottfried, Marcoulides,
obviously specified that the study structure Gottfried, & Oliver, 2009; Sinatra, Heddy, & Lombardi, 2015; Vedder-Weiss
change was a phase into correct emphasis & Fortus, 2011). Conventionally, students’ engagement by scholars has
to improve students’ engagement in the been conceptualized: emotional engagement (enjoyment, interest, other
flipped sustainable science education. affirmative emotions, etc.); multidimensional and behavioral construct (e.g.
Keywords: engagement, science learning, effort participation and attention, etc.); and cognitive elements (e.g. learn-
R-SPQ-2F, flipped-classroom, sustainable ing process regulation, etc.) (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004; Sinatra,
education, study approach. Heddy, & Lombardi, 2015). These are mostly approachable and reactive
to neighboring situations in the classroom, i.e. professors’ independence
help, arrangement, warmth and actual teaching utilization (Patall, Vasquez,
Jin Su Jeong, David González-Gómez, Steingut, Trimble, & Pituch, 2017; Reeve, 2013; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).
M. Carmen Conde-Núñez
University of Extremadura, Spain Thus, agentic engagement proposed has been students’ constructive and
Alejandrina Gallego-Picó proactive tries to affirm their intervention and impact of instruction flow
National Distance Education University, (González-Gómez, Airado Rodríguez, Cañada-Cañada, & Jeong, 2015; Reeve,
Spain
Nix, & Hamm, 2003; Reeve & Tseng, 2011). It is remarkable as a chance to
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ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/ EXAMINATION OF STUDENTS’ ENGAGEMENT WITH R-SPQ-2F OF LEARNING APPROACH IN
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 880-891)
heightening various classroom activities and key developmental tasks of students’ learning in science course
(Eccles et al., 1993; Reeve, 2013). Therefore, the engagement of students is deemed significant to research due to
study organization changes: course-grounded to student-centered and competence-grounded in the sustainable
science higher education. Still, its change and coping strategies is somewhat unfamiliar learning environment.
In the higher education of different subject areas and countries, the Revised Two-Factor Study Process Ques-
tionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) was often employed to assess the students’ study proposals (Biggs, 1987; Biggs, Kember, &
dan Leung, 2001; Maznah & Yoong, 1995). In the theoretical and original construct of the Study Process Ques-
tionnaire (SPQ), it could be made by three different approaches such as surface, deep and achieving learning,
which have had each motive and strategy sub-scale (Biggs, 1987; Wong, Lin, & Watkins, 1996). Each sub-scale
includes seven elements and can be responded on a 5-point Likert scale. Sub-scale grades are analyzed by add-
ing up the values on the pertinent matters to denote those who are making better usage of that exact learning
strategy (Biggs, Kember, & dan Leung, 2001). However, many studies into the SPQ dimensionality have denoted
surface and deep approaches as a two-factor solution have been the best fitted approach and have articulated
a two-factor solution related to those in which the achieving learning sub-scale has split between the two fac-
tors (Kember & Leung, 1998; Snelgrove & Slater, 2003; Watkins & Akande, 1994). Due to these studies’ findings
and higher education altered nature such as students’ amplified heterogeneity population and new teaching
and valuation techniques, Biggs et al. (2001) have reviewed and adjusted the SPQ. As the revised version, the
R-SPQ-2F has a short twenty-questionnaire on the basis of a 5-point Likert scale. It is very simply to employ and
utilize. Learning approach of the students is categorized as surface while a student practices learning like an
extrinsic responsibility that is required to move a course and he/she attempts to satisfy the courses’ necessi-
ties with a least endeavor (Fryer, Ginns, Walker, & Nakao, 2011; Justicia, Pichardo, Cano, Berbén, & De la Fuente,
2008). Also, the learning approach of the students is classified as deep while a student practices learning like an
intrinsic responsibility that has an intrinsic attention and assumes he/she will like learning (Fryer, Ginns, Walker,
& Nakao, 2011; Justicia, Pichardo, Cano, Berbén, & De la Fuente, 2008). Deep Approach (DA) and Surface Ap-
proach (SA) comprise of two sub-scales. The ‘Strategy’ sub-scale is indicating the method that a student learns
for the education and the ‘Motive’ sub-scale is indicating the causes for embracing a proposed strategy (Stes, De
Maeyer, & Petegem, 2013). Thus, with the R-SPQ-2F, current research can target to extend our understanding of
engagement by examining the study strategies which the students in a flipped-classroom model for sustainable
science education course.
With the understanding of engagement to the students’ study strategies and proposals with the R-SPQ-2F
aforementioned, sustainable development in flipped (science) education is raising public awareness and is gain-
ing an increasing importance to improve a long-term learning program (Eneroth, 2000; Lozano, Lozano, Mulder,
Huisingh, & Waas, 2013; Sterling, 2001). As a part of a universal structure, universities in higher education should
suggest sustainability education that aims people along with capability and knowledge will reproduce on their
performance effects (Barth, Godemann, Rieckmann, & Stoltenberg, 2007; Valcke, 1991; Wiek, Withycombe, &
Redman, 2011). Science education, having a strong tie with sustainable development, is linked to knowledge
that is embracing the sustainability education principles although a specific research can connect with its
methodologies, capacities and competences, and technical and practical abilities (Bacelar-Nicolau, Caeiro, Mar-
tinho, Azeiteiro, & Amador, 2009; Esmaeilian, Rust, Gopalakrishnan, & Behdad, 2018). Especially, Sterling (2001)
has specified that sustainability education has been an instructive and educational culture transformation for
person’s potential understanding, and social, economic and ecological interdependence, which could handle
and lever into transformative education. Then, Mezirow (1997) in transformative learning has specified that the
educators’ accountability has been to contribute leaners who could realize their targets in a more independent
and accountable way. In the context aforementioned, the conventional science classes indicated by many studies
have been not the most successful learnings for students though it has been a standard method to distribute
courses over the past years (Butt, 2014; González-Gómez, Jeong, Airado Rodríguez, & Cañada-Cañada, 2016; Jeong,
Cañada-Cañada, & González-Gómez, 2018). However, learning should not be entirely exposed like the knowledge
allocation and distribution for the learners. The flipped-classroom, introduced to overcome these glitches, has
been a fairly new teaching methodology (Jeong, González-Gómez, & Cañada-Cañada, 2019a; Munir, Baroutian,
Young, & Carter, 2018; Tucker, 2012). Here, it aims to offer sufficient in-class time, which can conclude classroom
task and can pursue a constructivist learning (Hill, Song, & West, 2009). Accordingly, as both traditional- and
online/blended-classroom combination, a flipped/inverted-classroom can be envisaged that can be exploiting
in-class and out-of-class period and are completing more effectual learning prospects and perceptions (Munir,
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Baroutian, Young, & Carter, 2018; Tucker, 2012). Due to these reasons and the absence of literature and informa-
tion, we seek to extend our understanding of engagement by examining the study strategies of the students in
a flipped-classroom model for sustainable science education course with the R-SPQ-2F.
Student engagement research on learning approaches is very important to improve student learning qual-
ity while student involves actively in teaching and learning activities (Maznah & Yoong, 1995; Symaco, 2011;
Symaco & Tee, 2019). Marton and Säljö (1976) have indicated learning approaches could be examined by the
processing information and behavior of students. This research examined students’ engagement to learning
approach of a flipped-classroom model for sustainable science education course together with the R-SPQ-2F.
It examined the study approaches, which the students are occupying to learning and the personal skills and
engagement as well. As a validated and consistent questionnaire, the R-SPQ-2F can measure the students’ deep
and surface approach of a study.
Research Aim
Due to literature and proper methodology absence, particularly in sustainable science education, it was
necessary to research the study strategies of the students in a flipped-classroom model for sustainable science
education course with the R-SPQ-2F. Also, research problem was that students’ engagement was in somewhat
unfamiliar learning environment for sustainable science education due to study structure changes from course-
based to student-centered and competence-based. Therefore, the aim of the research was the understanding
of engagement through scrutinizing the study strategies of the students in a flipped-classroom model for sus-
tainable science education course with the R-SPQ-2F along with the previous research extension. It can add the
originality of the research proposed that there are no specific research to deal with these aspects all together
that will give a novel approach. Particularly, this approach opens a new method to understand and extend the
study engagement strategies which the students in a flipped-classroom model for sustainable science educa-
tion course with the R-SPQ-2F.
Research Focus
Research focused on 1) knowing the students’ engagement of learning approach in a flipped-classroom

model for sustainable science course and 2) knowing the connection between the students’ engagement of
learning and learning outcomes.
General Background
The R-SPQ-2F was applied into a course of “Atmospheric Pollution” for the Environmental Science under-
graduate program. As a core course in the program, this course contained various sustainability themes, its
transitions, changes and theories. Considering the subject proposed, it analyzed whether the R-SPQ-2F could
yield the positive results by examining into the rationality and consistency. Then, in pre-, and post-test of a
flipped-classroom model for sustainable science course, the R-SPQ-2F has been applied to assess the engage-
ment of learning approach of the students, one with a deep and the other with a surface learning approach.
A conceptual model of R-SPQ-2F valuation describes how engagement is working in educational institutes as
shown in Figure 1. Assessing students’ engagement of a flipped-classroom model for sustainable science educa-
tion course with the R-SPQ-2F, the methodology is used for various steps as depicted in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. A conceptual framework in a science-classroom showing how the engagement works.
Sample
The research was conducted along with the students enrolled “Atmospheric Pollution” of the Environmental
Science undergraduate program at the National Distance Education University (Spain) for the 2017/18 year. The
subject was taught in the third year of the Bachelor of Science program and is compulsory for all students. The
students’ total number enrolled in the 2017/18 course was 192 students. However, although the initial questionnaire
was answered by 103 students (53.65%), only 64 students answered and completed all the questionnaires (33.33%
and 62.14%, respectively). The sample characteristics are recapitulated as shown in Table 1. While it is described
(see Table 1), the highest percentage of the students were between 30 and 40 years old and they have entered
the Bachelor’s degree after finishing high school. About 70% of students are working while they are studying and
the relationship between men and women is almost the same size.
Table 1. Sample descriptions participating in this research.
Characteristic Students participated
Number (n) 64
Male 46.9
Gender (%)
Female 53.1
< 25 6.3
25 - 30 20.3
Age (%)
30 - 40 50.0
> 40 23.4
Yes 68.8
Part-time student (%)
No 31.3
Professional school 26.6
Former study backgroud (%) High school 39.1
Other backgrouds 34.4
Course Context
The subject was taught in the third year of the Bachelor of Science program and is compulsory for all stu-
dents. As a core program, this course contains various sustainability themes, its transitions, changes and theories.
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Particularly, the content of this subject has been structured in ten teaching units. They include the fundamental
aspects of the dispersing medium, the atmosphere, and atmospheric pollutants, their origin and local, regional
and global effects. Also, the follow-up and control measures, and the legislation developed to that effect. After the
course completion and conclusion, it is expected that the learners have acquired the specific competences related
to the contents and are able to identify the problems and opt for the measures to be taken to mitigate the effects
for the sustainability. The course follows the methodology of a flipped and distance instruction methodology,
and, in accordance with the assigned teaching plan, students require a total of 125 hours to obtain the proposed
competences (5 credits). All students have a basic text adapted to the methodology, a didactic guide that includes,
among others, the work plan, details about the evaluation system, etc. Students also have a virtual classroom with
different communication tools and online interaction, such as forums and chats. In addition, information and
complementary materials self-assessment exercises, quizzes, etc.
Science engagement of learning approach in a flipped-classroom model for sustainable science course was
measured through a pre-, and post-test questionnaire, which were provided to students before and after complet-
ing the course. Using the online format, the questionnaire on pre- and post-test was established. Then, the web link
was remitted to each participant. The initial questionnaire has been expanded including questions about gender,
age, former education, full or part time student, etc. to know the profile of the participants. In all the question-
naires, a section has been included so that the student can make any comments related to the subject. During
the survey, no constraints were executed, and the participants spontaneously selected whether they desired to
partake in the research survey.
For this research, students’ engagement of learning approaches was determined through the R-SPQ-2F
adapting questions from Biggs et al. (2001) that has 20 questions with a 5-point Likert scale employed. Precisely,
the survey questions comprised of a two-factor solution, that is, l0 questions for DA and 10 questions for SA with
5 levels scale (for me, this question is never correct = 1, this for me, this question is sometimes correct = 2, for me,
this question is correct approximately half of time = 3, for me, this question is often correct = 4, and for me, this
question is always correct = 5). Also, its validity and reliability were tested by means of the Cronbach alpha test.
According to Biggs et al. (2001), validity and reliability of the R-SPQ-2F is acceptable when the Cronbach’s value
a test for DA and SA constructions indicated to 0.73 and 0.64. The survey question contributes a suggestion of
how a student deems to reach studying approaches. A difference was completed between when a DA studying
is a student is having an inherent attention and likes in studying, and a SA to studying whereby a student intends
to satisfy the course requirement with a least effort. Both scales, DA and SA, comprise two sub-scales, that is, the
‘Strategy’ sub-scale is concerning the method that a student learns concerning study and the ‘Motive’ sub-scale
is concerning the causes for embracing a study strategy (Stes, De Maeyer, & Petegem, 2013). It also contains four
subscales: motivation and deep study strategy such as Deep Motive (DM) and Deep Strategy (DS) and motivation
and superficial study strategy such as Surface Motive (SM) and Surface Strategy (SS). Current research with the
R-SPQ-2F can target to extend our understanding of engagement by examining the study approaches, which the
students in a flipped-classroom model for sustainable science education course.
Data Collection

Before starting the survey, all the instruments and protocols to collect data were approved by the university
bioethics committee. In this research, the participation was totally voluntary. Also, no personal data was logged for
any participants. Questionnaires were provided to the participants at the course initiation, and once the semester
was done. Data collected from the R-SPQ-2F questionnaires consisting of 20 questions were analyzed as described
by Biggs et al. (2001). For DA or SA to get the students’ score, students’ points were added up for each question
group, DA or SA, thus, for each approach, 50 points was the maximum score for each student. Similar analysis was
carried out to assess the students’ engagement and approach to learning, considering four different sub-categories’
questionnaire, which were the DS, DM, SS and SM groups. Scores of the participants were analyzed as adding up
the scores given for a particular group of questions as described by Biggs et al. (2001). For its validity and reliability,
the Cronbach alpha test was performed.
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Research Results
With the particular and original publications such as Pintrich and De Groot (1990), Ahlfeldt, Mehta, and Sellnow
(2005), and Biggs et al. (2001), each part questionnaire validity and reliability has been verified. Table 2 shows the
Cronbach Alpha test value for the learning approaches’ scales. In a two-factor solution, the question’s validity to
learning gauging the DA was 0.72 and the SA was 0.81. Biggs et al. (2001) for their sample stated that the values
of Cronbach alpha test for the R-SPQ-2F were 0.73 for the DA and 0.64 for the SA. Therefore, for both the DA and
SA, the Cronbach alpha test can be concluded as satisfactory.
Table 2. Cronbach Alpha test values comparison with Biggs et al. (2001).
Cronbach Alpha value for this

Variables Questions Cronbach Alpha value
work
DA 10 0.72 0.73
SA 10 0.81 0.64
Biggs et al. (2001) showed the instructions on how to acquire the DA and the SA score are arranged. In the scale,
ten questions are for the DA learning and for the SA learning. The DA is consisting of questions 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 13,
14, 17 and 18. Then, the SA is consisting of questions 3, 4, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, 16, 19 and 20. Both questions are to attain
the DA and SA scores for each core measure. The students’ answers were obtained as the five different scales: for
me, this question is never correct = 1 (A), for me, this question is sometimes correct = 2 (B), for me, this question is
correct approximately half of time = 3 (C), for me, this question is often correct = 4 (D), and for me, this question is
always correct = 5 (E). Then, the DA and SA grade is calculated as follows: DA=1+2+5+6+9+10+13+14+17+18 and
SA=3+4+7+8+11+12+15+16+19+20. Figure 2 shows the frequency of scores given for each item by the participants
of the research before starting the research as pre-test, and after the course completion as post-test. The scores’
dissemination in Figure 2 displayed a specific pattern for the DA, the higher scores are recorded in the post-test
answers, while the lower scores for the SA are also recorded for the post-test answers.
Pre- DA Pre - SA
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50% 50%
40% 40%
30% 30%
20% 20%
10% 10%
0% 0%
1 2 5 6 9 10 13 14 17 18 3 4 7 8 11 12 15 16 19 20
A B C D E A B C D E
Post-DA Post - SA
100% 100%
90% 90%
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
50%
50%
40%
40%
30%
30%
20%
20%
10%
0% 10%
1 2 5 6 9 10 13 14 17 18 0%
3 4 7 8 11 12 15 16 19 20
A B C D E
A B C D E
Figure 2. Scores’ frequency of given for each item by the participants of the research (pre- and post-test).
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According to the results summarized in Figure 2, the frequencies of D and E scores given by the students in-
creased after the course. The instrument items in which this increment was more accentuated were item 1, “I detect
sometimes studying offers me a deep personal gratification”, item 2, “I detect I should do sufficient effort on a topic in
order to make my own decisions before personal gratification” and item 13, “For my studies, I work hard when I detect
the motivating material”. In the item 13 case where 44% of the students indicated “this question is always true for
me” after the course (post-test) while only 15% of the students gave the same answer before starting the course (pre-
test). Regarding the surface approach, the difference in frequencies was similar before and after the course, however
it was outstanding that, in all instances, students gave low scores for SA items. Thus, considering the DA scores, the
number of students with higher scores in the final questionnaire increased. In contrast, the number of students who
gave lower superficial focus scores also increased. In the initial questionnaires, 34 students had lower scores than the
average DA scores, while in the final questionnaires 25 students with lower scores than the average DA scores, but
many of them very close to it. In the case of SA scores of the initial questionnaires, 24 students presented scores that
were lower than the SA average, and in the final questionnaires, 29 students presented scores that were lower than
the SA average. Likewise, when the DA and SA values revealed a minor variance, which denoted a non-preferential
approach (Hamm & Robertson, 2010). Table 3 shows the summary of the results obtained in the two questionnaires
based on their mean (M), standard deviation (SD), lowest and highest score. The mean value of the scores given for
the DA went from 33.7 (pre-test) to 34.4 (post-test), while the SA remained in 20.2 in both cases. Hamm and Robertson
(2010) indicated that DA scores that were more the mean worth identified a DA for the learning of study subject.
Table 3. DA and SA questionnaires’ response: mean, standard deviation, lowest and highest score.
Test type DA/SA N M SD Lowest score Highest score
DA 64 33.7 5.4 24 49
Pre-test
SA 64 20.2 5.7 10 34
DA 64 34.4 5.2 23 49
Post-test
SA 64 20.3 6.1 10 43
The scores’ dissemination specified by the students before and after the course (pre- and post-test) was de-
picted on a XY-graph in Figure 3 as to get its better view. This figure also included the mean value for the DA and
SA scores and the standard deviation as well.
Figure 3. DA and SA distribution of scores for each student between pre- and post-test for the course. With
the black line, mean values are denoted and with the gray shaded area the standard deviation is
indicated for the DA and the SA.
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Considering the mean value lines displayed for DA and SA scores, Figure 3 could be divided in four square
sections (A, B, C and D). In square A, students had a score more than the DA mean value and less than the SA mean
value. On the other hand, the square D shown in Figure 3 that represented participants with DA scores less than
the mean value and SA scores more than the mean value slightly decreased in the post-test plot when was com-
pared with the pre-test score. Finally, the students who had scores above the DA mean value and below the SA
mean value were situated in square C, while square B showed the students whose scores were below the DA and
SA mean values. According to Kubischta (2014), this plot could be used to categorize the students like partaking a
deep, intermedia or surface learning approach. Thus, students belonging to square A denotated an inclination for a
deep learning approach, while those located in the D square showed a preference for a surface approach learning.
Reflecting the plots through pre- and post-test, the students’ number situated in the square A moved from 16 to
20. This increase was mostly due to the reduction of the SA scores given by the students. An intermedia situation
or a non-dominant learning approach corresponds to all the students depicted in squares B or C. The number of
students located in these two squares (B or C) decreased once the course was completed.
The influence of the students’ learning approach and the outcomes of learning registered at the end of the
course was as well evaluated. Figure 4 represents the X-Y scatter plot of the dissimilarity between the DA and SA
scores and the participants’ final grade.
Figure 4. X-Y scatter plot of the difference between DA and SA approach to learning vs. students’ learning
outcomes in terms of final grade.
In Figure 4, the lower difference values between DA and SA referred to those students whose SA scores were
higher (students located in square D depicted in Figure 3). On the other hand, the higher difference values between
DA and SA referred to those students whose DA scores were higher (students located in square A represented in
Figure 3). According to the results shown in Figure 4, a positive correlation could be found between the differences
DA-SA and the participants’ grade indicating r=.32 and p<.05. The number of students with lower grades were
correlated with lower DA-SA difference values.
Discussion
Owing to a certain students’ learning approach, Hamm and Robertson (2010) criteria were followed in this
research, thus it was reflected that an over mean value DA indicated a deep and an over the mean value SA indicated
a surface approach. In accordance with this research results, students, at the semester end, had a general inclination
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for a deeper learning approach (Figures 2 and 3). In fact, the results showed that the number of students reaching
a DA to learning increased while the number of students reaching a SA to learning decreased at the semester end.
The shift of the students’ learning preference during the course could be explained, as it was appointed by Zeegers
(2001), by the fact that the students’ engagement with course requirements was rewarded by better results, also
because they showed more interest in the course contents and finally, by the teaching and learning activities
carried out in the course. In this sense, the teaching methodology implemented in this course was based on the
flipped-classroom teaching/learning model. A fairly new teaching methodology of a flipped-classroom (Jeong,
González-Gómez, & Cañada-Cañada, 2019b; Munir, Baroutian, Young, & Carter, 2018; Tucker, 2012) that aims to of-
fer sufficient in-class time, which can conclude classroom task and can pursue a constructivist learning (Hill, Song,
& West, 2009). Accordingly, as both traditional and online/blended education combination, a flipped-classroom
can be envisaged as exploiting in-class hour and out-of-class hour and accomplishing better learning prospects
and perceptions (Munir, Baroutian, Young, & Carter, 2018; Tucker, 2012). Adopting a deep approach the students
denoted that they were not only attentive for the educational job, but also, they were appreciative for the procedure
of performance (Biggs, 1987; Mokhtar, Choo, Husain, & Rahman, 2010).
In the flipped science education, to satisfy the sustainable development with the engagement understand-
ing into the students’ study strategies with the R-SPQ-2F, Eneroth (2000) mentioned its raising public awareness
and was gaining an increasing importance to improve a long-term learning program. Thus, Barth, Godemann,
Rieckmann, and Stoltenberg (2007) suggested sustainability education aimed that people along with capabil-
ity and knowledge could reproduce on their performance effects in higher education. With the increase of a DA
and decrease of a SA through this research, a specific research linked to sustainability knowledge and principles
embraced its methodologies, capacities and competences, and technical and practical abilities (Bacelar-Nicolau,
Caeiro, Martinho, Azeiteiro, & Amador, 2009; Esmaeilian, Rust, Gopalakrishnan, & Behdad, 2018). Like Sterling
(2001) specified, sustainability education was a transformation of instructive and educational culture for person’s
potential understanding, and social, economic and ecological interdependence. These could be transformative
education to being handle and lever. Then, in transformative learning, Mezirow (1997) specified that the educators’
responsibility was to provide learners who could comprehend their goals a more accountable and independent
approach. So, the conventional science classes indicated by many studies could be overcome to be the most suc-
cessful learnings for students through the flipped-classroom methodology introducted (González-Gómez, Jeong,
Airado Rodríguez, & Cañada-Cañada, 2016; Jeong, Cañada-Cañada, & González-Gómez, 2018). We found out to
spread general understanding of engagement by studying the strategies of the students in a flipped-classroom
model for sustainable science education course with the R-SPQ-2F.
Along with the engagement examining the study strategies of the students in a flipped-classroom model for
sustainable science course with the R-SPQ-2F, the students’ engagement learning/academic relationship, students’
learning/academic approach and learning/academic effects were reported to show inconsistent results (Zeegers,
2001). The results presented in this study (Figure 4) showed a positive correlation (r=.322 and p<.05) between the
DA-SA differences and the students’ grade. Watkins and Hattie (1981) also found positive correlations between
the results provided by the R-SPQ-2F instrument and the students’ learning achievements in a longitudinal study
conducted with 249 university science students. On the other hand, Zeegers (2001) reported that a constant
positive correlation could be found between the annual Grade Point Average (GPA) and the deep approach, and
there was a small negative correlation with the surface approach. Watkins (1996), and Pintrich and De Groot (1990)
indicated in their works that the correlation between students’ learning approach and the outcomes of learning
were also influenced by the factors such as students’ self-confidence and students’ self-efficacy. In that sense,
Jeong, González-Gómez and Cañada-Cañada (2019) reported that a science course following a flipped-classroom
teaching approach allowed to shape a more positive teaching/learning setting. Here, toward the course students’
emotions and perceptions were improved, together with the students’ academic self-efficacy. That is in accordance
with the results showed in this research.
Conclusions
The present research explored the students’ approach to learning in a course of “Atmospheric Pollution” for
the Environmental Science undergraduate program. To explore whether participants adapted a deep or surface
approach to learning, the R-SPQ-2F was employed. The R-SPQ-2F results showed that the students’ number reaching
a DA in learning increased at the class end. Moreover, the participants’ number showing a SA to learning decreased
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within the course. Among the different factors that were described to affect the students’ approach to learning, the
teaching approach respected in the course was one of the them. In this research, a flipped-classroom model was
followed resulting in an increment of the participants’ number reaching a deeper approach to learning. Regarding
with the outcomes of learning acquired, a positive correlation was discovered in the context of the relationship of
the educational learning achievements and the students’ learning approach. Students’ reaching a deeper approach
to learning achieved as well better learning outcomes. Thus, it could be concluded that the students were employ-
ing more engagement in their educations and refining their individual skills as well with the proposed teaching
methodology. Results obviously designated that the study structure change of the course suggested was a stage
into the correct path to improve students’ engagement in flipped sustainable science education.
While the methodology suggested overcame the current research glitch and difficulty, the study strategies of
the students in a flipped-classroom model for sustainable science education course with the R-SPQ-2F added the
new value to previous reports. Also, the increased study strategies more to deep approach practically improved
students’ academic work and their enjoyment of the course processes while adapting the study structure such
as student-centered and competence-based considering students’ engagement. It can add to the originality of
the research proposed that there are no specific research to deal with these aspects all together that will give a
novel approach. Therefore, it showed that the results allowed to figure a much more affirmative teaching/learning
atmosphere. Here, the perceptions and emotions of participants concerning the course were perfected, together
with the students’ academic self-efficacy along with the students’ engagement for a flipped-classroom model for
sustainable science course with the R-SPQ-2F.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Regional Ministry of Economy and Infrastructure of Extremadura and
European Social Fund (Projects IB18004 and GR18004) and the Project EDU2016-77007-R (AEI/FEDER, UE) of the
Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities of Spain, which support this work possible.
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Received: September 10, 2019 Accepted: December 02, 2019
Jin Su Jeong PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of Experimental Science and

(Corresponding author) Mathematics Education, University of Extremadura, Avenida S/N 10004
Cáceres, Spain.
E-mail: jin@unex.es
Website: https://www.unex.es/conoce-la-uex/centros/profesorado/centro/
profesores/info/profesor?id_pro=jin
David González-Gómez PhD, Professor, Department of Experimental Science and Mathematics
Education, University of Extremadura, Avenida S/N 10004 Cáceres, Spain.
E-mail: dggomez@unex.es
profesores/info/profesor?id_pro=dggomez
Alejandrina Gallego-Picó PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Analytical Chemistry, National
Distance Education University, Paseo Senda del Rey 9 28040 Madrid, Spain.
E-mail: agallego@ccia.uned.es
Website: http://portal.uned.es/portal/page?_pageid=93,695393&_
dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL
M. Carmen Conde-Núñez PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Experimental Science and
Mathematics Education, University of Extremadura, Avenida S/N 10004
Cáceres, Spain.
E-mail: cconde@unex.es
profesores/info/profesor?id_pro=cconde
891
STUDENTS’ AND TEACHERS’
PERCEPTION OF SCIENTIFIC
MODELS: TRANSITION
ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/ FROM DAILY TO SCIENTIFIC
LANGUAGE
Abstract. The use of scientific models has Show-Run Lee,

