Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2014

Vol.13, No.
1, 2014
ISSN 1648-3898
The International Journal of the Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 13, No. 3, 2014
Editorial Board
ISSN 1648–3898
Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Miia Rannikmae Tartu University, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Boris Aberšek University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof., Dr. Agnaldo Arroio University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
Commission for the Publication of the National Edition of Federigo
Dr. Paolo Bussotti
Enriques’s Works, Italy
Dr. Bulent Cavas Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Prof., Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Dr. André du Plessis Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
Prof., Dr. Jānis Gedrovics
Academy, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Peter Heering University of Flensburg, Germany
Prof., Dr. Jack Holbrook Tartu University, Estonia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Milan Kubiatko Masaryk University, Czech Republic
Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after Maxim Tank,
Dr. Todar Lakhvich
Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Jari Lavonen University of Helsinki, Finland
Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Jongwon Park Chonnam National University, Korea
Dr. Raffaele Pisano European Society for the History of Science, Italy
Dr. Pavol Prokop Institute of Zoology, Bratislava, Slovakia
Dr. Alona Rauckienė Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Valery P. Solomin Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, Russia
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Gazi University, Turkey
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the SMC Scientia Educologica in cooperation with Scientia Socialis, Lithua-
nia, emphasizes theoretical, experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is
an international academic journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all
contributions received are submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the
Editor. The decision of the Editor on the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered
into on reasons for rejection of a submitted contribution.
Published since 2002 Address:

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ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

The Associated Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society,
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The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in British Education Index
(http://www.leeds.ac.uk/bei/bei.htm), Copernicus Index (http://journals.indexcopernicus.com), The Asian
Education Index (http://www.asian-education-index.com/sciences_index.php), EBSCO: Academic Search Premier
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and SCOPUS (http://www.scopus.com)
ISSN 1648–3898 CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Editorial
OWNERSHIP AMONG SCIENCE TEACHERS

Ryszard M. Janiuk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Articles
A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY ON FRESHMEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF GENETICS, EVOLUTION,

AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
Andrej Šorgo, Muhammet Usak, Milan Kubiatko, Jana Fančovičova, Pavol Prokop, Miro Puhek, Jiri
Skoda, Mehmet Bahar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
THE ROLE OF GENERAL INQUIRY KNOWLEDGE IN ENHANCING STUDENTS’

TRANSFORMATIVE INQUIRY PROCESSES IN A WEB-BASED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Mario Mäeots, Margus Pedaste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE SCRIPTS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF CAMPUS TOURS

Wen-Wei Chiang, Feng-Hsien Tu, Chia-Ju Liu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
UNDERSTANDINGS OF ADVANCED STUDENTS ON NATURE OF SCIENCE AND THEIR

MOTIVATIONAL STATUS TO LEARN NATURE OF SCIENCE: A TURKISH CASE
Mustafa Serdar Köksal, Canan Tunç Şahin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS TEACHERS’ USE OF MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS FOR

SOLVING THE IMAGE FORMATION PROBLEMS
Serap Kaya Şengören . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
THE VIRTUAL SCIENCE TEACHER AS A HYBRID SYSTEM: COGNITIVE SCIENCE

HAND IN HAND WITH CYBERNETIC PEDAGOGY
Boris Aberšek, Bojan Borstner, Janez Bregant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) PROVISION FOR SCIENCE

AND MATHEMATICS TEACHERS IN SAUDI ARABIA: PERCEPTIONS AND
EXPERIENCES OF CPD PROVIDERS
Saed A. Sabah, Merfat Fayez, Saeed M. Alshamrani, Nasser Mansour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

AND CHANGES IN THEIR MISCONCEPTIONS DURING PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION
Selami Yangin, Sabri Sidekli, Yasin Gokbulut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
PUPILS’ EARLY EXPLORATIONS OF THERMOIMAGING TO INTERPRET HEAT

AND TEMPERATURE
Konrad Schönborn, Jesper Haglund, Charles Xie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
COGNITIVE STYLES COULD BE IMPLICITLY ASSESSED IN THE INTERNET ENVIRONMENT:

REFLECTION-IMPULSIVITY IS MANIFESTED IN INDIVIDUAL MANNER OF SEARCHING
FOR INFORMATION
Maria Ledzińska, Jordi Mongay Batalla, Maciej Stolarski . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3
ISSN 1648–3898
OWNERSHIP AMONG SCIENCE TEACHERS

Ryszard M. Janiuk
Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Lublin, Poland
Science education is continuously changing in terms of goals, curricula and teaching methods.
Such changes stem from major educational reforms and the development of new theoretical concepts
related to science teaching. It has been long emphasised that the implementation of these changes in
schools depends on the teachers, who need to identify with and support the innovations which are to
be introduced, and to feel that change is necessary. An active involvement of teachers in the process of
designing, developing and implementing innovation is one of the indicators of a sense of “ownership”,
which in this case can be understood as identifying with the innovation, feeling as if one is its owner.
This psychological state can be achieved thanks to teachers’ investment in the innovation, and has the
potential to reduce resistance and create a better climate for change. Ownership can have a consider-
able impact on teachers’ involvement in further changes, if they notice that innovation has a positive
influence on the effects of their work. Ownership also has a beneficial impact on their working environ-
ment, motivating other teachers to implement the desired change and thus helping spread the change
throughout the teacher community. That is why teachers’ ownership is often discussed together with
sensemaking and agency, which influence teachers’ attitude towards innovation. The issue of developing
a sense of ownership is not limited to teachers, as in today’s world many professions require constant
adjustment to change, and personal involvement in introducing innovation is often necessary for being
efficient and successful at work.
Ownership can refer to the professional work of science teachers as a whole or to its particular
aspects. Although it would be desirable for most – if not all – teachers to assume ownership of their
profession during their careers, this seems an unattainable goal. It should be borne in mind that teachers’
ability to take ownership depends on several factors, including what kind of people they are, why they
decided to become teachers, how they were prepared for their job and whether or not their conditions
of work are conducive to developing a sense ownership. What is particularly important when it comes
to working conditions is a good atmosphere at schools, where teachers should collaborate with each
other, school authorities should support and monitor teachers’ professional development, and students
and parents should be interested in schools providing a high level of education. Such an atmosphere
should increase teachers’ satisfaction with their work and encourage them to further develop their pro-
fessional skills. Another key factor which impacts teachers’ ownership of their work is the requirements
regarding professional development in a given country.
Ownership should not be seen as something that can be given; certain conditions must be met if it
is to be developed. A particularly important role is played by institutions which support the professional
development of teachers. Thanks to actively involving teachers in the process of introducing a reform,
these institutions can help them realise that making changes can improve the quality of education and
encourage them to participate in this process. When planning actions that would involve teachers in
the reform, one has to bear in mind that developing ownership is a long-term process, in which certain
organisational and financial requirements need to be met.
Activities which indicate that teachers have developed a sense of ownership include: actively
participating in the decision-making process regarding the innovation to be introduced, experiencing
positive feelings towards it, undertaking action research related to the effects of the innovation, and
disseminating information concerning the outcomes achieved among other teachers as well as getting
4
ISSN 1648–3898
them involved in the process of introducing changes. Ownership often motivates teachers to perform
further actions, which are not directly related to the situation that first stimulated its development. These
actions consist in seeking other factors which contribute to improving the quality of education, and, as
a result, to developing new curricula, more effective methods of work and original teaching solutions.
The term “ownership” can easily be understood intuitively, based on its psychological meaning.
When the term ownership first appeared, it was used without providing a definition, as if there was
general consensus about its meaning, which frequently depended on the context it was used in. Based
on how it has been used, we know that ownership is considered important for large-scale reform as well
as for individual teacher change. However, research concerning ownership is difficult to conduct, since
defining it in a way which would make it possible to empirically validate its potential contribution to
supporting teacher change is quite challenging. In a definition of ownership, observable or measurable
characteristics need to be identified and refined to operationalise the construct for research and create
an appropriate survey instrument. The results of available research show that teachers would be more
effective professionals, if they were involved in creating the changes that they would then enact in their
schools, expressing ownership in their learning experiences with this innovation.
The concept of ownership is more interesting to study and understand if we accept that teaching
is personal and that making lasting change in classroom practices requires attention to the beliefs and
epistemology of individual teachers. Such an approach should serve as a basis for research concerning
teachers which focuses on factors related to the psychological, motivational and emotional aspects
of their work. The results of other, more rigorous studies concerning ownership among science teach-
ers will without doubt be of importance, and they will enable educational researchers, professional
development experts and teachers to collaborate with each other in order to develop more effective
initiatives for educational change.
Received: January 12, 2014 Accepted: January 30, 2013
Ryszard M. Janiuk PhD., Professor, Maria Curie Sklodowska University,