been regarded as an important skill for Yu-Ling Lu, Chi-Jui Lien
scientific enquiry. However, although many
national curricula and major international
science education reform movements
have stressed the use of scientific models
in science teaching and learning, students Introduction
and teachers generally do not know how
to perceive models properly. This research Scientific models have a crucial and irreplaceable role in science explora-
explores these perceptions about scientific tion (Black, 1962; Odenbaugh, 2005) as they can be used to delineate what
models using the Perception of Models in is known and unknown, develop conceptual frameworks, make predictions
Science (PMS), a self-developed instrument and generate causal explanations; however, defining models, especially in
designed to collect participants’ model the context of scientific enquiry, has still proven itself to be difficult (Chittle-
perceptions, among 218 grade 4, 6 and borough, Treagust, Mamiala, & Mocerino, 2005).
8 students, as including 57 of the science According to Hodson (2014), scientific models can be a way for stu-
teachers in their respective schools, and dents to gain conceptual and theoretical knowledge (learn science), en-
treated these statistically with analysis gage in scientific practices (do science) and develop an understanding of
of variance, post hoc analysis and cluster the characteristics of science as part of its nature. Thus, science educators
analysis. Results showed that the groups have highlighted the importance of using models in teaching and learning
of students and teachers agreed that the science in schools, as seen in many science education materials all over the
most acceptable model representation is world (Gilbert, 2005; Gilbert & Boulter, 2000; Gilbert & Justi 2016; Grünkorn,
reality but remained uncertain on whether Upmeier zu Belzen, & Kruger, 2014; Oh & Oh, 2011; Passmore, Gouvea, & Giere,
a model can be presented through nonre- 2014; Yildirir & Demirkol, 2018). Given how science education communities,
ality representations (i.e., diagram, graph, researchers and teachers have had high consensus about the inclusion of
symbol, writing and speech). Participants the use of scientific models into science curricula and instruction, the United
did not significantly differ in perception States, Germany, the United Kingdom, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan (Ministry
intensity of seeing each model repre- of Education, Taiwan, 2018; National Research Council, 2013), and many more
sentation and held three kinds of model countries have now explored the integration of models into science lessons,
perceptions: daily language, transitional making the use of scientific models a crucial element in the fields of science,
and scientific language. This research thus technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education. Despite all
proposes action plans in managing this these developments, however, perceptions of students and teachers have
transitional perspective in learning the shown ambiguity and arbitrariness (Grosslight, Unger, Jay, & Smith, 1991; Lee,
concepts of scientific models. Chang, & Wu, 2017; Torres & Vasconcelos, 2015; Unal, Sadoglu, & Durukan,
Keywords: model representations, scien- 2014; Van Driel & Verloop, 1999).
tific model, students’ view, teachers’ view. In students’ early education, a model is understood, defined and used as
a concrete concept similar to an actual solid object such as a fragile prototype,
Show-Run Lee mock-up, etc. As students further their education, especially in science and
Taipei Municipal WenHu Elementary mathematics, the way models are defined becomes more in-depth, and both
School, Taiwan
Yu-Ling Lu, Chi-Jui Lien
students and teachers have to endure the conceptual change concerning the
National Taipei University of Education, model’s terminology (Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982). For teachers,
Taiwan if they cannot grasp this shift in understanding, it would be unrealistic to
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expect that they can teach and help students comprehend and use models. Therefore, unveiling this conceptual
shift in the process of understanding models is crucial in improving the teaching and learning of models. In this
research, primary and secondary school students and primary and secondary school teachers, as the stakeholders
of learning and teaching in this setup, were asked to define a model under a specific representation (e.g., reality
(physical), diagram (schematic), graph (statistic), symbol (picture), writing (text) and speech) and compared their
answers. Given this, this research aimed to answer two research questions:
•• RQ1: What are the differences in students’ and teachers’ model perceptions?
•• RQ2: What kinds of perception traits do students and teachers have toward scientific models?
Theoretical Framework
Students’ Model Perceptions
Several studies have attempted to identify students’ conceptions of models and their use in science. Grosslight
et al. (1991) interviewed grade 7 mixed-ability students and grade 11 students in an honours science class and
found that most of the students carried a naïve realist epistemology and thought of scientific models as physical
copies of reality. Based on how these students described the relationship of models with reality and the role that
ideas play concerning models, they identified three levels for their scientific model perceptions: level 1, where
students see models as either toys or simple copies of reality; level 2, where they see models as objects that can
be altered depending on the ‘modeler’; and level 3, where they see models as subjected to evolve and actively
created to test ideas. However, results indicated that all students have only reached levels 1 and 2, indicating that
no grade 7 student was able to have a holistic understanding of models.
Treagust, Chittleborough, and Mamiala (2002, p. 262) showed that for their definition of models as an exact
replica, there are 36%, 21% and 43% of students who answered with disagree, not sure and agree, respectively.
Students who responded with not sure or agree were regarded as having an incorrect concept of a scientific model,
which constituted a large portion of the participants. On the other hand, Gogolin and Krüger (2018) proposed a
five-aspect framework of model competence, and from those, the aspect of the nature of scientific models, as the
most relevant to this research, had three levels: 1) a model is a replication of the original, 2) a model is an idealised
representation of the original and 3) a model is a theoretical reconstruction of the original. Moreover, they found
that a majority of the students in all grades (10, 11 and 12) see scientific models as an idealised representation
of the original (level 2). However, their study did not focus on the different representative modes of models (e.g.,
graph, diagram, text, etc.); thus, models in their sample items were all real objects. Given this, further analysis of
how students react to other models with nonreality representations is expected to produce more relevant findings.
Following the same goal as the other authors, Lee et al. (2017) studied grade 8 and 11 Taiwanese students’
perceptions of scientific models, and their results shown that grade 11 students were more likely to recognize
textual and pictorial representations as models compared to their younger counterparts. These results supported
previous viewpoints (Bean, Sinatra, & Schrader, 2010; Schwarz, 2009) and stated that ‘illustrative figures and more
abstract forms of models appear to be more difficult for younger learners’ (Lee et al., 2017, p. 315). They further
concluded that their findings support the previous argument (i.e., Ainsworth, 2006) that the educational level may
impact how students interact with different modes of representation.
Lee (2018) further explored the progression of students’ understanding of scientific models and modelling by
surveying 983 Taiwanese grade 7 to 12 students, and their questionnaire included 10 representations of models.
The study’s results showed that a majority of the students did not agree that the text, mathematical, or dynamic
representations are models. As to the progression of their understanding of models, significant differences were
seen between grade 7 and all grades above grade 10, and between grades 8 and 12, which pointed out that ‘it pos-
sibly takes years of experience of learning science to develop a sophisticated view of models…’ (Lee, 2018, p. 1424).
Teachers’ Model Perceptions
Teachers’ understanding of the instructional content is crucial in providing valid and effective learning for
students. However, studies like that of Unal, Sadoglu, and Durukan (2014) showed how professors of pre-service
teachers who taught science and mathematics to primary and secondary student teachers had deficiencies and
were not at the expected level in terms of understanding the representations and the nature of models. Another
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study by Van Driel and Verloop (1999) assessed the knowledge of experienced secondary school science teachers’
regarding scientific models and found that most teachers still view models as simplified or schematic representa-
tions of reality. They also found that science teachers ‘allotted a large variety of representational modes to scientific
models’ (Van Driel & Verloop, 1999, p. 1148).
Justi and Gilbert (2003) interviewed teachers employed in ‘fundamental’ (6–14 years) and ‘medium’ (15–17
years) schools and universities, as well as student science teachers, about their notion of scientific models in seven
aspects: nature, use, entities, uniqueness, time span, prediction and accreditation. Their results showed that the
teachers’ notion was too complex for them to be differentiated with the levels proposed by Grosslight et al. (1991),
with the only pattern observed being how the teachers’ simple view of scientific models was similar to Grosslight
et al.’s level 1 (lowest). Soulios and Psillos (2016) experimented on model-based enquiry teaching to enhance
student teachers’ epistemological beliefs about scientific models and reported that the most prospective primary
teachers held a naïve realistic belief about models. Moreover, a study by Torres and Vasconcelos (2015) evaluated
prospective Portuguese teachers’ views of models and reported that only 30% of the teachers reached an informed
status, while others, 24.2% and 45.5%, are still situated at the intermediate and uninformed status, respectively.
These studies show that the views of teachers or student teachers on models are complex and sometimes
inconsistent, naïve and problematic. Thus, it is impractical to expect that a valid view on the use of scientific models
could be reflected in their science teaching or learning. Moreover, there is insufficient research that explores students
and teachers as the stakeholders of the teaching and learning system, which has left a gap in the understanding
of the knowledge ecology of views of models in schools, requiring further action.
Concept Formation of Scientific Models
Previous studies have shown that students’ and teachers’ views on scientific models have a large gap in terms
of meeting the expectations of the science education community. There are multifaceted reasons behind this phe-
nomenon, and one of which is the difficulty of forming a conceptual change from learners’ prior understanding.
Similar to learning scientific concepts such as sound, pressure, balance and so on (Eshach, Lin, & Tsai, 2018; Ozkan
& Selcuk, 2016), learners need to move from an everyday concept to a scientific one. In many cases, the intended
conceptual change happens, but others form a misconception (alternative concept), and some maintain their
intact preconception.
‘Model’, as a term, is commonly used by students in and out of their classrooms every day to refer to a physi-
cal copy of an object, such as a toy car, gun, animal, etc. However, it has a different meaning when used in the
context of science enquiry. This new conceptual formation of models in science learning needs to overcome the
interference of not only its daily use but also how it is defined in other subjects. For example, in art classes, models
may refer to plaster models, while in chemistry classes, they may refer to the ball-and-stick model representing
molecules. Thus, models have multiple concepts that are sometimes exchangeable, compatible and interfering
with each other. These preconceptions about models and the need to address them are shown in Grosslight et
al.’s (1991) findings. Duit and Treagust (2003, p. 675) stressed that ‘students will be able to learn science concepts
and principles only if they are aware of the shift of their initial metaconceptual views toward the metaconceptual
perspectives of science knowledge.’ Not noticing and addressing students’ everyday life languages and/or experi-
ences would likely lead to futile instruction.
A study on vocabulary development also pointed out that attaching meaning to a new word is ‘guided by
implicit biases or expectations that lead them to favour some possible meaning over others’ (Antia & Ianna, 2016,
p. 64). Given this, when the concept of scientific models as a term is not well shaped among students and teach-
ers in science education, they tend to choose the omnipresent and versatile meaning of models in everyday life.
These have made the conceptual change of models in the proper direction more difficult (Gogolin & Krüger, 2018),
thus requiring the identification of the most fundamental questions about how students and teachers see models.
Back to Basics: Representations of Scientific Models
Representation is a form of expression of an object or a concept. Oh and Oh (2011, p. 1112) stated that in
everyday language, ‘a model is something that represents something else’. An approach to understanding students’
and teachers’ concept of scientific models is to explore how they view the representations of models through a
more straightforward and measurable means. Despite the acknowledgment of the science education community
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that scientific models could be represented in various ways, such as reality, symbol, diagram, etc. to the point that
these are commonly found in textbooks and the like, many students and teachers remain unsure what scientific
models are.
Various approaches have been developed to explore students’ and teachers’ views of scientific models.
Grosslight et al. (1991) used an interview approach to elicit students’ initial understanding of models. During the
interview, they presented a toy airplane, a subway map, a picture of a house and a schematic diagram of the water
cycle to students and asked if they think the representation was a model. On the other hand, Van Driel and Verloop
(1999) developed open-ended questions wherein participants were asked whether items like a toy car, a picture of
a house, Ohm’s law, a water molecule, etc. are considered models and had them justify their answer. Treagust et al.
(2002) developed a questionnaire in which students respond to each question with answers from strongly disagree
to strongly agree on whether models should be considered as exact replicas. Likewise, Lee et al. (2017) designed
a 12-item questionnaire to ask students whether something is a model or not through 6 modes of representation
(i.e., textual, schematic, 2D, 3D, static and dynamic). Similarly, Lee (2018) designed a 10-item computer-based
questionnaire wherein each item represents a model representation for students to express the degree of their
agreement over how one object is considered a model. The 10 items include concrete (plastic model), verbal (text)
and visual models (e.g., symbolic, drawing, mathematical, dynamic, etc.).
These studies have shown that several methods have been used to explore how students or teachers perceive
scientific models, which include the use of different data gathering techniques: interview approach (Grosslight
et al., 1991), paper-and-pencil test (Treagust et al., 2002) and computer-based questionnaire (Lee, 2018); different
answer types: Likert’s type (Treagust et al., 2002; Van Driel & Verloop, 1999) and open item type (Van Driel & Ver-
loop, 1999); and different model representations: concrete (real object, replica, plastic model), visual (e.g., symbols,
drawing, graphs, illustrations, charts, mathematical, 2D, 3D, static and dynamic),and verbal (text; Lee et al., 2017;
Lee, 2018; Treagust et al., 2002). As to the approach of presenting questions that will have participants practice
their judgment, some studies like that of Van Driel and Verloop (1999) provided samples (e.g., real object, photo,
graph, etc.), while others simply used words for description. Using the research of the above studies, the following
six forms were finalised for use in the instrument of this research: reality (physical), diagram (schematic), graph
(statistic), symbol (picture), writing (text) and speech, which are representations of models more commonly seen
in primary and secondary school science curricula.
General Background
This research was quantitative in nature. Students’ and teachers’ perceptions of scientific model were tested,
collected and descriptively reported. The data were further analysed with ANOVA and cluster analysis methods
to discover their differences and perception patterns. The research was conducted in 2018, and the data was col-
lected in April of the same year.
Participants
As the scope of this research spans from grade 4 (ages 9–10), 6 (ages 11–12) and grade 8 (ages 13–14), both
primary and secondary schools were involved. In Taiwan, primary school is labelled elementary school, which in-
cludes education for Grades 1–6, and secondary school, which includes grades 7–12. In most cases, primary and
secondary schools are separated, so the participants of this research included a primary school and a secondary
school with similar middle socioeconomic status. Participants were made up of primary students in grade 4 and
6 and their science teachers from one primary school, as well as secondary students in grade 8 (ages 13–14) and
their science teachers from another secondary school. With this, a total of 247 students and teachers joined. Stu-
dents included 73 grade 4, 48 grade 6 and 69 grade 8 students, from 3, 2 and 3 classes, respectively, selected via
convenience sampling from their respective grades. Teachers were 29 primary school science teachers (PSTs) and
28 secondary school science teachers (SSTs; see Table 1) who were not limited to those who teach these grade
4, 6 and 8 students, because science teachers in other grades can also teach such research subjects during their
schooling years. This research refers to ‘science teachers’ as teachers who taught science subjects in primary or
secondary schools. Selection of schools was intentional for a more general representation of schools in Taiwan.
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The first author received consent from the schools’ administration and teachers, and participation was done vol-
untarily. All participants remained anonymous. The ethical guidelines for educational research (Cohen, Manion, &
Morrison, 2009, p. 77) were followed. All teachers and students were aware of the goal of the data collection, who
the researchers and their institutes were, and how the information would be used. Students were further assured
that their results would not influence their grades or class standing in any way. Participants’ confidentiality and
privacy were respected and protected at all times, and only aggregated data were reported.
Table 1. Participants of this research: Students’ and teachers’ groups.
Subject Male Female Total
Grade 4 38 35 73
Grade 6 26 22 48
Grade 8 32 37 69
PST 11 18 29
SST 17 11 28
Total 124 123 247
Note. PST = Primary school science teacher; SST = Secondary school science teacher.
Research Instruments
An instrument, the Perception of Models in Science (PMS), was developed in this research based on the episte-
mological representation of models (Lee et al., 2017; Lee, 2018; Treagust et al., 2002). The PMS contains six forms
of representations: reality (physical), diagram (schematic), graph (statistic), symbol (picture), writing (text) and
speech. This research did not include representations such as dynamic, 3D and mathematic, as included in a study
by Lee et al. (2017), because our participants included grade 4 and 6 students, and such derivative forms would be
beyond young students’ understanding. The construct of the PMS is shown in Table 2. The six forms of presenta-
tions belong to three categories: reality, visual and linguistic. Each form has 2 questions, totalling 12 items in the
questionnaire with the theme of ‘Saving energy and reducing carbon’. This theme was chosen as it was science-
related and is familiar to students and teachers. In the PMS, each item presents an example of a model (Table 3)
and asks the participants to what extent they regard a certain item as a ‘scientific model’. The subjects expressed
their perception through a 4-point Likert scale (i.e., 1 point for ‘strongly disagree’; 2 points for ‘disagree’; 3 points
for ‘agree’; and 4 points for ‘strongly agree’). The face validity was examined by two science education experts. The
PMS was pretested on 31 grade 4 students and 49 grade 6 students, with a post-test conducted after 2 weeks. With
the assumption that if the instrument is understandable and usable for grade 4 and 6 students, it should then be
applicable in collecting relative data from older students and their teachers. This research only pilot tested the PMS
among grade 4 and 6 students. The test-retest reliability was obtained with Spearman’s rank correlation analysis.
Given the nature of the lack of agreement in one of the student’s responses toward the six forms, the correlation
coefficients in all forms were separately measured. Although the results of Spearman’s correlation coefficients in
each form of representation—reality (.72 and .65, for grades 4 and 6, respectively), diagram (.83; .41), graphs (.63;
.70), symbol (.49; .67), writing (.36; .62) and speech (.70; .67)—did not show consistently high values, considering
the vague definition of models and the minimum acceptable values of test-retests being situation-dependent
(Crocker & Algina, 1986, p. 133), this research believes that the PMS served the need of this research.
Table 2. The construct of the Perception of Models in Science (PMS).
Representation Perceptions tested Item no.
A. Reality A model can be an actual physical object. 1, 2

B. Visual
a) Diagram A model can be a schematic diagram. 5, 6
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Representation Perceptions tested Item no.
b) Graph A model can be a graph of data. 9, 10

c) Symbol A model can be a symbol. 7, 8
C. Linguistic
a) Writing A model can be a writing text. 3, 4
A model can be an individual, a scientist and a general public view of
b) Speech 11, 12
something.
Table 3. Sample items of the Perception of Models in Science (PMS).
Item no. Representation Content
1 Reality A toy car is a model.
10 Visual This is an infographic regarding energy.

(Diagram)
It is a model.
5 Visual This is a statistical graph of the energy consumption on the planet.

(Graph)
It is a model.
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Item no. Representation Content
8 Visual This is an energy-saving stamp.

(Symbol)
It is a model.
3 Linguistic ‘In the circulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, plants take in carbon
(Writing) dioxide and produce oxygen during photosynthesis, which is then taken in by humans
and animals’.
This sentence is a model.
12 Linguistic An expert said: ‘Carbon dioxide on Earth blocks solar heat from returning to space,
(Speech) resulting in the earth serving as a layer of quilt and forming a greenhouse effect’.
The expert’s words are a model.
Data Analysis
For RQ1, the means of the perceptions of different students’ and teachers’ groups toward different model
forms were first calculated. The ratio of the total number of consents (including agree and strongly agree) was
also calculated and reported. Afterward, the model representation was further analysed with one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) if a significant difference was detected, and the Tamhane’s T2 post hoc test was performed to
locate the differences among different pairs of groups.
On the other hand, for RQ2, the data from the students’ and teachers’ responses to the 12-item questionnaire
were analysed with cluster analysis techniques to classify their perception traits toward the concept of model,
for which a 2-step approach was used. First, the hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward’s method with Euclidean
distance (Borgen & Barnett, 1987) was employed to decide the number of clusters based on its dendrogram and
the demarcation point in its agglomeration schedule, and second, the k-means cluster analysis was used to group
students and teachers into this designated number of clusters (Ng, Liu, & Wang, 2016). Once each student and
teacher were classified, a contingency table that displays the frequency distribution of each group of subjects in
each cluster was built. In this table, the proportions of cells in the different columns and rows were statistically
tested with Pearson’s chi-squared test. Post hoc analyses will precede if the chi-square showed a significant differ-
ence between the observed and expected counts. Moreover, adjusted residuals in each cell served as an indicator
of significance (van Belle, Fisher, Heagerty, & Lumley, 2004), the threshold value was set to 1.96 and all statistical
analyses were processed using the SPSS 20.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
Research Results
Quantitative Analysis of Students’ and Teachers’ Model Perceptions
The means of perceptions of different groups toward each model form were shown in Table 4. It showed
that reality was much highly perceived as models than any other nonreality representations (i.e., diagram, graph,
symbol, writing and speech) across all groups of students and teachers. The ratio of the total number of consents
(including agree and strongly agree) further indicated that the perception of reality as models is high (75% to 98%),
while that through its nonreality forms is relatively low.
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Table 4. A descriptive analysis of model perceptions among five groups of students and teachers.
Mean of representations (% of consent)

Subjects
Reality Diagram Graph Symbol Writing Speech
Grade 4
2.92(75) 2.45(47) 2.58(51) 2.04(30) 1.81(18) 1.82(27)
(n=73)
Grade 6
3.07(77) 2.53(50) 2.49(50) 2.22(36) 1.99(20) 2.01(22)
(n=48)
grade 8
3.19(91) 2.64(56) 2.33(38) 2.39(43) 2.09(29) 2.15(28)
(n=69)
PST
3.38(98) 2.76(64) 2.53(50) 2.22(34) 2.31(38) 2.03(17)
(n=29)
SST
3.25(91) 2.77(70) 2.36(50) 2.16(38) 2.21(32) 2.20(29)
(n=28)
All
3.12(84) 2.59(55) 2.46(37) 2.21(36) 2.03(26) 2.02(25)
(n=247)
Note. a) 1 point for strongly disagree, 2 for disagree, 3 for agree and 4 for strongly agree; b) Percentage refers to the ratio of the total
number of people whose answers are agree and strongly agree to the number of people in the group.
Table 5. ANOVA analysis of model perceptions among five groups.
Representations SS df MS F
Among groups 5.83 4 1.46 4.22**

Reality Within groups 83.63 242 .35
total 89.46 246
Among groups 3.56 4 .89 1.48
Diagram Within groups 145.48 242 .60
total 149.04 246
Among groups 2.71 4 .68 .93
Graph Within groups 176.89 242 .73
total 179.60 246
Among groups 4.43 4 1.11 2.31
Symbol Within groups 116.09 242 .48
total 120.51 246
Among groups 7.12 4 1.78 2.73*
Writing Within groups 157.96 242 .65
total 165.08 246
Among groups 4.95 4 1.24 2.25
Speech Within groups 133.22 242 .55
total 138.17 246
Note. *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to examine whether students and teachers and students of different levels
have different intensities of model perceptions in each of the six representations. Table 5 shows the ANOVA results
of perceptions toward each model representation across different subject groups. It indicated no significant dif-
ferences in terms of diagram, graph, symbol and speech, while significant differences were detected in terms of
reality (F = 4.22, p < .05) and writing (F = 2.73, p < .05). For the representations that were observed as significant
with ANOVA analysis, further Tamhane’s T2 post hoc test was conducted to detect significant differences among
each pair of subject groups. These pairwise comparison results (Table 6) showed that there were only two signifi-
cant differences detected in the reality form: between grade 4 and 8 students, and between grade 4 students and
primary school science teachers (Mean(I) − Mean(J) = −0.27 and −0.46, p < .05, respectively).
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Table 6. The post hoc test of model’s perceptions among five groups (Tamhane’s T2).
Representations Group(I) Group(J) Difference (I–J) SE p
Grade 4 Grade 6 −0.16 0.13 .92

Grade 4 Grade 8 −0.27 0.10 .05*
Grade 4 PST −0.46 0.11 .01*
Grade 4 SST −0.33 0.13 .11
Grade 6 Grade 8 −0.12 0.12 .99
Reality
Grade 6 PST −0.31 0.13 .19
Grade 6 SST −0.18 0.15 .93
Grade 8 PST −0.19 0.10 .44
Grade 8 SST −0.06 0.12 1.00
PST SST 0.13 0.13 .98
Grade 4 Grade 6 −0.18 0.14 .87
Grade 4 Grade 8 −0.28 0.14 .41
Grade 4 PST −0.50 0.19 .11
Grade 4 SST −0.41 0.17 .18
Grade 6 Grade 8 −0.10 0.14 1.00
Writing
Grade 6 PST −0.32 0.19 .66
Grade 6 SST −0.22 0.17 .88
Grade 8 PST −0.22 0.20 .95
Grade 8 SST −0.13 0.17 1.00
PST SST 0.10 0.22 1.00
Note. *The average difference in the level of .05 is significant; PST: primary school science teacher; SST: secondary school science
teacher.
Cluster Analysis of Students’ and Teachers’ Perception Traits
For RQ2, based on students’ and teachers’ model perceptions, three perception traits were clustered and
named (Table 7), with the first cluster named as the daily language perspective and the second as the transitional
perspective. In the first cluster, students and teachers only agree that the reality form is a model (Mean = 3.22)
and disagree that all other representations are models (Mean = 1.36 to 1.96), which indicate that they still held a
daily language concept about models. A total of 32.8% of the students and teachers held this perspective. On the
other hand, the second cluster has a similar perception of the reality form but with the other five forms higher than
those of the first cluster (Mean = 1.96 to 2.72) and lower than those of the third cluster (Mean = 2.82 to 3.28), which
indicates that students and teachers in this cluster are in a transition state of perception from the daily language
perspective to the scientific language perspective. It is notable that they do not show a positive perception that
models can be all other representations other than the reality form given the fact that this is the largest group
composed of 46.2% of students and teachers. The third cluster was named as the scientific language perspective
for its highest means in each of the representation form, which ranged from 2.92 to 3.32. This means that students
and teachers in this cluster see model beyond mere reality (physical form) and that it could be visual and linguistic,
which are both nonreality forms (diagram, graph, symbol, writing and speech). However, only 21.0% of students
and teachers reached this intended perception trait toward models.
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Table 7. Cluster analysis of students’ and teachers’ model perceptions.
Cluster
Model representation Third

Second
First (scientific
(transitional
(daily language perspective) language
perspective)
perspective)
Reality 3.22 2.95 3.32a

Diagram 1.96 2.72 3.28
Graph 1.72 2,68 3.14
Symbol 1.56 2.39 2.82
Writing 1.36 1.96 3.19
Speech 1.45 2.01 2.92
No. of subjects 81 (32.8%) 114 (46.2%) 52 (21.0%)b
Note. a) 1 for strongly disagree, 2 for disagree, 3 for agree and 4 for strongly agree; b) The total number of subjects = 247.
The frequencies of different groups of students and teachers distributed in these three clusters were shown
in the contingency table below (Table 8). For example, among grade 4 students, there were 29 (39.7%), 34 (46.6%)
and 10 (13.7%) scattered in the first, second and third clusters, respectively; while for SSTs, the distribution was 9
(32.1%), 10 (35.7%) and 9 (32.1%). Pearson’s chi-squared test for the cross-tabulation analysis was 16.719 (df = 8, p
= .033), which indicated that the variable proportions of students in clusters of different groups of students and
teachers did not happen by chance. The results of post hoc analyses were thus further reported in brackets in each
cell in Table 8 wherein grade 6 students in the scientific language perspective and transitional perspective clusters
reached a significant threshold (adj. resid.: −2.0 and 2.9, respectively). All adjusted residual values of each cell are
shown in Figure 1 to represent the phenomena of changes.
Table 8. Cross-tabulation of students’and teachers’groups and their clusters (perception traits toward models)
Cluster Students’ and teachers’ groups No. of
(Perception Trait) Grade 4 Grade 6 Grade 8 PST SST subjects
First: 29 a 12 22 9 9
Daily language (39.7%) b (25.0%) (31.9%) (31.0%) (32.1%) 81
perspective [1.5] c [−1.3] [−0.2] [−0.2] [−0.1]
Second: 34 31 29 10 10
Transitional (46.6%) (64.6%) (42.0%) (34.5%) (35.7%) 114
perspective [0.1] [2.9] * [−0.8] [−1.3] [−1.2]
Third: 10 5 18 10 9
Scientific language (13.7%) (10.4%) (26.1%) (34.5%) (32.1%) 52
perspective [−1.8] [−2.0]* [1.2] [1.9] [1.5]
No. of subjects 73 48 69 29 28 247

Note. a) Number of subjects, b) Percentages in the subject group and c) Adjusted residuals; * for significance that reaches the threshold
of 1.96, p = .05.
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Figure 1. Adjusted residuals for each perspective across groups of students and teachers.
Discussion
From the results following RQ1, at least two findings need to be stressed. First, as seen in the descriptive data
in Table 4, the mean of reality was higher than other nonreality representations (i.e., diagram, graph, symbol, writ-
ing and speech) for each group of students and teachers as they all saw reality (physical) as a predominant model
representation. Moreover, with all means of nonreality representations in each of the subject groups lower than 3
(agree), it is notable that students and teachers still did not well acknowledge that a model can exist in other rep-
resentations, such as diagram, graph, symbol, writing and speech. This phenomenon demonstrated that students’
and teachers’ model perceptions remain limited to reality only, without adequate awareness that nonreality forms
(i.e., visual and linguistic representations) are also forms of scientific models, as found in previous findings 15 or 30
years ago (Grosslight et al., 1991; Treagust et al., 2002).
Second, the research detected only a few differences between students’ and teachers’ intensities of percep-
tions on model representation (Tables 4, 5 and 6). Based on the results of ANOVA and post hoc analyses, the only
significant differences found were for grade 4 students with a weaker perception of models as the reality form
than that of grade 8 students and PST. Other than these, all the grade 4, 6 and 8 students, as well as PSTs and SSTs,
had similar intensities of model perceptions as reality, diagram, graph, symbol, writing and speech. Previous stud-
ies seldom explored and compared students’ and teachers’ perceptions together and were mainly reporting how
students or teachers perceived the conceptions of models separately. The findings of this research showed the
poor conception of models in both counterparts of students and teachers highlighted a problem that requires
further attention, which has only been partially reported in previous studies (e.g., students: Grosslight et al., 1991;
Lee et al., 2017; Lee, 2018; Treagust et al., 2002; teachers: Justi & Gilbert, 2003; Soulios & Psillos, 2016; Van Driel &
Verloop, 1999). With these, there is a stronger need to advocate and implement the use of models into science, as
the decades-long way of discussing such has had little impact on students’ and teachers’ fundamental understand-
ing of what a model is.
With the exploration of RQ2, this research had a more in-depth understanding of how students and teachers
perceive models by looking at the three perception traits the stakeholders have toward models: daily language,
transitional and scientific language perspectives (Table 7), from low to high. Results revealed that most students
who started their science learning with a preconception of models in the daily language perceptive and strived to
move to the scientific language perceptive did not satisfactorily succeed. In contrast to the studies of Grosslight
et al. (1991) and Gogolin and Krüger (2018) in which they based their levelling of their subjects’ understanding
of models not only on how they see its representation but also on its function, this research further divided the
model perceptions of students and teachers into three levels based on the representations of model, which al-
lowed this research to reveal students’ and teachers’ understanding toward models in a more fundamental manner.
Furthermore, the present study identified that a big portion of students and teachers are in the second level or the
transitional perspective stage. This existence of the transition state was also found in a study by Grosslight et al.
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(1991) and was stressed by Harrison and Treagust (2000) when they interviewed and found that some experienced
secondary school science teachers were in transitional states among the three levels.
It is notable that the proportions of students in each perception trait revealed a serious problem as most of
the students and teachers hold the first (daily language) and second (transitional) perspectives (32.8% and 46.2%,
respectively; Table 7), which are regarded as unsatisfactory model perceptions. In particular, only 34.5% and 32.1%
of primary and secondary school science teachers (Table 8), respectively, have held the scientific language perspec-
tive toward models; in other words, two-thirds of them do not have a proper scientific perspective toward models.
Other studies like that of Grosslight et al. (1991) found that students in grades 7 and 11 are all in the lower levels of
1 and 2. Moreover, Van Driel and Verloop (1999) found that even experienced secondary school science teachers
still view models as simplified or schematic representations of reality. After decades of efforts of introducing models
into science classrooms, it can still be seen that students and teachers hold a very low level of understanding and
perception, whether following the levelling system of Grosslight et al. (1991) or that of this research.
These phenomena pointed out a severe problem that has existed in primary and secondary science teaching
and learning about models. At present, the understanding of models of both students and science teachers has
not changed significantly when compared with that decades ago. Furthermore, the status in which our science
teachers did not possess an adequate perception of models, which would certainly put students’ success of using
and learning models in question continuously.
Further results of Pearson’s chi-squared test indicated that different groups of subjects have different distri-
butions of perception traits. The post hoc analyses and those adjusted residuals showed in Table 8 indicated that
the significant differences were found in the grade 6 students who held the scientific language and transitional
perspectives. Previous research on students’ learning of scientific concepts (terminology) showed that students
need a stage to experience transition, and the existence of such a transitional perspective stage of learning the
concept of scientific models was identified by this research. Based on the theory of cognitive developmental psy-
chology of Piaget (1977), the transition stage, which has a characteristic of dissonance, could drive the cognitive
change and is, thus, crucial in the transition of students’ perceptions from daily science to school science. Figure 1
shows how the adjusted residuals across students’ and teachers’ groups fluctuated. The significantly higher value
of students in grade 6 demonstrated that they have a significantly higher proportion with the transitional perspec-
tive of models compared with that in grades 4 and 8. This indicated that the transitional perspective of models is
largely formed in grades 4 to 8; however, based on subsequently low values of grade 8 students, PSTs, and SSTs,
this also indicated that the transition from daily to scientific perspectives was not satisfactorily developed. These
findings point out two implications. First, science curriculum and teaching should give heavy consideration to the
transitional perspective stage from grades 4 to 8 and use that period to promote the cognitive change of their
understanding of models, and second, for grade 8 students, PSTs, and SSTs, who have a low proportion of the tran-
sitional perspective stage, ways to provide cognitive conflicts and gradual processes should be established (Duit
& Treagust, 2003; Limón, 2001; Waxer & Morton, 2012) to those who still held the daily language perspective and
the transitional perspective, so that they can be more prepared in establishing the scientific language perspective.
The participants in this research (grade 4, 6 and 8 students, PSTs and SSTs) were different from the participants
in other studies as these studies were more focused on the understanding of models of students who are in grades
7–10 (e.g., Krell, Upmeier zu Belzen, & Krüger, 2012; Treagust et al., 2002) and grades 10–12 (e.g., Gogolin & Krüger,
2018). This difference has restricted the comparability of this research and others. However, the study selected
teachers and their students as research subjects to see the contrasting views of such stakeholders on models,
which also allowed the researchers to know how the notion has existed in the knowledge ecosystem. Although
many findings have been revealed in this research, future studies should include a broader random sampling and/
or more schools with different languages to reach a wider understanding of models.
The unsatisfactory condition about the scientific model perception of students and teachers might be strongly
related to the fact that the word ‘model’ in many languages presents a literal meaning that implies it as a real thing
or object. For example, where the study was implemented, a dictionary published by the Ministry of Education,
Taiwan, which is the most widely used reference for both students and teachers, defined ‘model’ as imitating the
original shape of an object by reducing the size with a certain ratio and is often used for exhibitions or experiments
(e.g., aircraft models displayed in a science museum, etc.; Model—模型, 2015). This definition reflected exactly how
people commonly perceive models in their everyday life and how they use models in almost every subject except in
science. Agreeing that there is a ‘need for greater emphasis on the teaching of the role and purpose of the concept
of scientific models’ (Treagust et al., 2002, p. 357), the results of this research urges science educators to directly
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face how the terminology of models strongly attaches itself to the everyday (daily language) concept, which has
persisted in science teaching. In addition to efforts of improving curricula, for teaching and teachers’ education,
it is also possible to re-evaluate and attempt to develop clearer standard terminologies or definitions for models
in science education so that students and teachers can move away from their daily language perceptions and
cultural frameworks, and so that the stakeholders can have simpler definitions and goals to use and operationalise.
Conclusions
Previous studies have pointed out that using models is important for students to learn science but also ac-
knowledged the failure or difficulty of applying it in teaching and learning. Therefore, this research referred to early
studies and developed the Perception of Models in Science (PMS) questionnaire to investigate and understand
students’ and teachers’ perceptions toward the terminology of ‘model’ and answered two research questions.
For RQ1, this research concluded that each group of students and teachers all tended to see the reality form
as a scientific model representation; in contrast, they remained unsure whether models can be in other nonreality
(visual and linguistic) representations, such as diagram, graph, symbol, writing and speech. When different groups
of students and teachers were examined to understand how they perceive each representation of models, it can be
concluded that most of the students in grades 4, 6 and 8, as well as primary and secondary school teachers (PSTs
and SSTs), have similar intensities in how they perceive each representation.
For RQ2, this research concluded that the stakeholders (students and teachers) held three perception traits
toward scientific models: daily language, transitional and scientific language perspectives. Students and teachers
enter a science class with a preconception of scientific models from the daily language perspective. They strived
to move to the scientific language perspective through the transitional perspective stage, but this is not a certain
progression for everyone. These findings showed that efforts of using models in schools are in a status of risk and
need to be improved. Given these findings, this research suggests the following: a) with the results in which PSTs
and SSTs held an unsatisfactory perception of models, there is a need to develop contents that can help science
teachers develop a more in-depth understanding of the use of models in the context of science; and b) with the
findings wherein grade 4 and 8 students are seen to be in the daily language and transitional perspective stages,
with the majority failing to form the scientific language perspective, there is a need to re-examine primary and
secondary schools’ curricula and teaching methods, and develop instructional materials and activities that can
help students successfully transition; moreover, the definition and use of the word ‘model’ in everyday usage and
in science learning should be further scrutinized and finalized to remove confusion and to ensure proper instruc-
tion, especially for primary and secondary school students’ learning.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the teachers and students for helping with the experiments and data collection.
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Teachers of Taipei Municipal WenHu Elementary School, Taiwan, No.
15 WenHu Street, Taipei City, Taiwan 114.
E-mail: sfc@gm.whups.tp.edu.tw
Website: http://web.whups.tp.edu.tw/englishhome/index.html
Yu-Ling Lu PhD., Professor, National Taipei University of Education, No. 134, Sec.
(Corresponding author) 2, Heping E. Rd., Da-an District, Taipei City, Taiwan 106.
E-mail: yllu@tea.ntue.edu.tw
Website: https://www.ntue.edu.tw/Home?Sn=z1SuSAIK7LhS4%2fN
KZlxrAA%3d%3d&Dept.%20of%20Science%20Education
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3594-5541
Chi-Jui Lien PhD., Professor, National Taipei University of Education, No. 134, Sec.
2, Heping E. Rd., Da-an District, Taipei City, Taiwan 106.
E-mail: cjlien@tea.ntue.edu.tw
Website: https://www.ntue.edu.tw/Home?Sn=z1SuSAIK7LhS4%2fN
KZlxrAA%3d%3d&Dept.%20of%20Science%20Education
906
THE IMPACTS OF A MARINE
SCIENCE BOARD GAME ON
MOTIVATION, INTEREST, AND ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
ACHIEVEMENT IN MARINE ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
SCIENCE LEARNING
Abstract. This research sought to explore