Lublin, Poland.
E-mail: rmjaniuk@poczta.umcs.lublin.pl
Website: http://hektor.umcs.lublin.pl/~dydchem/maciek.htm
5
A CROSS-CULTURAL
STUDY ON FRESHMEN’S
KNOWLEDGE OF GENETICS,
EVOLUTION, AND THE
NATURE OF SCIENCE
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to Andrej Šorgo,
measure the freshmen’s level of knowledge
about genetics, evolution, human evolu-
Muhammet Usak,
tion, the nature of science, and opinions on Milan Kubiatko,
evolution and the presence of non-scientif- Jana Fančovičova,
ic explanations among Czech, Slovakian,
Pavol Prokop,
Slovenian and Turkish students. Determi-
nation of prior knowledge and pre-con- Miro Puhek,
ceptions about these issues is important Jiri Skoda,
because they are filters to learning other Mehmet Bahar
related concepts. The results are going to
be a starting point for developing teaching
strategies concerning Darwinian evolution
and preparing prospective science teach-
ers for working with students in national
Introduction
and international contexts. A total of 994
first-year university students from the
Czech Republic (276; 27.8%), Slovakia (212, The world is becoming a global village in almost all aspects of
21.3%), Slovenia (217, 27.3%) and Turkey human endeavour and education is affected as well (Suarez-Orozco,
(235, 23.6%) participated in this study. The 2001; Tikly, 2001; Akar, 2010, Šorgo, & Špernjak, 2012, Fancovicova,
findings can be summarized as follows: Prokop, & Leskova, 2013). Globalisation and internationalisation
knowledge especially that of the nature of in education are not only a matter of organisation and culture or
science at the freshmen level was seriously language (Balaz, 2010) but are also the first-class curricular and
flawed. Non-scientific explanations were pedagogical issues (Svensson & Wihlborg, 2010). Paralleling the
present in high percentages. Both were mobility of students and teaching staff, the use of international
regarded as barriers towards scientific rea-
textbooks, internet and the rising number of immigrant students,
soning and acceptance of general human
the important question becomes whether the same teaching
evolution especially for students express-
ing orthodox religious beliefs.
methods and strategies can be used internationally or whether
Key words: evolution, genetics, human every entity like country or school district or even every school
evolution, nature of science, non-scientific or teacher, should develop these strategies individually (Fuller &
explanations. Clarke, 1994; Sleeter, 2001; Gerritsen & Lubbers, 2010).
The aim of the present study was to determine the differences
Andrej Šorgo
in the a) level of knowledge about genetics, evolution, human
University of Maribor, Slovenia evolution, and the nature of science; b) opinions on evolution,
Muhammet Usak and c) the presence of non-scientific explanations among Czech,
Gazi University, Turkey Slovakian, Slovenian and Turkish freshmen students. The identi-
Milan Kubiatko fication of prior knowledge and pre-conceptions on an issue are
Masaryk University, Czech Republic
important because prior knowledge and pre-conceptions can be
Jana Fančovičova, Pavol Prokop
Trnava University, Slovakia
filters to learning other related concepts (Ferrari & Chi, 1998; Shtul-
Miro Puhek
man, 2006). The findings will be useful in achieving two goals. The
University of Maribor, Slovenia first is to determine the knowledge level and opinions in each of
Jiri Skoda the participating countries in order to improve teaching practices
University of J. E. Purkyne, Czech Republic in secondary schools and recommend changes in curricula con-
Mehmet Bahar cerning Darwinian Evolution, paranormal beliefs and the nature of
Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
science as central goals of science education. The second one is to
6
ISSN 1648–3898 A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY ON FRESHMEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF GENETICS,
EVOLUTION, AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
(P. 6-18)
prepare prospective science teachers for working with students on evolution and similar topics, which
are often recognized as offensive (Reiss, 2001; Losh & Nzekwe, 2011a, b) in national and international
contexts.
Evolution was chosen as a subject because it is the central theory of biology (Dobzhansky, 1973),
and if students after years of Biology and science courses do not understand evolutionary concepts it can
only mean that the central point of biology teaching was missed (Losh & Nzekwe, 2011a). Additionally,
knowledge and skills on evolution teaching gained in pre-service teacher trainings can be extended to
other domains of unscientific reasoning such as health, paranormal phenomena and astrology (Losh
& Nzekwe, 2011b).
Darwinian evolution is recognized as one of the most controversial and difficult issues to be taught
by a science teacher (Moore & Cotner, 2009; Nehm, Kim & Sheppard, 2009; Lac, Hemovich & Himelfarb,
2010; Smith, 2010a; Smith 2010b; Oliveira, Cook & Buck, 2011). Even though the scientific evidence for
evolution is strong, research shows that the scientific understanding of biological evolution continues
to remain elusive to many people (Mazur, 2004; Scott, 2005; Miller, Scott & Okamoto, 2006). The problem
of teaching evolution, not known in the largest part of science education, is that teachers should fight
two sources of flawed information. The first is the lack of interest, the formation of misconceptions and
forgetfulness; a problem faced when teaching every issue. The second is active rejection of the Darwin-
ian Evolution by students or even by teachers (Irez, Bakanay & Dilek, 2011).
Teachers must be able to recognize the difference between scientific explanations and explana-
tions based on non-scientific reasoning. Additionally, they must understand that religion is a different
sort of understanding – one that is rooted in faith and not evidence-based (Reiss, 2008 & 2011; Weiss-
mann, 2006) – in order to explain scientific issues to students. In the case of evolution, teachers must
be equipped not only with the knowledge of facts easily learned such as body weight or brain volume
of a Hominoid species but also with a detailed understanding of the evolutionary mechanisms. The
reason is not only to present evolution to the students in an interesting and intellectually exciting way,
but also to withstand well-prepared to the attacks of different anti-evolutionist groups (Lac, Hemovich
& Himelfarb, 2010; Peker, Comert & Kence, 2010).
Many studies about the knowledge and opinions of evolution exist in various parts of the world
(e.g. Miller et al., 2006; van Dijk, 2009; Hokayem & BouJaoude, 2008; Kose, 2010; Sanders & Ngxola, 2009;
Schilders et al., 2009), showing that the results from one study cannot simply be transferred from one
country to another. This conclusion leads the authors of the present study, to assess the target popula-
tion using the same instrument as the first step to devise new international teaching strategies.
Methodology of Research
Survey Participants
The study was carried out in October 2010 in four countries. A total of 994 first-year university
students participated in the study: the Czech Republic (276; 27.8%); Slovakia (212, 21.3%), Slovenia
(217, 27.3%) and Turkey (235, 23.6%). Of the 994 students, 785 (79%) were female and 209 (21%) were
male students. The differences between male and female students, even if there may exist any (Losh &
Nzekwe, 2011) were not the scope of the study. The larger number of them (708; 71.2%) were prospec-
tive teachers and 286 (28.8%) came from a non-educational background. Differences between these
two groups were not the scope of the study. Even though future teachers and the improvement of their
university education were one of the main aims of the study, data from students who do not choose
educational study track were not discarded. The argument was that at this stage the study searches
for their conceptions were not yet influenced by university courses. On the other hand, all participants
were students of the same faculties where they can change study tracks. Participants were in their first
weeks at the universities, mostly 19 (48.8%) or 20 (20.1%) years old. The primary reason to choose this
sample (freshmen students) was that the survey would be performed with participants who had finished
secondary schools, but were not yet influenced by the new knowledge gained in university courses.
7
A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY ON FRESHMEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF GENETICS, ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 6-18)
Questionnaire
The questionnaire was developed in English as a language of conversation between the authors
and translated later into the Czech, Slovakian, Slovenian and Turkish languages.
The first section contained questions about the basic demographic data (gender and age). The
second section included 15 Likert-scale items. Students answered the items by choosing one of three
options: disagree (1), undecided (2) and agree (3). The statements express a range of facts, experiences
and opinions on previous teaching. The section was adapted from a previous comparative study on
Biology teaching in Turkey and Slovenia (Sorgo, Usak, Aydogdu, Keles, & Ambrozic-Dolinsek, 2011). The
questionnaire had five loosely defined groups of statements:
• Religiosity was measured by one statement: ‘I would declare myself as a religious person’.
• Actual school experiences on evolution teaching consisted of 4 items.
• Active personal effort consisted of 4 items.
• Opinions on how evolution should be taught consisted of 3 items.
• Perceived importance of evolution consisted of 3 items.
A 30-item test about knowledge was compiled in five subscales. The subscales were as follows:
genetics, evolution, human evolution, nature of science and non-scientific explanations. Each subscale
consisted of 6 questions and students had to choose among three options, namely: True, False and I
do not know / I am not sure. About half of the items were negatively worded to prevent guessing, and
were later recoded to allow for a statistical analysis. Questions in the present study were chosen from a
pool of 115 questions used in a preliminary study performed in Slovenia (unpublished data). Based on
answers of 204 secondary school students and a procedure proposed by Selwyn (1997) and Lavonen
et al. (2004), the final pool of questions was compiled.
Data Collection
Sampling was performed by authors or their teaching assistants at their Universities after classes
or laboratory sessions. Participation was voluntary and no extra credits or any other types of rewards
were given. Because of the format of the questionnaire (check boxes) it took about 20 minutes to
complete.
Statistical Analyses
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was first run to test the normal distribution. As presented in Table 1,
none of the variables related to the differences in students’ actual school experiences followed a normal
distribution at the level of p < 0.01. Chi-square (χ2) statistics (Kolmogorov-Smirnov non-parametric test)
were used to identify the differences in the frequencies of answers between the different groups of
respondents. In the second part where sums on subscales were compared between countries (Table 3)
the assumption of normality was met so in order to make parallel comparisons of possible differences
an F–test was performed. Pearson moment correlation test was used to test correlations among the
subscales.
Results of Research
Students should agree, disagree or stay undecided on the statement “I would declare myself as a
religious person”. The highest agreement was found among Slovakian students (33.2%), followed by the
Turkish (26.3%), Slovenian (23.8%) and Czech students (16.7%). Differences were statistically significant
(χ2 = 157.11, df = 6, N = 992, p < 0.0001). The highest number of students who clearly disagree with the
statement comes from the Czech Republic (43.4%) followed by the Slovenian (22.4%), Turkish (21.3%)
and Slovakian (13.0%) students. Remaining students were undecided.
School experiences on evolution teaching, active personal effort in the learning of evolution,
8
(P. 6-18)
opinions on how evolution should be taught and perceived importance of evolution were measured
by the same method with the statements presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Differences in students’ actual school experiences on evolution teaching, active personal
effort in the learning of evolution, opinions on how evolution should be taught, and
perceived importance of evolution among four countries.
C1 N Mean SD Mean Rank χ2 p
1 276 1.63 0.80 470.62
2 212 1.57 0.79 449.25

We had enough lessons on evolu-
3 266 1.83 0.81 542.47 18.34 < 0.001
tion at school.
4 232 1.72 0.79 505.02
Total 986 1.69 0.80
1 276 1.95 0.87 484.09
2 212 1.93 0.90 477.99

We had lessons at school where
connections between genetics and 3 269 1.98 0.79 492.20 5.90 0.12
evolution were clearly explained.
4 235 2.11 0.83 532.70
Total 992 1.99 0.85
1 276 1.45 0.73 387.64
2 212 1.49 0.74 401.92

Most of the time the biology
teacher talked about evolution and 3 269 2.21 0.84 621.09 151.37 < 0.001
we had to listen.
4 235 2.02 0.84 567.07
Total 992 1.80 0.86
1 276 1.43 0.72 441.62
2 212 1.49 0.76 460.72

We debated controversial issues
3 269 1.65 0.71 534.07 33.36 < 0.001
during biology lessons.
4 234 1.72 0.79 548.35
Total 991 1.57 0.75
1 276 2.10 0.83 412.74
2 212 2.24 0.81 457.42

I would like to learn more about
3 266 2.54 0.69 553.78 61.25 < 0.001
evolution.
4 235 2.54 0.72 558.97
Total 989 2.35 0.79
1 276 1.43 0.79 478.55
2 212 1.44 0.77 485.40

With friends and relatives we talk
3 271 1.48 0.77 503.88 5.77 0.12
about genetics and evolution.
4 235 1.57 0.84 523.32
Total 994 1.48 0.79
9
(P. 6-18)
1 276 1.24 0.60 427.79
Beside the literature prescribed 2 212 1.32 0.66 455.76

by the school I read books and
3 270 1.62 0.83 550.06 60.63 < 0.001
popular science journals on evolu-
tion out of my own interest. 4 234 1.60 0.78 552.65
Total 992 1.45 0.74
1 276 1.22 0.60 431.82
2 212 1.31 0.65 464.88

I have visited internet pages with
evolution as a topic out of my own 3 270 1.60 0.82 553.49 53.45 < 0.001
interest.
4 234 1.54 0.80 535.69
Total 992 1.42 0.74
1 276 2.53 0.70 556.10
2 212 2.42 0.65 502.63

Beside the Darwinian theory of
evolution alternative evolutionary 3 269 2.24 0.70 436.14 29.75 < 0.001
theories should be taught.
4 234 2.38 0.66 487.92
Total 991 2.39 0.69
1 276 1.31 0.64 432.60
2 212 1.55 0.74 522.61

The Darwinian theory of evolution
should be taught only to persons 3 270 1.56 0.74 525.98 27.53 < 0.001
who are not offended by it.
4 235 1.52 0.72 516.23
Total 993 1.48 0.72
1 276 1.38 0.66 461.70
Teachers should have the option 2 212 1.84 0.88 596.07

of teaching only topics which do
3 271 1.32 0.63 442.91 57.27 < 0.001
not interfere with their beliefs and
moral system. 4 235 1.58 0.83 513.57
Total 994 1.51 0.77
1 276 1.80 0.87 537.51
2 212 1.86 0.87 556.29

There is no need for knowledge
about evolution to understand the 3 268 1.51 0.75 450.38 38.08 < 0.001
diversity of life.
4 234 1.49 0.76 442.55
Total 990 1.66 0.83
1 276 2.74 0.62 543.36
Scientific knowledge on human 2 212 2.74 0.54 532.38

evolution can be declared as basic
3 270 2.40 0.73 412.59 56.05 < 0.001
knowledge which every person
should possess. 4 235 2.67 0.61 507.61
Total 993 2.63 0.65
10
(P. 6-18)
1 276 1.63 0.71 454.61
2 212 1.74 0.70 500.58

Evolution is not a fact but an
3 267 1.84 0.71 535.41 13.11 0.004
unproven theory.
4 233 1.70 0.67 489.34
Total 988 1.73 0.70

1
C = country: 1 = Czech Republic, 2 = Slovakia, 3 = Slovenia, 4 = Turkey.
Knowledge concerning the nature of science (NoS), knowledge on genetics (KoG), knowledge
on evolution (KoE), knowledge on human evolution (KHE), and non-scientific explanations (NEX) were
measured by answering statements presented in Appendix.
The differences between participating countries in the mean of answers are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Differences in knowledge between four countries.
C1 N Mean SD F p
1 276 3.62 1.298

2 212 3.04 1.196
KoGa 3 271 3.64 1.438 10.03 < 0.001
4 235 3.59 1.509
Total 994 3.49 1.388
1 276 2.09 1.336
2 212 1.94 1.179
NoSb
3 271 1.51 1.092 11.64 < 0.001
4 235 1.88 1.130
Total 994 1.85 1.210
1 276 3.13 1.270
2 212 2.45 1.263
KoEc 3 271 2.75 1.436 10.63 < 0.001
4 235 2.88 1.367
Total 994 2.82 1.358
1 276 3.49 1.275
2 212 2.92 1.347
KHEd 3 271 3.16 1.230 8.92 < 0.001
4 235 3.39 1.346
Total 994 3.25 1.311
1 276 3.16 1.433
2 212 2.27 1.316
NEXe
3 271 3.37 1.572 22.50 < 0.001
4 235 2.90 1.745
Total 994 2.96 1.576
1
C = country: 1 = Czech Republic, 2 = Slovakia, 3 = Slovenia, 4 = Turkey.
a
genetics, bnature of science, cevolution, dhuman evolution, enon-scientific explanations.
11
(P. 6-18)
Almost all correlations between correct responses were statistically significant (p < 0.001, Table 3),
however, their power was medium to low.
Table 3. Correlations between the sums of correct answers.
KoG NoS KoE KHE
KoGa 1
NoSb 0.142** 1
KoE c
0.346 **
0.122** 1
KHE d
0.288 **
0.101 **
0.288** 1
NEX e
0.315 **
-0.012 0.363 **
0.233**
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
a
genetics, bnature of science, cevolution, dhuman evolution, enon-scientific explanations.
Discussion
It is well known from literature (Mazur, 2004; Scott, 2005) that religious beliefs can affect the teach-
ing of evolution. The highest percentage of the religious respondents came from Slovakia, the lowest
percentage from the Czech Republic and the highest percentage of the undecided ones came from
Slovenia. In light of the purposes of the study, it is possible to conclude that the number of religious
students exceeds the number of sceptics or non-believers only in Slovakia. Religiosity does not neces-
sarily mean the rejection of evolution (Reiss, 2011; Winslow et al., 2011), because active rejection is more
often restricted to the orthodox groups (Wiles, 2011). The answers to the statement “The theory of evo-
lution must be wrong because the holy texts (Bible, Koran) are unmistakable (Appendix)” can be used
to identify the number of orthodox believers. The highest number of orthodox believers comes from
Slovakia (16.5%), which is followed by Turkey (10.6%), the Czech Republic (5.4%) and Slovenia (3.3%). On
the other hand, teachers should count on different kinds of spirituality, not necessarily connected with
established religious groups. This approach can be useful, especially when interpreting answers to the
statements such as “Humans evolved by the laws of evolution but the spirit was given by a higher being”
where agreement is much higher. One cannot conclude from these results that completely different
strategies should be used in different countries because of the different number of orthodox believers.
One of the initial steps must be a clear distinction between scientific explanations based on evidence
and non-scientific explanations based on faith to prevent tensions between believers and non-believers
(Edis, 2009; Reiss, 2008, 2011). Students should be exposed to this difference as early as possible in the
course (Scharmann, Smith, James, & Jensen, 2005).
It can be observed that the students from all participating countries stay close to the neutral or
disagreeing answers about evolution not getting the appropriate level of attention in schools. Teaching
evolution in high schools, with the exception of Turkey, seems to be not clearly connected with genetics.
The teaching in Slovenia and Turkey is more teacher-centred than it is in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
The similarity in the teaching practice between Slovenia and Turkey was previously reported (Sorgo et
al., 2011). Students from all countries disagree with the statement that they debated about controver-
sial issues during their biology classes, leading to a conclusion that students will not internalise their
knowledge and if preconceptions exist these will stay untouched. Students in general share the same
opinion that they would like to learn more about evolution; however, this opinion is not supported by
their personal efforts to fill the gaps. Slovenian and Turkish students are a little bit more enthusiastic in
acquiring additional information, but the results are far from being satisfactory. The conclusion of the
study can be that if an issue is not a part of the regular school curricula, then students will not search
for information about this issue as long as they are not personally affected. Because the knowledge
of biological evolution has an important meaning in the understanding of natural processes and has
12
(P. 6-18)
limited practical implications for solving everyday problems, the probability that someone is going to
learn about evolution in out-of-school settings, just to satisfy his/her own interests is small.
The students from all four countries agreed that the alternative evolutionary theories should be
taught (Table 1). From the wording in the questionnaire we cannot be sure whether they have the
creationism in mind or whether they simply do not recognise that the current evolutionary theory is
almost consensually accepted by the scientific community as the only valid theory of the formation of
organisms. On the other hand, students mostly disagreed that evolution should be taught only to the
persons who are not offended by it. Disagreement with the statement that teachers should have an
option of teaching only topics which do not interfere with their personal beliefs, was somewhat better
supported by the Slovakian students, probably reflecting the higher levels of religiosity. From the view-
point of teaching evolution, it can mean that teaching can address all students in a classroom, regardless
of nationality. From the teaching point of view, the students mostly agree that scientific knowledge on
human evolution can be declared as basic knowledge which every person should possess; that they
recognise a connection between the biodiversity and evolution; and for the most part they know that
evolution is not an unproven theory. Combining responses from all the subscales, it can be concluded
that the associations between these subscales exist, but are generally small/moderate so as to allow
the conclusion that completely different teaching cultures should be established.
The knowledge on nature of science after secondary schools is far from satisfactory in all four
countries leading to a conclusion that this aspect of science teaching must be improved. The knowl-
edge of nature and philosophy of science can be regarded as the key to the acceptance of evolution
(Rutledge and Warden, 2000), because it provides a basis for scientific and evidence-based reasoning.
As such, it should be embedded deeply in the teaching of science not only because of evolution but
as a basis for acceptance and rejection of many important issues such as genetic modifications, global
climate changes, health issues, etc. More emphasis should be given to the understanding of the term
theory and what the attributes of a theory are and the way scientific findings are verified, both in pre-
paring a study and later in verifying the results (Scharmann et al., 2005). Additionally, students should
be encouraged to read popular and scientific texts, but, at least, in some cases they should be guided
to recognise the difference between writings based on evidence and writings based on speculation.
Strengthening the understanding of science and scientific methods is, therefore, crucial because when
people lack this understanding they choose an informal type of reasoning as a way of solving problems
(Sadler & Zeidler, 2005).
The understanding of genetics is regarded by many as a prerequisite to the understanding of
evolution (Beilharz et al., 1993) even if the relationships are not very straightforward as presented in
Table 4. Students from all participating countries on average showed the highest level of knowledge in
the domain of genetics, a finding which can be explained by the coverage of genetics in the secondary
school curricula. Differences among Czech, Slovenian and Turkish students were small and Slovakian
students obtained the lowest scores (Table 3). One cannot be satisfied with the results because a number
of students received zero points out of six (data not shown). Analysing the table answer by answer, it
was possible to see that only about three quarters of the students were sure about the determination
of sex in humans, or the presence of the DNA in plants and animals. From the low scores achieved by
answering the item about modern genetics (it is possible to transfer genes with genetic engineering in
bacteria from humans), it can be concluded that students receive information about the classical genetics
but are poorly informed about the connections between genetics and biotechnology.
Questions on the knowledge on evolution were best answered by the Czech students and stu-
dents from all other countries did not exceed the 50% of the scores on average (Table 3). Results can be
regarded as alarming because the understanding of evolution is the scientific basis for understanding
many topics in biology (Dobzhansky, 1973). Without evolutionary connections, biology can be regarded
as an encyclopaedia of unconnected facts. It can be recognised as shocking that only a little more than
half of the students knew that fleas cannot develop from dust in a biogenetic way, and only one fifth
of them know that the development of an eye can be explained by the laws of evolution. It seems that
the teaching of biology is lost in details but important “cover stories” such as biogenesis-abiogenesis
and the emergence of life are poorly covered.
13
(P. 6-18)
Results of the knowledge on human evolution are better than results on the general evolution
subscale (Table 3) and only Slovakian students failed to exceed the 50% average. The results can be
attributed to the better coverage in all curricula. However, the results are flawed because only about
70% were sure that humans and dinosaurs did not coexist before the extinction of dinosaurs and
only 33.9 % knew that humans are not the direct descendants of apes. One can recognise that the
knowledge on human evolution is affected by different factors, such as the quality of teaching, reli-
gious views and the interest for and the knowledge of general evolution. Human evolution should
not be taught as a list of human species and the knowledge of anatomical facts learnt in the process
of root learning. Instead, time gaps and connections between human species should be explained by
showing that a state when only one of the human species existed at a time was not common but an
exception. Additionally, time gaps and anatomic differences between findings do not automatically
mean a discontinuity in the evolution but, in fact, a lack of fossils.
Non-scientific explanations are inevitable in human civilisations yet the science classrooms
should be a place where they are not welcomed. The highest scores were achieved by Slovenian
students and the lowest by the Slovakian students. It was amusing to find out that only about 70% of
the students did not believe that accidents were more frequent on Friday the 13th, but the statement
“If evolution exists, it is directed by a superior being” was denied by less than half of the students. We
can attribute these results to the fact that non-scientific explanations are not seriously confronted
during science teaching in schools. It is reported that teachers do not spend enough time on the
identification of alternative conceptions or even on their importance (Anderson, Fisher & Norman,
2002; Jensen & Finley, 1996; Lewis & Wood-Robinson, 2000). From correlations (Table 4) it can be
observed that the absence of non-scientific explanations is positively correlated with knowledge,
but not with the nature of science.
Conclusions
It can be concluded that differences exist among the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and
Turkey and these differences can influence the teaching of evolution. The understanding of the na-
ture of science in all countries is probably the weakest point, where improvements are immediately
necessary. Only an excellent understanding of the differences between scientific and unscientific
explanations can help someone to recognise the distinction between them in new contexts. Religion is
deeply embedded in a culture and its values make the teaching of science more difficult (Reiss, 2008);
however, teaching science can only be based on scientific reasoning. Additionally, the way of scientific
reasoning can greatly help in making personal decisions on issues like the use of genetically modified
organisms, health and many others. Even if the questionnaire measured only a small fraction of the
knowledge, it can be recognised that the knowledge of high school students in the fields of genetics,
evolution and human evolution is seriously flawed. There are no excuses that three out of ten do not
know for sure that humans and dinosaurs never coexisted. One of the possible explanations is that the
teachers and students never debated on self-evident issues (from the point of view of the teachers).
In each country there are persons who can be regarded as fundamentalists who reject evolution on
this basis. The difference is in the number which is bigger in Slovakia and Turkey than it is in the Czech
Republic or Slovenia, but does not exceed the number of non-believers or sceptics. This brings the
opportunity to prepare a balanced debate in a classroom setting. From the internationalisation of the
university teacher education, it can only mean that there is always a chance to meet a fundamental-
ist or nonbeliever. Religiosity was found to be a predictor of the rejection of evolution and the lack
of related knowledge. When students understand the difference between scientific and unscientific
reasoning with regard to such phenomena, it is hardly likely that any fundamentalist group will try
to ban the inclusion of the analysis of the predictive values of horoscopes. Thus, this may be a good
time to start teaching about the evolution of life to the fundamentalists.
14
(P. 6-18)
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Appendix:
Frequencies of answers concerning the nature of science (NoS), knowledge on genetics (KoG),
knowledge on evolution (KoE), knowledge on human evolution (KHE), and non-scientific explanations
(NEX) for the total samples.
I do not know /
False True
Statements N I am not sure
% %
%
223 496 267