Yen-Ling Lin, how teaching utilizing a marine science-
Shu Wen Huang, related board game affected students’
Cheng-Chieh Chang motivation, interest, and achievement in
marine science learning at the high school
level. The research utilized an experimental
design with pre-test and post-test meas-
urements and a classroom setting, and
Introduction included an experimental group containing
25 students and a control group contain-
For teachers, the best teaching method is one that can both teach ing 26 students. The experiment was
students the information they need to learn and increase their willingness carried out over the course of 12 lessons,
to learn. In recent years, many teachers have begun to eschew one-way with various questionnaires, including a
teaching methods, instead enhancing their teaching methodologies with marine science learning motivation (MSLM)
a variety of innovative tools while focusing more directly on the needs of inventory, a marine science learning inter-
students. Among the innovative methods increasingly used by teachers is est (MSLI) inventory, and a marine science
teaching with board games. According to the curriculum guidelines for Taiwan learning achievement (MSLA) inventory,
for grades 1-12, marine education is one of four major education issues in being used as the measurement instru-
Taiwan. As residents of an island nation surrounded by the ocean, it is impera- ments. The research analysed the students’
tive that students in Taiwan learn basic knowledge about the ocean. They scores on these inventories using one-way
should be equipped with ocean literacy for life, as well as a healthy respect analysis of ANCOVA. The main results of
for the natural environment in general, including the ocean. To this end, the this research were as follows: 1) with regard
objectives of ‘Being close to the ocean’, ‘Loving the ocean’, and ‘Knowing the to the MSLM inventory, the ‘relevance’,
ocean’ are regarded as important aspects of marine education that can have ‘confidence’, and ‘total score’ were signifi-
a positive influence on students’ marine literacy. With such goals in mind, the cantly different between the two groups;
use of a board game teaching method in a marine science course to enhance 2) with regard to the MSLI inventory, the
students’ motivation, interest, and achievement in marine science learning ‘cognitions regarding marine science’ were
was the primary aim of this research. significantly different between the two
Learning is a process that frequently involves social interactions, with the groups; and 3) with regard to the MSLA, all
construction of various forms of learning relying on the interactions between of the dimensions including ‘memory’, ‘un-
learners and their learning environments. Students in a given learning situa- derstanding’, ‘high-level thinking’, and ‘total
tion must often take the initiative to explore and solve problems, identifying score’ were significantly different between
the relevant information and its structure. In doing so, they can further con- the two groups.
struct new knowledge and skills that allow them to address new challenges Keywords: board game teaching, learn-
(Yang & Duan, 2015). Most teachers in Taiwan typically provide students ing interest, learning motivation, marine
with a one-way introduction to a given course, and this approach makes it education, science education.
difficult for students to acquire and integrate the relevant concepts, while
such learning difficulties can, in turn, reduce students’ willingness to learn.
Motivation plays an important role in influencing learning and achievement
in students. In recent years, in order to improve students’ learning motivation Yen-Ling Lin, Shu Wen Huang,
Cheng-Chieh Chang
and enhance the effect of motivation on learning, various teaching designs National Taiwan Ocean University, Taiwan
and situational tools have emerged in the education field. Keller (1987) pro-
posed a theory of motivation that views it as being comprised of four main
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aspects: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS). The current research, in turn, used Keller’s ARCS
motivational theory strategies to accomplish its goals regarding the teaching of marine science.
A board game combining many marine science education concepts was designed. By playing this board
game, students cannot only learn about marine science concepts but also gain a more profound understanding of
their relevance. According to the rules of the game, students are required to clarify the relevant concepts in order
to achieve a high ranking in the game. These game rankings are different from test scores and effectively provide
students with greater willingness and interest in learning the marine science concepts that are required to succeed
in the game. The marine science board game cultivates students’ marine literacy in a somewhat ‘virtual’ manner
by casting them in the role of sea creatures who have a strong interest in learning as much as possible about the
ocean. Using the board game, this research effectively sought to compare the board game teaching method with
the traditional expository teaching method to see how the board game method affected students’ motivation,
interest, and achievement in marine science learning.
Various educators have suggested that board games could potentially serve as useful pedagogical tools. Akl,
Pretorius, Sackect, Erdley, Bhoopathi, Alfarah, and Schünemann (2010) pointed out that using educational games
had the potential to improve medical education outcomes, but they did not confirm a positive effect of games on
knowledge. Anyanwu (2014) reported that high proportions of the students in a game group indicated that the
game in question was entertaining, highly informative, encouraged teamwork, and improved their attitudes and
perceptions regarding the subject of gross anatomy. Bayir (2014) also indicated that playing games might help
students reinforce and review key concepts. In short, given that playing games appears to be an essential aspect
of the human experience, the use of educational games as teaching tools may be a natural choice for teachers as
they strive to help students achieve the desired learning outcomes (Roberts, 2010).
Chen and Wong (2017) conducted a literature review regarding the use of board games in Taiwan from 2002
to 2016, and Table 1 shows the distribution of the different fields in which board games were used. As indicated
there, the review found that board games were primarily used in the field of education in Taiwan. Moreover, the
review found that enhancing social and emotional abilities and English language skills were the top two aims
for the use of board games within the education field. Meanwhile, only one research that they reviewed (Lu &
Lu, 2013) used a board game for the purposes of marine and environmental education with elementary school
students. Typically, board game-based teaching consists of a teaching method in which a board game serves as
the pedagogical tool used in the class.
Table 1. A summary of the fields in which board games were used in studies in Taiwan from 2002 to 2016,
N=137.
Field N %
Education 82 59.9
Game design 29 21.2
Sociology / Psychology 21 15.3
Social work 3 2.2
Enterprise management 1 0.7
Game history 1 0.7
Total 137 100.0
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO) published a report in 1988
in which marine education was separated into the subfields of specialized marine science teaching and general
marine science education. The former is a major focus in the training of professional marine science specialists with
unique skills, while the latter is useful for teaching people to view themselves as global citizens with respect to the
ocean. In recent decades, Japan, the United States, and Australia have paid increasing attention to basic marine
knowledge and literacy, not only by including marine culture in marine education but also by placing a greater
emphasis on marine-related human resources development in the marine science field. Given climate change-
related problems like global warming, enhancing the marine literacy of people has increasingly been seen as a
goal of more and more nations in recent years.
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In October of 2005, the NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), COSEE (Centers for Ocean
Sciences Education Excellence), and NMEA (National Marine Educators Association) published a list of the 7 essential
principles and 44 fundamental ocean science concepts that currently define ocean science literacy. Ocean literacy
serves as a national standard for marine education, and is defined as ‘understanding the ocean’s influence on you
and your influence on the ocean’. According to the COSEE, a person has ocean literacy if he or she ‘can communi-
cate about the sea in a meaningful way’, ‘can make informed and responsible decisions regarding the ocean and
its resources’, and ‘understands the essential principles and fundamental concepts about the functioning of the
ocean’. The seven essential principles are: 1) The Earth has one big ocean with many features; 2) The ocean and life
in the ocean shape the features of Earth; 3) The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate; 4) The ocean
made Earth habitable; 5) The ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems; 6) The ocean and humans
are inextricably interconnected; and 7) The ocean is largely unexplored. In the NMEA’s Ocean Literacy Campaign
Special Report #3, the work of dozens of agencies and hundreds of individuals to bring ocean sciences into the
mainstream of both formal and informal education is discussed. The ocean literacy scope and sequence for grades
K-12 is presented in this special report as a series of 28 conceptual flow diagrams that represent and organize the
ideas of the seven principles into four grade bands: K-2, 3-5, 6-8, and 9-12 (NMEA, 2010).
In Taiwan, the government published the first ocean policy white paper in 2006. After that, the Ministry of
Education published its own white paper on ocean education policy in 2007. The following year, the ministry set
the marine education curriculum guidelines for both primary and secondary schools, with the full implementa-
tion of those guidelines following three years later in 2011. A total of five main topics, specifically, marine science,
marine resources, marine culture, marine society, and marine leisure, are included in the competence indicators
for marine education in Taiwan for the grades 1-9 curriculum. The Ministry of Education detailed its expectations
with respect to the development of educational efforts to ensure that students have an appropriate understand-
ing of marine topics in a white paper on marine education policy published in 2017, including a discussion of its
expectations on how to make Taiwan a modern maritime nation with an appropriate civilized texture and cultural
aesthetic, as well as on how to build consensus among the people.
The concepts of ocean literacy corresponding to the marine education competence indicators in the grades 1-9
curriculum for Taiwan are classified into the two topics of marine science and marine resources. Thus, the domain of
marine science education in the current research involves the concepts of ocean literacy and the two themes of the
marine education competence indicators in Taiwan. This research developed a marine science educational course
for high school students and designed a board game (which was named ‘M.O.S.’ as an abbreviation for ‘marine,
ocean, sea’) combining the path of currents in the ocean and other marine science concepts and emphasizing the
garbage patch problems in the ocean as the primary educational tool in the course. The course and board game
were used to determine the impacts of the game on students’ motivation, interest, and achievement in marine
science learning.
Focus and Aim of Research
The participants were ninth-grade students in Taipei City, and a series of marine science education lessons
using the board game teaching method were planned and conducted to understand the students’ learning mo-
tivation, interest, and achievement. The aims of this research were as follows:
1. Can the board-game teaching improve students’ learning motivation in marine science?
2. Can the board-game teaching improve students’ learning interest in marine science?
3. Can the board-game teaching improve students’ learning achievement in marine science?
Based on the above questions, the goals of this research were as follows:
1. To determine if there were statistically significant differences in marine science learning motivation
between students who were taught using the marine science board game compared to those who
were taught through marine science expository teaching.
2. To determine if there were statistically significant differences in marine science learning interest be-
tween students who were taught using the marine science board game teaching compared to those
who were taught through marine science expository teaching.
3. To determine if there were statistically significant differences in marine science learning achievement
between students who were taught using the marine science board game teaching compared to those
who were taught through marine science expository teaching.
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General Background
This research used board game teaching with a marine science educational course to determine the impacts
of the teaching on high school students’ learning motivation, interest, and achievement. According to the afore-
mentioned white paper on marine education policy promulgated by the Ministry of Education (2017), in Taiwan,
‘Education needs to be reformed and innovated in the light of marine development so that the people who are
cultivated can devote themselves to the innovation and development of the oceans’. Therefore, this research took
marine science as its theme, using the interesting characteristics of the board game as the marine science teaching
method in an experimental group in the hopes of enhancing the students’ learning motivation, learning interest,
and learning achievement in marine science.
The structure of this research included four kinds of variables: independent variables (IV), dependent variables
(DV), control variables, and covariates. The independent variables were the teaching methods, which consisted of
the board game-based instruction in the experimental group and expository education in the control group. There
were four kinds of dependent variables, including a learning motivation inventory, a learning interest inventory,
a multiple-choice marine science test, and a marine science propositional concepts sentence making test that
served as the post-test. The control variables sought to reduce the interference of other factors in the experiment,
which had to be monitored in the research. The control variables in the research included the understanding of
the students regarding earth science subjects, the teaching materials, the teaching time and progress, and so on.
The covariates were sufficient to affect the variables in terms of the experimental results, so it was necessary
to perform a covariate analysis of the statistics so as to exclude the impact of the covariates and minimize the
experimental error. The covariates of the research included the average scores of the students in earth science
subjects, the pre-test learning motivation inventory results, the learning interest inventory results, the multiple-
choice marine science test results, and the propositional concepts sentence making test results. The research
process included the pre-testing and post-testing of the two groups included in the experiment. Through the data
collection and statistical analysis, the construction of the reliability and validity of the assessment tool, the current
situation analysis, and the forecast analysis, the results could finally be utilized to propose various recommendations.
Sample
Only students whose parents were notified of the purpose of the research and provided informed consent
were eligible to take part in this research. Due to the need for informed consent from parents, limited resources,
and other specifics of the experimental method used in the research, only a relatively small sample of students
ultimately took part in the research. Specifically, the participants consisted of 51 high school students in two classes
at a school in Taipei City. The experiment was used in the research, and it included an experimental class contain-
ing 25 students and a control class containing 26 students. The participants were selected based on the average
scores for the earth science subject in the preceding semesters. They were grouped into teams according to the
scores by using different grouping before the marine science course teaching so that each cluster was close to each
group. The experimental class was taught in the marine science course using a board game teaching programme,
and the control class was taught using a teaching programme. The total duration of each teaching programme
was six weeks, during which 12 classes, each 45 minutes in length, were conducted. In the board game teaching
programme, the students were taught the central concepts of the marine science course unit through discus-
sion (including question-and-answer sessions), cooperative learning, and the board game teaching itself. In the
expository teaching programme, the students were taught the central concepts of the unit through explanations
of the educational materials supplemented by discussion (including question-and-answer sessions) and coopera-
tive learning. The two programmes only differed in terms of the teaching methods used, while the progress of
teaching and the course content were the same in both programmes. Relatedly, the board game was not used as
an educational tool in the expository teaching programme. Instead, a marine science article reading activity was
employed in the expository teaching programme.
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Instruments and Procedures
One of the research instruments used was a marine science questionnaire that included a marine science
learning motivation (MSLM) inventory, marine science learning interest (MSLI) inventory, and marine science learn-
ing achievement (MSLA) examination. Another was the marine science course design, which contained the marine
science board game teaching programme and the marine science expository teaching programme.
The marine science learning motivation (MSLM) inventory and marine science learning interest (MSLI) inventory
were designed using the Likert scale (1932) with 5-point Likert scale as per a research by Dawes and John (2008). They
pointed out that inventories with five, seven, or ten Likert items had similar results in terms of the data obtained.
In order to improve the content validity and reliability of the questionnaire with the MSLM inventory, MSLI
inventory, and MSLA examination, the research prepared the first draft of the questionnaire with the help from
seven experts and scholars who assisted in the identification of the content representation and appropriateness
to ensure the content validity. Once the survey was complete, the research conducted a pilot test with 122 ninth-
grade high school students.
The marine science motivation of the students was measured using the MSLM inventory, which included four
dimensions: 1) attention, 2) relevance, 3) confidence, and 4) satisfaction. For each item in the MSLM inventory, a
respondent could choose from five numerical options, including 5 for ‘definitely agree’, 4 for ‘agree’, 3 for ‘unsure’, 2
for ‘disagree’, and 1 for ‘definitely disagree’. The motivation inventory scores were then tallied, with the participants
with higher scores being regarded as having higher levels of the various dimensions.
The marine science interest of the students was measured using the MSLI inventory, which included the following
dimensions: (1) feelings about the ocean, (2) cognitions regarding the ocean, and (3) the actions of marine science.
For each item in the MSLI inventory, a respondent could choose from five numerical options, including 5 for ‘definitely
agree’, 4 for ‘agree’, 3 for ‘unsure’, 2 for ‘disagree’, and 1 for ‘definitely disagree’. The interest inventory scores were then
tallied, with the participants with higher scores being regarded as having higher levels of the various dimensions.
On the basis of information included in Marine magazine (2014), a periodical which was published by the
National Museum of Maritime Science and Technology in Taiwan; Flotsametrics and the Floating World: How One
Man’s Obsession with Runaway Sneakers and Rubber Ducks Revolutionized Ocean Science (Ebbesmeyer & Scigliano,
2013), which was published by Bookzone; the Marine Education Book textbook, which was published by EduBook
(2012); the environmental literacy teaching guidelines in One Ocean (2013), which was published by National Geo-
graphic; and the Taiwan General Scholastic Ability Test for 2006-2015, this research designed the MSLA examination
to be divided into two parts, namely, a multiple-choice marine science test and a marine concepts sentence mak-
ing test. The former included 15 multiple-choice marine science questions which covered three cognitive process
dimensions, namely, ‘memory’ (4 items), ‘understanding’ (4 items), and ‘high-level thinking’ (7 items), which involved
the ‘apply’, ‘analyse’, and ‘create’ concepts of the revised Bloom edition (Anderson et al., 2001). The latter used the
method of concept maps for sentence making, including a total of ten sentences using 50 marine science terms
(Chang, Yang, & Low, 2014). The items in the multiple-choice marine science test were modified using the earth
science textbook for the high school and the publications mentioned above. The items were classified as covering
the dimensions of memory, understanding, and high-level thinking, which were sourced from the Bloom revised
edition that includes the dimensions of ‘memorize’, ‘understand’, ‘apply’, ‘analyse’, ‘evaluate’, and ‘create’ (Anderson,
Krathwohl, Airasian, Cruikshank, Mayer, Pintrich, Raths, & Wittrock, 2001).
The latter part of the MSLA examination listed 50 marine science concept terms about the underlying marine
science concepts, such as sea water systems, marine ecology, marine science and technology, marine life, and marine
pollution. It also let the students check and choose from some of the concepts they knew to make the sentences.
It was recommended that each sentence contain at least two marine science terms from the list. The propositional
concept sentences, which were constructed according to the concepts of Stoddart et al. (2000), included the three
dimensions of an open proposition, namely, accuracy, depth of explanation, and complexity, in the overall score.
Each sentence could score a maximum of 5 points and a minimum of 0 points to determine the overall MSLA score.
The statements used to score the quality of each sentence in terms of the three dimensions are shown below, and
are also shown with examples in Table 2.
1. Accuracy was scored in terms of four options: ‘Scientifically accurate’, ‘Common knowledge’, ‘Affective’,
and ‘Inaccurate’.
2. Depth of explanation was scored in terms of two options: ‘Higher-order explanation’ and ‘Descriptive’.
3. Complexity was scored in terms of two options: ‘Compound’ and ‘Simple’.
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Table 2. The propositional concepts sentence making scoring system.
Variable Category Example Score
Scientifically accurate Pressure increases with depth in the ocean 5

Common knowledge Whales live in the ocean 3
Accuracy
Affective Dolphins are beautiful 1
Inaccurate Sharks are mammals 0
Higher-order explanation Anglerfish have bioluminescent danglers above their mouths that are
5
Depth of explanation (answers ‘how’ or ‘why’) used to attract prey
Descriptive Anglerfish have bioluminescent danglers 3
Shining tube shoulders have photospheres on their undersides and
Compound 5
Complexity heads
Simple Shining tube shoulders have photospheres 3
Reliability
The KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin, KMO) score of the final marine science learning motivation inventory was .916.
The KMO score of the final marine learning interest inventory was .938.
With respect to the MSLM inventory, the pilot test was used to measure the questionnaire’s Cronbach’s α
values in terms of the four marine learning motivation dimensions, which were, respectively: (1) attention: .96;
(2) relevance: .93; (3) confidence: .93; and (4) satisfaction: 0.96. The value for the overall inventory was 0.98. In the
pre-test, the Cronbach’s α values in terms of the four marine learning motivation dimensions were, respectively:
(1) attention: .88; (2) relevance: .85; (3) confidence: .84; and (4) satisfaction: .92. The value for the overall inventory
was .95. In the post-test, the Cronbach’s α values in terms of the four marine learning motivation dimensions
were, respectively: (1) attention: .92; (2) relevance: .82; (3) confidence: .82; and (4) satisfaction: .92. The value for
the overall inventory was .96.
With respect to the MSLI inventory, the pilot test was used to measure the questionnaire’s Cronbach’s α values
in terms of the three marine learning interest dimensions, which were, respectively: (1) feelings about the ocean:
.93; (2) cognitions regarding the ocean: .95; and (3) actions of marine science: .92. The value for the overall inventory
was .96. In the pre-test, the Cronbach’s α values in terms of the three marine learning interest dimensions were,
respectively: (1) feelings about the ocean: .88; (2) cognitions regarding the ocean: .95; and (3) actions of marine sci-
ence: .88. The value for the overall inventory was .93. In the post-test, the Cronbach’s α values in terms of the three
marine learning interest dimensions were, respectively: (1) feelings about the ocean: .72; (2) cognitions regarding
the ocean: .82; and (3) actions of marine science: .86. The value for the overall inventory was .90.
The pilot test of the MSLA multiple-choice test had 19 items, and the average item difficulty index was .46,
while the average item discrimination was .42. A test question with a difficulty index above .4 and discrimination
between 0.4~0.6 is an excellent test question (Chen & Wu, 1994). The research deleted those items with a weak
item difficulty index and discrimination. So, the test then had an average item difficulty index of .52 in the post-test,
while the average item discrimination was .50.
The difficulty index and discrimination of each item in the marine science achievement test in this researchfell
within the aforementioned range, and the average difficulty index and discrimination were also in line with this
range. That showed that the item difficulty index and discrimination of the MSLA multiple-choice test were good.
Also, the KR20 value of the multiple-choice items in the MSLA pilot test was .67. Meanwhile, the value in the pre-
test was 0.64, and the value in the post-test was .60. A reliability value above .55 indicates a reliable consistency
(Ebel, 1972). So, all of the achievement tests had reliable reliability.
The total score of the marine science propositional concepts sentence making test was 150 for all ten sentences.
Although the score was based on a scoring system table, it was quickly affected by the given student’s subjective
consciousness. To reduce this effect and enhance the reliability of the score, the research randomly selected 10
of the 51 learning achievement sentence making tests of the students that had been scored by teacher A. Then
another earth science teacher, teacher B, re-scored those 10 sentence making tests. The research then conducted
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a correlation analysis of the scores from teacher A and teacher B, and the correlation coefficient was .997. There
was, in other words, a significant positive correlation between the scores from the two teachers. This showed that
the marine science propositional concepts sentence making test had excellent scoring reliability.
Marine Science Course Design
The marine science course content was based on ‘marine debris’ as the central theme, and related scientific
knowledge was designed for inclusion into the course. To help the students understand the global issue, the re-
search designed the course to cover the ‘garbage patch’ and ‘marine debris’ issues. The designed teaching course
was based on the 5E learning cycle teaching strategies, which were developed by Trowbridge and Bybee (1990)
according to the constructivist view of the BSCS (Biological Science Curriculum Study) in the United States. The
five processes of this teaching model are engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation. The
marine science course schedule is shown in Table 3 below.
Table 3. Marine science course schedule.
Week Unit
1 The Importance of the Ocean

2 Ocean Current and Circulation
3 Marine Debris
4 The Garbage Patch in the Ocean
5 The Impact of Marine Garbage on Ecology
6 The Way of Protecting the Ocean
The research designed a board game called ‘M.O.S.’ as the teaching tool. The board game was developed to
cover the garbage patch and marine debris issues, with the concepts of extreme wind-driven currents and ther-
mohaline circulation (THC) included in the overall background (Figure 1). According to Feller’s (2007) 110 miscon-
ceptions about the ocean and marine science knowledge, marine garbage cards (168 pieces), ocean event cards
(40 pieces), and ocean misconception cards (40 pieces) were made. In the process of the game, students could
become familiar with the major ocean currents and thermohaline circulation (THC) around the world and learn
the impacts of marine garbage in the ocean, as well as much of the associated ocean knowledge, helping them
to enhance their understanding of and literacy regarding the ocean. The rules of the M.O.S. game were as follows:
1. Taking ten garbage cards and selecting ‘IN’ as the beginning icon (on the equatorial counter current),
each group starts with 80 points.
2. Everyone calls out ‘Marine, ocean, sea!’ to determine the number of steps of the next group (0~3); if 0
steps was called, then the group stays in place and repeats the action on the icon.
3. If you stop on the icon numbered N, then take N garbage cards. If you stop on the arrow icon, choose
to save animals or not by using the garbage cards.
(1) Perform animal rescue: different marine animals can be rescued with different garbage cards (+30
points):
(a) Whales: plastic bags, plastic bottles, plastic boxes, plastic sheeting
(b) Turtles: straws, forks, plastic bags
(c) Seals: fishing nets, rope, rubber products
(d) Seabirds: lighters, canned food, tobacco
(e) Penguins: plastic caps, plastic particles, plastic debris
(2) Don’t save the animals (-30 points).
4. If you stop on the warm current icon, take an ocean event card. If you stop on the cold current image,
take a misconception card to answer the question. A correct answer earns 30 points, while a wrong
answer loses 30 points.
5. When passing the yellow star icon, the player can choose which way to go.
6. If you make a full circulation in the area and return to the grey icon, you can pass to another field via
the grey route.
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7. When players meet each other on the same icon, their points are averaged together.
8. After ten rounds, the players calculate the scores by themselves, and the player with the highest score
is the winner.
9. Total score = points - (number of garbage cards X 3)
Figure 1. Background of the M.O.S. board game.
The M.O.S. board game activity was played with several groups, with the teacher acting as the director to guide
the teams during play. The steps taken by a group were determined by the catchphrase ‘Marine, ocean, sea!’, with
one member from each of the other groups making a gesture (0 to 3) and the sum of those gestures determining
the steps of the group. This approach increased the fun and participation in the game among the teams. The simi-
larities and the differences in the course with respect to the two teaching programmes are shown below in Table 4.
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Table 4. The similarities and the differences in the marine science course between the board game teaching
method and the expository teaching method.
Board Game Teaching Method Expository Teaching Method
Participants Ninth-grade students in high school
Teaching hours 45 minutes/class for 12 classes, 540 minutes in a total.
Teaching location Classroom
Teacher The researcher

Similarities
Purpose Enhance the motivation, interest, and achievement in marine science learning.
Teaching model 5E Learning Cycle
Teaching progress Unit 1~6 for 12 lessons
Teaching strategies Questions and answers, group discussion, reward system, multimedia teaching tools
Self-compiled teaching PowerPoint slides, worksheets

Teaching materials
Education activities Board game activities Reading marine science articles
Focusing on a broad range of marine science

5E-Engagement Focusing on existing global issues – the garbage patch
knowledge
5E-Exploration Student-centered Teacher-centered
5E-Explanation Students are more autonomous Students are less autonomous

Difference
5E-Elaboration Initiative Passive
5E-Evaluation The score of the game Worksheet score
Emphasizing the principles and details of MS

Features Learning with fun in the board game
knowledge
Enhance students’ ability to express themselves and
Other Learn accurately for the MS course
work in teams
Data Analysis
Cronbach alpha coefficient was used to determine the reliability of the tests. The one-way ANCOVA was used
to evaluate differences between pre-test score and post-test scores of MSLM inventory, MSLI inventory, MSLA in-
ventory, and marine science propositional concepts sentence making test. The significance level was set at p=.05.
Research Results
The experimental group and the control group students’ scores in the pre-test for the learning motivation
inventory were the covariate, with the teaching methods serving as the independent variable and the post-test
scores serving as the dependent variables. The research conducted a one-way analysis of covariance (one-way
ANCOVA) with the independent sample, and the results are presented in Table 5.
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Table 5. The covariance of MSLM.
Motivation
Source of Variation SS df MS F p
Dimensions
Attention Between groups 39.136 1 39.136 1.881 .177
Within groups 998.752 48 20.807
Relevance Between groups 92.386 1 92.386 6.852 .012
Within groups 647.231 48 13.484
Confidence Between groups 59.082 1 59.082 6.409 .015*
Within groups 442.458 48 9.218
Satisfaction Between groups 65.552 1 65.552 3.007 .089
Within groups 1046.337 48 21.799
Total Between groups 997.024 1 997.024 4.468 .040*
Within groups 10710.720 48 223.140
(df= Degree of Freedom, MS= Mean Square) *p <.05 **p <.01 ***p <.001
The experimental group and the control group students’ scores in the pre-test for the learning interest inven-
tory were the covariate, with the teaching methods serving as the independent variable and the post-test scores
serving as the dependent variables. The research conducted a one-way analysis of covariance (one-way ANCOVA)
with the independent sample, and the results are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. The covariance of MSLI.
MSLI
Dimensions
Between groups 5.730 1 5.730

Feelings 0.691 .410

Cognition 4.183 .046*
Within groups 662.096 48 13.794

Action 1.897 .175
Within groups 862.902 48 17.977

Total 0.047 .828
Within groups 4876.228 48 101.588
Table 7 shows the results of the statistical data comparison between the experimental group and the control
group for the MSLA test. In the memory dimension, F = 9.921, p = .003 (<0.05), which indicated a significant differ-
ence. In the understanding dimension, F = 5.109, p = .028 (<0.05), which indicated a significant difference. In the
high-level thinking dimension, F = 10.464, p = .002 (<0.05), which indicated a significant difference. For the total
score, F = 158.338, p = .001 (<.05), which also indicated a significant difference. In summary, all the dimensions
of the MSLA test had significant differences. Therefore, the statement that ‘the board game teaching method can
improve students’ achievement in marine science learning’ should be accepted.
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Table 7. The covariance of MSLA test.
Achievement Test
Dimensions

Memory 9.921 .003**

Understand 5.109 .028*

High-level thinking 10.464 .002**

Total 158.338 .001**
Within groups 606.257 48 12.630
The results of the statistical data comparison between the experimental group and the control group for
the marine science propositional concepts sentence making test are shown in Table 8. In the accuracy dimen-
sion, F = 8.424, p = .006 (<0.05), which indicated a significant difference. In the depth of explanation dimension,
F = 1.935, p = .171 (>.05), which indicated a significant difference. In the complexity dimension, F = .215, p = .645
(>.05), which indicated a significant difference. For the total score, F=2.811, p=.100 (>.05), which also indicated a
significant difference.
Table 8. The covariance of marine science propositional concepts sentence making test.
Propositional
Concepts Sentence
Making
Dimensions

Accuracy 8.424 .006**
Within groups 2283.236 48 47.567

Depth of explanation 1.935 .171
Within groups 1883.982 48 39.250

Complexity 0.215 .645
Within groups 1838.654 48 38.305

Total 2.811 .100
Within groups 16128.98 48 336.020
In the MSLA, the propositional concepts of the sentences were classified according to the aforementioned
seven ocean literacy principles. The sentences covered the scope of the principles in 1-B Geologic Features, 1-C
Ocean Circulation, 3-A Weather and Climate, 3-B Global Climate Change, 5-A Primary Productivity, 5-B Ecosystem,
6-A Use of the Ocean, 6-D Human Impact on the Ocean and Atmosphere, 6-E Responsibility, and Advocacy for
the Ocean. Some sentences that did not involve the marine science knowledge field would be described as ‘other
knowledge’. Some sentences that made sense but did not include any relevant educational materials would be
described as ‘description’. The results of the pre-test and the post-test are shown in Table 9.
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Table 9. Ocean literacy of propositional concepts sentence making.
EG CG EG CG Total Total
Pre-Test Pre-Test Post-Test Post-Test Pre-Test Post-Test
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1-B Geologic Features 1.60 1.54 3.20 3.46 1.57 3.33
1-C Ocean Circulation 8.85 6.15 10.00 8.46 7.65 9.22
3-A Weather and Climate 0.40 0.77 1.60 1.92 0.59 1.76
3-B Global Climate Change 1.20 1.15 0.80 0.77 1.18 0.78
5-A Primary Productivity 9.20 7.31 6.40 6.15 8.24 6.27
5-B Ecosystem 5.20 2.69 5.20 8.46 3.92 6.86
6-A Use of the Ocean 0.40 0.38 0.80 1.15 0.39 0.98
6-D Human Impact on the Ocean and

4.40 3.85 15.20 16.54 4.12 15.88
Atmosphere
6-E Responsibility and Advocacy for the
1.60 3.85 6.00 5.77 2.75 5.88
Ocean
Other knowledge 11.20 13.46 20.80 20.77 12.35 20.78
Description 14.40 29.23 12.80 9.23 21.96 10.98
Error 8.80 10.77 1.20 0.00 9.80 0.59
Null 32.40 18.85 16.00 17.31 25.49 16.67

(EG= Experimental Group with 25 students, CG= Control Group with 26 students)
When the sentence was a narrative with facts, it was evaluated as ‘knowledge’. When the sentence was about
transferring ideas or the protection of the marine environment, it was evaluated in terms of ‘attitude’. When the
sentence was an expression of emotional factors, it was evaluated in terms of ‘feelings’. Each of these three dimen-
sions could exist in a single sentence at the same time. Meanwhile, a sentence with the expression of an incorrect
statement would be regarded as a misconception. The results of the marine science expressions of meaning in the
propositional concepts sentence analysis in terms of knowledge, attitudes, feelings, and misconceptions in the
pre-test and post-test are presented in Table 10.
Table 10. Expressions of meaning in propositional concepts sentence making.
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Knowledge 53.60 63.08 79.20 74.23 58.43 76.67
Attitudes 0.00 1.54 0.80 2.31 0.78 1.57
Feelings 1.60 3.08 0.80 0.38 2.35 0.59
Knowledge and& Attitudes 1.20 0.38 1.60 3.46 0.78 2.55
Attitudes and& Feelings 0.40 0.77 0.00 0.77 0.59 0.39
Knowledge and& Feelings 0.00 1.15 0.40 0.77 0.59 0.59
Knowledge,&Attitudes, and& Feelings 0.40 0.38 0.00 0.7 0.39 0.39
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(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Misconceptions 10.40 10.38 0.01 0.00 10.39 0.59
Null 32.40 19.23 16.00 17.31 25.69 16.67

(EG= Experimental Group with 25 students, CG= Control Group with 26 students)
Discussion
For the MSLM inventory, the two groups of students did not appear to have significant differences in the
attention dimension. Keller (1987) divided attention in teaching into six strategies: incongruity, conflict, concrete-
ness, variability, humor, inquiry, and participation. Learning motivation is concerned with the acquisition and
maintenance of students’ attention, and the biggest challenge relates to how to keep such attention. As detailed in
the statistical data, the scores of the students for the MSLM did not indicate large differences between the pre-test
and post-test, and the average total scores for both were greater than half of the maximum possible total score.
Therefore, this research speculated that the marine science course itself had the effect of attracting the students’
attention. In other words, there was no noticeable difference between the board game teaching method and the
expository teaching method.
In the relevance dimension, there was a significant difference between the two groups of students. The experi-
mental group thought that marine science was much more relevant to themselves than the control group. Keller
(1987) developed six strategies regarding relevance: experience, present worth, future usefulness, need matching,
modeling, and choice. If the students understand what they learn and can connect it to their lives, that can produce
learning motivation. Therefore, making students think that what they have learned is worthwhile can convince them
that the course or materials are closely related to their future lives. It might be that the marine science board game
focused on the source of garbage in daily life, and thus always reminded the students of the human relevance of
the ocean. It also let the students know how the causes of the problem are attributed to the people in the world.
So, the students taught with the board game teaching method thought that the course content was much more
relevant to themselves than did those taught with the other method.
In the confidence dimension, there was also a significant difference between the two groups; the experimental
group expressed the view that the marine science courses could give them more confidence. Keller (1987) divided
the strategies for raising confidence into five strategies: requirements, difficulty, expectations, attributions, and self-
confidence. These strategies allow students to know that they will learn the course content successfully through
their efforts. If they have faith in that outcome when engaging in the activities, it can maintain their self-confidence.
It might be that the students in the experimental group had the confidence to propose radical solutions to the
ocean problems that human beings have produced. Therefore, the students in the experimental group exhibited
the effect of learning with confidence in terms of their marine science learning motivation.
With regard to the satisfaction dimension, the difference between the two groups of students was not signifi-
cant. Keller (1987) indicated that satisfaction strategies include natural consequences, unexpected rewards, posi-
tive outcomes, negative influences, and scheduling. These strategies give learners the opportunity to show their
strengths and obtain internal and external feedback in appropriate ways, establishing personal achievements and
satisfaction. The most direct way to provide students with a sense of satisfaction is to give them the opportunity to
express their knowledge or actions within the classroom or other environments by themselves. Relatedly, it might
be that although the board game teaching method and the expository teaching method led students to discover
and learn about the problems of the ocean, the students did not achieve sufficient performance to feel satisfied.
So, the two groups of students had no significant improvement in the dimension of satisfaction.
In the total score for learning motivation, there was a significant difference between the two groups of students.
ARCS was the learning motivation model used to capture the attention of the learners first, through the combination
with experience, so that the students would understand the things they had learned, understand how they applied
to them personally, and then produce positive learning willingness. At the same time, they could also understand
that their efforts could achieve knowledge of the materials of the teaching content and establish their confidence
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regarding that knowledge. Finally, they could obtain the satisfaction of learning and a sense of accomplishment.
Although there were some gaps in the overall process, it was undeniable that the marine science board game did
achieve some of the motivation needed to enhance their marine science learning. Overall, then, it is suggested
that the board game teaching method can probably improve students’ motivation in marine science education.
For the MSLI inventory, the two groups of students did not appear to have significant differences in the ‘feelings
about marine science’ dimension. The difference between the two groups of students was also not significant for
the ‘actions of marine science’ dimension. Some studies have found that students’ feelings and attitudes towards
science subjects, scientific teaching, and science learning experience tend to worsen as they rise through the
grades in school. In particular, most students who thought that science was interesting and useful during primary
education tend to not feel so positively toward science in middle school (Yager & Penick, 1986). The ‘actions of
marine science’ dimension in this research was similar to learning attitude. Attitude is a kind of psychological status
determined by past experiences, which affect the individual’s responses to objects, things, and situations. It has
the influence of guiding both action and inaction (Chang, Liu, Chen, Huang, Lai, & Yeh, 2017). Relatedly, the reason
that the students in this research did not exhibit a difference in the ‘actions of marine science’ dimension could
have been that high school students might not be so fond of science in general, particularly given the stereotypes
about learning physics and chemistry. The two groups of students were not so understanding of the practicality
and future development of marine science. They thought, in other words, that learning marine science would not
be helpful in their future lives. Moreover, marine science was not the main subject in the school. Therefore, the
differences in their ‘feelings about marine science’ and the ‘actions of marine science’ were not significant.
There was a significant difference between the two groups for the ‘cognitions regarding marine science’ di-
mension. That is, when an external stimulus occurs, the human brain will receive a message, and this message will
cause the person to respond, as described by Piaget’s assimilation phenomenon. People will perceive the chemi-
cal reaction to this message in terms of their original cognitive schema. If the message is relevant, then people
will pay attention and assess it, according to the received content, to produce interest or anxiety. Regardless of
the situation, it will provide a short-term cognitive schema in the mind to further affect their behavior. Relatedly,
the students in the experimental group might have believed that the knowledge and skills relating to marine
science could be efficiently obtained in the course through the board game. Moreover, they could learn together
in a way that would entail increased learning fun and practicality. Upon engaging in learning marine science, the
students would be interested in the course, and then would gain in-depth understanding of the process in terms
of its relevance and practicality. Not only students would the students naturally be willing to learn, but they could
also absorb more knowledge. This was the reason why the ‘cognitions regarding marine science’ dimension had
a significant difference.
The results of that research’s analysis showed that the elementary school students in the middle grades had
significant differences after playing the game, which was designed in light of the marine education goals. In that
research, the students’ interest in marine education was enhanced by the game. However, the learning interest of
the high achieving students was high, while the students with average and low levels of achievement had little
interest in the learning activities. It could thus be seen that the interest of each student was different even with
respect to the same learning content and learning activities (Chang, Hung, & Lin, 2015). For some students, maybe
different teaching methods will affect their learning interest, while other students may not be affected by the use
of different teaching methods. In this study, the board game teaching method had a significant relationship with
the students’ interest in learning marine science. It was speculated that the board game served as a stimulating
medium that was more efficient than the expository teaching method in the marine science course. Therefore,
the board game teaching method had an impact on the cognition dimension of the MSLI, but no comprehensive
effect on the MSLI.
For the MSLA inventory, according to Bloom revised edition, the memory is interpreted as extracting knowledge
from long-term memory. In the board game teaching, the students consistently played and repeated the same
activities. They would virtually memorize the concepts of marine science and then retrieved them as needed. In
the control group taught with the general expository teaching method, meanwhile, the students only heard a one-
way description of the concepts and did not repeat them back. Thus, the memory dimension showed significant
differences between the two groups. The meaning of the understanding dimension refers to creating ideas from
the teaching information and linking new knowledge with old experiences. Relatedly, the board game teaching
emphasized the relationships of previously learned knowledge with the new MS concepts and the board game
during the course. In contrast, the control group taught with the general expository teaching method learned some
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new MS concepts, but not repeatedly. Therefore, the understanding dimension showed a moderately significant
difference with p <.01.
In the high-level thinking dimension, there was also a significant difference. That is, the experimental group
had much better high-level thinking performance than the control group. This may have been because this re-
search took the ‘apply, analyse, evaluate, and create’ actions collectively as the high-level thinking dimension. The
high-level thinking included the ‘apply’ action, a proceeding to the programme; the ‘analyse’ action, which involves
the use of procedures to solve a problem and has a close connection with procedural knowledge; the ‘evaluate’
action, meaning the act of looking at something according to the related criteria and standards; and the ‘create’
action, which involves assembling the elements together to form a complete and functional whole. In other words,
high-level thinking was a cognitive process. It was the essential ability to break down, judge, and combine. When
the board game was integrated into the teaching, all the central conceptual knowledge was aggregated in the
board game so that the students could use the knowledge when playing. In the expository teaching method of
the control group, meanwhile, the marine science knowledge could not be integrated into the MS units in the
same way. Therefore, for the high-level thinking results, the students in the experimental group had better ability
and showed a significant difference with the control group students.
Chan and Chang (2014) found that interactions with peers among high school students were positive for
learning achievement. Moreover, the better the interactions between the students and the teacher were, the higher
the students’ learning achievement would be. Also, the learning skills did not have apparent influences on learn-
ing accomplishment. This research suggested that board game teaching could increase the interactions between
peers and also enhanced the interactions between the teacher and the students, which had a positive effect on
the learning achievement for marine science. From the above results, it can be seen that the students in the board
game teaching programme did better than the students in the other programme in terms of the marine science
cognitive process of learning achievement, and this was helpful for learning marine science.
For the MSPC sentences making test, the average score in the accuracy domain for the experimental group
was 15.80 on the pre-test, but for the post-test, it was 33.32 points. This indicated that the accuracy was nearly
doubled after the board game teaching. The depth of explanation score in the pre-test was 13.96, and it was 28.32
in the post-test. This indicated that the students made sentences of low descriptive quality for the most part. The
complexity score of the pre-test was 15.52, and it was 26.16 in the post-test. That indicated that when the students
were making sentences, there was a tendency to write simple sentences. The three dimensions illustrated that
the level of marine science concept sentence making was raised from low to moderate. The total score was 87.80
(58.53%), and the performance was not satisfactory.
In the control group, the average score for the accuracy of the marine science concepts in the pre-test was
18.69, and in the post-test, it was 29.73 points. Although the pre-test score was higher than that of the experimental
group, the post-test score was lower than that of the experimental group. The depth of explanation score in the
pre-test was 14.69, and it was 26.12 in the post-test. This indicated that the students achieved descriptive quality
for the most part. The complexity score of the pre-test was 15.88, and it was 24.73 in the post-test. That indicated
that when the students were making sentences, there was a tendency to write simple sentences. The three dimen-
sions illustrated that the level of marine science concept sentence making was raised from low to moderate. The
total score was 80.58 (53.72%), and the performance was not satisfactory. According to the assessment results of
the three dimensions, the marine science concepts of the students only reached the moderate level (Tsai & Chang,
2018; Chang, 2019; Tsai, Lin, & Chang, 2019).
Conclusions
According to the above research results, it could be found that the board game teaching method mostly had
better results than the traditional expository teaching method in terms of learning motivation, learning interest,
and learning achievement in marine science. The detailed explanations for this finding are as follows.
Regarding the MSLM, the relevance, confidence, and total score were significantly different between the
two groups, while the two dimensions of attention and satisfaction were not significantly different. That meant
that the board game teaching method was better than the expository teaching method in terms of the relevance,
confidence, and total score aspects of the MSLM.
In the MSLI, the ‘cognitions regarding marine science’ scores were significantly different between the two
groups. However, the ‘feelings about marine science’, ‘actions of marine science’, and total score were not signifi-
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cantly different. It could thus be said the board game teaching method affected only the ‘cognitions regarding
marine science’ dimension of the MSLI.
The MSLA consisted of two parts, the MSLA test and the marine science propositional concepts sentence
making test. In the MSLA test, all the dimensions including memory, understanding, high-level thinking, and total
score were significantly different between the two groups. Therefore, the board game teaching method had a
significant influence on the MSLA results. For the marine science propositional concepts sentences, there was only
a significant difference in the accuracy dimension between the two groups. However, the depth of explanation,
complexity, and total score results were not significantly different. That indicated that the board game teaching
method affected only the accuracy dimension of the marine science propositional concepts sentence making. In
conclusion, the board game teaching method may help students to learn a greater amount of correct information
during a marine science course and have some influence on their MSLA outcomes. The purpose of this research
was to measure the impact of the board games teaching into marine science on the learning motivation, learning
interest and learning performance of marine science in the high school. Many studies suggested that the board
games could enhance the learning motivation and interest. About the board game, pointed out that many board
games, which for research or teaching, often emphasize on the teaching of knowledge and ignore gameplay, mak-
ing the “board game” into a “teaching tool.” It would not cause the interest of students naturally.
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Received: July 12, 2019 Accepted: November 30, 2019
Yen-Ling Lin PhD, Project Assistant Research Fellow, Taiwan Marine Education
Center, National Taiwan Ocean University, Taiwan, No.2, Beining Rd.,
Jhongjheng District, Keelung City 202, Taiwan (R.O.C).
E-mail: linyenling0619@gmail.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9913-0723.
Shu Wen Huang Graduate Student, Institute of Education, National Taiwan Ocean
University, Taiwan.
Cheng-Chieh Chang PhD., Associate Professor, Director of Taiwan Marine Education Center,
(Corresponding author) Institute of Education & Center of Teacher Education, National Taiwan
Ocean University, No.2, Beining Rd.,
Jhongjheng District, Keelung City 202, Taiwan (R.O.C).
E-mail: changjac@email.ntou.edu.tw
923
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
SCHOOL STUDENTS’
KNOWLEDGE RELATED TO
RENEWABLE ENERGY AND
SOME OF ITS INFLUENCING
FACTORS
Abstract. Shaping attitude related to
Ibolya Markóczi Revák,
renewable energy resources is the task of the
entire society and in the case of students of
Erzsébet Jász
different ages it is realized via education in Enikő Kovács,
and outside schools. This research concerns Károly Teperics,
the analysis of the knowledge of students re- Judit Ütő Visi,
lated to renewable energy resources, explor- János Máth
ing the differences in the case of students in
different grades and also the identification
of correlations between the knowledge for
renewable energy and some of its influenc-
ing factors. The research was carried out
in spring 2018 with 4th (N=466) and 7th
(N=529) graders in primary school and also Introduction
with 11th graders (N=328) in secondary
school in Hungary. Association and selection Utilization of renewable energy (RE) resources and their wide application
tasks applied in the research were related to
became a key issue in fighting against global climate change as they could
knowledge of renewable energy resources
significantly contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emission (Ito, 2017;
and three questions concerned influencing
Jordaan et al., 2017; Szabó et al, 2014). RE resources are increasingly available
factors. Assessment was performed based
for residents as systems with increasing efficiency with shorter return peri-
on the word association test. Results indicate
ods which can be found on the market (Afonso, Marques, & Fuinhas, 2017).
poor and less stable knowledge in the case
To choose the use of RE resources, however, one has to know their types,
of every grade. The knowledge structure of
application conditions, advantages and disadvantages (Szabó et al., 2018).
the grades is similar, solar, water and wind
The purpose for which RE resources would be used, local field conditions
are the most well-known renewable energy
and financial resources all influence the decision on selecting the various
resources. Regarding knowledge, the type
types of RE (e.g. to build a wind plant in the backyard of a family house is
of the settlement of residence, education
not possible but now solar panels can be installed and utilized for almost
level of parents, school curriculum, textbook,
anyone). Thus, the right decision requires knowledge, attitude and approach
theme weeks, project work, media and
related to applying RE resources. To enable people to acquire and develop
internet were important among influencing
this knowledge, attitude and approach is the joint task of the school and
factors.
the society. The UNESCO’s Global Renewable Energy Education and Training
Programme revealed in 2004 that although knowledge related to RE was
Keywords: project work, renewable energy
present at various levels of education, learning and education methods based
knowledge, school curriculum, theme work,
on active student participation (including related chapters of textbooks and
word association.
course documents) that could have been suitable to create and develop emo-
Ibolya Markóczi Revák, Erzsébet Jász tional and behavioral elements related to RE were missing (Benchikh, 2004).
University of Debrecen, Hungary Fourteen years have passed since the above conclusion, but the problem is
Enikő Kovács
Eszterházy Károly University, Hungary still with us. Alberta Council for Environmental Education (ACEE) published
Károly Teperics in 2018 its recommendations of methods (a collection of interactive activi-
University of Debrecen, Hungary ties, games, student projects) that could contribute to the development of
Judit Ütő Visi
Educational Authority, Hungary attitude elements related to RE in Canada and the United States completing
János Máth with this the primarily knowledge-focused classes. Similar methodological
University of Debrecen, Hungary efforts have been made in Europe as well emphasizing interactive activities
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and programs in the topic of RE apart from teaching knowledge integrated into various courses (Cavanagh, 2007;
Colin, 2008; Papadimitriou, 2004). These methodological efforts have presumed that the knowledge of students
related to RE, its understanding and procedural knowledge are rather incomplete. Similar results have been re-
vealed by several other research projects studying the knowledge and attitude of students related to RE. Study-
ing the knowledge of Nigerian secondary school students Bamisile, Abbasoglu, Dagbasi, and Garba (2016) have
found that the knowledge of students related to RE utilization has been lower than average (41%) independent
of gender, age and education type in spite of abundant RE potentials in the studied region of the country. The
problem can be explained by, on the one hand, the deficiencies of curriculum requirements related to RE, and on
the other hand, the lack of methods that could contribute to the formation of a positive attitude towards RE via
applying activities requiring self-contained student activities (project, cooperative and collaborative activities,
various competitions, etc.) from practice point of view considering also the context of everyday life. Hasan (2012)
has also emphasized the responsibility of schools in forming energy consciousness and has called attention to
utilizing possibilities provided by the internet in education. Misconceptions associated with RE have been frequent
among Turkish secondary school students involved in his study; their knowledge level has been low despite the
fact that RE utilization potential can be regarded good in Turkey due to its geographical location. Some research
projects studied the reasons of low level of knowledge regarding RE. Bünyamin, Hakan, and Osman (2010) have
mentioned that in the course of a research in 2009 analyzing primary school curricula in Turkey the term RE has
appeared as part of education for sustainability only in natural sciences courses, and only in a small percentage
even in those. Only solar and geothermal energy sources have appeared among RE. Analyzing secondary school
curricula, knowledge related to the topic has appeared only in geography and physics courses. According to Bü-
niamin et al. (2010), even the entry controls could have been blamed for the low level of energy consciousness.
Similar research has been carried out also in Europe (Revákné et al., 2018; Szabó et al., 2018) declaring also that
primary and secondary school curricula, textbooks and exercise books have been insufficient regarding knowl-
edge and attitude elements related to RE resources. In the case of the studied courses of nature science (grades
4-6) and geography (grades 7-10), elements providing conceptual knowledge have been found primarily while
the degree of absence of attitude elements significantly influencing decision making skills has been significant
in the studied documents and reference books. Kónya (2012) studying the curricula of secondary school natural
scientific courses has found that geography courses have had greatest potentials for environmental education
and education for energy consciousness in Hungary as well. Further research has also revealed the elements of
detailed knowledge related to RE including knowing the different types of RE resources. In general, solar, water and
wind energy resources have been the most well-known ones among students in primary, secondary and higher
education and geothermal energy and biogases, for example, have been less known to them (Büniamin, Hakan, &
Osman, 2010; Malmos, Jász, & Markóczi, 2017; Roman, 2015; Shin-Cheng, Jing-Yuan, & Hui-Ching, 2017). According
to the word association study of Tóth and Gajdos (2012), the knowledge of Hungarian students related to RE has
become more structured with age and has been dependent on the type of school where students with the same
age have studied. The most structured knowledge has been found in the case of students studying in grammar
schools and vocational secondary schools specialized in environmental protection. The terminology network of
students in vocational training has been almost the same as that of 8th grade students in primary school. Their
study has covered the effects of textbook content on terminology structure and the role of the media as well. They
have found strong correlation with textbook content and weak with media effect respectively. Misconceptions
of students related to RE resources suggest that the cognitive side of education regarding energy consciousness
has been insufficient in school. The fact that most primary school students are “concrete” thinkers while secondary
school and higher education students are in the period of formal thinking is not considered despite the fact that
different context and methodology have to be applied in environmental education at different age levels (Shin-
Cheng, Jing-Yuan, & Hui-Ching, 2017). Establishing energy consciousness requires a complex way of thinking, the
establishment and development of which require education to be a harmonized system in both its content and
methods taking social and economic effects outside school into account just as the decisive experience obtained
in the everyday life of students.
Research Problem and Focus
This research explored the knowledge of Hungarian primary and secondary school students related to RE and
its connection with certain influencing factors. The research was part of the „The role of social learning processes
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regarding renewable energy resources in the Eastern Region of Hungary” project (supported by the NKFIH, K 116595
application in Hungary, 2016-2019). This project aimed to study the process of learning RE by the society, focusing
especially on knowledge and attitude of adult (aged over 18 years) and young (aged between 10 and 18 years)
residents related to RE. The primary reason for the project was the fact that Hungary in the Partnership Agree-
ment for the 2014-2020 EU cycle agreed to increase the share of RE resources within the total final consumption
to 15% by 2020. For this the ratio of residential RE utilization has to be increased as well. The question was whether
residents are prepared for this or not? How can education prepare primary and secondary school students for
knowledge and decision making related to utilizing RE? This research focused on the role of school education but
other effects outside school that influence the knowledge of students related to RE are also discussed. Research
questions were the following:
1) What are the specifics of the knowledge related to RE of the investigated grades at primary and sec-
ondary levels?
2) Are there any significant differences between the knowledge of the investigated grades related to RE?
3) How can the type of residence, the education level of parents, the source of information related to RE
and the methods of learning information related to RE influence the knowledge of the investigated
students related to RE?
General Background
This is the research in which the knowledge of primary and secondary school students related to RE resources
was studied based on the results of earlier studies (Bamisile et al, 2016; Büniamin et al, 2010; Leggett, 2003; Malmos
et al, 2017; Roman, 2015; Shin-Cheng et al., 2017; Tanriverdi, 2009; Tóth & Gajdos, 2012). Students living and studying
in the eastern region of Hungary were involved in the research. Stabilized knowledge related to RE resources was
analyzed with two tasks suitable for cross queries and correlation between stabilized knowledge and influencing
factors was searched in the course of the research.
Sample
The research was carried out in primary and secondary schools in the eastern region of Hungary in the spring of
2018. Considering age group specifics and the differences of associated education content and teaching methods,
4th and 7th graders in primary school and 11th graders in secondary school were involved in the research (Revákné
et al., 2016). An important aspect was to involve students in the research from every settlement type (village, small
town, city). Settlements with similar population were selected from the same types for the research. One further
aspect was the results of the National Competency Measurement organized by the Educational Authority between
2015 and 2017. National Competency Measurement measures the comprehension and mathematical competencies
of primary (6th and 8th graders) and secondary school (10th graders) students at national level in every academic
year. Students were involved in the sample of the research from schools performing below and above the average.
Permission from the regional Klebersberg School District Centre was required for carrying out the research in the
schools. Permission from the parents of students involved in the research from the selected schools was also of
course. The final composition of the sample and the exact number of selected students were obtained taking all
the above aspects into account (Table 1).
Public education in Hungary is primarily controlled by the national core curriculum that specifies the funda-
mental educational goals and content that appear in curricula and textbooks as unified requirements. Although the
students involved obtained their knowledge related to RE resources from different textbooks of several publishers,
the same minimum requirements appeared in the textbooks of different publishers at a given grade level or in a
given course as a result of this unified curriculum. Therefore, on the basis of earlier research results, no significant
differences due to textbook differences were considered regarding permanent knowledge (Revákné et al., 2018).
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Table 1. Distribution of students involved in the research according to the type of settlement and school.
Number of schools (N=32) Number of students (N=1322)
Number of Secondary school (n=12)

settle
Settlement Primary
ments Vocational 4th grade 7th grade 11th grade
(N=15) school Grammar
grammar (n=466) (n=529) (n=328)
(n=20) school
school
(n=7)
(n=5)
Village 8 8 — — 92 111 —
Small town 5 7 2 2 192 191 96
County center
2 5 5 3 182 227 232
(major city)
Two tasks were aimed at studying the knowledge of students related to RE resources using the cross-query
method. In the first open end task students had to write down three terms or words that come into their mind,
first for RE as a stimulus word. Since it can be assumed that the most stabilized words in the knowledge of the
students related to RE would be response of the students, the solution of this task yielded information on the
stabilized knowledge of the students related to RE (Tóth & Gajdos, 2012). In the second, multiple choice task
(closed end task) renewable and non-renewable energy resources were listed and students had to choose the
renewable ones. Cross query meant that the student mentioned the given term in the first task while in the
second the student had to select it (if it was listed). Based on such cross-query tasks (corresponding of recall and
selection in this case), the stability of knowledge can be analyzed (Revákné & Radnóti, 2011).
The first task was the same for all grades: Write down a maximum of three words that come into your mind
related to renewable energy resources within 1 minute! The second task was also the same for all grades: Un-
derline renewable energy resources among the following!
There were differences, however, in the listed terms. The same terms (nuclear energy, wind turbine, iron
ore, coal fired power plant, solar collector, biogas, biodiesel, crude oil, geothermal energy, lignite, water energy,
firewood, natural gas, photovoltaic cell) were used for 7th and 11th graders. A smaller number of terms were
given for 4th graders (nuclear energy, wind energy, natural gas, solar energy, crude oil, lignite, biodiesel, water
energy, geothermal energy, firewood, biomass, coal). Terms listed in the task were selected from textbooks
already learnt by students in the given grade.
When the reliability of the second selection task was analyzed, the task was divided into two parts. The
first was the selection of RE resources. Cronbach’s alphas values of this were .78, .87 and .89 at grades 4, 7 and
11 respectively. The second part was related to the listed fossil energy resources. Cronbach’s alphas values of
this second part were .74, .86 and .85 at grades 4, 7 and 11.
Four questions were given to students in relation to influencing factors. In the first question students had
to indicate the type of the settlement their school can be found in (village, small town, city).
The second question was related to the level of education of the parents of students. Students had to cat-
egorize the education level of the parents into five major categories: primary school, vocational training school,
vocational secondary school, grammar school, higher education.
The third question was related to how information in relation to RE resources was obtained (school cur-
riculum, television, radio, family members, press, newspapers, residence directions, forum, leaflet, internet,
friends). This latter question was similar to the question used in the research of Hasan (2012) asking for the
source of information related to RE with a closed end question. Sources of information listed by Hasan (2012)
were completed according to Hungarian conditions. The role of the factors in the question had to be evaluated
by the students on the basis of the Likert scale from “not at all (1)” to “completely (5)”.
The fourth question regarding the methods of obtaining information (team work, watching films, self-
contained work at home- even using the internet, project work, presenter outside school, visiting factories/
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works/power plants, other trip, specific theme week, e.g. sustainability theme week, textbook content, tasks in
exercise book ) related to RE was asked only in the case of 7th and 11th graders as 4th grades could not have
answered reliably such questions. In this fourth question several methods and sources of information could be
selected by the students.
The first task was solved firstly by the students. They had 1 minute after the stimulus word was said to write
down on a piece of paper the three words or terms that came into their minds related to RE. Following this the
pieces of paper with the association were collected. After this the sheets containing second task and the ques-
tions related to the influencing factors were given to the students. The survey took 45 minutes for 4th graders
and 35 minutes for 7th and 11th graders.
Data Analysis
In order to identify the grade specifics of knowledge related to RE analyses within the grades while to com-
pare the knowledge of the grades analyses among grades were carried out. Following this, connections among
performances in solving the two tasks were analyzed to assess the stability of knowledge.
In the assessment of the first task among the two tasks used for the investigation of knowledge related
to RE the number of the types of associations mentioned by the students in the different grades was studied
first then the relative frequency of the mentioning of those association types was investigated. The ratio of the
number of relevant associations regarding RE in relation to the total number of mentioned associations was
analyzed at every grade. The ratio of that how many associations out of the possible three were mentioned by
the students was also investigated by grades.
In order to further study the specifics of knowledge related to RE, 5 association groups were formed in
every grade out of the associations mentioned in the first task:
1) Irrelevant words: words that have nothing to do with RE resources (e.g. rain, light, cloud, liquid,
decency, internet, made-up, bird, paper, oxygen, walk)
2) Words related to energy utilization: methods, devices and technologies related to the utilization of
any energy (e.g. current, machine, convector, socket, floor heating, batteries, refrigerator, washing
machine)
3) Words related to fossil energy resources: non-RE resources and devices and technologies meaning
their utilization (e.g. coal, crude oil, natural gas, diesel oil, gas-powered car)
4) Words related to RE resources and their utilization: the term renewable energy resource and terms
naming power plants and technologies converting it to electric current or heat (e.g. Sun, solar energy,
solar collector, photovoltaic cell, wind, wind turbine, wind mill, wind power plants, water, water power
plant, water energy, geothermal energy)
5) Positives related to the application of RE: words expressing the advantages of applying RE or the posi-
tive effects of applying RE on nature, society and the environment (e.g. economical, conservationist,
environmental-friendly, sustainable society, effective, modern, environmentally sound, energy saving,
thrift, reuse, smart house, not running out, consciousness, necessary, cooking).
The total number of mentioning of the associations appearing in the given association groups was also
investigated at every grade. Based on the results the relative frequency of mentions was calculated for each
grade and each association group (total number of real mentions / total number of possible mentions related
to all association types).
For studying the significance of differences in the above-mentioned investigations Kruskal-Wallis H test
was applied (χ² value within it) for comparing the performance of the three grade levels and Z test was used
for comparing two grade levels. Friedman test was applied to assess relative frequencies of mentioning of as-
sociations within a grade.
To find out which were the most typical associations at the different grades the word association method
was used. This method is suitable for analyzing the knowledge structure of students related to the given term
(Cardellini, 2008; Garskof, Houston, & Ehrlich, 1963; Nakiboglu, 2008). For this, stimulus words related to the term
are given and the students give different associations (terms) to these stimulus words. The relative frequency of
the associated terms can be calculated for each stimulus word, based on the values of which the strength of the
connection between the stimulus word and the mentioned association can be different (see Table 2). Based on
this, association maps can be drawn (Kluknavszky & Tóth, 2009). Association maps show only those associations
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the relative frequency of which reached 5 %. In this way the character and quality of the knowledge of students
related to RE were assessed.
Table 2. Strength and indication of relative frequencies in the net of terms (Kluknavszky & Tóth, 2009).
Relative frequency of associations Strength of connection Indication
Below 5 Very poor Not indicated
5.0-12.0 Poor
12.1-20.0 Moderate
Above 20 Strong
In the second task related to the selection of RE resources the relative frequency (number of correctly
selected terms / total number of terms) related to the selection of RE resources and fossil energy resources was
investigated separately and this relative frequency was regarded an interval variable. Solution rates at the three
grade levels showed normal distribution therefore ANOVA one- way variance analysis was applied to study dif-
ferences among and within grades. In the case of the selection task, two-sample t-test was used for comparing
the solution rates of two grade levels. In the second task the frequency of the selection of the given RE resources
was also studied. 1 point was given if the particular RE resource was marked and 0 point was given if not. As a
result, to assess relative frequency of the selection related to RE resources Cochran’s Q test was applied within
grades (because of dichotomous scale), while to analyze the differences among the grades the Kruskal-Wallis
H test was used.
In order to verify the volume of differences, effect sizes were calculated as well (d values for Kruskal-Wallis H
test, Z test and two-sample t-test, η2 for Anova, and q values for correlations respectively) (Cohen, 1988; Lenhard,
& Lenhard, 2016). According to Cohen (1988), the following intervals for d: 0 to .1: no effect; .2 to .4. small effect;
.5 to .7: intermediate effect; .8 to ≥1: large effect; for η2: .000 to .003: no effect; .010 to .039. small effect; .060 to
.110: intermediate effect; .140 to .200: large effect; for q: < .1: no effect; .1 to .3: small effect; .3 to .5: intermediate
effect; >.5: large effect.)
In order to show how stabilized is the knowledge of the students regarding terms related to RE, correlation
analyses were made to investigate performance in the case of the first, association and second, selection tasks
using Spearman’s rho value.
Regarding the questions related to the influencing factors the impact of the settlement type (where the
school was found) was investigated on the performance in tasks related to knowledge within grades. Significant
differences regarding the performance of students from villages, small towns and county centers (major cities)
were sought. The significance of differences was analyzed using Friedman test (in the case of grades 4 and 7)
and Z test (for grade 11) in the case of the first, association task while the averages of the second, selection task
were compared using the ANOVA one way variance analysis (grades 4 and 7) and the two-sample t-test (grade
11). Different assessments for 11th graders can be explained by the fact that there were no secondary schools
and thus no 11th graders in the studied villages therefore in the case of 11th graders only the results of small
towns and county centers could be compared.
Considering the influencing factors, the impact of the educational level of parents on performance in the
first and second tasks related to RE knowledge was investigated next. The impact of the education level of the
father and that of the mother were investigated separately in the case of all grades. The average of the number of
correct associations in the first task and the average of the solution rate related to RE resources were calculated
in relation to grades and to the educational level of parents. ANOVA was applied to investigate the differences
according to the educational level.
In the question related to the influencing factors the role of knowledge sources related to RE resources was
assessed by the students using a 5-point Likert scale. For detecting differences among the roles of the given
sources of knowledge Kruskal Wallis H test was applied for comparing the three grades and Friedman test for
evaluating within a grade.
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In the fourth question related to the influencing factors students assessed some methods within and
outside school influencing the learning of terms related to RE on the basis of a dichotomous scale (1 point was
given if the student marked the given method and 0 point was given if not). So, differences among the roles of
the given methods within a grade were studied using the Cochran’s Q test while differences between grades 7
and 11 were analyzed using the Z test. Spearman’s rho value was used again for studying correlations between
performances achieved in the first, association task related to RE knowledge and methods helping to learn. The
same measure was applied to study correlations between performance in the second task related to RE selection
and methods helping to learn as factors influencing knowledge.
In order to further research the impact of influencing factors on knowledge related to RE, multivariate
analysis of variance was performed. The joint impact of the sources of knowledge on performance in the two
tasks related to RE knowledge and the joint role of methods influencing learning were investigated separately.
Research Results
Students’ Knowledge Related to Renewable Energy
First the word association task was assessed. The number of associations in every grade, and their relative
frequency were considered and finally, the percentage of association types mentioned in the studied grade that
were correct, relevant terms in relation to RE was also regarded (see Table 3).
Table 3. The number of associations given to RE resources, their frequency and relevance by grades.
4th graders 7th graders 11th graders

(N= 466) (N = 529) (N= 328)
Number of associations 116 112 69
Relative frequency of associations 0.25 0.21 0.21
Relevant associations /total 62 % 72 % 88%
The number of associations showed different values by grades, however, these were not comparable due to
the different number of students in the grades. Therefore, the relative frequency of associations was considered,
which showed no significant difference among the grades. When the ratio of correct, relevant associations in
relation to the total number of associations given by the students (relevant associations/all associations) was
analyzed the Kruskal-Wallis H test yielded significant differences among the three grades (χ²=92.75; df=2; p<.001).
The effect size related to the difference among the grades was intermediate (d=.527). The highest number of
correct associations was given by 11th grade students followed by 7th graders and 4th graders. Although the
performance of 4th and 7th graders was close to each other, Z-tests revealed better performance in the case
of 7th graders (Z = 5.12; p>.001; d =.214) regarding the ratio of relevant associations. The effect size indicated
small impact to difference between two grades (d =.214).
In the first, association task the students had to mention a maximum of three associations. The ratio of
mentioned associations per maximum number of associations was 81% in the case of 4th graders, 73% for 7th
graders and 88% for 11th graders. The difference among the grades is significant and the impact is small based
on the effect size (χ²=43,31; df=2; p<.001; ; d= .292).
In order to describe the frequency of the mentioning of association types, association groups were created.
The relative frequency of mentions related to all of the associations in every association group was determined
(see Table 4).
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Table 4. Relative frequency of mentioning of associations related to the given fields by grade.
7th 11th
Association fields 4th graders χ² df p Effect size (d)
graders graders
Irrelevant .006 .004 .007 17.44 2 <.001 .141 no effect
Energy utilization .011 .005 .006 23.94 2 <.001 .126 no effect
Fossil energy resources .014 .009 .008 2.69 2 .260 .090 no effect
Renewable energy resources and .064 .078