NoS Scientific theories are not facts but explanations. (T) 986
22.6 50.3 27.1
299 387 308

NoS Scientific explanations are only temporary. (T) 994
30.1 38.9 31.0
152 674 168

NoS Every scientific work is based on a hypothesis. (F) 994
15.3 67.8 83.1
The development of humans by evolution is only one of the possible scien- 270 424 295
NoS 989
tific explanations. (F) 27.3 42.9 29.8
Scientists can accept the existence of particles or phenomena which have 237 373 381
NoS 991
never been directly observed. (C) 23.9 37.6 38.4
162 681 151

NoS To be valid every scientific theory must be confirmed by an experiment (F) 994
16.3 68.5 15.2
588 53 348
KoG Ordinary tomatoes do not have genes, but genetically modified ones do. (F) 989
59.5 5.4 35.2
16
(P. 6-18)
I do not know /
False True
% %
%
538 149 304

KoG Genetically modified animals are always bigger than original animals. (F) 991
54.3 15.0 30.7
Cloning is a type of reproduction whereby a new organism is the result of 680 198 114
KoG 992
the fusion of an egg-cell and a spermatozoid. (F) 68.4 20.0 11.5
758 99 135
KoG The human sex is determined by females. (F) 992
76,4 10,0 13,6
168 686 133

KoG All animals and plants possess DNA. (T) 987
17.0 69.5 13.4
It is possible to transfer genes with genetic engineering in bacteria from 206 223 564
KoG 993
humans. (T) 20.7 22.4 56.7
537 324 131

KoE Traits developed during a lifetime are transferred to the offspring. (F) 992
54.1 32.7 13.2
725 52 217
KoE The universe is less than 1 million years old. (F) 994
72.9 5.2 21.8
528 111 353

KoE Under good conditions fleas can develop from a particle of dust. (F) 992
53.2 11.2 35.6
298 209 481

KoE We can explain the development of an eye by evolution only.(T) 988
30.2 21.2 48.7
Women, who understand the theory of natural selection, are more likely to 411 251 328
KoE 990
choose males with good genes. (F) 41.5 25.4 33.1
Evolution does not necessarily lead to the development of more complex 215 312 461
KoE 988
traits. (T) 21.8 31.6 46.7
701 98 194
KHE Humans and dinosaurs coexisted before the extinction of dinosaurs. (F) 993
70.6 9.9 19.5
129 708 151

KHE Neanderthals used fire. (T) 988
13.1 71.7 15.3
On the Earth there was always only one species of humans at the same 632 152 205
KHE 989
time. (F) 63.9 15.4 20.7
127 559 303

KHE Human evolution is a result of natural selection. (T) 989
12.8 56.5 306
334 449 201

KHE Humans are the direct descendants of apes. (F) 984
33.9 45.6 20.4
301 504 185

KHE Modern humans are the descendants of Neanderthals. (F) 990
30.4 50.9 18.7
Humans evolved by the laws of evolution but the spirit was given by a 427 252 313
NEX 992
higher being. (F) 43.0 25.4 31.6
The theory of evolution must be wrong because the holy texts (Bible, Koran) 710 84 200
NEX 994
are unmistakable. (F) 71.4 8.5 20.1
453 293 266

NEX We can only explain what is happening in nature by natural laws. (T) 994
43.8 29.5 26.8
695 148 148

NEX On Friday the 13th there are more accidents. (F) 991
70.1 14.9 14.9
17
(P. 6-18)
I do not know /
False True
% %
%
452 353 188

NEX Without faith human life will be without reason. (F) 993
45.5 35.5 18.9
454 191 340

NEX If evolution exists, it is directed by a superior being. (F) 985
46.1 19.4 34.5
Received: February 20, 2013 Accepted: December 20, 2013
Andrej Šorgo Ph.D in Biology, Associate Professor of Didactics of Biology,

Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, University of
Maribor, Koroska cesta 160, Maribor, Slovenia.
E-mail: andrej.sorgo@uni-mb.si
Website: http://biologija.fnm.uni-mb.si/
Muhammet Usak Ph.D in Science Edudation, Associate Professor of Science
Education, Gazi Faculty of Education, University of Gazi,
Teknikokullar 06500, Ankara, TURKEY.
E-mail: musak@gazi.edu.tr & musaktr@gmail.com
Website: http://www.musaktr.com
Milan Kubiatko PhD, Assistant Professor of Biology Education at the Institute
for Research in School Education, Faculty of Education,
Masaryk University, Porici 31, 603 00 Brno, Czech Republic.
E-mail: mkubiatko@gmail.com
Website: http://www.kubiatko.eu
Jana Fančovičova PhD, Assistant Professor of Biology Education at the
Department of Biology, Faculty of Education, Trnava University,
Priemyselna 4, 918 43, Slovakia.
E-mail: fankaj@gmail.com
Pavol Prokop PhD, Associate Professor of Biology at the Department of
Biology,
Faculty of Education, Trnava University, Priemyselna 4, 918 43
Slovakia.
Phone: +421 33/5516047
E-mail: pavol.prokop@savba.sk
Website: http://www.zoo.sav.sk/prokop
Miro Puhek Ph.D in Ecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics,
University of Maribor, Koroska cesta 160, Maribor, Slovenia.
E-mail: miro.puhek@uni-mb.si
Website: http://e-ucenje.sinergise.com
Jiri Skoda PhD, University Jana Evangelisty Purkyně, České mládeže 8,
400 96 Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
e-mail: Jiri.Skoda@ujep.cz
Website: http://jiriskoda.webnode.cz/
Mehmet Bahar Ph.D. in Biology Education, Professor of Didactics of Biology,
Faculty of Education, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Bolu,
Turkey.
E-mail: mehmet.bahar@gmail.com
18
THE ROLE OF GENERAL
INQUIRY KNOWLEDGE IN
ENHANCING STUDENTS’
TRANSFORMATIVE
INQUIRY PROCESSES IN
A WEB-BASED LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT
Abstract. Inquiry has been regarded