.072 18.19 2 <.001 .190 no effect
utilization
.013 .017 .018
Positives of renewable energy 4.88 2 .087 .121 no effect
χ² 466.29 595.23 606.19
df 4 4 4
p < .001 < .001 < .001
Significant difference among the grades was found in the case of irrelevant words and those related to RE
resources, their utilization and energy utilization. The performance of 7th grade students was poorest in these
fields. Within the grades, however, the relative frequency of mentioning the words and associations related to
RE resources, their utilization and positives was clearly the highest. Table 4 also indicates that the knowledge of
4th and 7th grade students related to RE is not firm yet and less settled compared to that of 11th graders. Effect
sizes indicated no assessable impact regarding the differences among the grades in the case of either association
groups (see Table 4).
For the detailed analysis of the association task, the association maps related to RE in the case of the studied
grades were created (see Figures 1, 2, and 3). The frequency of mentioning each association was determined in
the case of each grade. Only words mentioned with a frequency higher than 5% were plotted on the association
maps (see Table 1).
Figure 1. Association map of renewable energy in the case of 4th graders.
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Association maps are similar to each other independent of grade level. The terms sun, solar panel, solar
energy, solar collector, wind, wind energy, water and water energy appeared most frequently with moderate or
in the case of 11th graders strong correlation with the term RE. Associations showing weak connection included
wind power plant, water power plant, energy, geothermal energy and electricity as a term related to application.
In the case of 4th graders, only associations related to the term and application of RE appear while in the case of
7th and 11th graders the terms of energy saving and environmentally friendly suggesting positive relations also
appear with weak correlation.
Following the analysis of the association task the success of students selecting RE resources in the second
task was considered. The rate of solution of the task in relation to selecting renewable energy and fossil energy
resources was studied separately. Considering the rate of number of RE resources selected correctly from the list,
the results of 4th graders were poorest (52%) followed by that of 7th (57%) and finally that of 11th graders (69%).
The difference among the results was significant according to the ANOVA analysis (F(2)=66.80; p<.001). Effect size
of differences is intermediate (η2=.118).
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Relative frequency of selection in relation to each of the RE resources was analyzed as well. Regarding selected
with highest relative frequency in grades followed by wind energy, wind turbine, water energy and geothermal en-
ergy, solar energy, solar collector and photovoltaic cell. Least known and thus least frequently selected RE resources
were biomass, biodiesel and biogas. Table 5 also reveals that 11th graders performed best compared to the other
grades which is similar to the total rate of solution of the task. Effect sizes related to the differences among the grades
indicated weak or not detectable impact in the case of every RE resource except for wind turbine (large effect).
Table 5. Relative frequency of the selection related to RE resources in the studied grades.
Relative frequency of the selection related

to RE resources Z
Renewable
χ² df (5% alpha p Effect size (d)
energy resources
level)
4th grade 7th grade 11th grade
Wind energy 0.84
Solar energy 0.91
Biomass 0.14
Biodiesel 0.17 0.33 0.37 45.61 2 <.001 .278 small effect
Water energy 0.84 0.75 0.94 51.93 2 <.001 .237 small effect
Geothermal energy 0.67 0.65 0.84 39.86 2 <.001 .270 small effect
Firewood 0.11 0.30 0.27 54.94 2 <.001 .270 small effect
Wind turbine 0.64 0.89 12.5 <.001 .844 large effect
Solar collector 0.73 0.91 5.66 <.001 .394 small effect
Biogas 0.32 0.41 3.11 <.005 .214 small effect
Photovoltaic cell 0.85 0.92 2,87 <.005 .197 no effect
Cochran’s Q 1229.09 826.45 929.40
p <.001 <.001 <.001
The relative frequency of the selection of fossil energy resources was also analysed, showing values of .11, .16
and .06 (F(2)=27.06; p<.001; η2=.040) at 4th, 7th, and 11th grade levels respectively.
The second task was aimed to be a cross query to see how the knowledge of students related to RE resources
is stable compared to the results of the word association task. The connection although significant was weak in all
three grades (Spearman’s rho: 4th graders: .196; p <.001; Spearman’s rho: 7th graders: .231; p<.001; Spearman’s rho:
11th graders: .116; p<0,05). Based on the effect size of the correlations, there was no difference between grades
4 and 7 (q = .030) regarding the relative frequency of relevant associations and the solution rate of the selection
task. The same was true for comparing grades 4 and 11 (q = .082). The effect was small in grades 7 and 11 (q = .119),
meaning that correlation was smaller in grade 11 compared to grade 7 between the number of relevant associa-
tions and the solution rate of the selection task.
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The Role of Factors Influencing the Knowledge Related to Renewable Energy
The first question related to the role of influencing factors investigated the effect of the settlement type where
the school can be found (see Table 6).
Table 6. The average of the number of correct associations in first task and the rate of solution of the selection
task in different grades by settlement type.
Average of the number of correct associations - first, Rate of solution of the selection task -second,
Grade
association task selection task
County center County center

Village Small town Village Small town
(major city) (major city)
4th grade 2.04 1.63 1.71 0.48 0.53 0.53
7th grade 1.83 1.68 1.72 0.49 0.57 0.61
11th grade - 2.22 2.39 - 0.64 0.71
In grade 4 students attending school in villages mentioned significantly more correct associations related to
RE (χ² =11.67; df =2; p<.005). Effect size regarding the differences of the effect of settlements indicated small effect
(d=.320). In the case of 7th graders, no significant differences could be found in the number of correct associations
according to the settlement type (χ² =0.73; df =2; p=.692) and the effect size also indicated no detectable effect
(d=.163). In the case of 11th graders, the difference between the performance of students in small towns and
major cities was not significant considering the number of correct associations (Z=1.39; p =.164). Regarding the
second, selection task, the difference among the performance of students in schools in the different settlements
was significant in the case of all three grades (4th graders: F(2)= 3.30; p<.05; η2=.014; 7th graders: F(2)=8.77; p<.001;
η2=.032; 11th graders: t=2.98; p<005; d=.363). In all three grades students of schools in major cities performed
best while students of schools in villages performed worst (see Table 6). Settlement type had greatest effect on
performance in the selection type in the case of 11th graders as students in major city schools performed better
and the effect size indicated large effect.
Knowing the average of correct associations in the association task it was considered compared to the educa-
tion level of parents and also the average of the rate of solution of the selection task in different grades (see Table
7 and 8). Based on the Friedman test, significant differences regarding association frequencies were not found
within grades (see Table 7). In the solution of the task related to selecting RE resources significant differences
were found in solutions according to the educational level of the father in 4th grade (F(4)=2.19; p<.05; η2=.033 ),
that of the father (F(4)=9.41; p<.001; η2=.099) and the mother (F(4)=7.71; p<.001; η2=.096) in the 7th grade while
that again of the father (F(4)=3.98; p<.001; η2=.081) and the mother (F(4)=2.51; p<.05; η2=.046) in the 11th grade.
The average performance in the selection task was highest in the case of students with parents with a diploma in
every grade (see Table 8).
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Table 7. Average of the number of correct associations related to RE in the association task in the case of
different grades by the educational level of parents.
4th 7th 11th

Task
Educational level of parents graders graders graders
Primary school 1.43 1.44 2.33

Vocational training school 1.79 1.59 2.36
Father Vocational secondary school 1.39 1.69 2.41
Grammar school 1.46 1.77 2.63
Average of the number of correct association Higher education 1.55 1.74 2.17
(association task) Primary school 1.37 1.48 2.14
Mother Vocational secondary school 1.64 1.48 2.38
Higher education 1.52 1.70 2.30
Table 8. Average of the rate of solution of the selection task related to RE in the case of different grades by
the educational level of parents.
4th 7th 11th

Task
Educational level of parents graders graders graders
Primary school 0.52 0.44 0.44

Father Vocational secondary school 0.51 0.62 0.68
Average of the rate of solution Higher education 0.58 0.69 0.74

(selection task) Primary school 0.50 0.45 0.63
Mother Vocational secondary school 0.57 0.57 0.68
Higher education 0.56 0.67 0.74
The source of information related to RE was also asked from the students. Based on student opinion, school
curricula and the internet provide most of the information regarding RE resources while least profit is obtained from
printed press and residential inquiries (see Table 9). In the case of 4th graders, the role of the family in obtaining
information was more significant than in the case of the other two grades. Effect size related to differences among
the grades was largest in the case of the internet and friends indicating, however, small effect.
Table 9. The role of sources of knowledge related to RE (based on the values of Likert scale) obtaining knowl-
edge according to the opinion of students at different grade levels.
4th graders 7th graders 11th graders χ² df p Effect size (d)
Curriculum 3.30 3.35 3.22 3.81 2 .149 .111 no effect
Television, radio 2.69 3.06 2.97 31.27 2 <.001 .255 small effect
Family 3.00 2.86 2.76 10.25 2 >.05 .126 no effect
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4th graders 7th graders 11th graders χ² df p Effect size (d)
Press 2.52 2.46 2.32 2.83 2 .242 .093 no effect
Residential inquiries 2.56 2.60 2.09 30.65 2 <.001 .285 small effect
Internet 3.03 3.41 3.51 53.37 2 <.001 .375 small effect
Friends 2,80 2,33 2.08 65.41 2 <.001 .423 small effect
χ² 193.71 473.79 547.94
df 6 6 6
p <.001 <.001 <.001
Multi-variable linear regression was applied to analyze the connection of the role of knowledge sources accord-
ing to the students, the number of correct associations given to renewable energy resources and the performance
in the case of the selection task (see Table 10).
Table 10. Variables explaining the performance in the association and selection tasks related to RE considering
information sources based on the values of multi-variable linear regression.
Grades Task type Independent variable R R2 B F/p t/p
Printed press .132 3.251/<.005

Association .165 .165 6.455 /<.005
Internet .098 2.021/<.05
4th
Television, radio .02 2.826/<.005
Selection .145 .021 5.001/<.05
Internet .014 2.056/<.05
Association Television, radio .097 .009 .106 3.961/<.05 1.990/<.05
Friends .026 2.917/<.005

7th
Selection Residence information .239 .057 .023 8.452/<.001 2.740/<.05
School curriculum .025 2.001/<.05
Association School curriculum .138 .019 .135 5.533/<.05 2.352/<.05

11th
Selection Internet .152 .023 .024 6.802/<.05 2.608/<.05
Variables explaining the association and selection tasks were studied separately in all grades. Stepwise option
achieved the optimal model in two steps in both task types in 4th grade. In the case of 7th grade, the optimal model
was achieved in one step in the association task and in three steps in the selection task. Finally, the optimal model
was achieved in one step each in the two tasks in the case of 11th grade. Table 10 shows only these optimal models.
Two steps of the optimal model, i.e. obtaining knowledge from the printed press and the internet explain
the standard deviation of the number of associations per student mostly in the case of 4th grade. Both variables
have significant effects on the number of associations per capita and their predictive value. Optimal model in the
case of 7th graders indicated only television and radio as significant explaining variables regarding the number
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of associations. Similarly, in the case of 11th graders only school curriculum determined significantly the number
of associations per capita The explaining strength of the above factors was significant in all cases, however, their
predictive value (B values) was small (see Table 10).
Variables explaining the rate of solution of the selection task include television, radio and the internet in the
case of 4th graders while in the case of 7th graders, friends, residential enquiries and school curriculum were de-
cisive in what information students obtained in relation to RE. In the case of 11th graders, internet was important
in obtaining knowledge regarding RE. Although the explaining strength of these factors was significant, their
predictive value was not high (see Table 10).
Finally, the methods, activities and learning handbooks within schools were studied that could have had
effect on knowledge related to RE.
Table 11. Relative frequency of the marking of factors within school indicating their role in learning RE based
on replies of 7th and 11th grade students.
Factors within school 7th graders 11th graders
Teamwork 0.47 0.42

Watching films 0.46 0.39
Self-contained task at home 0.25 0.24
Project work 0.33 0.39
Presenter outside school 0.10 0.20
Visit to a factory 0.29 0.35
Trip 0.23 0.14
Separate theme week 0.17 0.13
Textbook content 0.60 0.70
Task in exercise book 0.42 0.20
Table 11 shows that 7th (Cochrans’Q = 560.86; p<.001) and 11th grade (Cochrans’Q = 424.55; p<.001) students
selected the textbook with the highest frequency as the aid in which knowledge related to RE resources were met most
often. Seventh graders considered exercise books also important while 11th graders marked exercise books with small
frequency because only a few textbooks were supplied with exercise books in this grade. Table 11 also reveals that stu-
dents felt that when they had learnt the topic of RE it had been most often in teamwork or in the framework of watching
a film or project work. Least information was obtained in theme weeks during trips or in presentations outside the school.
The average of number of factors marked by students was also investigated in the case of both grades. There is no
significant difference between the rate values in the case of 7th (3.31) and 11th (3.14) grade students (Z=1.24; p=.215; d
= .080). In both grades, the students marked three factors on average in the course of which or with the help of which
they learnt about RE. The most typical three factors included textbook, teamwork and project work.
Studying the correlation between the relative frequency of correct association and the rate of solution of selection
tasks and the number of factors within school selected by one student, only weak connection was found. The value of
Spearman’s rho was .147 and it was significant (at the .01 level) regarding the number of associations per student in the
case of 7th graders. While in the case of 11th graders, this value was .131 and also significant at the .01 level (regarding
the differences between the correlations of the two grades, q value was .018 that is no effect). Spearman’s rho value
in relation to correlation between the solution of the selection task and the number of factors within school was .166
in 7th grade and was significant at the .01 level. In the case of 11th graders Spearman’s rho was only .040 and was not
significant. According to the effect size (q =.128) the effect of the grade level was small.
Considering the predictive role of factors within school in the knowledge of students related to RE, information
was obtained again using the Stepwise option of multi-variable linear regression (see Table 12).
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Table 12. Variables explaining performance in the case of the association and selection tasks related to RE
based on multivariate linear regression considering factors within school.
Independent
Grade Task type R R2 B F/p t/p
variable
Theme week .252 2.089/<.05

Association .137 .118 4.827/<.05
Textbook .238 2.297/<.05
7th
Textbook .108 5.109/<.001
Selection .294 .086 24.761/<.001
Theme week .131 4.777/<.001
Association Project .124 .015 .287 5.084/<.05 2.255/<.05
11th Textbook .071 3.175/<.005

Selection .204 .042 7.025/<.001
Theme week .067 2.155/<.05
Considering the results achieved in the association task, the explaining variables included the theme week and
textbook in grade 7 while the project was the explaining variable in grade 11. Their predicting value was significant
but not large (see Table 12). Regarding the results achieved in the selection task, explaining variables included
textbook and theme week in both grades. Their predictive value (B values) was significant but small.
Discussion
The first two questions of the research were related to the knowledge of primary and secondary school stu-
dents related to RE and whether or not there are differences in the knowledge of the investigated grades. In order
to answer the questions two tasks solved by the students were analyzed. In the first, association task students were
asked to write down the three associations (three words) that came into their minds related to RE. This question
was aimed to investigate the stabilized terms related to RE.
Similarly to the results of Tóth and Gajdos (2012), the number of associations did not increase with grade while
the ratio of correct associations relevant to RE resources did. Increasing of number of relevant associations was
inconsistent because the smallest number of mentioned associations occurred in the case of 7th graders followed
by 4th and 11th graders. The poorest result of 7th graders can be explained, on the one hand, by age group specif-
ics (4th graders are still more creative and communicative while students give more careful and straightforward
replies at later ages) and on the other hand, by the fact that primary school education pays not enough attention
to the education of knowledge related to RE. The results of 11th graders showed the effects of geography teaching
in Hungary which put great emphasis on the topic in grades 9 and 10 in secondary school.
Irrelevant words are worth mentioning as although many words classified here are associated with the
application and use of RE resources in a wider sense. Such words showed an especially interesting image in the
case of 4th grade students who formulated their thoughts frequently using childish language: e.g. security, good
health, good life, fast rush, future, switching on the computer, animals yield, makes robots move, heats, gives hot
water, it is on the roof, operates the refrigerator and the washing machine, more electric toys. These thoughts and
expressions revealed the sphere of interest of students in relation to the topic and also the real, authentic problems
appearing in their own life.
Association maps, drawn on the basis of the word association method (Cardellini, 2008; Nakiboglu, 2008),
showed that the knowledge of students related to RE is very similar in all grades. The same associations occur in
evaluable ratio (frequency > 5%) in all three grades (see Figures 1, 2 and 3). Associations presented in the associa-
tion map (frequency > 5%) are also similar regarding both their type and mentioning frequency.
These results are similar to finding of research of Bamisile et al. (2016) and Büniamin et al. (2010) related to
students’ knowledge about RE but the word association method applied in our research provided more informa-
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tion about learners’ knowledge concerning RE. The observable difference is that 4th graders mentioned only terms
that could be presented in the association maps related to RE and its utilization while 7th and 11th graders men-
tioned also examples of the positives of RE. Another typical difference is that the strength of connection between
the associations and RE was greatest in grade 11 compared to the other two grades. This reflects that students in
secondary school learned and heard more about RE both in school and outside school. Application methods of
RE resources and their social, economic and environmental significance together with their positive and negative
sides were taught for them in geography. Despite this, however, no significant change in the knowledge system of
the studied 11th graders was found compared to 4th and 7th graders. This calls attention to the joint responsibil-
ity of education and the society. The problem is caused primarily by insufficiencies in the content of curriculum
requirements and textbooks related to RE (the content is dominated by presenting definitions and attitude form-
ing content is little) on the education side (Revákné et al., 2018) while on the society side, the lack of exemplary
behavior in relation to RE utilization.
In the second task students were asked to select and mark RE resources out of the listed energy resources.
This task was applied as the cross query of the first, association task.
The rate of solution of the second task related to RE resources increased from 4th graders to 11th graders but
remained only 69% in grade 11. These results show as well that students have insufficient knowledge about RE
because education in and outside school does not pay enough attention to problem of RE. Based on the relative
frequency of the selection and marking of the given RE resources in all three grades, the most frequently marked
RE resources were wind energy, wind turbine, water energy, geothermal energy, photovoltaic cells, solar collectors,
solar energy. This result is not surprising as students meet these terms in everyday life outside school as well and
they experience the application of these terms most frequently. While using biogas, biomass and biodiesel, that
were the least frequently marked terms, can be hardly heard in everyday life. In this way, the above result clearly
reflects the joint effects of school and society on the knowledge of students related to RE resources. The fact that
4th grader students frequently mistake fossil energy resources for renewable ones is not surprising. The fact,
however, that 7th grader students do this in higher ratio (p<.001) is surprising. Again, the problems of teaching
RE resources in primary school can be seen. Even 11th grader students mistake the two types of energy resources
but in much smaller ratio (p<.001) in comparison with the performance of both 7th and 4th graders that can be
explained mostly by the effects of secondary school (particularly geography education) and also by age group
specifics primarily the fact that 16-17 years old students pay attention to events in the society.
The correlation between the relative frequency of relevant associations and the solution of the selection task
related to RE was found to be weak despite the fact that intermediate or strong correlation was assumed. This
poor correlation can be explained by, on the one hand, missing associations, not mentioned by students, that
are included in the list of the second task with poor frequency even there as well (e.g. biomass, firewood, biogas,
biodiesel). On the other hand, sometimes a given student mentioned a correct association but forgot to underly
in the second task. It may be also that students could name three correct associations related to RE resources that
were not listed among the terms to be underlined in the selection task. The fact that the correlation, taking the
above into account, was weak in the case of all grades suggests that the knowledge of Hungarian students in rela-
tion to RE resources is not sure independent of age. The lack of applying knowledge in practice and connecting
knowledge to everyday life can be presumed to be in the background of the above together with the fact that
alternatives of RE resources are not known enough even by the adult population in Hungary (Szabó et al., 2018).
Among factors that effect on performance in the association and selection tasks was the settlement type
where the school of the students can be found. The investigated students in the studied major cities had greater
(and probably more reliable) knowledge regarding RE resources. In the background there could be several factors
like better organizational, pedagogical, methodological and infrastructural conditions of schools and education,
information and education possibilities outside school like various forums, educational programs, projects, better
financial conditions for urban people providing opportunities to the self-application of RE resources. Studying the
accurate effects of the above factors could be the topic of another research project.
Investigating the influencing role of the educational level of parents, differences were found only in the case
of performance in the second, selection task. Best performance in selecting terms related to RE resources was
achieved by students of parents with higher education diploma in all three grades.
When the effect of the sources of knowledge related to RE resources on performance in the first, association
and the second, selection tasks was studied, regression analysis clearly showed that school curriculum media, in-
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ternet, and residential informing were the most important sources and influencing factors of knowledge related to
RE in all grades. In harmony with earlier research (Hasan, 2012; Szabó et al., 2018) this means that school interwines
with social processes are jointly responsible for forming the energy consciousness of future generations. It is worth
noting that the role of family members was not included among explaining variables in either cases indicating that
the performance of the students solving the tasks was less influenced by information obtained from the family. This
can be explained by that the adult members of the family also have little information regarding RE resources and
their utilization as their application is not widespread enough and these application possibilities are not known
enough in Hungary. As a result, RE resources and their application are rare topics of family chats.
The effects of methods within the school on performance in the second selection task were also investigated
in grades 7 and 11. The most frequently marked methods with the help of which students learn about RE were
textbook, teamwork and project work. Considering the number of marked factors among the listed ones, the same
three methods were marked most frequently in the case of both grades. Regarding the effect of methods applied in
school on performance in the tasks, only weak correlation was found between the number of methods selected by
one student and the relative frequency of correct associations and the rate of solution of the selection task. There
was no evaluable difference between the two grades in the above aspect. The performance of students learning
knowledge related to RE with the help of more methods was not better in either tasks and in the case of either
grades. This indicates that not the number of methods, aid and activity types in the course of which students learn
RE is primarily important but presumably the efficiency of these factors regarding content, didactics, motivation,
and cognitive and emotional aspects.
According to the regression analysis, textbooks, theme week and project were the most effective methods in
school regarding performance in the tasks, i.e. students obtained the deepest knowledge regarding RE using these
methods. In the course of a theme week students learn about a theme in school over one week generally using
the project method. This involves intensive, self-contained student work in which the given topic is approached
from a wide range of aspects using the associated terminology actively while solving problems. The same term,
in this way, appears often in practice resulting in the terms becoming permanent and in more secure knowledge.
This makes the role of theme weeks and project works reasonable in deepening knowledge, i.e. in the present
case, making performance better in solving the two tasks. Similarly, textbook content is also the core in forming
terminological and procedural knowledge entailing great responsibility on textbook writers.
Conclusions
The research investigated the knowledge of primary and secondary school students related to RE and its con-
nection with knowledge influencing factors. Regarding knowledge related to RE students with age (7th and 11th
graders) apart from knowing RE resources and their application were able to give examples for the environmental
significance of RE and also for the benefits of its utilization. This is the result of increasing intellectual development
level, on the one hand, and of expanding knowledge learnt in school or obtained from the social environment,
on the other hand. Due to their age, 4th graders had more associations related to RE that were mostly irrelevant
associations. Associations in their case and also in grades 7 and 11 suggested that experience from everyday life
is decisive in forming the knowledge of students related to RE. Results of the two tasks used for the analysis of
knowledge also proved that knowledge related to RE learnt in school and at the same time experienced in everyday
life became more stable. Considering the influencing factors, the role of the settlement type where the school was
located was decisive. Students of city schools had better knowledge related to RE that can be explained partly
by differences in the schools of (more developed education infrastructure in cities, higher level of education)
and partly by differences in the lifestyle (higher standard of living) in different settlement types. Another factor
influencing the knowledge of students related to RE was the educational level of parents. Children of parents with
higher educational level are more informed and have better knowledge related to RE. In the series of influencing
factors, the role of media, residential information, internet, school curricula, textbooks, projects and theme weeks
requiring the cooperation of students and active learning was also important to obtain knowledge related to RE.
An important conclusion of the research is that education in school must not ignore the age specifics of
students in the process of obtaining knowledge related to RE. This was proved most of all by the results in rela-
tion to 4th graders shedding light on the fact that in this age not the knowledge obtained in school related to RE
stabilizes primarily but knowledge experienced at home in their own environment becomes more stabilized. As
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a consequence, students at this age should not be made tired with abstract scientific terms but active education
has to be provided for them in accordance with their mental development level and fields of interest based on the
familiar examples of the environment surrounding them. One starting point could be the application of the terms
listed by the students in this research as ideas originated from the thoughts of the students in the education of
RE resources. With this the principle of constructive pedagogy stating that one should build on the students’ pre-
knowledge in the process of teaching and then incorporate new knowledge elements into the already existing
thinking schemes. The above also helps the identification and elimination of misconceptions related to RE resources.
The research also proved that the knowledge of students related to RE increased with age, however, overall it
was poor in the case of every grade. This means that despite effects in and outside school this type of knowledge of
the students is not implicit. Curricula and textbooks could have a significant role in solving the above problem if they
do not focus on terminology level knowledge but take some attitude and approach forming elements among the
requirements. The incorporation of as many tasks of observation, experiment, data analysis, cooperative and project
work in textbooks and workbooks as possible. A fundamental change of attitude is necessary in education to form
the knowledge of students related to RE to make it a firm base for real decisions related to the application of RE.
Based on the results of the research, further trainings are planned focusing on teaching and learning meth-
odology for primary and secondary school teachers. Moreover, the results of the research will be incorporated in
the curriculum of teaching methodology of natural sciences teachers’ training as well.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the NKFIH, K 116595 application in Hungary.
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Received: April 15, 2019 Accepted: November 08, 2019
Ibolya Markóczi Revák PhD., Associate Professor, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department
(Corresponding author) of Ecology, Division of Teaching Methods of Biology, University of
Debrecen, Egyetem sq. 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary.
E-mail: revaknemi@gmail.com
Erzsébet Jász PhD Student, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Social
Geography and Regional Development Planning, University of Debrecen,
Egyetem sq. 1, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary.
E-mail: jaszerzsebet@gmail.com
Enikő Kovács Research Assistant, Faculty of Science, Institute of Geography and
Environmental Science, Eszterházy Károly University, Eszterházy sq. 1,
3300 Eger, Hungary.
E-mail: eniko.kov@gmail.com
Károly Teperics PhD., Associate Professor, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department
of Social Geography and Regional Development Planning,
University of Debrecen, 1 Egyetem sq., 4032 Debrecen, Hungary.
E-mail: teperics.karoly@science.unideb.hu
Judit ÜtőVisi PhD, Methodological Expert, Educational Authority, Szalay u. 10-14, 1055
Budapest, Hungary.
E-mail: judit.uto.visi@gmail.com
János Máth PhD., Associate Professor, Faculty of Arts, Department of Psychology
University of Debrecen, 1 Egyetem sq., 4032 Debrecen, Hungary.
E-mail: janosmath@gmail.com
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AN ANALYSIS OF THE
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ABILITIES TO READ REALISTIC, ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
CONVENTIONAL, AND ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
HYBRID IMAGES IN GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
Abstract. This research considered
students’ abilities to read images about
dispersed systems, taken from the chemis-
Tamara N. Rončević, try textbook. 103 high school students (37
Željka Đ. Ćuk, males, 63 females, and 3 unknown) from
Dušica D. Rodić, the school “Svetozar Marković“ in Novi Sad,
Republic of Serbia, were included as the
Mirjana D. Segedinac,
research participants. Students’ abilities to
Saša A. Horvat suggest the titles of the realistic, conven-
tional, and hybrid textbook images about
dispersed systems, as well as their written
interpretations of images contents, were
examined. The collected data were ana-
Introduction lysed qualitatively, and information about
students’ conceptual understandings and
In science and science education the visualisations have significant role. misunderstandings about selected chemis-
In science education, visualisations or, more precisely, visual representations try topic was provided. Identified misunder-
are static and dynamic visual signs (de Berg, 2012) that provide scientific standings, some of which are the contri-
understanding and transfer knowledge (Eilam & Poyas, 2010). According to bution of this research, gave significant
Gilbert (2010), there are two different forms of visual representations: internal results. Additionally, it was concluded that
and external. It is difficult to define internal visual representations (IRs) as they the majority of students’ difficulties were
are abstract constructs in the memory (Rapp, 2005; Zhang, 1997) that can not related to reading realistic textbook images.
be observed directly (Rapp, 2005). However, IRs are important in enabling Students relied on what they literally saw
students to withdraw necessary information from long-term memory to gen- in the photography without making proper
erate hypotheses, transfer knowledge, solve problems, and make decisions connections with chemical contents about
(Rapp & Kurby, 2008). Also, IRs are constructs defined as mental outcomes dispersed systems. The findings of the pre-
of visual display of an object, experience or event (Rapp & Kurby, 2008) from sent research could be helpful for science
the outside world (Rapp, 2005). Observing this definition, Eilam and Poyas teachers and educators, interested in how
(2010) have highlighted the need to distinguish internal and external visual and why students use textbook images to
representations. Namely, external visual representations (ERs) are objects, learn science concepts. They will also alert
physical symbols, and dimensions from our environment (Zhang, 1997). authors and textbook illustrators to pay
Individuals can see ERs with the naked eye (Uttal & O’Doherty, 2008) which more attention to the selection of appropri-
makes an opportunity to intrinsically think about abstract phenomena (Eilam ate textbook images.
& Poyas, 2010). For example, chemistry students encounter many abstract
Keywords: image types, general chemistry,
concepts in educational process. Therefore, in chemistry education various
reading images, textbook images, visual
ERs, such as line or bar graphs, pie, maps, molecular models, photographs,
representations.
drawings, and tables, can be effectively applied.
In this research, the textbook images as one particular type of ERs
Tamara N. Rončević
were of special interest. Colin, Chauvet, and Viennot (2002) have defined University of Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
images as “a critical vehicle for (transformative) information transmission” Željka Đ. Ćuk
(p. 313). Researchers from the field of science education have conducted an Osnovna škola “Sever Đukić”, Republic of Serbia
Dušica D. Rodić, Mirjana D. Segedinac,
autonomous analysis of the images included in the science textbooks. For Saša A. Horvat
example, textbook images have been classified by their type and function University of Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia
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and regarding their type, images have been classified as realistic, conventional, and hybrid (Dimopoulos, Koulaidis,
& Sklaveniti, 2003). The realistic images, such as photographs and drawings, represent reality according to the hu-
man optical perception. Conventional images are designed according to the techno-scientific conventions, and
they represent reality in a codified and the most condensed way (Devetak & Vogrinc, 2013). Conventional images
cover line and bar graphs, two-dimensional representations of molecular models, maps and they are significant
for scientific writing. Hybrid images are the combinations of elements from the previously described two types of
images (Dimopoulos et al., 2003). They combine the realistic and symbolic entities in an image (Devetak & Vogrinc,
2013). Each type of images has some special features that enable its effectiveness. For example, photographs are
predominantly used in school science textbooks (Pozzer & Roth, 2003), as they have more impact on students outside
the science classroom in comparison to the graphs or equations, which may often be incomprehensible to them
(Myers, 1990, cited in Pozzer & Roth, 2003). However, within conventional images, maps are effective in conveying
qualitative relations between concepts of interest (e.g. functional, spatial, or structural relations). Additionally,
graphs effectively display quantitative relations (Eilam & Poyas, 2010). They play a pivotal role in communicating
science concepts from the experts to the students (Chen & Gilbert, 2009). The hybrid images have been recently
introduced in the literature, and there are a lot of possibilities for examination.
Although there is an interest in visual language for science education, the empirical studies on using images
in the science classroom are insufficiently presented (Ametller & Pintó, 2002). Some of these studies have focused
on students’ abilities to “read” images. For example, students’ difficulties in reading images in optics, together with
the teachers’ awareness of such difficulties, have been examined (Colin et al., 2002). In this study, five documents
with images and corresponding text elements found in the textbooks have been used. Also, the authors of some
studies have used textbook images as an exemplar to design own images, particularly for the research. With the aim
to investigate secondary school students’ abilities to interpret the image content about energy, Ametller and Pintó
(2002) have developed a theoretical semiotic frame. They have highlighted specific features of science images that
can affect the students’ comprehension and cause difficulties while reading images. One of them is the polysemic
use of the arrows. A similar study has been conducted by Stylianidou (2002) who has also investigated students’
difficulties while reading science textbook images about energy. This author has noted several textual and graphic
features of images that may cause difficulties: simultaneous interpretation of both realistic and conventional (i.e.
schematic and symbolic) elements; reading of symbols that could be polysemic, synonymous and homonymous;
reading of textual elements that could be included in the image; and interpretation of several images that should
be observed as a whole (interpretation of relations between them). Additionally, Cook (2008) has conducted
research to examine high school students’ abilities to recognize, interpret and understand the textbook images
in biology, within the topic of meiosis. After the instruction, the students have been given the image of meiosis
without verbal explanations and required to label the structures in the image, then to label the phases of meiosis,
and finally to give the overall summary. This has been followed by the interview protocol. Even though the find-
ings of the study have indicated that the students have not had many misconceptions about the topic of meiosis,
they have not understood the process completely (Cook, 2008). In chemistry, Harrison and Treagust (1996) have
asked 8-10 grade students to choose a diagrammatic representation of an atom (atomic nucleus surrounded by
electrons) and also to draw what they perceive to be an atom. The findings of such a study can be very important
as they inform the chemistry teachers about students’ previous conceptions when they start to learn more complex
models of atomic structures (Chen & Gilbert, 2009).
Research Problem
The fact that dispersed systems are one of the most important but yet challenging topics of secondary school
chemistry considering its abstract nature and conceptual difficulties, makes it a good choice for the research. In
the literature, there are research findings that have demonstrated students’ conceptual understanding and/or
difficulties with this topic, especially about solution chemistry which is one of the most often examined topics in
chemistry (Çalik, 2005). For example, the researchers in this field have investigated the dissolution concept (Noh
& Scharmann, 1997), solubility equilibrium that includes concepts of dissolution, solubility, chemical equilibrium
effects, Le Châtelier’s principle, stoichiometry (Raviolo, 2001), and solution concentration (de Berg, 2012). Noh and
Scharmann (1997) have conducted interesting research observing four chemistry topics with one of them being the
concept of dissolution. These researchers have included textbook images about dissolution as both instructional
materials and as a part of the evaluation instrument (along with multiple-choice and open-ended questions).
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 943-954)
The quantitative results have indicated that the treatment group outperformed the control group on the subtest
about dissolution. However, there was no significant difference between the groups in the pictorial test scores. It
has been noted that the ability to solve the pictorial problems demands deep conceptual understanding. Until
now there have been a few studies about students’ ability to read images about dispersed systems, and no study
about reading images categorized separately as realistic, conventional, and hybrid.
Research Focus
Taking into account the research problem, this research put the focus on high school students’ abilities to
read textbook images. Two aspects were analyzed: (i) suggestion of the image title, and (ii) interpretation of the
image content. There were three research tasks:
1. To analyse students’ abilities to suggest the title for the set of realistic, conventional, and hybrid textbook
images about dispersed systems.
2. To analyse students’ abilities to interpret the content of the realistic, conventional, and hybrid textbook
images about dispersed systems.
3. To analyse students’ misunderstandings while reading images about dispersed systems.
General Background
This research utilized qualitative design to solve the research tasks associated with the students’ abili-
ties to read images about dispersed systems, as well as about their misunderstandings while reading images. The
researchers collected the data using the test of knowledge that included three basic types of images (i.e. realistic,
conventional, and hybrid) retrieved from the chemistry textbook. In this respect, the students were required to
suggest the title for each image and to interpret the image content during one school class. The research was
implemented on the high school students who attended the second semester of the first grade of high school in
the 2017/2018 school year.
Participants
This research included 103 students (37 males, 63 females, and 3 unknown) from four classes of high
school “Svetozar Marković“ in Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia. The first-grade students were 15-16 years old. Most of
the students were from a middle-class socioeconomic level and were recruited into the study as voluntary par-
ticipants. They were informed about the nature of the research, about the instrument that will be used, and they
could leave the research before the testing has started.
The same chemistry teacher taught all the students. She holds a Master’s degree in chemistry education. Ac-
cording to her evaluation, at the end of the first semester of the first year, 52% of high school students had excellent
achievement (grade 5), 39% had very good achievement (grade 4), 7% had good achievement (grade 3), and 2%
had satisfactory achievement (grade 2) in general chemistry.
For the purpose of this research, one general chemistry topic was chosen: “Dispersed systems”. According to
the national curriculum regulations of the first grade of the science-oriented and general high school approved
by Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia, the selected teaching
topic is taught after the following topics: „Chemistry as a science“, „Types of the substances“, „The structure of the
atom“, and „The chemical bond“. After these, the following three topics were processed: „Chemical reactions“, „Acids,
bases, and salts“, and „Oxidation-reduction reactions“. Table 1 shows the teaching topic chosen for this study, as
well as the specific contents of the topic.
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Table 1. Teaching topic and corresponding teaching contents.
Teaching topic Teaching contents
Classifications of dispersed systems.

The importance and application of dispersed systems.
Solutions.
Solubility and factors affecting solubility.
Dispersed systems Saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions.
Thermal changes in dissolving.
The quantitative composition of a solution.
Colloids.
Colligative properties of solutions.
With the aim to analyze students’ abilities to read images about the dispersed systems, it was decided to
use textbook images. The recommended and one of the most used textbooks in the Republic of Serbia (“General
Chemistry 1: Textbook for the first grade of the secondary school”) was selected (Nedeljković, 2016). As von Zeipel
(2015) suggested, this chemistry textbook was chosen for two main reasons. First, the students were already us-
ing this textbook and they were familiar with the format. Second, it includes an appropriate number of images
or relative density of the images. The relative density of the images was calculated as the number of images per
1000 words (according to Dimopoulos et al., 2003). The relative density of the images through the whole textbook
was 0.004 (i.e. 4 images per 1000 words), and for the chosen topic it was also 0.004. The selected topic included
18 images in total: the same number of realistic and hybrid (i.e. 8 within each category), and 2 conventional. For
choosing images for research, one full professor and two assistant professors in the field of Chemistry education,
and one master student who was profiled to be a chemistry teacher were selected. The expert team decided to
use the same number of images from each category. Therefore, 2 realistic, 2 conventional, and 2 hybrid images
were included in the knowledge test. In this section, these six images on which our investigation was based, will
be presented and explained.
Figure 1 presents realistic textbook images. The left image should illustrate Tyndall’s effect, i.e. the scattering
of light by colloidal particles. The right image shows a white island of salt floating in the Dead Sea, as an example
of natural crystallization of salt. The author and the illustrator of the selected textbook included narrative realistic
images from everyday life to illustrate the abstract concepts of the topic of dispersed systems.
Figure 1. The realistic images included in the knowledge test.
Figure 2 includes the conventional textbook images. The left image represents models of molecules and ions
as conventional elements and depicts water molecules and their interactions with the sodium and chlorine ions.
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The right image is a typical conventional representation of solubility curves which show what mass of different
solutes (salts) will dissolve in 100 g of water over a range of temperatures.
Figure 2. The conventional images included in the knowledge test.
Finally, Figure 3 includes hybrid textbook images that combine both realistic and conventional elements.
The laboratory equipment (i.e. beakers and Erlenmeyer flask) and magnifying glass are realistic elements, while
models of molecules and ions, arrow, pointers, and chemical formulas are conventional elements. The left hybrid
image shows the concentrating of the solution by water evaporation. The right hybrid image shows the dissolution
of sodium chloride in water.
Figure 3. The hybrid images included in the knowledge test.
All images were included in the knowledge test using a black-and-white pattern. In the classroom, the computer
and video projector were used by the researcher in order to present images in the original color, one by one. This
provided the opportunity for students to see the content of the image more clearly. After that, the knowledge test
was conducted in one school class (45 minutes) in May 2018. The students were asked to suggest the image title
and to interpret the content for each of the six images. Therefore, two types of data were collected: (i) suggested
titles of realistic, conventional, and hybrid images, and (ii) written interpretations of images contents.
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Data Analysis

This research was designed to be qualitative. According to Mertens (2010), qualitative methods predominantly
use interviews, observations, and document reviews. The document reviews can include curriculums, students’
works, and images. This study included textbook images, but with the aim to analyze written evidence of learning
from the students’ responses. Henceforth, statistical generalizations are not suited for such methodological design.
Firstly, two researchers analyzed students’ written answers for each of the six images together, in order to es-
tablish the validity of the evaluation process. After that, six tables were developed; one for each image with several
categories of suggested titles and variations of the main titles. Also, the number of students who suggested that
titles and corresponding percentages were included in the table. In the end, developed tables were additionally
analyzed by three other researchers. Each disagreement that appeared among the researchers was solved through
a thorough discussion.
Several title categories of images pointed out the presence of students’ misunderstandings of observed topic
(“Dispersed systems”). Therefore, the researchers looked into their written interpretations of images contents to
collect more specific information about such misunderstandings. Due to the abundance of the collected data, the
presented results and discussion will refer to one realistic (Figure 1, left image), one conventional (Figure 2, right
image), and one hybrid image (Figure 3, right image).
Research Results
Provided tables for the realistic, conventional, and hybrid images include the image title category (first col-
umn in the table) and variations of the suggested titles (second column in the table). The separated titles in the
first column in each table indicate the highest number of students who suggested that title in the given category.
Within some variations of the titles, additional words of several students are placed in parentheses in order not to
duplicate the answers. It should be highlighted that within each presented image, only several students did not
provide any answer as a possible title for the realistic (2.9%), conventional (1.9%), or hybrid (1%) images.
In order to analyse titles of the realistic image (Figure 1, left image) suggested by the research participants,
Table 2 was constructed. Six main title categories were identified: Tyndall’s effect (19.4% of participants’ responses
belonged to this category), Solar radiation (21.4%), Sunny skies with clouds (41.7%), Air as a dispersed system (11.7%),
Atmosphere (1.9%), and Chemical phenomenon (1%). Along with these six main titles, the other sixteen variations
were suggested by the students. Also, there were three students who were not able to suggest any title for this
image.
Table 2. Categories of suggested titles for the realistic image.
Number of
Suggested titles Variations of the titles Percentage
students
Tyndall’s effect The blue color of the sky as a result of Tyndall’s effect. 20 19.4
Sunlight; Sunlight and heat; Reflection of sunlight;

Solar radiation The effect of sunlight on the Earth’s environment; 22 21.4
Luminosity.
Sunny skies; Sun in the sky; Sun and clouds; Sky;
Sunny skies with clouds Sky and clouds; Cloudiness; Sunny day; Warm 43 41.7
weather.
Air as a dispersed system Dispersed system; Coarse dispersion. 12 11.7
Atmosphere - 2 1.9
Chemical phenomenon - 1 1
Without the title - 3 2.9
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Analysing the conventional image from Figure 2 (right image), the students suggested seven main image
titles, such as: Solubility curves of various ionic substances (9.7%), Graph (19.4%), Solubility of substances (39.8%), The
rate of a chemical reaction (11.6%), Chemical equilibrium (5.8%), Energy changes in chemical reactions (9.7%), and
Concentration of elements (1.9%) (Table 3). In addition to this, twenty-eight variations of main titles were noticed. The
highest number of variations were recorded within the title category Solubility of substances (fourteen variations in
total). Only two participants did not suggest the title or provide some interpretation for this conventional image.
Table 3. Categories of suggested titles for the conventional image.
Number of
students
Solubility curves of various ionic Solubility curves of various ionic (solid) substances; Solubility curves;
10 9.7
substances Lines.
Graphical display; Solubility graph; Diagram; Solubility diagram;

A graph of the solubility (of substances) as a function of temperature; 20 19.4
Graph
A diagram of the solubility as a function of temperature.
Solubility at a specified temperature; Solubility of mass; Solubility;
Solubility system; Solubility of compounds (in 100 g of H2O at a
specified temperature); Solubility of an ionic compounds; Solubility as
a function of temperature; Dissolution at a specified temperature; The
influence of temperature on the solubility (of substances in water); 41 39.8
The temperature dependence of solubility; Change in solubility
Solubility of substances with increasing temperature; The relationship among temperature
and solubility; The influence of temperature on the rate of a dissolu-
tion; The influence of temperature on the rate of a solubility.
Chemical rate; The influence of temperature on the rate of a reaction;

12 11.6
The rate of a chemical reaction The influence of temperature and solubility on the rate of a reaction.
Chemical equilibrium Equilibrium. 6 5.8
Enthalpy of different compounds; Graph of standard enthalpy (of

Energy changes in chemical reactions 10 9.7
different compounds).
Concentration of elements - 2 1.9
Without the title - 2 1.9
Table 4 was constructed for the first hybrid image presented in Figure 3 (right image). Looking at the students’
responses on knowledge test, twelve main categories of the suggested image titles were highlighted: Dissolution
of sodium chloride in water (31.1% of participants’ responses belonged to this category), Electrolytic dissociation
of sodium chloride (6.8%), Solution of sodium chloride in water (9.7%), NaCl (15.5%), Ions (9.7%), Molecules (11.6%),
Oversaturated salt solution in water (1.9%), Chemical experiment with the magnifying glass (3.9%), The composition
of the substance (4.8%), Acids (1.9%), Infusion (1%), and Compounds (1%). In addition, even 42 variations of these
titles were noticed (Table 4). The highest number of such variations were found for the title category Dissolution
of sodium chloride in water (nine variations in total). In this part of the analysis, the highest number of suggested
titles were noticed, which was followed by the smallest number of students who did not suggest any title for the
hybrid image from Figure 3.
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Table 4. Categories of suggested titles for the hybrid image.
Number of
students
Representation of dissolution of sodium chloride in water; Dissolution of

sodium chloride; Dissolution of salt in water; Dissolution of salt;
Dissolution of sodium chloride in Dissolution of salt in water into ions;
32 31.1
water Dissolution of substance into negative and positive ions; Microscopic view
of dissolution of the salt; Depiction of a magnifying glass of salt dissolution
in water; Solubility of NaCl in water.
Electrolytic dissociation of sodium Electrolytic dissociation. Positive and negative ions, cations and anions;
7 6.8
chloride Dissociation (NaCl → Na+ + Cl-).
Sodium chloride solution; Molecular dispersions; Solutions; Electrolyte solu-
Solution of sodium chloride in water 10 9.7
tions; The composition of the solution; Microscopic view of the solution.
Sodium chloride – table salt; The structure of NaCl; Synthesis of sodium
chloride; Table salt under the magnifying glass; Enlarged view of the so-
NaCl 16 15.5
dium chloride (as a soluble substance in water under the magnifying glass);
Chemical experiment with sodium chloride.
Positive and negative ions in the solution; Interaction of ions Na and Cl;
Ions Reaction of sodium and chlorine ions; Salt. Enlarged view of the ions of 10 9.7
sodium chloride; Enlarged view of ions of the soluble substance.
Molecules of sodium and chlorine; Chemical molecules; Molecular content;
Molecules under magnifying glass; Enlarged molecules of sodium chloride;
Molecules 12 11.6
Enlarged view of the molecules in the container; Mixture of the sodium and
chlorine atoms; Atoms.
Supersaturated salt solution in water Precipitation of the particles. 2 1.9
Chemical experiment with the Test tube and the magnifying glass; Liquid content from the bottle; Enlarged
4 3.9
magnifying glass view of the content from the glass container.
The composition of the substance Analysis of the substance 5 4.8
Acids Acids and their solutions 2 1.9
Infusion - 1 1
Compounds - 1 1
Without the title - 1 1
Discussion
The original title of the realistic image included in the knowledge test is The blue color of the sky as a result of
Tyndall’s effect. From the total number of students included in this research, 19.4% (Table 2) recognized that the rea-
listic image is related to Tyndall’s effect. It should be highlighted that only 7.8% of participants explained the image
content in the sense of Tyndall’s effect. Looking at this group of students, one of them wrote: “Sunlight is scattering
on particles in a colloid where a bright spot is on each one, and we see blue light scattered”. Other 6.8% knew that
the blue color of the sky is the consequence of Tyndall’s effect, but could not explain it in more detail. Also, 4.8%
of students did not provide any interpretation, or provided an inappropriate interpretation (e.g. “The sun shines
and the rays pass through the clouds”). In the next category of suggested titles, the students who saw Reflection of
sunlight; Solar radiation; or Luminosity were placed. Tyndall’s effect is the phenomena related to sunlight, therefore,
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these variations of titles are generally acceptable. To provide valid conclusions, students’ interpretations of image
content were further analysed. It was found that suggested titles were a reflection of what students literally saw
on the realistic image. The same was found within the relatively big group of students (41.7%) who suggested the
titles: Sunny skies with clouds; Sun in the sky; Sun and clouds; Cloudiness. Taking this into consideration, it might be
said that the majority of the students missed the main message of the realistic image presented in Figure 1. There
are at least two reasons. Firstly, it is noticeable that the realistic image is a lack of explicit visual information about
Tyndall’s effect, which according to Stylianidou (2002), could cause difficulties to the students. Certainly, it can be
improved, for example by including adequate textual or symbolic elements. Secondly, this large group of students
did not look at the image while learning about the abstract concept of Tyndall’s effect from the chemistry textbook.
Additionally, the title: Air as a dispersed system was suggested by the third group of students. For example, some
students from this group (3.9%) suggested the title: Coarse dispersion. They believed that air is coarse dispersion
where dispersed phase particles can be seen by a naked eye as they are bigger than 100 nm. Therefore, the first
misunderstanding within our research participants was identified. In the end, within each analysed image, there
were students’ answers that were too general (e.g. Chemical phenomenon or Atmosphere).
The original title of the second conventional image (Figure 2, right image) retrieved from the chemistry tex-
tbook is Solubility curves of various ionic (solid) substances. Only one student suggested the title that fully matches
the one from the chemistry textbook. Six students (5.8%) suggested similar titles (Solubility curves of various ionic
substances or Solubility curves). This group of students (6.8%) have conceptual understanding as they explained that
increasing the temperature increases the solubility of the most ionic solid substances (salts). However, two of the
research participants wrote Lines as the suggested title for this conventional image (Table 3). In their interpretations,
they noted curved lines or just lines, numbers, and chemical symbols. Namely, they saw only the mathematical and
chemical objects. It should be mentioned that more than half of the total number of students suggested the correct
titles for the conventional image, such as A graph of the solubility of substances as a function of temperature; Solubility
of compounds in 100 g of H2O at a specified temperature; The influence of temperature on the solubility of substances
in water. It was pleasing to find many students who developed important skills to handle with series of visual data
represented as graphs. According to Glazer (2011), students will need such skills in everyday life situations, outside
of the classroom. In future research it might be important to combine this instrument with the interview protocol
in order to examine students’ thoughts, as in the study by Stojanovska (2017), high school students thought that all
substances are more soluble at higher temperatures, regardless of the state of matter. In our study, some students
did not specify the nature of substances in their answers (e.g. A graph of the solubility of substances as a function of
temperature) and therefore, further examination is needed. In addition, there were several students who showed
misunderstandings. Two of the students thought that the graph from Figure 2 illustrates how the temperature
affects the dissolving rate of the substances in water, not noting that there are no coordinates with the time taken
for the dissolution. Also, it is interesting to note that some students mixed a graph of the solubility of substances
with a graph showing the changes in energy in chemical reactions and with a chemical reaction rate graph. This
data is not negligible as these students form groups of about 10% of respondents. Also, the small number of
students (5.8%) possessed misunderstanding believing that conventional image presented in Figure 2 shows a
chemical equilibrium graph. They did not observe the fact that salts included in the graphical display are strong
electrolytes that are fully dissolved in water.
The title of the hybrid image taken from the chemistry textbook is the Illustrative representation of the dissolution
of sodium chloride in water. Even though students were not able to suggest a title that would completely match
with the one from the textbook, one student suggested a very similar title: Representation of dissolution of sodium
chloride in water. The most of them suggested the title Dissolution of sodium chloride in water, or just Dissolution of
sodium chloride, or Dissolution of salt in water (Table 4). Instead of “dissolution” some of the research participants
used the term “dissociation” (i.e. electrolytic dissociation), which is acceptable. To test whether this group of stu-
dents (37.9%) possessed a conceptual understanding of the process of dissolution of sodium chloride in water,
their interpretations of the hybrid image content were analysed. Namely, 30.2% of students showed more or less
developed conceptual understanding, providing the following interpretations:
•• “In the sodium chloride crystal lattice, ionic bonds break down in water.”
•• “In the sodium chloride crystal lattice ionic bonds break down, as well as hydrogen bonds between
water molecules, and ion-dipole interactions occur between the ions and water molecules.”
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However, some students from this group did not provide any written interpretation of the image content
(2.9%), and several of them (4.8%) showed misunderstanding believing that “the magnifier zooms in the liquid and
molecules are seen”. It must be highlighted that many students were focused on a magnifying glass as a separated
realistic element and/or on a conventional element which is a model of the sodium-chloride structure (see Table
4). The students noted titles such as Table salt under the magnifying glass; An enlarged view of the sodium chloride as
a soluble substance in water under the magnifying glass. Surly, hybrid images can stimulate higher-order cognitive
processes and thinking skills (Devetak & Vogrinc, 2013), but only if the student observes the unity of realistic and
conventional elements included in one hybrid image. Furthermore, it was observed that many students (35.9%)
believed that the sodium chloride particles can really be viewed under the magnifying glass. The students inter-
preted the image content in the following way:
•• “The magnifying glass can show a detailed dissolution of sodium chloride”.
•• “A bowl is placed under the magnifying glass to facilitate the study of the obtained solution”.
•• “Enlarged view of the solution with a microscope to give the viewer a clear and larger image of the
content”.
•• On the other hand, one student noted:
•• “The substance from the image is dissolved into positive sodium ions and negative chlorine ions that
are observed under magnifying glass which I believe is not possible!”
Additional misunderstanding was attributed to the group of students who suggested the titles like Enlarged
molecules of sodium chloride; Molecules under the magnifying glass. Taking into consideration both suggested titles
and students’ interpretations, it was found that 13.6% of students showed a misunderstanding believing that so-
dium chloride exists in the form of molecules in a solution. Noted misconception was previously recorded in the
literature (Tien, Teichert, & Rickey, 2007). Apart from this, there were students (9.7%) who thought that there are
atoms or molecules of sodium and chlorine in the solution. In the literature, it was noted students’ misconception
about salt dissolution into neutral atoms (Tien et al., 2007). It is interesting to mention the suggested title Infusion.
Probably, the students know the use of 0.9% solution of sodium chloride in water in medicine. Additionally, two
of the students wrote that hybrid image shows the supersaturated solution of sodium chloride since the whole
amount of salt in water is not dissolved and the particles are deposited. In the literature, the students’ difficulties
with the concept of supersaturated solutions are often mentioned (e.g. Pinarbași & Canpolat, 2003).
Conclusions and Implications
The present study was conducted with the main aim to examine the high school students’ abilities and dif-
ficulties while reading images on the topic of dispersed systems. The students were required to suggest the titles
of the set of images and to interpret their content. Images included in the test of knowledge were taken from the
chemistry textbook for the first grade of secondary school and were associated with the basic types of images:
realistic, conventional, and hybrid. Even though the test of knowledge contained six images in total, in this report,
one realistic, one conventional, and one hybrid image were analysed.
The results highlighted that high school students developed the ability to read images satisfactorily. The stu-
dents had the greatest difficulties in reading the realistic images which can often be without a clear connection to the
observed chemical contents, confusing (metaphorical), and decorative. Taking into consideration conventional and
hybrid images, significant results appeared. The students were very familiar with the conventional visual represen-
tations, such as graphs. However, some of the students showed misunderstandings, especially while reading hybrid
images, some of which had already been recorded in the literature, and some are reported here for the first time.
The findings of the present research could be helpful for science teachers and educators who are interested
in how and why students use images to learn science (chemical) concepts. But also for the authors and textbook
illustrators in order to pay more attention to the selection of appropriate textbook images. Although everyone
agrees that textbook images assist in understanding the scientific text, they must be well chosen and clearly linked
to the text to which they refer.
As a main task for future research, it could be a combined application of images and multiple-tier tests to
identify the students’ misconceptions more precisely. In addition to this, the students’ abilities to read three basic
types of images will be examined as a second part of this study, and also in other teaching topics from organic,
inorganic chemistry, or biochemistry.
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Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic
of Serbia under Grant No. 179010.
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Received: August 15, 2019 Accepted: December 03, 2019
Tamara N. Rončević PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of

(Corresponding author) Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic
of Serbia.
E-mail: tamara.hrin@dh.uns.ac.rs
Website: https://www.dh.uns.ac.rs/tamara-roncevic-phd-
assistant-professor
Željka Đ. Ćuk MSc, Primary School Chemistry Teacher, Osnovna škola “Sever
Đukić”, Zelena ulica 102, 21220 Bečej, Republic of Serbia.
E-mail: cukzeljka90@gmail.com
Dušica D. Rodić PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic
of Serbia.
E-mail: dusica.milenkovic@dh.uns.ac.rs
Website: https://www.dh.uns.ac.rs/dusica-rodic-phd-assistant-
professor
Mirjana D. Segedinac PhD, Full Professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences,
Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic of Serbia.
E-mail: mirjana.segedinac@dh.uns.ac.rs
Website: https://www.dh.uns.ac.rs/mirjana-segedinac-phd-full-
professor
Saša A. Horvat PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of
Sciences, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Republic
of Serbia.
E-mail: sasa.horvat@dh.uns.ac.rs
Website: https://www.dh.uns.ac.rs/sasa-horvat-phd-assistant-
professor
954
DEVELOPMENT OF ESTONIAN
UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS’ BIOLOGICAL ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
AND COMPETENCES
Abstract. The main aim of this research

was to measure 10th and 12th grade stu-
Helin Semilarski, dents’ biological conceptual understand-
ing and competences through their upper
Anne Laius, Miia Rannikmäe secondary school studies. Data collection
started at the beginning of the upper
secondary school biology studies in the
10th grade. The same students participated
in this research when they were in the 12th
grade. A validated instrument of covering
four competences: biological conceptual
Introduction understanding, problem-solving, critical
thinking and divergent thinking was used.
More attention should be paid on the biological competences of the Overall, this research was meant to evalu-
citizens. Globalisation and technological advantages in recent decades have ate students’ conceptual understanding
led to a change in the nature of work and labour, and students need to be and cognitive skills (problem-solving, criti-
prepared to work in jobs that yet do not exist (Beier, 2014; Greiff & Neubert, cal thinking, divergent thinking) through
2014). There is a demand for scientifically literate people in the labour force, the socio-scientific issue of lactose intoler-
who are able to analyse, make conclusions and are able to work in teams ance. The sample of students was formed
and apply scientific knowledge in new situations (Griffin, Care, & McGaw, from 42 representatively chosen Estonian
2012; Holbrook, 2014). Laius, Post, and Rannikmäe (2015) indicated in their schools of grade 10 (N=967) and grade 12
research, that different stakeholders (e.g. scientists, teachers, educators, sci- (N=802). The development conceptual un-
ence teachers, employers, and students) see scientific literacy as playing a derstanding and competences of students’
major role in the future Estonian society.
during three upper secondary school years
The rapid developments in the field of science (especially life sciences)
of biology studies were discussed. The main
not only lead to changes in society but also in coping with these changes and
results showed that during three years of
there is a need for skills of justified decision-making in people’s everyday life
schooling the students exhibited a statisti-
e. g. decisions about healthy diet and recycling. Thus, education promoting
cally significant increase in the tasks, that
factual knowledge is no longer sufficient and there is a necessity to pay more
measured students’ biological understand-
attention to developing students’ cognitive abilities and to promote scien-
ing and cognitive skills. The results showed
tific literacy for modern life (Zo’bi, 2014). Noting this, one of the key goals of
that the students achieved lower scores in
the Estonian National Curriculum (2011) is promoting students’ conceptual
tasks that measured their decision-making
understanding and competences. Within this, it is important to develop
and socio-scientific reasoning skills.
students’ academic competences including updated content knowledge,
Keywords: achievement levels, biology
and abilities to solve problems incl. scientific problems.
education, competences development, con-
Within science education the biology education especially focuses on
ceptual understanding, empirical research.
enhancing students’ biological conceptual understanding and cognitive skills,
guiding students to meaningfully apply biological knowledge in new contex-
tual situations (Estonian Curriculum, 2011). The curriculum builds on a range
of topics which form the basis for developing the students’ understanding Helin Semilarski, Anne Laius,
of core biological concepts and indicates that the included biological con- Miia Rannikmäe
University of Tartu, Estonia
ceptualisations comprise of three cognitive components – critical thinking
(explanation skills, analysing skills), divergent thinking (scientific creativity
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skills, decision-making, and reasoning skills), and problem-solving skills (which refers to the capacity to take care
of issues in an opportune way).
Within such a frame the science curriculum suggests that a new context can consist of a real-life societal problem
that students can be expected to solve conceptualising the biological concepts. In developing upper secondary
school students’ biological content knowledge, the curriculum (Estonian Curriculum, 2011) expects students to
solve problems, think creatively, make justified decisions and reason logically within biology lessons and out of
school. There is a suggested need for such abilities of students to apply them in their everyday life or future careers.
Theoretical Overview
Competences in Biology Education
Various organisations with expertise in 21st-century competences have identified three broader categories in
biology education: 1) cognitive competences; 2) interpersonal competences, and 3) intrapersonal competences.
The cognitive category includes several specific competences including skills that educators and policymakers
deem essential to success in the global economy: ability to grasp and understand core scientific content, analys-
ing skills, and creativity. These competences all involve higher-level thinking of some kind and rarely match one
another exactly (Soland, Hamilton, & Stecher, 2013).
The current research was focused to competences that incorporate content knowledge (factual and applied)
and cognitive skills that are related to processing this biological knowledge. Competence has been defined in many
studies (Csapó, 2004; Simonton, 2003; Weinert, 2001) and has been conceptualised as an ability to use knowledge
and skills that enables the students to be effective in their future jobs.
Gaining content knowledge is an important aim in science education, but more important is to utilize this
knowledge in problem-solving, decision-making, and in scientific creativity (Greiff & Neubert, 2014; Schleicher,
2014). According to Ahmad, Li, Eddine, and Khan (2018) cognitive skills are the mind-based capacities to process
the data received from experience, and people need these skills to perform cognitive tasks. Improving cognitive
skills could lead to better academic performance.
The aim of biology education according to the Estonian Curriculum (2011) is to enhance students’ cognitive
skills that enable the students to apply their biological knowledge in new contexts and situations. Cognitive skills
are defined as the ability to understand complex ideas and to learn from experience (Neisser et al., 1996). The term
‘cognitive skills’ used in this research refers to the acquisition of biological concepts and using the cognition in
the following situations: solving different problems and reasoning them; making socio-scientific decisions; and
thinking creatively.
Conceptual Understanding and Complex Cognitive Skills
Subject content knowledge impacts an immense extent that the cognitive skills and biological and chemi-
cal content knowledge are both needed for conceptual understanding the phenomenon of lactose intolerance
and to solve the problems, related to this context; to make socio-scientific decisions and reasoning them; to use
divergent thinking and scientific creativity skills. Students who have good biological content knowledge can solve
problems much more effectively than those students whose biological content knowledge is not enough (Sadler
& Zeidler, 2005).
Conceptual understanding refers to an integrated and functional grasp of scientific knowledge. Students
with good conceptual understanding can see relationships between quite isolated knowledge (facts, concepts,
skills, etc.), they can organise their knowledge into a coherent whole, that permits them to hold new ideas by con-
necting those facts and concepts. Conceptual understanding additionally supports retention. As results of facts
and methods learned with understanding are connected, they are easier to reconnect and use, and that they are
often reconstructed once forgotten. Conceptual understanding enables students to grasp knowledge in a trans-
ferrable way, helping them to apply their obtained knowledge across domains. It is a relevant topic in the science
education today, as rote memorisation and traditional methods of teaching have become considered insufficient
for real-world learning and application (Gunel, Hand, & McDermott, 2009; Jensen, McDaniel, Woodard, & Kummer,
2014; Zacharia, Lazaridou, & Avraamidou, 2016).
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A developing number of national and worldwide organisations have recognized complex cognitive abilities
as basic skills for the labour force in the advanced economy (OECD, 2013). These complex cognitive skills enable
people to arrange new problems into the psychological outline, and to use the knowledge from commonplace in
the new complex situations. Analysts, researchers, and policy organisations have alluded to these abilities utiliz-
ing a wide range of terms including 21st-century skills, more profound learning, basic reasoning, critical thinking
skills, etc. (Kraft, 2019).
Problem-Solving Skills
The ability to take care of issues is one critical importance in almost every subject, both in and out of school
(Csapò & Funke, 2017). Thus, one principle reason for science education (including biology education) is to build
up and develop students’ problem-solving skills. In innovation, we often must deal with unpredictable situations,
where we often need to solve problems. Problem-solving is a part of scientific literacy (Roberts, 2007; Roberts &
Bybee, 2014). Developing students’ problem-solving skills allow them to solve effectively and professionally everyday
problems (Şenocak, Taşkesenligil, & Sözbilir, 2007). Critical thinking skills are flexible mechanisms for effectively
dealing with sorts of new issues in new situations (Kashani-Vahida, Afrooz, Shokoohi-Yekta, Kharrazi, & Gohabari,
2017). However, performance on critical thinking assignments (problem-solving and reasoning) differs drastically
as a component of, how the issues are confined. When given in a setting free way, the students frequently are
mistaken in practising their problem-solving skills.
Socio-Scientific Decision-Making and Reasoning Skills
Decision-making and reasoning are parts of scientific literacy (Roberts, 2007; Roberts & Bybee, 2014). Decision-
making is a demanding thinking process that is needed in every field of personal life e.g. in work (Colakkadioglu &
Celik, 2016). As a part of the Estonian Curriculum, students are expected to utilise their newly acquired biological
knowledge to make informed decisions concerning socio-scientific issues (Estonian Curriculum, 2011).
Students’ development of their reasoning to make justified decisions leans on their understanding of the
conceptions utilized (Zeidler, Herman, Ruzek, Linder, & Lin, 2013). These conceptions will have the impact on stu-
dents’ life. The need to pay more attention on the decision-making is acclaimed in many research (Millar, Osborne,
& Nott, 1998; Zeidler, Sadler, Simmons, & Howes, 2005). Decision-making and reasoning skills are also valued by
many Estonian stakeholders (Laius et al., 2016).
Divergent Thinking and Scientific Creativity
Divergent thinking is a cognitive process of thinking, used to produce innovative ideas by investigating
numerous possible solutions in a short amount of time. New and unexpected associations might be drawn. In
the field of science it leads to scientific creativity that makes it possible for students to solve both personal and
social problems or tasks which have a scientific content, and a new creative solution to reach the current state of
knowledge involved in problem-solving process, while being open to various opportunities and non-traditional
approaches (Heller, 2007; Mumford, Hester, & Robledo, 2010). Creativity is also an adaptation of the existing, not
only the creation of new ideas (Šorgo et al., 2012).
Scientific creativity requires awareness of scientific problems because finding creative problems to fix is a critical
prospect that can be part of the effective researcher (Usta & Akkanat, 2015). It is necessity for biology teachers to
develop students’ biological literacy including scientific creativity and critical thinking (Estonian Curriculum, 2011).
Creativity should be established through problem-solving, which takes place in their everyday life (Basadur, M.,
Gelade, & Basadur, T., 2014; Kirton, 2003) and this skill can promote creative solutions in many settings (Tsai, 2012).
With that in mind the lactose intolerance was chosen as the context of the instrument in this research. Currently
the creative problem-solving is an important skill (Trilling & Fadel, 2009) as new problems can be confronted every
day. Scientific creativity has been defined by many researchers (Antink & Lederman, 2015; Hu & Adey, 2002; Usta
& Akkanat, 2015). Hu and Adey (2002) defined scientific creativity as a process comprising finding and solving
creative scientific problems. In this article scientific creativity is considered according to Usta and Akkanat (2015)
as dependence on the past encounters and knowledge, advancement of the understanding nature of science.
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Socio-Scientific Issues (SSIs)
Recently advised concepts for expanding the curiosity in studying biology are caused with the use of socio-
scientific issues in education (Lee, Yoo, Choi, Kim, Kajcik, Herman, & Zeidler, 2013). Socio-scientific issues (SSIs) are
effective in improving students’ conceptual understanding and competences (Eastwood, Sadler, Sherwood, &
Schlegel, 2013; Sadler, 2005).
Romine, Sadler, and Kinslow (2017) defined socio-scientific reasoning as a process, which students use to re-
solve different complex SSIs. According to Sadler, Foulk, and Friedrichsen (2017) socio-scientific reasoning includes
connected competences: 1) bookkeeping; 2) analysing; 3) inquiry; 4) critical analysis; 5) investigation, how science
can help to resolve the problems. For those reasons, a socio-scientific issue as lactose intolerance is used in this
research (shown in appendix 1). Socio-scientific issues have been used in assessing students’ scientific competences
in several studies (Foong & Daniel, 2010; Tsai, 2018).
Research Problem
According to Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 results (9th grade, 15-year-old), the
level of Estonian lower secondary school students is among the top-level with respect to scientific literacy level
worldwide (Estonian results, 2016). Unfortunately, no similar large-scale survey has been conducted in Estonia
for measuring the same for the upper secondary school level. There is a need for further enhancement of science
education in the upper secondary school to support the students’ meaningful learning. The current research was
undertaken as one part of a larger project of evaluating the upper secondary students’ scientific literacy (Soobard
& Rannikmäe, 2015) with the respect to biological literacy.
As lactose intolerance has gained much attention in Estonia, this research focused on a context of lactose
intolerance and compared the biological cognition levels of conceptual understanding for 10th (16–17 years old)
and 12th (18–19 years old) grade students. Bybee (1997) has defined conceptual understanding as an individual’s
capacity to explain concepts and theories of science. Lactose intolerance integrates the diverse field of science
knowledge and is an important topic for health of society.
Research Focus
This research aimed to use a context-based instrument to measure 10th and 12th grade students’ biological
conceptual understanding and cognitive skills through the following components: biological conceptual under-
standing, critical thinking, divergent thinking, and problem-solving skills. These cognitive components of biological
literacy were selected for assessment to address the goals of Estonian curriculum, the needs of Estonian labour force,
according to the opinions of Estonian stakeholders, which were revealed from the previous research (Laius, Post, &
Rannikmäe, 2016). The research aimed to determine the development of students’ achievement levels of biological
conceptual understanding and cognitive skills during three years of upper secondary school studies from grade
10 to grade 12. To conduct this research, a context-based instrument for assessing conceptual understanding and
cognitive skills in the context of lactose intolerance was fulfilled, analysed and validated. The following research
questions were put forward to achieve the aim of this research:
RQ1: What kind of achievement levels can be identified based on the 10th and the 12th grade students’ levels
of biological conceptual understanding and cognitive skills, identified through the topic of lactose intolerance?
RQ2: How have changed the students’ achievement levels of biological conceptual understanding among
the 10th and the 12th grade students during 3 years of biology studies?
General Overview
This research encompassed the analysis of one fourth of the scientific literacy test (Soobard & Rannikmäe, 2015)
that is focused on biology and chemistry knowledge. This research sought to determine upper secondary school
students’ development of the biological conceptual understanding and competences through their biology studies.
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Sample
The stratified sample for this research, was from 42 out of the 151 schools from the total list of Estonian upper
secondary schools (Estonian statistics, 2019), and consisted of 967 grade 10 students (16–17 years old) and 802 grade
12 students (18–19 years old) amounting to a total of 1769 students. Sample consisted of 503 female and 464 male
students participating from 10th grade and 489 female and 313 male students participating from the 12th grade.
Every third school was chosen from three layers (schools from the Capital city; schools from cities with at least
two gymnasiums; schools from the rural areas) to form the sample.
A representative sample was composed of 1769 students from 42 schools. Criteria for the representativity of
the sample formation were described within all the LoteGym project by Rannikmäe, Soobard, Reiska, Rannikmäe,
and Holbrook in 2017. The amount of the students in the upper secondary school has varied from 25 200 to 22
500 from year 2011 to 2013.
Headmasters from every participating school signed the agreement/consent form with the Estonian Ministry
of Education and Research. Then codes were given for every participant to ensure their anonymity.