Mario Mäeots,
internationally as an effective learning
Margus Pedaste approach for science learning; however, it
is still not actively used in many schools.
The current study argues that one of the
reasons is incompleteness of the model for
inquiry. This study seeks to open inquiry
Introduction
from a new angle by bringing in general in-
quiry knowledge, which could be regarded
The European-level strategic document “Science Education
as an important limitation in enhancing
Now: A renewed Pedagogy for the Future of Europe” indicates
inquiry. Next, it is empirically tested if
that science-teaching pedagogy should be reversed from mainly
general inquiry knowledge is related to the
deductive to more inquiry-based methods (Rocard et al., 2007) by
level of students’ transformative inquiry
emphasizing the importance of the inquiry learning. It is strongly
skills. General inquiry knowledge pertains
supported by the research in this area showing that inquiry is a
to the nature of a coherent inquiry process
very useful and effective learning method, helping students’ better
as a whole, comprehending knowledge
to understand the world around them (e.g., White & Frederiksen,
about transformative and regulative
1998). Furtak, Seidel, Iverson, and Briggs (2012) have demonstrated
inquiry processes. In this study, students’
in their meta-analysis that inquiry learning has an overall mean ef-
general inquiry knowledge and trans-
fect size of 0.50 in favour of the inquiry approach over traditional
formative inquiry skills were evaluated in
instruction. However, it has also been declared that inquiry can be
a web-based learning environment Young
too complex for learners due to the range of metacognitive and
Researcher. The analysis of the results
cognitive activities (Quintana, Zhang, & Krajcik, 2005). Thus, the
demonstrated that the learning environ-
current study offers an approach focused on developing students’
ment was suitable for improving students’
general inquiry knowledge, which considers both metacognitive
general inquiry knowledge, and these are
and cognitive activities aimed to reduce the complexity of inquiry
related with the level of transformative
learning.
inquiry skills.
Concept of Inquiry Learning Key words: computer-supported inquiry
learning, general inquiry knowledge,
Inquiry learning has been described as a student-centered inquiry learning, inquiry meta-processes,
(Mäkitalo-Siegl, Kohnle, & Fischer, 2011) and highly self-directed transformative and regulative inquiry
constructivist form of learning (de Jong & van Joolingen, 1998). processes.
Thus, the study process requires students’ active involvement and
some prior knowledge about the domain that is being studied.
Furthermore, research has shown that inquiry learning is focused Mario Mäeots, Margus Pedaste
on learning through experimenting and scientific reasoning University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
(Kolloffel, Eysink, & de Jong, 2011). These aspects require critical
thinking and reasoning processes that are characteristic of scientific
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(P. 19-32)
work. Abstract reasoning processes are also needed to correct student misconceptions about science
(Demircioğlu, Dinç & Çalık, 2013). Studies indicate that inquiry learning places students in the position
of scientists (Chang, Sung, & Lee, 2003; Keselman, 2003). Like scientists, students make discoveries by
carrying out experiments and observations to investigate relations between dependent and independ-
ent factors (de Jong & van Joolingen, 1998; Wilhelm & Beishuizen, 2003). De Jong and Njoo (1992) de-
scribe scientific activities through transformative processes, where the key element of the discovery is
to produce new knowledge about domain information (Hulshof & de Jong, 2006). Here, the term “new
knowledge” is conditional because it is usually new to the learner, but not necessarily the scientists. Nev-
ertheless, inquiry learning helps learners construct a personal knowledge base that is scientific (McGinn
& Roth, 1999) and can be used for predicting and explaining future observations or experiments (van
Joolingen, de Jong, & Dimitrakopoulou, 2007). However, through scientific experimentation, not only
is new knowledge acquired, but also new skills as well. Therefore, inquiry learning can be seen as both
a process of acquiring new domain knowledge and of improving inquiry skills.
As a learning method, inquiry finds its roots in scientific discovery learning, and often these terms
are used as synonyms. Extant research has declared that these two learning methods are merging (van
Joolingen et al., 2007). Still, a distinction between inquiry and discovery learning has been indicated.
If the main goal of discovery learning is to use existing knowledge in new ways to learn information
(Saunders-Stewart, Gyles, & Shore, 2012), inquiry learning is more focused (besides acquiring new do-
main knowledge) on developing the skills needed for inquiry processes (Mäeots, Pedaste, & Sarapuu,
2009). These inquiry skills have often been improved in computer-based learning environments that
are proven to be effective tools for fostering inquiry skills (Eysink et al., 2009; Plass et al., 2012), but also
to lead students to deeper and more meaningful understandings of the scientific content (Manlove,
Lazonder, & de Jong, 2006; Reid, Zhang, & Chen, 2003). In addition to students, these environments can
also be useful to teachers, specifically, pre-service and new science teachers who need opportunities
to practice how to implement inquiry in their class (Özel & Luft, 2013) and understand the entirety of
scientific inquiry (Kang, Orgill & Crippen, 2008).
Computer-based environments provide learners with ample options to explore a virtual world by
manipulating and finding relations between variables (Beishuizen, Wilhelm, & Schimmel, 2004). As a
result of inquiry, students complement their inquiry skills and construct for themselves new knowledge
about scientific content. Some authors have stated that web-based learning environments can be seen
as cognitive tools (Azevedo, 2007) that support the improvement of the students’ cognitive skills. In the
context of inquiry learning, these skills are necessary for transformative processes.
Inquiry Processes
Inquiry learning is a complex process and, in addition to transformative processes, it also involves
regulative processes (de Jong & Njoo, 1992; Njoo & de Jong, 1993). If transformative processes are pri-
marily for improving inquiry skills, regulative processes are more focused on controlling and supporting
the specific transformative process (Hulshof & de Jong, 2006). Regulative processes are related to skills
like planning, monitoring, and evaluating (de Jong, Kollöffel, van de Meijden, Staarman, & Janssen,
2005). Regulative processes function to help students plan all activities for transformative processes,
monitor and evaluate the success of the plan and, if necessary, make changes to the initial plan. In
the case of transformative processes, there are also different suggested stages and skills related to
them (Friedler, Nachmias, & Linn, 1990; Harlen & Jelly, 1997). Transformative processes involve stages
sequenced as: (a) problem identification; (b) research question formulation; (c) hypotheses formulation;
(d) experiment planning; (e) executing the plan; (f ) analyzing data; and (g) drawing conclusions (see
Pedaste & Sarapuu, 2006). However, the distinction between transformative and regulative processes
does not cover all processes that characterize inquiry learning.
Kim and Chin (2011) showed that because of a lack of students’ inquiry competency, it is impos-
sible to apply inquiry learning in everyday science classrooms. This supports Quintana et al.’s (2005)
suggestion that students have to know the interrelated activities that inquiry learning involves, refer-
ring to students’ prior knowledge, which can be appreciated as general inquiry knowledge. White and
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Frederiksen (2005) propose that students need to develop an understanding about how to manage
their own inquiry. They describe it as metacognitive knowledge for action, involving knowledge of
managing cognitive and metacognitive processes (White & Frederiksen, 2005). In the current study,
it is stated as general inquiry knowledge that can be defined as knowledge, particularly pertaining
to the nature of a coherent inquiry process as a whole. It is not knowledge about how to perform an
inquiry activity, e.g., to formulate a hypothesis, but is, rather, knowledge about the components of
the inquiry process as a whole, including knowing the sequence of transformative inquiry stages, the
necessity of each stage, and the role of metacognitive processes needed for regulation of inquiry.
Therefore, promoting students’ general inquiry knowledge is a crucial element for successful inquiry
learning. It leads to the assumption that, besides transformative and regulative processes, there exists
a third type of inquiry process—inquiry meta-processes—where the general course of transformative
and regulative processes is planned. Inquiry meta-processes can be defined as learning processes
that are performed for planning and activating regulative and transformative inquiry processes in a
coherent way. The relations between these three types of processes and the knowledge involved in
them can be described through a theoretical model of inquiry learning.
Theoretical Model of Inquiry Learning
Recent research has often concentrated on studying inquiry learning in the context of supporting
and developing transformative and regulative inquiry processes and skills (e.g., Gutwill & Allen, 2012;
Manlove, Lazonder, & de Jong, 2009; Reid et al., 2003; Wu & Hsieh, 2006). Less has been investigated
regarding how students’ general inquiry knowledge affects the improvement of other inquiry processes
and skills. Thus, considering outcomes of previous studies, where the development of transformative
and regulative inquiry skills and relations between them were investigated (see Mäeots et al., 2008;
Mäeots et al., 2009; Mäeots, Pedaste, & Sarapuu, 2011; Pedaste, Mäeots, Leijen, & Sarapuu, 2012), a
revised theoretical model of inquiry learning was constructed (see Figure 1).
General inquiry knowledge
Inquiry meta-
processes
Regulative inquiry Regulative Transformative Transformative inquiry

knowledge and skills processes processes knowledge and skills
Domain
knowledge
Figure 1: A revised theoretical model of inquiry learning: (a) processes involved in the inquiry
process (grey area), (b) relations between processes (thick arrows), and (c) relations
between knowledge and skills related to the inquiry processes (thin arrows). The
direction of the arrows indicates information flows between different components
of the model.
If a learner has reached a result in a particular inquiry stage, the outcome should be evaluated.
This evaluation is a regulation process that emerges from the result of a transformative process. All
these processes require specific knowledge and, sometimes, skills. Meta-processes assume general
inquiry knowledge; regulative processes are based on regulative inquiry knowledge and skills; and
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transformative processes rely on transformative inquiry knowledge and skills. In addition, transforma-
tive processes need some input from domain-related knowledge (including procedural knowledge),
while the regulative and meta-processes are more general and based on knowledge that is not
domain-dependent. They can be transferred from one context to another without specific limitations.
According to this model, general inquiry knowledge is a prerequisite for the acquisition of specific
knowledge and skills that are necessary for transformative and regulative processes.
Regulative and transformative processes are associated with particular knowledge and skills by
two-directional arrows. Consequently, these types of knowledge and skills are needed to conduct
these processes, but performing the processes also improves them. An exception can be seen in the
case of meta-processes; knowledge applied in these will be evaluated through regulative and trans-
formative processes. Thus, the improvement of general inquiry knowledge can be expected while
learners perform regulative or transformative processes successfully. Therefore, there are one-way
arrows from general inquiry knowledge toward meta-processes, and the same from regulative and
transformative processes toward general inquiry knowledge.
In the current study, evidence was collected about the improvement of student dyads’ general
inquiry knowledge for the purpose of describing the role of inquiry meta-processes in relation to
transformative processes. This study was carried out in the web-based learning environment Young
Researcher. Specifically, the following research questions were addressed:
1. How does the learning environment, Young Researcher, improve students’ general inquiry
knowledge?
2. Which relations appear between the general inquiry knowledge and transformative
inquiry processes?
Learning Environment
Several studies have shown that web-based learning environments are efficient tools for con-
ducting inquiries (e.g., Reid, et al., 2003; van Joolingen, de Jong, Lazonder, Savelsbergh, & Manlove,
2005). These environments enable students to observe phenomena that they cannot easily see or
imagine, manipulate variables in simulated ways, and explore the targeted problem (Chang & Wang,
2009). In this study, the web-based inquiry learning environment Young Researcher (http://bio.edu.
ee/teadlane) was applied. It is designed for students to learn biological topics (e.g., “Why is it hard
to catch a falling body?”, “Why does our pulse and breathing rate change?”). Such topics are associated
with the Estonian science curriculum.
Each task in the learning environment is structured according to the inquiry learning stages:
problem identification, research question and hypothesis formulation, experiment planning, carry-
ing out an experiment, analysis and interpretation of results, and drawing conclusions (Mäeots et al.,
2009). Inquiry learning is more successful if the learning process is guided (de Jong, Martin, Zamarro,
Esquembre, Swaak & van Joolingen, 1999). Thus, to help students in their learning, different forms
of supportive elements are offered by the Young Researcher learning environment. The content of
these elements is designed to account for the characteristics of general inquiry knowledge, and trans-
formative and regulative processes (see Table 1). Some of these elements are designed to support
one specific type of inquiry knowledge and skills, but most of them can be flexibly applied to support
different types of knowledge and skills, e.g., students’ general inquiry knowledge and transformative
inquiry knowledge, and the skills that are supported by virtual professor, virtual teacher and virtual
blackboard.
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Table 1. Supportive elements in the learning environment Young Researcher, and how different
types of knowledge and skills are supported through them.
How different types of knowledge and skills are supported through elements
Supportive element
Transformative inquiry Regulative inquiry
General inquiry knowledge
knowledge and skills knowledge and skills
Guidelines given by the Necessity of the stage: e.g., Components of the transforma- Evaluation of the learning proc-
Virtual professor hypothesis is the answer to tive process: e.g., a research ess: e.g., you have to check
the research question, which is question is a question that whether all components of the
theoretically justified and evalu- contains independent and hypothesis are present and if
ated by experiment. dependent variables. it fits with a stated research
question.
Guidelines given by the Stage position in relation to Planning the learning process:
Virtual teacher other stages: e.g., before e.g., now you have to think how
conducting an experiment, to check the correctness of the
scientists often formulate a hypothesis.
hypothesis.
Stages of inquiry presented Stages in pre-defined Components of a transforma-