The context-based assessment instrument of biological conceptual understanding and cognitive skills was
one fourth part of scientific literacy test of the LoteGym project and was created based on:
•• learning outcomes of Estonian Curriculum and syllabus of biology (2011);
•• expectations of Estonian stakeholders for the future workforce (Laius et al., 2016);
•• conceptualising of the new concept of biological literacy (Semilarski & Laius, submitted in 2019);
•• scientific competences (Csapó, 2004; Simonton, 2003; Weinert, 2001).
One part of the LoteGym project, was used in this research to go more in-depth with this biology assessment.
Lactose intolerance test was compiled to assess biological conceptual understanding and four cognitive skills:
applying biological content knowledge; problem-solving; scientific creativity and socio-scientific decision-making
and reasoning (Table 1).
A context-based instrument for assessing students’ biological conceptual understanding and cognitive skills
including eight tasks in the context of lactose intolerance considered also research literature (Ahmad et al., 2018;
Anderson Koenig, 2011; Holbrook, Rannikmäe, Reiska, & Ilsley, 2008; Kraft, 2019), Estonian Curriculum (2011) and
the opinions of Estonian stakeholders about the needs of society and which careers experts estimate important
for students to learn in the future (Laius et al., 2016).
Lactose intolerance is a relevant topic (Lactose Intolerance test was chosen because this topic is very actual in
the Estonia society because a big part (25% of grownups) of the Estonian population is lactose intolerant (Lember,
Torniainen, Kull, Saadla, Rajasalu, Lepiksoo, & Järvelä, 2007). The eight tasks of instrument are testing abilities to
transfer the biology knowledge into new everyday situations and is meant to measure the biological knowledge,
creative thinking skills, problem-solving, socio-scientific decision-making and reasoning skills.
Every task was created in the context of lactose intolerance as a separate problem-based sub-unit to assess
biological conceptual understanding and cognitive skills.
The instrument was piloted in 2011 with 36 10th grade students in one of the Estonian cities (Tartu) schools.
Following feedback, some minor changes were made in the formulation of the tasks.
The tasks of biological conceptual understanding and problem-solving were scored as follows:
1) wrong answer or no answer – zero points;
2) partially correct answer – one point;
3) correct answer – two points;
4) correct answer with the correct explanation – three points.
The tasks of divergent thinking skills were coded as follows:
A. Scientific creativity skills:
1) wrong answer or no answer – zero points;
2) one possible and correct evolutionary advantage of lactose tolerance – one point;
3) two possible and correct evolutionary advantages of lactose tolerance – two points;
4) three or more correct evolutionary adequate advantages of lactose tolerance – three points.
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B. Socio-scientific decision-making and reasoning:

1) no answer – zero points;
2) just generally describing the decision – one point;
3) reasoning the decision from one aspect – two points and
4) reasoning the decision from two or more aspects – three points.
Table 1. The task description of the test and needed knowledge for performing the tasks.
Needed
Needed skills Needed knowledge Task Task description
competence
Applying biological Knowledge about the metabolism and symp- 1 Recognising and understanding the
content knowledge (as- toms of lactose intolerance. concept of lactose intolerance from the
Conceptual sessing and analysing description of SSI based situation.
understanding. information). Explana-
tion Skills. Knowledge about the genetic divergence of 7 Explaining the reasons whether the
triplets’ gender and lactose intolerance. described triplets are identical or not.
Analysing information Knowledge of enzymatic decomposition of 2 The justified choice of dairy products that
and Explanation Skills. lactose in dairy products. can be tolerated by lactose intolerant
person.
Critical thinking. Assessing and analys- Knowledge about the influence of lactic acid 3 Analysing the data of the chemical
ing information from bacteria and fungi on the composition of dairy composition of milk and kefir during
the table. Explanation products. fermentation and explaining the reasons
Skills. for the changes.
Analysing information Knowledge about the results of lactose intoler- 6 Explaining the risk of fractures and os-
and solving a scientific ance – calcium deficiency as a possible cause teoporosis in case of lactose intolerance
problem- solving and of bone fractures and osteoporosis in case of and explaining the possible alternatives
explanation skills. lack of other calcium sources. in feeding to avoid bone fractures and
osteoporosis.
Complex problem- Integrated knowledge about the nature of 5 Making the conclusion on the bases of
Problem-solving. solving, analysis and digestion (biology) and enzymatic degrada- sugar content results of blood tests before
scientific tion of disaccharides (chemistry). Knowing and after drinking 50 g sugar solution and
reasoning. the bases of diagnosing lactose intolerance diagnosing whether the person is lactose
according to the results blood test. Need to intolerant or not.
conceptualise the nature of digestion (biology)
and enzymatic degradation of disaccharides
(chemistry).
Scientific creativity. Knowledge about lactose tolerance advan- 4 Presenting as many advantages of being
tages in surviving in biological evolution lactose tolerant as possible in Surviving
through the struggle for existence and natural in the struggle for existence and natural
selection. selection during biological evolution.
Divergent Decision-making and Knowledge about the needs of lactose intoler- 8 Deciding whether to prepare and offer a
thinking. socio-scientific reason- ant persons for special food and the ratio of lactose-free menu for lactose-intolerant
ing. them in society and their rights to equality. people in a personal restaurant and rea-
son this decision from as many aspects
as possible.
Reliability and Validity of The Test
The instrument’s reliability was determined using Cronbach α (.69), which was taken to be sufficient even
though the number of instrument tasks was small (Loewenthal, 1996; Taber, 2018). Based on Creswell (2005) a
correlation of .60 or above indicates a significant correlation (Table 2).
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Expert method was used for determining the content validity of the instrument by one biologist, one expe-
rienced biology teacher (20 years of biology teaching) and two biology education researchers. These experts also
helped to ensure the construct validity of the test who evaluated all the tasks of the instruments based on the
following terms:
1) Are the tasks measuring what was intended in the case of biological conceptual understanding, critical
thinking and divergent thinking (content validation);
2) Are the scores collected by this test useful and have a purpose (construct validation); and
3) Whether the data follow a normal distribution.
Table 2. The reliability and validity of the test.
Reliability
Validity Validation method
(Cronbach α)
Expert method:
Content validity One biology researcher, one expert biology teacher, two biology education researchers. In total
four independent experts in the field of biology education.
.69
Analysis by whom of Estonian upper secondary school biology syllabus to ensure that tasks are
Construct validity
valid in terms of expected learning outcomes.
Data Analysis

Descriptive statistical methods were used to calculate means and standard deviation. According to the nor-
mality test, values for Skewness and Kurtosis fall within the acceptable level of +2 or -2, making the data appropri-
ate for use (George & Mallery, 2010). Nonparametric statistical tests were used as the gathered data were ordinal.
Cohen’s d was used to calculate the effect size (magnitude of a phenomenon) to eliminate sample size influ-
ence in IBM SPSS Statistics 25 (Lakens, 2013). Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare the 10th and 12th grade
students’ results as the Mann-Whitney U test is the nonparametric independent t-test and is appropriate analysis
to compare differences that come from the same population (Leech, Barrett, & Morgan, 2005).
Data were analysed using MS Excel and IBM SPSS Statistics 25 to describe students’ responses distribution
and to determine how responses to different tasks within the achievement levels varied.
Mean results were expressed in percentages of the maximum possible outcome that formed the basis of
creating the three achievement levels of students: 1) low, 2) medium, and 3) high level (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Three achievement levels of students’ biological conceptual understanding and cognitive skills.
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Research Results
Comparison of Students’ Achievement Levels Through Upper Secondary School’ Biology Studies
Comparative analysis of the 10th and the 12th grade students’ results has shown (Table 3) that the achievement
levels of the 12th grade students were higher in all tasks. Results showed that 12th grade students had statistically
better results (p < .05) in the first task (students’ conceptual understanding), in the fourth task (students’ scientific
creativity) and in the sixth task (students’ problem-solving skill). In these three tasks, the effect size (Cohen’s d > .2)
showed that the difference between the 10th and 12th graders’ results were statistically significant and also peda-
gogically meaningful. Also, the 12th grade students had statistically significantly better results (p < .05) in the third
task (critical thinking, using information from the table) and in the fifth task (complex problem-solving skill and
reasoning skill), but the effect size (Cohen’s d < .2) showed that the difference was not pedagogically meaningful.
Table 3. Comparison 10th and 12th grade students’ performance.
Task Level of Mann-Whitney

Mean results of Effect size
Grade (Points achievement Test p
task (SD) (Cohen’s d)
0–3) (%) U
10 1.66 55.5 212609.0 < .001** .978***

(0.99)
12 1 2.44 81.3
(0.54)
10 1.68 56.0 382002.0 .562 .079
(0.88)
12 2 1.75 58.3
(0.89)
10 1.65 55.1 356190.5 <.001** .187
(0.96)
12 3 1.82 60.7
(0.85)
10 1.12 37.3 311140.5 < .001** .354***
(0.84)
12 4 1.43 47.7
(0.91)
10 1.13 37.6 349033.5 < .001** .188
(0.80)
12 5 1.28 42.7
(0.80)
10 1.98 66.0 342711.5 < .001** .265***
(0.69)
12 6 2.15 71.7
(0.59)
10 2.35 78.4 377164.5 .215 .090
(1.05)
12 7 2.44 81.5
(0.95)
10 1.48 49.3 372873.0 .081 .136
(0.76)
12 8 1.58 52.7
(0.71)
* Significant at the .05 level (two-tailed)
**Significant at the .01 level (two-tailed)
***Cohen’s d > .2 shows that the difference scientifically meaningful
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Students from the 12th grade had significantly better results than the 10th grades in five out of eight tasks.
They indicated better results in conceptual understanding, in scientific creativity, in problem-solving and in critical
thinking. The 12th grade students did not show statistically better results in three other tasks that measured socio-
scientific decision-making; reasoning their answers about conceptual understanding; and analysing information
of the data table and explaining their conclusions.
The highest possible score in the test was 24 points (all totally correct answers with explanations). Results
showed that the 10th and 12th grade students had similar total results of all test tasks. In the 12th grade there was a
little bit more students who got the highest score in the test than they had received being the 10th grade students
(Figure 2).
The shape of the total score histograms shown in Figure 2 suggested that although the content validity of the
instrument was relatively low (.65), the test was well-calibrated with respect to the two populations.
Figure 2. The distribution of students who got different total test score (0–24) of the lactose intolerance test
in the 10th and 12th grade.
To get a better overview about the concordance between the complexity of tasks, indicated by the number
of students, who got maximum points, and the students’ mean achievement levels are presented in Table four:
Table 4. The students’ max and min scores in lactose intolerance test through all tasks.
Students’ Percentage
The complexity of Percentage of students
achievement of students
Task tasks according to scoring min. points
level scoring max. points
max scores (%)
(%)
1. High 59.4 Low 3.5
2. Medium 25.8 Medium 5.4

4. Low 8.6 High 11.1
5. Low 11.2 High 13.2
7. High 70.8 Low 7.2
8. Low 8.8 High 8.1
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The higher number of students who got maximum points indicated that this task was not complicated for
students and the lower number of maximum scores reassured that the task was difficult for students. Based on this
the tasks were categorised according to the mean achievement of students in concordance with the complexity of
tasks, measured by the number of students scoring maximum points. The number of students scoring minimum
points in the test tasks was not so good indicator as there is no direct correlation between the complexity of tasks
and achievement level of students, depending evidently on more than one factor (e.g. the familiarity of the task,
the bigger social component of task, etc.).
Students’ Achievement Levels
Analysis of the lactose intolerance test results (Table 5) showed that students’ mean results, as well as the
percentage of students not answering to a task, varied highly. Students received the highest points (achievement
level was 73.5%) on tasks, which measured students’ biological conceptual understanding. These results showed
that two tasks (one, seven), measuring biological conceptual understanding in the lactose intolerance context,
were answered better than other cognitive components. The results of three tasks (two, three, six), which measured
critical thinking and simple problem-solving revealed the students’ medium achievement level of 61.1%.
According to the test results, the students’ decision-making and reasoning skills were at a low achievement
level (45.2 %), meaning that students had a poor appreciation of how to make effective decisions and reason them.
Divergent thinking skills, which were assessed through the aspect of fluency (evaluated by the number of different
responses of students), were also at a low achievement level. This refers to the case that students are not used to
find solutions to unfamiliar tasks that presume to generate different concepts in their biology lessons.
The lowest achievement level (Table 3) for both 10th and 12th grade students (37.6 % and 42.7 %) was obtained
by students solving a complex problem (task five) that presumed a profound understanding of the process of diges-
tion and enzymatic decay. This indicates that the students were not able to transform their biology and chemistry
knowledge, thus solving a problem in a new situation.
Table 5. 10th and 12th grade students’ mean results of biological conceptual understanding and cognitive
skills in case of the achievement level of the tasks.
Mean
Level of Wilcoxon
results of Effect size
Grade achievement Test p
Achievement level Task tasks (Cohen’s d)
(%) Z
(SD)
High 1; 7 10 2.01 66.9

(0.72) 250281 <.001** .671*
12 2.44 81.4
(0.55)
The difference of means / 0.43 73.5%
Level of achievement
Medium 2; 3; 6 10 1.77 59.1 340445 <.001** .202*
(0.57)
12 1.91 63.6
(0.80)
Low 4; 5; 8 10 1.24 41.4
(0.57) 341546 <.001** .339*
12 1.43 47.7
(0.55)
** Significant at the .01 level (two-tailed)
*Cohen’s d > 0.2 shows that the difference is meaningful
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Discussion
It is widely recognised today that rapid changes are occurring in our world and society. Perhaps most im-
portantly, being able to use our biological content knowledge to solve problems, think creatively and make the
decision and reason them are necessary skills in this rapidly changing world. The results of this research showed
that before mentioned skills need more attention in the secondary school level. It is important for students to
develop a range of skills and knowledge that they can be competent in their daily lives and in their future careers.
Three achievement levels (low, medium, and high) were identified based on the students’ biological concep-
tual understanding and cognitive skills. Based on the results of this research, the decision-making and reasoning
skills were at a low achievement level, meaning that students had a poor appreciation of how to make effective
decisions and reason them. This is concerning especially previous research, Laius et al., (2015) emphasised that for
the different stakeholders’ decision-making skills and reasoning skills are important skills to develop for students.
All the more in today’s world, searchable information can be found with a few clicks on a computer, but the
found information should be interpreted and it is needed to make decisions and reason which information source
is trustful and which information is better to use. This research also showed that socio-scientific decision-making
with reasoning was more difficult for students than applying biological knowledge, Soobard and Rannikmäe
(2015) found similar results in the context of scientific content knowledge. It is important to develop students’
socio-scientific decision-making with reasoning because these strategies are also used in teaching and learning
to approach students in meaningful understanding and empowering the learned concepts, facts, etc. (Zeidler et
al., 2013).
The results of this research show that it is important to develop decision-making and reasoning skills for
students and to include more socio-scientific context into learning activities and assessments in biology lessons.
It is important that biology lessons should develop students’ lower-order skills (e.g. thinking, reading, etc.) and
higher-order skills (e.g. decision-making, problem-solving, etc.) at the same time.
Scientific creativity skills that were assessed through the aspect of fluency (evaluated by the number of
different responses from students) were also at a low achievement level. This refers to the case that students are
not used to finding solutions to unfamiliar tasks that presume to generating different concepts at their lessons.
This is problematic as we face unpredictable and novel problems in our daily lives that require urgent solutions.
Scientific creativity skills and problem-solving skills are needed to successfully handle various kinds of unfamiliar
problems which enhance adaptive behaviours in these new settings (Kashani-Vahida et al., 2017). It can be sup-
posed that students had lower results in the 10th grade because they weren’t used to give answers to tasks which
had SSI-related context.
The main results showed that despite three years of secondary school biology studies, grade 10 and 12 students
exhibited effect size gains in components of cognitive skills. Soobard and Rannikmäe (2015) had similar results
when they measured the difference between 10th and 11th grade students’ scientific literacy. Students received
the highest points of tasks, which measured their conceptual understanding. Students didn’t have good results in
other tasks. Further research is needed to identify the reasons behind it.
Students received the highest points (level of achievement was 73.5%) of tasks, which measured their bio-
logical conceptual understanding. The results showed that the tasks (one, seven) measuring biological conceptual
understanding in the lactose intolerance context were answered better than other cognitive components. Results
of the tasks (two, three, six), which address critical thinking and simple problem-solving skills showed that students
had a medium achievement level (61.1%). It is needed to develop students’ problem-solving skills. One way to do
that is to use biological knowledge in the problem-solving process (Greiff & Neubert, 2014).
Complex problem-solving (task five) turned out to be very complicated to the 10th and 12th grade students,
for the solution it was necessary to understand the nature of digestion and lactose intolerance (task achievement
rate was lowest 45.2%).
Altogether, the results of measuring cognitive skills are strongly influenced by the difficulty of content knowl-
edge that is needed for performing the tasks.
Conclusions
The 10th and 12th grade students’ achievement levels of their biological conceptual understanding and cogni-
tive skills were distinguished into three achievement levels: high, medium and low achievement levels.
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The results showed that the easiest tasks for both 10th and 12th grade students were tasks one and seven that
were assessing biological conceptual understanding.
The results of problem-solving tasks (three, five and six) depended on the complexity of content knowledge
needed for solving the problem. The tasks of decision-making (task eight) and scientific creativity (task four) were
also very unfamiliar for the students of both 10th and 12th grades. Using integrated biological and chemical content
knowledge to solve a complex problem (task five) turned out to be very complicated for most of the students as
it needed to understand the process of digestion and physiological nature of lactose intolerance.
After three years of secondary school biology studies, the 12th grade students had significantly better results
in five out of the eight tasks than they had received earlier in the 10th grade. They indicated better results in tasks
of conceptual understanding, scientific creativity, problem-solving and critical thinking. The 12th grade students
did not show statistically better results in three tasks that measured socio-scientific decision-making, explaining
and reasoning their problem solving and analysing and explaining the data table information. In the 12th grade
there were more students who achieved the highest score in the test than three years before in the 10th grade.
The categorisation of tasks according to the mean achievement levels of students’ test results are in concor-
dance with the complexity of tasks, measured by the number of students scoring maximum points. The number of
students scoring minimum points in the test tasks is not so good indicator as there is no direct correlation between
the complexity of tasks and achievement levels of students.
Recommendations
More SSIs should be used in biology teaching which can affect the students’ biological literacy level. More
attention should be put on the enhancement of the cognitive skills rather than the students’ biological knowledge
and to use more complex assessments in the biology lessons.
The results of this research reveal several practical applications worthy of the future research.
Firstly, it would be valuable to investigate more factors impacting the development of the upper secondary
school students’ biological conceptual understanding and cognitive skills.
Secondly, further investigation is needed to throw light on what contexts are more effective in promoting
students’ competences during biology studies.
Limitations
As the data for current research represent only one fourth of the larger scientific literacy test, the number of
tasks is limited and only one context was used out of four to analyse the students’ biological conceptual under-
standing and cognitive skills.
Acknowledgements
This research has been supported by the European Social Fund program Eduko Grant LoteGüm and SF Grant
GLOLO821.
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Appendix 1.
CODE
Student Checklist!
1. Read the text in the exercises and the tasks carefully.

2. Answer all the tasks in the test.
3. Some multiple-choice tasks may have more than one correct answer. Where more than one correct
answer is expected this will be mentioned in the task.
4. Please answer the tasks using a blue or black pen. Please do not use a correction pen and please do
not answer the tasks using a pencil. If you need to make corrections, draw a line through the text that
you do not want to be marked.
5. You are not permitted to use additional material when answering the tasks.
Your friend went on an exchange visit to England. In the following summer, he wished to invite the family
with whom he had lived to Estonia. The family included triplets, two boys and a girl. While the girl and one of
the boys liked to eat cornflakes with milk for breakfast; one of the boys is not able to join them because the milk
would cause him to suffer from diarrhoea. The same happens to the mother, who in addition has developed
thinning of the bones, or osteoporosis. It seems the diarrhoea is caused by their intolerance to lactose. This is
a metabolic disorder, where there is a deficiency in the lactase enzyme that breaks down lactose into glycose
and galactose.
Task 1. Which of the following best describes lactose intolerance?

a) An inherited disease, in which the milk sugar in the milk causes diarrhoea.
b) An infectious disease that can be caught by drinking milk.
c) An inherited disease where a person cannot drink sour milk.
d) A disorder with a genetic predisposition that results in the development of lactase enzyme deficiency
in adulthood.
Task 2. Lactic acid bacteria catalyst the fermentation of lactose into lactic acid when the resulting sour milk contains
much less lactose. With this in mind, it seems the lactose intolerant mother and daughter will be expected to be able
to eat cornflakes with which of the following:
a) boiled milk
b) fresh cream
c) yoghurt
d) fat-free milk
Which if the following is the correct explanation for your earlier answer?
a) The fat from the milk is removed together with the milk sugar.
b) If the percentage of fat is greater than the percentage of milk sugar, then the milk sugar does not af-
fect the metabolism.
c) This is the result of the acidification of milk.
d) The lactase enzyme is added to the product, which breaks down the milk sugar.
Task 3. Draw a conclusion about how and why the composition of milk changes as a result of the activity of lactic
acid bacteria and yeast (during acidification)?
Content 100 g 2, 5 % milk 2,5% kefir
Protein 3,3 g 2,9 g

Carbohydrates 4,7 g 4,0 g
Fat 2,5 g 2,5 g
Calcium 120 mg 120 mg
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Content 100 g 2, 5 % milk 2,5% kefir
Vitamin A, D, E, K 2 mg 2 mg
pH 5,8 – 6,8 4,2 – 4,6
54 kcal wrong units
Energy content 50 kcal
Use kJ
Task 4. What advantages does the retaining of the lactic acid degrading enzyme have on the ageing of people?
Task 5. Diagnose of lactose intolerance.
If someone is suspected to have hypolactasia (or a deficiency in the enzyme that degrades lactic acid),
a lactose intolerance diagnostic test (LTT) can be taken. The LTT test is carried out in the morning when
the patient has not eaten nor drank for the past 12 hours. The patient is asked to drink a glass of water in
which 50g of lactose has been dissolved. The blood sugar level is then measured. The procedure requires
three blood tests to be taken:
a) before drinking the lactose solution,

b) 20 minutes after drinking the lactose solution and
c) 40 minutes after drinking the lactose solution
What kind of results would represent lactose intolerance? Explain your answer!
Task 6. Is the lactose intolerant boy also in danger of frequently developing fractures? Explain your answer!
Task 7. Are the triplets in the family invited by your friend identical, or from different eggs?
Explain your answer!
Task 8. Almost 25 % of the Estonian population suffers from lactose intolerance. If you owned a restaurant, how
would you compile the menu so that it would please all your clients as well as yourself? Give reasons for your choices!
Received: July 09, 2019 Accepted: December 05, 2019
Helin Semilarski PhD Student in Science Education, University of Tartu,

(Corresponding author) Vanemuise 46, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: helin.semilarski@ut.ee
Anne Laius PhD, Associate Professor of Science Education, University of
Tartu, Vanemuise 46, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: anne.laius@ut.ee
Miia Rannikmäe PhD, Professor of Science Education, University of Tartu,
Vanemuise 46, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: miia.rannikmae@ut.ee
970
REGIONAL EDUCATIONAL
EQUITY: A SURVEY ON THE
ABILITY TO DESIGN SCIENTIFIC ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
EXPERIMENTS OF SIXTH-GRADE ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
STUDENTS
Yang Xiantong, Abstract. Due to the vast territory, there