by the Virtual blackboard sequence: research question tive process: after each stage,
formulation, hypothesis formu- the correct answers appear
lation, experiment planning, on the blackboard next to the
carrying out an experiment, name of a particular stage
analysis of data, and drawing (e.g., the correct hypothesis).
conclusions.
On the basis of the definition of general inquiry knowledge applied in this study, the following
aspects of general inquiry knowledge were considered while designing the supportive elements. In
order to understand the inquiry process as a whole, the presence of a pre-defined order of the inquiry
stages was necessary through the learning process. This information was presented on virtual black-
board. Guidelines for presenting the relations between stages, and why each stage is necessary in the
context of the whole inquiry, were also necessary. This was given through designing the texts of Virtual
teacher and Professor.
Design and Procedures
Empirical data aiming to detect the development of the student dyads’ general inquiry knowledge
and clarify the role of general inquiry knowledge in relation to transformative processes was collected
during an inquiry learning competition. This involved a three-week competition where volunteer student
dyads had to solve five inquiry learning tasks in the learning environment Young Researcher. A pre- and
post-test study was designed, where the first and final inquiry tasks in the learning environment were
used as the pre- and post-tasks for comparing students’ initial and final general inquiry knowledge
and transformative inquiry skills. Three intermediate tasks with supportive elements formed a learning
phase. The content of the tasks was developed based on the theoretical model described above. The
students had access to the learning environment at any time, and they did not have a time-limit for
completing particular assignments. In the case of technical problems and general questions about the
learning environment and competition, they were supported by a person from the organizing commit-
tee of the competition. The inquiry tasks were opened for the students step by step on particular dates
to avoid unreasonably rapid advancement in the competition, which has been found to be a problem
when involving students in deep learning processes within applied web-based learning environments
(Pedaste & Sarapuu, 2006).
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Participants
One hundred seventy dyads from 6th-9th grade (aged 10-16) participated voluntarily in an all-Estonian
inquiry learning competition, which was carried out in the web-based learning environment Young Re-
searcher. Sixty five dyads finished the competition on time, and their results were used in this study.
Pre- and Post-Tasks
The general structure of the pre- and post-tasks was designed to mirror the tasks of the learning
phase. The main goal of the pre- and post-tasks was to evaluate the improvement of students’ general
inquiry knowledge. As a first step, students had to identify a problem based on the real-life situation.
After that, they moved to the next step, where they had to plan the whole inquiry process to solve the
problem. The purpose of this assignment was to explicitly perceive information about students’ general
inquiry knowledge in the pre- and post-tasks.
For students, a random list of six pre-defined transformative processes was provided: research ques-
tion formulation, hypothesis formulation, experiment planning, carrying out an experiment, analysis
of data, and drawing conclusions (presented here in the expected correct sequence). There were two
assignments that measured students’ general inquiry knowledge. Assignments followed the definition
of the general inquiry knowledge applied in this study, containing knowledge about the sequence of
transformative inquiry stages and the necessity of each stage. Thus, they first had to put transforma-
tive stages into an appropriate sequence by writing the queue number after each stage as it should
be done while carrying out an inquiry. For example, students had to show that they understood that
research questions should be formulated before hypotheses, and hypotheses are formed according to
the research question before starting to plan experiments. This type of general inquiry knowledge is
needed to plan the whole inquiry process, especially the transformative processes. Second, they were
asked to explain why each transformative process is necessary in the context of inquiry and how it is
related to the other stages of inquiry. For example, students had to explain why careful planning is
needed before starting experimentation and data collection. This type of general inquiry knowledge is
especially needed to effectively plan, monitor, and evaluate—the processes that are defined as regula-
tive inquiry processes.
Next, after sequencing the inquiry stages, they began to solve a problem by formulating a research
question and hypothesis. It was an open task, where students had to write the correct question (derived
from the problem) containing the independent and dependent variables, and the correct statement
indicating a hypothetical answer to the stated question. The presence of described components was
also an evaluation criterion for research and hypothesis formulation.
After that, they had to plan and carry out an experiment. In the planning stage, a predetermined
experimental plan was already available. However, student dyads’ comprehension of the plan was evalu-
ated by questions with multiple-choice answers. These questions were about variables that needed to be
fixed for the entire experiment, the design of the experiment, and the safety aspects that needed to be
taken into account. In the case of carrying out an experiment, students conducted real experiments. Their
success was evaluated by the accuracy of the table filled in by the students during the experiment.
Students in the next stage could not use their own data; they were given the results of the control
experiment made by authors of the environment. Hence, in the analysis stage, everyone had the same
results to analyze, aiming to discover the relations among the variables. This allowed everyone to be on
an equal footing, even if the experiment was unsuccessful. Finally, student dyads had to state a conclu-
sion that accounted for the results of the study. They had to answer the formulated research question.
Conclusions were evaluated similarly to the hypothesis: there should be a statement containing
independent and dependent variables, and the relation between them. According to the research
questions of the current study, there were three differences implemented in the design of the pre- and
post-tasks compared to the tasks in the learning phase. First, there was an additional assignment about
general inquiry knowledge as described above. Second, the supportive elements were not available
while solving pre- and post-tasks. In the learning phase, all supportive elements described in Table 1
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were present. Third, all assignments for assessing students’ inquiry skills and knowledge were in the
form of open questions.
Data Analysis
Students’ open-ended answers for assessing general inquiry knowledge in the pre- and post-tasks
were analyzed according to a coding scheme based on the theoretical model of the study (see Table 2).
Inter-rater reliability of coding was performed by two researchers and determined using Cronbach’s α,
which showed a relatively high score of 0.859.
Students could receive one point for each stage of inquiry that was placed appropriately in line
with the stages before and after the particular stage. (It was possible to collect a maximum of six points.)
Thus, if the student indicated, for example, experiment planning as the first step and placed all other
stages correctly (except research question formulation and hypothesis formulation, which should be
done before planning), he/she still received four points for placing the rest of the stages in the correct
sequence. The evaluation followed complete correct sequence of the stages that are presented in the
Young Researcher: research question formulation, hypothesis formulation, experiment planning, car-
rying out an experiment, analysis of data, and drawing conclusions.
Table 2. Assessment levels for analysing students’ answers about general inquiry knowledge.
Level Description of the level Examples of students’ answers
The answer is not given, or it is out of the assignment’s

0 Research question formulation is something special.
context.
The answer is in the assignment’s context, but the expla-

1 Planning means collecting data.
nation is not about particular transformative process.
Too-general explanation about necessity of particular

2 Drawing conclusion is the answer to the research question.
transformative process.
Experiment planning is a base for collecting data and helps

Accurate explanation about necessity of particular trans- us to find answers to the research questions. For that, we
3
formative process. need to figure out all necessary experimental instruments
and the activities involved.
The improvement of the students’ general inquiry knowledge was analyzed with the non-parametric
Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and relations between the general inquiry knowledge and transformative
processes were assessed by Spearman’s correlation. Non-parametric analyses were conducted because
the results were assessed on an ordinal scale and did not conform to normal distribution.
Results of Research
Improvement of Students’ General Inquiry Knowledge
One of the goals of the current study was to evaluate student dyads’ general inquiry knowledge
by applying the web-based inquiry learning environment Young Researcher. Specifically, this meant
assessing the participants’ knowledge about transformative inquiry stages and their necessity for the
inquiry. Sixty-five dyads who participated in the study showed a significant improvement (Z = -2.2; p <
0.05) in sequencing transformative inquiry stages as they should be passed through while conducting
an inquiry (see Table 3).
Although the average score was near the maximum (4.5 out of 6.0) in the pre-task, there were still
20 dyads out of 65 who showed positive improvements in sequencing inquiry stages. There were also
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10 dyads whose results in sequencing showed a negative change. The reason may be explained by the
fact that it was a competition environment and their overall position in the competition might have
had a negative effect on their motivation. Previous studies that have been carried out in a competitive
environment have shown a similar tendency, where group of students do not concentrate completely
on the tasks that must be solved to finish the competition (Mäeots et al., 2011).
The most common mistake made in the pre-task was to mix up the research question formulation
with the hypothesis formulation; however, in the post-task, these were placed in the correct sequence.
It also was common to start with experiment planning, which is somewhat justified because, in typical
school situations, the science class students start their inquiry by planning. The main aim of the study
was to broaden students’ knowledge about doing inquiries by presenting the list of inquiry stages in
the pre-defined order. Of course, it can be criticized because of the fact that scientists do not actually
work in that way, but students must have an idea of what is involved in inquiry.
Table 3. The differences in general inquiry knowledge of the student dyads (n = 65) according to
pre- and post-tasks.
Indicators of general inquiry Pre-task Post-task

Positive Negative
knowledge (maximum Ties Z-score
ranks ranks
points) Mean SD Mean SD
Sequence of the inquiry proc-

4.5 1.9 5.1 1.7 20 10 35 -2.2*
esses (6)
Necessity of research question
1.5 0.9 1.9 0.7 24 8 33 -3.2**
formulation (3)
Necessity of hypothesis formu-
1.5 0.7 1.9 0.7 25 9 31 -2.9*
lation (3)
Necessity of experiment plan-
1.8 0.8 2.0 0.7 19 10 36 -1.7
ning (3)
Necessity of carrying out an
1.7 0.8 1.9 0.8 18 7 40 -2.1*
experiment (3)
Necessity of analysis of data (3) 1.6 0.9 1.9 0.8 20 8 37 -2.6*
Necessity of drawing conclu-

1.6 1.0 2.0 0.7 24 4 37 -3.8**
sions (3)
Significance at a level of: * < 0.05; ** < 0.001
Under general inquiry knowledge, student dyads’ knowledge about the necessity of each trans-
formative inquiry process was also assessed. As indicated in Table 3, a significant development was
detected in the students’ explanations about the necessity of each transformative process. The biggest
differences appeared in explaining the necessity of research question formulation (Z = -3.2; p < 0.001)
and drawing conclusions (Z = -3.8; p < 0.001). Students explained that, without a question to investi-
gate, it is impossible to start an inquiry, and the question is what needs to be answered by the inquiry.
Drawing conclusions were stated in the pre-task to be just conclusions about what is done, but in the
post-task, students added that it is an answer to the research question and is, therefore, also the answer
to the problem. In addition, positive improvements were found in the explanations about hypothesis
formulation, carrying out an experiment, and analysis of data. But no statistically significant improve-
ment was found in the necessity of experiment planning. Here, 36 out of the 65 dyads stayed at the
same level in their explanations. However, based on mean scores of the pre- and post-tasks, a slight
positive change was found (from 1.8 to 2.0).
In general, the results indicate that the application of Young Researcher supported the develop-
ment of the student dyads’ general inquiry knowledge. In the learning environment, the dyads were put
into a learning situation where there was given an appropriate sequence of transformative processes,
and knowledge of the necessity of particular stages was only supported by their practice or optional
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guidance given by the virtual professor. There were no specific assignments supporting the develop-
ment of students’ general inquiry knowledge, e.g., tasks for analyzing why a research question should
be formulated before formulating a hypothesis, or why a hypothesis is needed at all in the process of
inquiry. However, despite the specific support, an improvement in general inquiry knowledge was
demonstrated.
Relations Between General Inquiry Knowledge and Transformative Inquiry Skills
Considering that the purpose of inquiry learning is to develop inquiry skills (transformative inquiry
skills in particular) and follow the structure of the revised theoretical model of inquiry learning (see Fig-
ure 1) applied in this study, the aim was to determine the relations between post-level general inquiry
knowledge and transformative skills. But first, an overview of student dyads’ post-level transformative
skills is presented in Table 4.
Table 4. The post-level of the student dyads’ (n = 65) transformative inquiry skills in the Young
Researcher learning environment.
Inquiry skills (maximum points) Mean SD
Research question formulation (6) 4.3 1.1
Hypothesis formulation (9) 7.1 1.8
Experiment planning (6) 4.7 1.0
Carrying out an experiment (3) 2.5 0.7
Analysis of data (4) 3.4 1.5
Drawing conclusions (9) 6.6 1.8
On this basis of the study results, it can be concluded that student dyads reached an average level
of inquiry skills, with 70–85% of the maximum points depending on inquiry skills. This is an expected
result because previous research has shown that Young Researcher is applicable for developing students’
transformative inquiry skills (Mäeots et al., 2011; Pedaste et al., 2012).
As described in the previous section, student dyads showed significant improvement of general
inquiry knowledge and, thereby, a positive correlation was assumed between the level of general inquiry
knowledge and the post-level transformative processes. In order to identify these relations, a Spearman
correlation was executed (see Figure 2).
The results showed statistically significant positive correlations between general inquiry knowledge
and research question formulation, hypothesis formulation, carrying out an experiment, and drawing
conclusions. The strongest positive correlation was detected in the case of carrying out an experiment
(ρ = 0.491; p < 0.01). Insignificant but positive relations appeared in correlation to the level of general
inquiry knowledge of analyzing data and planning experiments. However, generally, it can be concluded
that general inquiry knowledge correlates positively at a statistically significant level with most of the
transformative processes. This result is in line with the theoretical model proposed in this study, where
general inquiry knowledge has an important role in activating the inquiry meta-processes that should
guide transformative processes of inquiry learning.
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Research question
Drawing formulation Hypothesis
conclusions formulation
ρ = 0.440*
ρ = 0.422* ρ = 0.366*
General inquiry
knowledge
ρ = 0.126 ρ = 0.028
ρ = 0.491*
Carrying out an Experiment

Analysis of data
experiment planning
Figure 2: Correlations between learners’ post-level general inquiry knowledge and post-level
transformative processes (n = 65). *p < 0.01
According to this model, there are four factors influencing the quality of transformative inquiry
processes, and meta-processes represent only one of those factors. The other three are regulative proc-
esses, transformative inquiry knowledge, and domain knowledge. The correlation coefficients ranging
from 0.028 to 0.491 indicate that the system is multi-factorial; however, general inquiry knowledge
seems to have an important role in determining the outcome of inquiry learning through inquiry
meta-processes.
Discussion
The aim of the current study was to theoretically specify the role of general inquiry knowledge in
the model of inquiry and investigate the improvement of students’ dyads general inquiry knowledge
and its relation with students’ transformative inquiry skills. Specifically, empirical data was collected
about students’ abilities to sequence transformative inquiry processes and explain the necessity of each.
This type of data allowed the acquisition of information that White and Frederiksen (2005) suggest as a
students’ understanding about the course of the inquiry. This cognitive outcome can be distinguished
into two groups: 1) what students will be able to do; and 2) what students know about inquiry (Leder-
man, Lederman, & Antink, 2013). They also indicate that students, in their believing, simply have to do
science, and inquiry should be addressed explicitly during science instructions (Lederman et al., 2013).
However, research has shown that, due to the low level of cognitive and metacognitive knowledge, the
inquiry learning process is too complicated for the students in the everyday classroom (Kim & Chinn,
2011; Quintana et al., 2005). In the current study, explicit support was used to provide students with
an overview of inquiry stages and explanations about the necessity of each stage. Young Researcher
did not only provide support, but, furthermore, aimed to create an atmosphere where students feel
themselves “inside the inquiry”. All this resulted in significant improvement in the students’ abilities to
sequence and explain the necessity of transformative processes. This might be valuable also to teachers
who do not feel comfortable applying inquiry in their lessons. Research has indicated that teachers also
lack knowledge in understanding the entirety of inquiry (Kang, Orgill & Crippen, 2008; Kidman, 2012).
Therefore, it is good if teachers can use prepared materials that are scientifically tested and proven to
be effective. Young Researcher is designed in accordance to offer a professionally pre-designed environ-
ment considered beneficial to students in developing their inquiry knowledge and skills.
The results of this study support the hypothesis and indicate that there are significant positive
correlations between post-level transformative inquiry processes and general inquiry knowledge. For
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example, research question formulation, hypothesis formulation, and making conclusions all had sig-
nificant positive correlations with students’ levels of general inquiry knowledge. It is expected that these
skills may improve in the same way because they have similar structure, containing independent and
dependent variables with only one difference: the relation between variables is not expected according
to the structure of a research question (Harlen & Jelly, 1997; Zachos, Hick, Doane, & Sargent, 2002). Posi-
tive correlations between developments of these skills have also been demonstrated in several earlier
studies (e.g., Mäeots et al., 2009; Pedaste & Sarapuu, 2012). Still, there were also two expected correlations
that did not show statistical significance in the current study. These were correlations of general inquiry
knowledge with transformative processes of experiment planning and data analysis.
Conclusions
The problem of the current study was to describe an inquiry model that takes into account general
inquiry knowledge that could be an important factor determining students’ progress in inquiry. This
model was developed based on a theoretical review of previous research. Next, there was an aim to find
empirically if students’ general inquiry knowledge is related with the progress of their transformative
inquiry skills. Therefore, a web-based learning environment, Young Researcher, was developed in a way
that supported students’ general inquiry knowledge. Both general inquiry knowledge and transforma-
tive inquiry skills were analyzed in the beginning and end of the learning process.
In conclusion, this study indicates that the Young Researcher learning environment is applicable
for improving students’ general inquiry knowledge. The results of the study also support the theoretical
model of inquiry, confirmed by positive correlations between post-level transformative processes and
general inquiry knowledge. These results are significant on two levels.
First, it enriches the international discussion and understanding of the process of inquiry learning.
Inquiry learning has been regarded as a key learning approach in many European-level strategic docu-
ments and national curricula (e.g., Osborn & Dilon, 2008; Tatar, 2012); however, it is still not widespread
in schools (Martin et al., 2004). One of the reasons could be that the model of inquiry has not been
complete. Second, the outcomes of this study could be applied by teachers who might consider the
reasons for failure of the inquiry learning process. The important additional idea discovered in the current
study is that general inquiry knowledge is needed to activate transformative inquiry processes. Thus,
teachers who are starting inquiry with students should ensure that the students have general inquiry
knowledge at a level that is sufficient to start with inquiry.
However, in this study, no relation was found between all transformative inquiry processes and
general inquiry knowledge. Therefore, further studies are needed to find the minimal level of general
inquiry knowledge needed for effective inquiry and if there exists a tendency that, depending on
students’ initial level of general inquiry knowledge, only specific skills of transformative processes will
improve. Additionally, relations between regulative inquiry skills and general inquiry knowledge should
be determined in future research. According to the inquiry model specified theoretically in this study,
it can be hypothesized that regulative skills could have an important effect on the improvement of
transformative inquiry skills; however, it cannot be explained with data collected in the current study.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the European Social Fund project of Doctoral School in Educational
Research.
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Received: September 16, 2013 Accepted: December 27, 2013
Mario Mäeots Master of Science in Natural Sciences, PhD Student, University

of Tartu, Faculty of Social Sciences and Education, Institute of
Education, Salme 1a, 50103, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: mario.maeots@ut.ee
Margus Pedaste Ph.D. in Life and Earth Science Education, Professor of Technology
Education, University of Tartu, Faculty of Social Sciences and
Education, Institute of Education, Salme 1a, 50103, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: margus.pedaste@ut.ee
31
THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE
SCRIPTS IN THE
ORGANIZATION OF CAMPUS
TOURS
Abstract. The aim of off-campus edu-