are problems of unbalanced development
Zhang Mengmeng,
of education and students’ ability level
Song Xin, in China. In order to explore the relation
Hou Lan, between regional education equity and the
Wang Qiang development of students’ scientific ability,
and to better promote the development of
education and students’ growth, it is urgent
to carry out the research. In the context of
regional coordinated development, stratified
random sampling and cluster sampling were
Introduction used to study the ability to design scientific
experiments of 742 sixth-grade students in
Regional Educational Equity Beijing. The results showed that, first of all,
the ability to design scientific experiments of
In China, there is a vast territory and a large population, the develop- 742 sixth-grade students in Beijing was low
ment bases and conditions vary from place to place, so there are problems and the developmental level was not coor-
of large regional differences and the development is not coordinated. dinated. Secondly, there was a significant
Since the implementation of the reform and opening-up policy, China correlation between gender and students’
has based on the basic national conditions, drawing on relevant domestic ability to design scientific experiments. In
and foreign experience, and achieving a strategic shift from unbalanced addition, there was a significant negative
development to coordinated development in the gradual exploration. correlation between districts and the ability
Under the guidance of the regional coordinated development strategy, to guess and predict. Finally, significant posi-
the developmental gap in various regions has begun to shrink in all di- tive correlations were found among the in-
rections (Wei, 2018a). However, in the ‘Opinions of the Central Committee ternal structures of ability to design scientific
of the Communist Party of China on Establishing a More Effective Regional experiments. Therefore, in order to promote
Coordination and Development Mechanism’ issued in November 2018, the coordinated development of students’
‘the regional development gap in China is still relatively large, and the ability to design scientific experiments, this
phenomenon of regional differentiation is gradually emerging, disorderly paper puts forward effective suggestions in
development and vicious competition still exist. The problem of insuf- four aspects: improving science teachers’
ficient and imbalanced regional development is still outstanding. The professionalism, offering experimental re-
regional development mechanism is still not perfect, and it is difficult sources, updating teaching philosophy and
to adapt to the strategy needs of implementing a coordinated regional strengthening curriculum construction.
development in the new era’ (Xinhua News Agency, 2018). Among them, Keywords: experimental design, primary
the educational resources have a clear gap in the investment of educa- school students, regional educational equity,
tion between urban and rural areas, the advantages and disadvantages science education, scientific experiments.
of running schools between urban and rural areas are significant, and
the reality of the imbalance between the distribution of teachers in ur- Yang Xiantong
ban and rural primary and secondary schools is evident (Tan, 2017). The Capital Normal University, China
coordinated development of regional education is an important part of Zhang Mengmeng
Beijing Normal University, China
regional coordinated development. Song Xin, Hou Lan, Wang Qiang
The report of the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party Capital Normal University, China
of China (2012) clearly pointed out that ‘we should vigorously promote
971
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education equity, rationally allocate educational resources, and focus on rural, remote, poverty, and ethnic
areas. The report of the 19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China puts more emphasis on ‘priori-
tizing the development of education... promoting education equity... promoting the integrated development
of urban and rural compulsory education’ (Xinhua Net, 2018). In the context of coordinated regional develop-
ment, promoting the coordinated development of education has become a prominent task of China’s current
education development and a special concern of management (Tian, Wang, & Zheng, 2011). ‘Coordinated
development of education’ mainly refers to the state in which the factors that constitute the development of
education conform to the law, the structure formed by it is organically unified and in a state of benign interac-
tion with the external environment (economic and social development needs), the development of education
reflects the unity of purpose and regularity (Sang, 2010). Within the region where education is coordinated
and developed, there are no or a few educational pathological phenomena or educational dysfunctions such
as ‘educational conflicts’ and ‘educational differences’ (Siakas, Rahanu, Georgiadou, & Paltalidis, 2013). In order
to prevent and detect the existence of educational disharmony or imbalance of education within the educa-
tion system, it is necessary to make a diagnosis of the education in the region. The main body of education is
students, the outcome of the coordinated development of a regional education scale, structure, quality and
efficiency ultimately needs to be reflected in the quality of talent training.
The report of the 19th National Congress pointed out that it is necessary to ‘accelerate the construction
of an innovative country... to cultivate a large number of strategic scientific and technological talents, lead-
ing scientific and technological talents, young scientific and technological talents and high-level innovation
teams with international standards’ (Xinhua Net, 2018). It can be seen that the cultivation of scientific and
technological talents has a major construction effect on the prosperity of the country, and the training of
scientific ability and technological talents needs to be started from elementary education (Guo, 1995). Ability
to design scientific experiments is a basic and key scientific ability, carrying out experimental design activities
and cultivating experimental design thinking in the basic education stage, and it will lay a solid foundation
for the growth of scientific and technological talents and provide potential power for national technological
innovation.
Scientific Experiments
Scientific experiments have been recognized as an effective way to conduct hands-on inquiry-based learn-
ing (Roth & Roychoudhury, 1993; Rutherford, 1964; Schon, 1983). Scientific inquiry as a scientific method in the
field of natural science was first proposed by Dewey and applied to science education (Rowland, 2018). In 1961,
Schwab officially put forward the idea of scientific inquiry in the report of “Science Teaching as Inquiry”, and
supported that the role of the laboratory to demonstrate the inquiry process should be exerted (Craig, 2008),
help students understand the establishment and development of science. Since the 1970s and 1980s, many
countries have begun a series of attempts at the reform of inquiry science education. In 1994, the World Science
Alliance Scientific Capacity Building Committee (ICSU-CCBS) was established to promote the reform of science
education in developing countries (Wei, 2018b). The committee held an international conference in Beijing in
2001 and published the Beijing Declaration, which opened the prelude to China’s science education reform. After
nearly a decade of development, science education reform has made great progress in the fields of curriculum,
teaching and evaluation (Wei, 2018b).
However, there have also been some problems in mechanization, superficialization and formalization,
such as the tendency of teachers to directly teach or train scientific ideas or operational skills (Berry & Cassan-
dra 2017), and equate inquiry teaching with the hands-on activities of skill training (Craig, 2008). At present,
there are some formal and mechanistic problems in the teaching of scientific experiments, such as the teaching
style of recipes and the teaching forms of taking prescriptions (Markow & Lonning, 1998). When conducting
experiments in a mechanized and formal way, students are unable to purposefully collect and record data, and
they are less likely to establish meaningful internal connections between concepts (Roth, 1994). These forms of
teaching are not conducive to the development of students’ higher-order thinking ability and the cultivation
of inquiry ability, and are not conducive to students’ understanding of the nature of science and the spirit of
science (Roth & Roychoudhury, 1993).
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Experimental Design Ability
Experimental design ability is not only the core thinking ability in scientific learning, but also the embodi-
ment of higher-order thinking ability. Bloom divided learning goals into three domains: cognition, emotion and
movement, among which the cognitive domain attracts the most attention. The cognitive domain can be further
divided into six domains: memory, understanding, application, analysis, evaluation and creation (Anderson et
al., 2001; Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956). Ogilvie (2009) classified scientific thinking ability into
high-level scientific thinking ability and low-level scientific thinking ability according to Bloom’s taxonomy.
Analysis ability, evaluation ability and creation ability are important components of experimental design ability.
Researchers at home and abroad have put forward their understanding of scientific experimental ability from
different perspectives (Wan, 2008). Guo (2005) supported that the ability of experimental design includes three
indicators: experimental principle, experimental plan and experimental reflection. Specifically, it can describe
experimental principle, write chemical equations, list drugs and equipment, write experimental steps, consider
the diversity of experimental schemes and choose feasible ones for implementation, etc. Students are assessed
on their ability to design scientific experiments in chemistry at different levels of planning, applying scientific
knowledge and acquiring data (GCSE, 1996). Wilhelm and Beizhuisen (2014) found that the hypothesis, experi-
ment, evidence evaluation and reasoning skills involved in scientific inquiry are highly correlated. Karelina and
Etkina (2007) believed that the process of experimental design involves analyzing experimental data, predicting
experimental results and revising hypotheses.
Scientific experiment design plays a positive role in cultivating creativity, improving problem solving ability,
promoting concept understanding, enhancing sense of responsibility, exercising meta-cognitive thinking and
developing language ability. Yang, Wang, Wang, Tang and Wu (2018) believed that design-based experimental
teaching can cultivate students’ problem-solving ability and innovation ability. Problems in the real world that
are poorly defined, poorly informed, or lacking given answers require the application of higher-order thinking
skills to better solve them (Fortus, Dershimer, Krajcik, Marx, & Mamloknaaman, 2010). Etkina et al. (2010) be-
lieved that experimental design containing higher-order thinking ability provides students with opportunities
to participate in real scientific tasks. In solving the task of simulating real-world challenges, innovative solutions
are proposed, and students’ problem-solving ability and creativity are effectively developed.
Irwanto, Rohaeti and Kolonial (2018) argued, experiments are the best way to solve problems, since scientific
information from different sources needs to be considered in experiments. As one of the experimental ability,
experimental design ability is related to scientific process ability, and both of them are helpful for students to
understand concepts and apply concepts to solve various problems. Bullock, Sodian and Koerber (2009) also
found that the early understanding of experimental design can be applied to later learning strategies, and the
use of early strategies is also conducive to the later concept understanding. Etkina et al. (2010) also found that
students’ scientific thinking habits can be developed by involving them in the design of real or virtual experi-
ments. In addition, in the process of participating in the experimental design, learners enhance their sense of
responsibility for learning by planning, evaluating, modifying activities and reflecting on the process (Hmelo,
Holton, & Kolodner, 2000). In the process of experimental design, students’ meta-cognitive thinking such as
planning, monitoring and evaluation is exercised (Campione, Shapiro, & Brown, 1995). Finally, in the process
of communicating with others, students must use scientific language such as thinking, evaluation, action and
interaction, which also helps students develop their language ability (Davidowitz & Rollnick, 2003). Therefore, in
order to produce the best learning effect and better improve learning performance, Cigrik and Ozkan (2015) be-
lieved that educators should systematically measure and evaluate students’ scientific experimental design ability.
On the basis of clarifying the structure of scientific experimental design ability, many scholars have made
some attempts to measure and evaluate the students’ ability to design scientific experiments in some areas.
For example, Wan (2008) analyzed and evaluated the ability to design experiments of eighth-grade students in
Guangxi province. The results showed that the overall experimental thinking level of eighth-grade students was
not high. The specific difficulties include lack of effective connection between life or learning experience and
problem to be solved; lack of dialectical ‘prove’ tendency, ignoring the habit of thinking from opposite angles
at the same time; lack of anticipation of experimental results; insufficient experimental design experience and
lack of experimental problem solving prototype; lack of basic procedural knowledge and strategic knowledge of
design experiment; lack of the ability to evaluate experiments etc. Hu (2007) studied the biological experiment
design ability of high school students and pointed out that there are problems in teacher quality, individual
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student differences and experimental implementation. Li (2007) also conducted a relevant investigation and
research on the biological experiment design ability of high school students, and suggested that there were
some problems: Students’ experimental design awareness is not strong, science teachers’ experimental teaching
is lagging, teaching methods are rigid, teaching materials are less experimentally designed, and lack of experi-
mental design related knowledge. In addition, many researchers have made a series of attempts to improve the
experimental design of students and proposed many intervention measures (Zhang, 2018; Xue, 2007).
To sum up, it is particularly necessary to diagnose and measure students’ ability to design scientific experi-
ments in the stage of basic education, and to determine the current situation of students’ experimental design
level in the region, so as to improve students’ exploration ability and coordinate the development of regional
education.
Research Focus
Therefore, in view of the significance and current problems of scientific experiment design, the purpose
of this research identified as the following three points: Firstly, it is to have a comprehensive understanding of
the current situation of students’ experimental design ability in Beijing. Secondly, it is to enable researchers to
have a clearer grasp of students’ scientific process ability. Finally, it is to provide science teachers with guidance
and suggestions for cultivating primary school students’ experimental design ability, so that science teachers
can carry out more targeted and accurate teaching.
According to the research purpose, the research questions could be summarized as follows: (1) whether the
development level of ability to design scientific experiments of sixth-grade students in Beijing is coordinated? (2)
what is the correlation between the ability to design scientific experiments of students from different regions and
genders in Beijing? (3) what is the relation between the internal structure of scientific experimental design ability?
General Background
This research was conducted by strategy of a survey and method of questioning which all meet the needs of
the corresponding research purposes. The survey approach is the research strategy that asks multiple individuals
about one or more topics and then describes their reactions (Jackson, 2016). The method of questioning has
the advantages of anonymity, low cost and high efficiency, and collecting a large amount of required data in
a short time (Denscombe, 2007). This survey was completed within one month of the end of the fall semester
of 2018, provided that the students have completed all of the experimental courses. As a type of correlational
research, taking the gender and the region of the student as the independent variables, and taking the students’
ability to design experiments as the dependent variable, the correlation between the gender, region and experi-
mental design ability was studied. The results could provide a reference for science teachers and researchers to
understand the status of students’ ability to design scientific experiments, and further directions for teaching
improvement and teaching guidance.
Research Sample
This research firstly conducted stratified random sampling of various districts in Beijing according to
the five directions of the east, west, south, north and center. Pinggu District and Shunyi District was selected
from eastern direction, as well as, Shijingshan District and Changping District was selected from western di-
rection. The southern direction was selected for two districts including Daxing District and Tongzhou District.
The selected districts in the north include Yanqing District, and the selected districts in the central include four
districts: Dongcheng District, Xicheng District, Chaoyang District and Haidian District. Secondly, 1~2 primary
schools are randomly selected from each district. Finally, 1~2 classes were randomly selected from the sixth
grade of each elementary school by using cluster sampling method, and 749 students from age 10 to 12 were
selected. Finally, 742 valid samples were collected after deleting invalid data, and the survey completion rate
was 99.07%. The samples distribution is shown in Table 1.
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Table 1. Distribution of samples.
Gender Percentage(%)
Directions
Districts N
(Numbers)
Boys Girls Boys Girls
Haidian 78 68 146 53 47
Central Dongcheng 32 33 65 49 51
(310) Xicheng 17 16 33 52 47
Chaoyang 28 38 66 42 58
Eastern Pinggu 21 24 45 47 53
(80) Shunyi 16 19 35 46 54
Western Changing 37 31 68 54 46
(136) Shijingshan 32 36 68 47 53
Southern Daxing 29 30 59 49 51
(142) Tongzhou 41 42 83 49 51
Northern Huairou 11 12 23 48 52
(74) Yanqing 27 24 51 53 47
Developing effective and credible research instrument is an important part of research. Before the development
of research instrument, a detailed review of the evaluation of ability to design scientific experiments was made.
(Guo, 2005; Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2011). Combining the evaluation framework
of experimental design ability of domestic and foreign researchers, the ability to design scientific experiments is
finally divided into five assessment indicators: guessing, planning, variables, reflection and prediction. Each indica-
tor is further divided into two secondary indicators, which are scored according to 3 point, 2 point, 1 point, and 0
point. The minimum possible score for each question is 0, and the highest score is 30. The low level is between 0
to 10, the medium level is between 11 to 20, the medium level is between 21 to 30; The total score between 0 and
20 is divided into low level, the total score between 21 and 40 is divided into low level, and 41~60 is high level. By
appropriately refining the level of scientific experimental design of students, the degree of discrimination of the
evaluation system can be better improved.
TIMSS is a standardized standard test that scores the scores of non-choice questions using a two-digit scoring
code, the correct answer or a reasonable answer can be scored. This research evaluates students’ ability to design
scientific experiments with reference to the TIMSS hierarchical coding scale. In addition, the test preparation and
evaluation criteria also draw on the evaluation concepts and characteristics of the horizontal classification of students
in the PISA2018 scientific literacy assessment. At the same time, combined with the content of China’s Primary School
Science Curriculum Standards and scientific textbooks (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2017).
Comply with the principles of normativeness, suitability and situationality, compile experimental design ability
questionnaire. The questionnaire contains questions 1 and 2, which respectively reflect the situation of material
science problems and life science problems, and embodies five evaluation indicators in the evaluation criteria.
First, the experimental design ability questionnaire was used for pre-experiment. Three experts verified the
questionnaire of experimental design ability, and then the questionnaire was randomly distributed to 113 students
in the sixth grade of Beijing. The results proved that the surface validity of the questionnaire meets the requirements.
Secondly, the construct validity of the questionnaire was analyzed. The KMO sampling adequacy is .726, which is
higher than the requirement of .600 for the validity of the questionnaire, and the construct validity is acceptable
(Hutcheson & Sofroniou, 1999). Finally, the reliability of the questionnaire was analyzed. The questionnaire was
scored by two uniformly trained researchers, the results showed that the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .906,
which has good reliability (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994), it indicates that the experimental design ability scale can
reasonably measure student performance.
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First, the implementation of this research was approved by the head of the school, and students were informed
of the completion requirements and research purposes during the measurement process. Secondly, they were also
informed that the measurement results were not evaluative and were used only for research purposes. Finally, the
estimated completion time of the questionnaire was 30 minutes, and all students complete the task independently
within the required time. The measurement procedure is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The procedure of measurement.
Data Analysis

The description statistics and correlation analysis were completed in the part of data analysis. The descrip-
tive statistics was used to determine students’ demographics and scores of ability to design experiments in this
research by means of average score, standard deviation, extreme value and percentage of data. In addition, the
independent sample t-test and the homogeneity test of variance were used to determine the significance of the
average scores of students in different genders and regions. According to Creswell (2008), correlation analysis aims
to understand the correlation of two or more research variables. Pearson correlation was also used to measure
the correlation between scores of two different questions, the significant correlation between gender, region and
the students’ ability to design experiments, as well as the correlation between the secondary indicators of ability
to design experiments. The significance level was set at .05. The acquired data was used by SPSS 23.0(SPSS Inc.,
Chicago, IL, USA).
Research Results
The Overall Level of Students’ Ability to Design Scientific Experiments
The level of students’ ability to design scientific experiments was obtained from the effective questionnaire
of ability to design scientific experiments. The data analysis results show that the average level of scientific experi-
mental design of the students is at the low level. As shown in Table 2, first, students with a high level of ability to
design scientific experiments account for only 5%, and students’ overall ability to design scientific experiments is
low (M=23.50, SD=9.866). Second, the average score of the first question is 2.20 higher than the average score of
the second question, and the degree of dispersion of the second question is more. Third, students in the middle
and high levels of question 1 are more than the question 2, but the students who are at a low level in question 1
are less than those who are at a low level in question 2. Fourthly, the Pearson correlation was used to analyze the
first and the second questions. The results show that p< .01, the scores of the first question and the second ques-
tion are significantly positively correlated.
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Table 2. The overall level of students’ ability to design scientific experiments.
Level
(Percentage)
Correlation
Question N Max Min M SD p
Coefficient
Low medium High
(percentage) (percentage) (percentage)
20 46 68
1 742 27 0 13.75 5.464
(28) (63) (9)
.533** .01
28 43 27
2 742 26 0 11.55 5.805
(38) (58) (4)
23 46 36
Total 742 51 2 23.50 9.866
(32) (63) (5)
Note: **Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
The students’ ability to design scientific experiments consists of five parts: guessing, planning, variables,
reflection and prediction, as shown in Table 3. The results show that, firstly, students in all four sections receive
full marks (the maximum value of a single part was 12), and students in all five parts don’t score (minimum of 0).
However, the maximum value of the reflection part is 10, and no student gets a perfect score. Second, the student
has the highest average score in the guessing part (M = 7.46), while the average score in the variable and predicted
part is the lowest, indicating that the average level of guessing ability of students is the highest, but the average
level of variables and predictions is lower. Third, students have the least degree of dispersion in the reflection part,
but the degree of dispersion in the variables part is the largest. Fourth, from the percentage of the total score of
the ability to design experiments, the guessing part accounts for the largest proportion, while the prediction part
accounts for the smallest proportion.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of ability to design scientific experiments.
Ability to Dsign Experiments Max Min M SD Percentage (%)
Guessing 12 0 7.46 2.304 29
Planning 12 0 5.28 2.663 21
Variables 12 0 4.71 3.065 19
Reflection 10 0 4.74 2.182 19
Prediction 12 0 3.10 2.656 12
Students’ Ability to Design Scientific Experiments of Different Genders
On the one hand, as shown in Table 4, the results of the Levene’s test show that the p value of gender and
each variable is greater than .05, which meets the requirement of homogeneity of variance. Further independent
sample t-test for boys and girls in the score of first question, the score of second question, the five first-level abil-
ity and the total score. The results show that there is no significant difference between the two levels of ability
and gender in conjecture and reflection. Boys and girls have significant differences in the first-question score, the
second-question score, the two-question total score, and the three first-level abilities of planning, variables, and
prediction (p< .05). And in all dimensions, the average score of girls was higher than that of boys. In addition to
the ability of guessing and reflection, the scores of girls are more discrete than boys.
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Table 4. Independent sample t-test for ability to design experiments and gender.
Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances

Ability to Dsign Experiments Gender N M±SD p
F Sig. (2-tailed)
Boys 368 13.16±5.367

Question 1 .010 .922 .003
Girls 374 14.33±5.503
Boys 368 10.88±5.730
Question 2 .087 .768 .002
Girls 373 12.20±5.811
Boys 368 7.31±2.359
Guessing 2.336 .127 .082
Girls 374 7.60±2.242
Boys 368 4.99±2.605
Planning .869 .352 .004
Girls 374 5.56±2.692
Boys 368 4.37±2.992
Variables .864 .353 .003
Girls 374 5.04±3.104
Boys 368 4.57±2.240
Reflection 2.579 .109 .032
Girls 374 4.91±2.113
Boys 368 2.80±2.512
Prediction 2.970 .085 .002
Girls 374 3.40±2.761
Boys 368 24.04±9.656
Total .063 .802 .001
Girls 374 26.51±9.931
On the other hand, from the Pearson correlation analysis results in Table 5, there is a significant positive cor-
relation between the students’ gender and question one, question two, guessing, planning, variables, reflection,
prediction, and total scores. The research found that girls scored higher than boys in terms of overall ability to
design scientific experiments and the level of ability to guess, plan, variable, reflect, and predict.
Table 5. Pearson’s correlation coefficient for ability to design experiments and gender.
Question 1 Question 2 Guessing Planning Variables Reflection Prediction Total
Gender Correlation Coefficient .107** .114** .064* .107** .110** .079* .113** .125**
Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .002 .082 .004 .003 .032 .002 .001
N 742 741 742 742 742 742 742 742

*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).
Gap in Students’ Ability to Design Scientific Experiments Based on Distracts
First, a one-way ANOVA of variance in the students’ ability to design scientific experiments from different dis-
tricts shows that the differences in guessing, planning, variables, reflection, prediction are statistically significant
(p< .05). There is a significant difference between the districts and students’ experimental design. Moreover, there
is a significant difference in the total ability of regional and student experimental design, that is, different districts
have an impact on students’ experimental design ability, as shown in Table 6. Second, the LSD results show that
students in the southern district score the highest in terms of experimental guessing ability, and students in the
northern district score lower than the other four regions. In the experimental planning ability, students in the
central district score the highest, while those in the western district score the lowest. In the experimental planning
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ability, students in the central district score the highest, while those in the western district score the lowest. In
the variable ability, the students in the central district score the highest, the students in the eastern district score
the lowest; the performance in the predictive ability, the reflective ability and the total score are consistent, and
the students in the southern district score the highest, while the students in the eastern district score the lowest.
Table 6. Gap in students’ ability to design experiments based on distracts.
Ability to Design
Central District Eastern District Western District Southern District Northern District F
Experiments
14.210± 11.813± 12.934± 15.232± 12.608±

Question 1 7.497**
5.3163 5.3227 5.2426 5.2331 6.0970
12.406± 8.313± 10.882± 12.951± 9.797±
Question 2 12.830**
5.5845 5.9376 4.9800 5.9314 6.0906
7.777± 7.125± 7.059± 8.155± 5.878±
Guessing 13.074**
2.0540 2.4307 2.5115 1.7677 2.7596
5.765± 3.538± 4.919± 5.606± 5.189±
Planning 16.080**
2.6899 2.2101 2.3603 2.4609 3.0461
5.026± 3.663± 4.934± 4.641± 4.230±
Variables 13.112**
2.9493 3.1700 3.1274 2.9854 3.2289
5.048± 3.800± 4.699± 5.049± 3.986±
Reflection 3.870**
2.1181 2.3621 2.0917 1.9798 2.3495
3.000± 2.000± 2.257± 4.732± 3.122±
Prediction 8.520**
2.3469 1.8759 2.3570 3.0456 2.8999
26.616± 20.125± 23.816± 28.183± 22.405±
Total 22.771**
9.5204 9.5882 8.6369 9.7839 10.7994
Third, a correlation analysis of the districts and the students’ ability to design scientific experiments is given
in Table 7. Among the five abilities, there is a significant negative correlation between the districts, guessing abil-
ity and the reflective ability, and there is a significant positive correlation between the district and the prediction.
Among them, there is a low correlation between districts and reflection (r= .078, p< .05), and district is moderately
related to guessing ability and reflective ability.
Table 7. Pearson’s correlation coefficient for ability to design experiments and districts.
Guessing Planning Variables Reflection Prediction
District Pearson Correlation -.125** -.045 -.058 -.078* .136**
Sig.(2-tailed) .001 .221 .107 .033 .000
N 742 742 742 742 742

*Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).
The Relation between the Internal Structure of Ability to Design Scientific Experiments
Pearson correlation analysis was used to test the relation between the internal structure of experimental de-
sign ability. The results are shown in Table 8. At the level of .01, there is a significant positive correlation between
the five dimensions, indicating a close correlation between guessing, planning, variables, reflection, and predic-
tion. Students with high guessing ability scores have higher plans, variables, reflections, and predictive abilities.
Students’ mastery of one of these skills will affect the development of other skills.
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Table 8. Pearson’s correlation coefficient for internal structure of ability to design experiments.
Ability to Design Experiments Guessing Planning Variables Reflection Prediction
Guessing 1.000
Planning .233** 1.000
Variables .133** .721** 1.000
Reflection .238** .755** .785** 1.000
Prediction .238** .557** .506** .554** 1.000

Discussion
Based on gender, region and internal ability structure, this study investigated the coordinated development
of ability to design scientific experiments of sixth-grade students in Beijing primary schools. Firstly, the overall
scientific experiment level of students was described and statistically analyzed, and Pearson correlation was used
to analyze the two questions. Secondly, the differences of students’ ability to design scientific experiments between
different genders were analyzed, and then the differences of students’ ability to design scientific experiments in
different districts were analyzed. Finally, the relation between the internal structure of ability to design scientific
experiments was analyzed.
The results showed that the overall scientific experiment level of the sixth-grade students in Beijing primary
school was below the average level, and the students’ ability to design scientific experiments was low. Firstly, in
terms of the distribution of ability, the experimental design level of different individuals in the student population
varied greatly. For example, the highest score of the total score (the full score was 60 points) is 51, while the lowest
score was only 2.
Secondly, in the performance of different problem situations, the average score of students in the material
science problem situation of question one was higher than that of the life science problem situation of question
two, but the dispersion degree of the score of material science situation was greater, and the ability performance
tended to be polarized. According to the analysis of the questions, the different performance of students in different
question situations may be caused by the different openness of the questions. Compared with life science question,
material science questions give students more specific feedback information in terms of planning, variables and
reflection. When students understand the information in the questions, they will have a positive guiding effect
on their experimental design process. In fact, support information in material science issues potentially provides
students with mental scaffolding. Hmelo, Holton and Kolodner (2000) believed that providing various scaffolds in
teaching can help students understand the complex system of experimental design. Etkina et al. (2010) said that
the introduction of scaffolding in experimental design activities can help students develop scientific thinking abi-
lity. However, compared with material science questions, life science questions have less supporting information,
and students need to design experiments based on the logic and steps already in mind, and these differences are
reflected in the differences in average scores. In addition, there was a significant correlation between students’
scores in material science and life science, indicating that students who score high in material science also scored
high in life science. Although the first question was about the material science situation and the second question
was about the life science situation, the two questions had different problem situations, but the correlation between
the scores of the two questions indicates that the students’ experimental design ability under different problem
situations has certain mobility. That is to say, students with high ability to design experiments show higher ability
level when facing different problems; Students with low ability to design experiments also have low performance
in different situations.
Thirdly, from the perspective of the structure of ability to design experiments, students scored the highest in
the guessing ability, with the smallest dispersion degree, and the guessing part accounted for the largest propor-
tion of the total score (29%). In contrast, students performed worst in the variables and predictions section, with
an average score of only about a third of the guessing and a high degree of dispersion. According to the standard
of science curriculum for primary schools of compulsory education, the goal of scientific inquiry in grade 5 to 6 is
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to make a relatively complete plan of inquiry based on the knowledge learned, have the initial ability to design
experiments and the consciousness of controlling variables, and be able to design the experimental scheme of a
single variable (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2017). However, most students in the study
have not met the requirements of the course standard. Etkina et al. (2010) believed that when students encounter
problems in the experimental design, the experimental instructor shouldn’t directly tell them how to design the
experiment, he should provide indirect help, for example, you can ask guidance questions and provide further
tips. Therefore, it is necessary for science teachers to provide students with scaffolding as support information in
experimental design.
Students of different genders had significant differences in the overall ability and sub-ability to design scientific
experiments. In terms of ability to design experiments, the average score of girls was 2.47 higher than the average
score of boys. Girls also scored higher than boys in the substructure of ability to design experiments -- guessing,
planning, variables, reflection and prediction. Similar results have been shown in previous studies. Aydinli et al.
(2011) and Dönmez and Azizoğlu (2010) also found similar studies. In another study, Guevara (2015) applied an
innovative method to the teaching of common biology and tried to prove whether gender influences students’
performance. It turned out that girls had higher process ability scores than boys. In other studies, Seetee, Coll,
Boonprakob and Dahsah (2016) and Zorlu, Zorlu and Sezek (2013) have reported similar results. According to the
report of Dhindsa and Chung (2003), this phenomenon may occur because girls have stronger sense of responsibi-
lity than boys in learning chemistry through experimental activities. In addition, Chan and Norlizah (2017), Majere,
Role and Makewa (2012) also believed that women have more positive attitudes, perceptions and motivations than
men. In addition, the students who scored highest in the second and overall scores were also girls. However, this
finding does not match the findings of Beaumont-Walters and Soyibo (2001) and Obialor, Osuafor and Nnadi (2017),
who pointed out that although boys tend to score higher than girls, there was no significant gender difference
in students’ scores. Some scholars pointed out that different results may be related to the rapid development of
women’s liberation movement (Jatiningsih, 2017). The findings suggest that stereotypes and social conventions
of boys superiority are breaking down.
Students from different districts had different performance in ability to design scientific experiments. The stu-
dents in the south and the middle of Beijing had better ability to design scientific experiments, while the students
in the east and the north of Beijing had worse ability to design scientific experiments. Students from the central
district, Haidian District and Xicheng District performed better, and students from Daxing district in the southern
district performed best. According to the results of one-way ANOVA, there are significant differences in different
degrees among different districts. In order to explain the reasons, Antonelli, Crepax and Fassio (2013) found that
advanced scientific knowledge could be transformed into technical knowledge with a high level of substitutabi-
lity, appropriateness, accumulation and complementarity, which may affect economic growth. Rindermann and
Thompson (2011) found that wealth and economic freedom also had positive effects on cognitive ability in the
longitudinal direction. The degree and level of economic development of different districts in Beijing are different,
and there are also differences in regional functional orientation. They are divided into four functional areas: Capital
Functional Core Area, Urban Function Development Area, Urban Development New Area and Ecological Conser-
vation Development Zone (Zhao, 2016). It can be found that students’ ability to design scientific experiments has
a certain relation with economic development and regional functional positioning. In addition, education as a
superstructure is bound to be influenced by the economic base (Wang, Yuan, Tian, & Zhang, 2013).
However, the level of ability to design scientific experiments and economic ranking of students are not
completely consistent, indicating that education has its own independence and is influenced by science tea-
chers, teaching materials and teaching methods. For example, although they are based on uniform curriculum
standards, the textbooks in each district are not completely consistent. According to the research of the em-
ployment intention of students majoring in education, personal future development factors, living conditions
factors, teaching condition factors, and marital problems have significant influence on the science teacher’s
willingness to teach (Liu & Fang, 2015). In the central district, these conditions are often superior, so the central
district is more attractive to quality science teachers. Finally, the direct factor affecting experimental design
ability is experimental resources. Due to the different levels of economic development in each region, the ability
of the sample schools to have laboratories and supporting equipment is different, as pointed out by Myers and
Dyer (2006), students who were learning through inquiry lab teaching had stronger scientific process ability and
more complete content knowledge than those using regular experimental learning methods. So lab-learning
plays an important role in the development of students’ ability to design scientific experiments. In addition,
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external factors such as regional cultural atmosphere and family composition may also mediate experimental
design ability, which need further study.
There is a significant positive correlation between the dimensions of students’ ability to design scientific ex-
periments in Beijing. When one of the students’ ability is high, the other abilities are often higher. Similarly, when
one of the students’ ability is low, the development of several other abilities often have obstacles. This finding is
similar to the results of Özgelen (2012). Özgelen (2012) investigated the scientific process ability of 306 sixth-grade
and seventh-grade students within the framework of cognitive domains, and found that the exercise of scientific
process ability had indeed improved students’ thinking, reasoning, inquiry, evaluation, problem solving and crea-
tivity. A study by Rabacal (2016) also confirmed a positive correlation between student base and comprehensive
science process skills, and suggested that students improve their performance through experimental exercises.
Farsakoğlu, Şahin and Karsli (2012) also suggested that ability performance could be improved through meanin-
gful hands-on experiments. Research has proved that as a part of scientific process ability, the internal structure
constitutes a unified organic whole. The development of ability to design scientific experiments needs to be carried
out in a coordinated and comprehensive manner, with strong ability to drive inferior ability, and consistently play
a synergistic role to improve ability to design scientific experiments.
Conclusions
As the representative of the highest level of primary school ability in Beijing, the overall level of ability to
design scientific experiments of sixth-grade students is at the low levels, and there are significant imbalances
in different districts, gender and internal structure. The coordinated development of education is an important
part of regional coordinated development. The balanced development of students’ ability level is the key to the
coordinated development of education. The ability to design scientific experiments is closely related to students’
scientific ability, which has a stronger potential role in promoting innovation ability. Therefore, it is necessary to take
positive measures to promote the comprehensive and balanced development of students’ scientific experiment
ability in the whole region. Based on the research results, we can enhance and improve it from the following aspects.
Firstly, science teachers are the direct promoters to promote the development of students’ scientific ability.
Therefore, science teachers should first identify and understand the importance of developing students’ ability
to design scientific experiments ideologically. In addition, because science teachers’ experimental ability direc-
tly affects students’ scientific inquiry ability, science teachers must strive to improve their own ability to design
scientific experiments and quality, and implement the requirements of scientific experiment design from the
action. Secondly, the development and utilization of curriculum resources should be strengthened, the complete
framework of ability to design scientific experiments and matching resources to develop ability to design scien-
tific experiments should be constructed, so as to provide sufficient laboratory activities for students. Laboratory
is not only the most important resource for students to learn science, but also the main learning place. It plays an
irreplaceable role in the formation of students’ scientific literacy. Thirdly, science teacher should renew the concept
of experimental teaching, implement the experimental teaching mode based on design with the development
of inquiry ability as the core, improve the thinking level and skills of experimental design, and cultivate students’
scientific thinking. Fourthly, schools should strengthen the curriculum construction of scientific experiment design,
explore the exploratory function of experiments in existing textbooks, and supplement extracurricular experiments
with school-based courses and research-based learning, so as to gradually cultivate students’ experimental interest
and ability to design experiments in scientific practice.

Acknowledgements
The research was funded by the Science and Technology Innovation Service Capacity Building-Basic Scientific
Research Business Cost (Scientific Research) under grant number 195300501082. We are very grateful to profes-
sor Jon-Chao Hong for his help in revising the article. We also acknowledge science teachers Han Hui, Wang Yiyi,
Dang Fanwen, Li Shang, Li Xin, Li Qiannan, Yang Xiongzhi, Liu Siyan, Fu Xuening for their work in carrying out the
investigation. We would like to thank the reviewers for their helpful comments.
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Received: July 11, 2019 Accepted: December 04, 2019
Yang Xiantong MSc, Elementary Education College, Capital Normal University,

Beijing, China.
E-mail: 906191707@qq.com
Zhang Mengmeng MSc, Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing,
China.
E-mail: 1346988522@qq.com
Song Xin PhD in Education, Education College, Capital Normal University,
Beijing, China.
E-mail: xiaokaixin365@126.com
Hou Lan PhD in Science Education, Education College, Capital Normal
University, Beijing, China.
E-mail: houlan318@163.com
Wang Qiang Dr., Professor, Elementary Education College, Capital Normal
(Corresponding author) University, Beijing, China.
E-mail: qwchem@gmail.com
985
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Vol.18, No.

Published since 2002 Address:

ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/

THE CALCULATIONS OF AREAS AND VOLUMES USING THE METHOD OF ARCHIMEDES:

EXAMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SIMULATION-BASED LESSONS IN IMPROVING THE

PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN AND PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ KNOWLEDGE OF IBERIAN NATIVE

IDENTIFYING BARRIERS WHEN TEACHING SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS IN LOW ECONOMY

THE CORRELATION BETWEEN RENEWABLE ENERGY KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE:

EXAMINATION OF STUDENTS’ ENGAGEMENT WITH R-SPQ-2F OF LEARNING APPROACH IN

STUDENTS’ AND TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF SCIENTIFIC MODELS: TRANSITION FROM DAILY

THE IMPACTS OF A MARINE SCIENCE BOARD GAME ON MOTIVATION, INTEREST, AND

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE RELATED TO RENEWABLE

AN ANALYSIS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ABILITIES TO READ REALISTIC,

DEVELOPMENT OF ESTONIAN UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ BIOLOGICAL

REGIONAL EDUCATIONAL EQUITY: A SURVEY ON THE ABILITY TO DESIGN SCIENTIFIC

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987

THE CALCULATIONS OF AREAS AND VOLUMES USING THE METHOD OF

An interdisciplinary approach to education is nowadays considered an important aspect to improve the

Work Main results through exhaustion

Measurement of a Circle Area of a circle

Received: October 18, 2019 Accepted: November 30, 2019

Table 1. Summary of simulation-based lessons developed and implemented by participants.

Design Participant Designated Topic taught Lesson Name of PhET

DTA1 Kwesi SBPL_1 Reflection and refrac- 80 minutes Bending Light

Instruments and Procedures

Dimensions of interactivity Sample items

Pre-service Teachers’ Reported Activeness of the Developed Lessons

Focus group interview Participant Response

Figure 1. Sample activity for SBPL_4 in realising the Active dimension.

Pre-service Teachers’ Demonstration of the Constructive Dimension with Lessons Developed

Focus group interview Participant Response

Focus group interview Participant Response

Pre-service Teachers’ Demonstration of the Authentic Dimension with Lessons

Pre-service Teachers’ Demonstration of the Intentional Dimension with Lessons

Figure 4. Snapshot of the Force and Motion Basics (Friction) simulation.

Pre-service Teachers’ Enforcement of the Cooperative Dimension with Lessons

I asked them to work in groups, so it was really interactive.

We interacted with our colleagues during the lesson. (Kwame).

Figure 5. Projection of the Cooperative dimension in lesson plan documents.

Received: June 24, 2019 Accepted: November 15, 2019

NATIVE AND AFRICAN ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/

António Almeida, Abstract. The present research compared

Knowledge about Animals and Age

Knowledge about Native versus Non-Native Animals

Spanish sample Portuguese sample

Children Pre-service teachers Children Pre-service teachers

Boys/Men 106 46 105 102

Instrument and Procedures

Iberian Animals Savannah Animals

Mean mass Mean mass

Badger Meles meles 13 Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis 1500

Iberian Animals Savannah Animals

Mean mass Mean mass

Otter Lutra lutra 11 Hyena Crocuta crocuta 44-64

Validity and Reliability of the Questionnaire

Iberian P+Sp P+Sp Savannah P+Sp P+Sp

17 16 15 17 Black rhinoc- 193 103 191 126

Iberian P+Sp P+Sp Savannah P+Sp P+Sp

32 26 Black rhinoc- 218 206