cational activity guides are to expand
Wen-Wei Chiang,
the knowledge of participants; however, Feng-Hsien Tu,
visitors often rate tours according to the Chia-Ju Liu
quality of their experience, rather than by
what they have learned. Thus, ensuring
that visitors are engaged requires that tour
guides be able to identify the needs and
expectations of visitors. This study sought
to contextualize campus tours using four
dramaturgical elements: “Actors” (tour
guides), “audience” (visitors); “setting”
(campus); “performance” (the tour).
Dramaturgy and cognitive scripts were
combined to form the research basis of this Introduction
study. Free association models were em-
ployed to rank the sites subjects most wish The interaction between guides and visitors is the main
to visit and service blueprints were used to focus of off-campus educational activities such as field trips and
illustrate how campus tour services should tours of fairs and museums. Guides must understand the needs
be organized and delivered. This study of visitors, effectively present the site being visited, and meet the
provides a comprehensive analysis of the expectations of visitors. The aim of these efforts is ultimately to
processes used to decipher complex service improve the knowledge of the public. Due to lack of professional
encounters as well as concrete examples of knowledge, however, visitors often rate the tour based on how
their application. they feel about the experience rather than whether they actually
Key words: cognitive script, field trip, acquired knowledge (Tu, Blocher, & Roberts, 2008).
informal education, theatre, tour guide, Previous studies on service encounter and customer satis-
visitors faction were generally based on the expectation-disconfirmation
perspective, using quantitative attribution methods for research.
The problem with this method is that it only reveals the elements
Wen-Wei Chiang that affect customer satisfaction rather than how these factors
National Kaohsiung Normal University, operate (Stauss & Hentschel, 1992). Grove and Fisk (1983) used
Taiwan (R.O.C.) the service theatre as a metaphor for the interactive process of
Feng-Hsien Tu service encounter, which pointed research on service encounter
National Pingtung University of Science
and Technology, Taiwan (R.O.C.) in a new direction. However, they failed to provide or verify a
Chia-Ju Liu specific research framework.
National Kaohsiung Normal University, An impersonal style should be used to the work of previous
Taiwan (R.O.C.) researchers when setting the dramaturgical service context for
32
ISSN 1648–3898 THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE SCRIPTS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF CAMPUS TOURS
(P. 33-45)
campus tours (Grove & Fisk, 1983; Grove, Fisk, & Bitner, 1992; Grove, Fisk, & Dorsch, 1998). We then
adopted the role perspective of Solomon, Surprenant, Czepiel, and Gutman (1985) to analyze the
interactive process of service encounter from the respective viewpoints of visitors and tour guides.
The cognitive script approach developed by Alford (1993) was then used to identify the cognitive
service scripts of visitors and tour guides and compare the differences between the two, the results
of which formed the research framework of this study. We then used service blueprints to illustrate
how the campus tour services were organized and delivered.
Research Hypotheses
Grove et al. (1992) indicated that in a service theatre, actors and audience create the script based
on their respective roles and then follow this script throughout the performance. Bitner, Booms, and
Mohr (1994) felt that in many routine service encounters, particularly those involving experienced
customers and staff, the roles are well defined and each party is aware of the expectations of the other.
Solomon et al. (1985) posited that service encounter is the psychological representation of the interac-
tion between providers and recipients of service, with each party playing a specific role to achieve a
specific aim. In the research of Bitner et al.(1994; 1990), the findings based on customer perspective
differed significantly from those based on the perspective of service staff. This study hypothesized
that in the service encounter of the National Pingtung University of Science and Technology (NPUST)
campus tour, visitors and tour guides have different cognitive scripts due to the different roles they
play. The three research hypotheses of this study are as follows:
Hypothesis 1: In the routine service encounter of the NPUST campus tour, a visitor with con-
sumer experience is equipped with a cognitive service script prior to the encounter.
Hypothesis 2: In the routine service encounter of the NPUST campus tour, a tour guide with
service experience is equipped with a cognitive service script prior to the encounter.
Hypothesis 3: In the routine service encounter of the NPUST campus tour, visitors and tour
guides have different cognitive scripts due to the different roles they play.
Literature Review
Dramaturgy
Dramaturgy basically means the combination of wording and concepts of theatrical value such
as setting manipulation and pretend play to induce a large sense of on-stage interaction among the
participants (Grove & Fisk, 1983). The symbolic meaning is the main attraction for this study which
was originally developed by Goffman (1959, 1974, and 1983) and Grove and Fisk (1983, 1992, and
1998).
First off, using the micro-analytical method to explore the essence and meaningfulness of hu-
man behaviours is basic. As Goffman (1959) used such method to discover the metaphor behind
theatrical dramas or dramatization in many situations. The symbolic meaning is mostly relevant
to social interactions and inter-personal relationship, the importance on which precedes those of
orders. Through the micro-analytical discussion, the theatrical impression emphasizes the ingrained
role of face-to-face interaction in social life. For instance, a simple human behaviour can symbolize
a specific scene of a performance. The actors hope to see the audience’ reaction post-performance,
of which is understandable by virtue of their expectant individual behaviours. Moreover, the core
concept of Goffman’s expectant theory encompasses the structure of stage performance and actor-
audience interaction. These factors in modern theatres have been ritualized. For instance, Dierking,
Falk, Rennie, Anderson, and Ellenbogen (2003) proposed that stage setting and actors the most
inseparable component of stage performance. Their interactions generally lead to the discovery
of a new aspect of the reutilization. In many cases, the new discovery proves to be a ruby in the
rough as far as progressive theatre is concerned. Based on this, Goffman’s theory consists of three
phases— the front, the back and the periphery. The front includes all the obvious elements impor-
33
THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE SCRIPTS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF CAMPUS TOURS ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 33-45)
tant to both the actors and audience such as props, costumes, makeup, behaviours and expressions.
The back mainly refers to the phase where actors rehearse, break, prepare and discuss their ideas
and visions while the periphery include the extra elements that are not included in the front or
back areas. Secondly, service ritual is basically the process in which ones use role analysis to gain
insights about human behaviours, social expectation between them. In the first years when service
ritual was introduced to the public, Goffman emphasized the role and function of face in modern
society indicating socialization is part of the ritualized performance. Later researches confirm the
support and usage of face in many dimensions of social life. For instance, one expresses his feelings
and emotions through behaviours while facial expression is hard to be detected but is inevitable in
all kinds of human interaction (Goffman, 1974). In this light, campus tours are essentially another
way of impression management through intentional guide and manipulation of settings and even
behaviours. The definition of the guide and tourists on campus tour varies and depends on the choice
of campus promotion. Thus, Goffman thinks that before designing a set of campus tour strategy, the
campus administrative must the type of impression.
Most of the dramaturgical theories rely on the apparent factors used by the scientific researchers
to be effective. On one hand, the consumers and audience are the basic roles for whom the campus
tour is provided. The metaphoric service needs to be interpreted on a subconscious level by both
the service provides and acceptors. On the other hand, Grove and Fisk (1983) thought the interaction
between the service providers and consumers is somewhat similar to that in dramaturgical dimension.
For instance, the audience and actors (service providers and consumers) will function accordingly
based on the different of their cognitive scripts. In this aspect, Grove and Fisk (1983) synthesized the
views in both the dramaturgical and service areas and find that the comprehensive setting of service
can be divided at least into the front and back areas. According to Wecker and Fischer (2011), the
aforementioned theories are also presented in the review which centres on how the dramaturgical
strategy can evoke the most important elements for campuses to improve the dynamic chemistry
relation among audience, actor and setting. It should be pointed that the core element of service
sector is that the service provider knows how to use the resources to construct a satisfaction-prone
environment and employed professional guides to generate more positive feedbacks.
In this light, this study combines the relevant dramaturgical theories into the approach to ana-
lyzing campus tour strategies. The design of these strategies mostly regard the campus condition as
setting, tour guides as actors and understandably the audience as the visitors. All in all, the approach
using dramaturgical elements need to assess the impact of the factors as far as the service process
is concerned (Feher & Rennie, 2003).
Theory and Concept of Cognitive Script
The basic theory of cognitive script is based on the most general principles of psychology with
the exception that they only provide a viable explanation for the cognitive differences (Carlson &
Carlson, 1984). Moreover, the theory of cognitive script basically will present all the scripts possible
by human beings. In the initial stage, the analysis of each unit of setting is the basis for interpreting
an event and the incidents that can be idealized. With the specific identification of time, location,
behavior, affective elements, environments and surrounding personnel, the psychological functions
can be altered. In the setting where the effect takes place, there must be a person that inflicts the
psychological manipulation and one to be affected (Kobbe et al., 2007).
Schank (1975) pointed out that our reconceptualised impression can be compartmentalized.
For instance, an order of an event can be reorganized deliberately as long as the subjects are aware
of the process (Chan, Chiu, Lam, Pang, & Chow, 1999; Schank & Abelson, 1977). The order or the
reorganized event can be called rearranged script. The operation of a cognitive script is defined by
all the circumstances known to the audience and actors (Schank & Abelson, 1977). As far as daily life
experience is concerned, knowledge is essentially the active structure of existing habits and orders.
Moreover, the cognitive script is the link between fragmented activities or ideas. In this light, Bower,
Black, and Turner (1979) claimed that the order of behaviours, role and props can be combined to
34
(P. 33-45)
generate a more constructive information. Mandler (1982) defined cognitive script in relation to the
so-called basic continued model which is the modified version of planned model. In terms of the
structure of cognitive script, it comes from a pre-constructed psychological concept. For instance,
Bitner et al. (1994) studied the airline industry, hospitality industry and catering industry in the U.S
and found that the key factor to accumulating the most customers is as the following order: 1) the
employees know how to deal with the issues in transaction; 2) the employees role-play customers
to gain more perspectives and 3) the employees know how to respond to solve customers’ problems
(Bitner et al., 1994; Bitner et al., 1990). Alford (1993) analyzed the usage of cognitive script in rela-
tion to service satisfaction and provide another angle to understand the role of cognitive script in
modern service provision. The so-called service provision is the analogy of the order of the events
adopted by the customer instead of inducing by the predesigned script. When an event is unpre-
dictable, then there are many internal factors that have caused the shared script to be ineffective
(Oliver, 1980). Most researchers’ orientation rests on the interactive dilemma in educational sector.
If the evaluated service and potential improvement on campus tours run in the opposite direction,
there will be significant gap (Maclellan, 2004; Schmidt, 2008).
The concept of the service theatre, proposed by Grove and Fisk (1983), led to further research
on service encounter and customer satisfaction. Solomon et al. (1985), described only the viewpoint
of role theory, failing to provide specific research framework and methodology. If we could integrate
the perspectives of various researchers and build a dramaturgical framework for analyzing service
encounter, this could be used to specifically describe the interactive process of service encounter
and assist both parties in learning how to engage in appropriate role behaviour. The results would
aid in controlling the quality of service encounter and provide valuable contributions to both the
commercial service industry and academia.
Service Blueprint and Exploring the Terminal-based Service Provision
The blue print of service, in a word, can be used to describe the process of service provision
and acceptance and it in some case is a visible form to the service providers. In addition, as far as its
function is concerned, the point-to-point service exchange is reflected on the process because the
flow of information and communication are involved with the interaction in the rest of the service
terminals. Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and Berry (1990) thought that these terminals are also decision-
making points wherein the service blueprints are simplified for the administration sake. For instance,
when there is a potential dysfunction in a service terminal, it is shown on the blueprint. In this light,
Shostack (1984) proposed the several famous key factors of constructing a service blueprint: 1).
locating the process. Once there is very distinguished line that separates the pre and post-service
regions, the process can be located. The pre-service region includes guide and tourists and the visual
interaction during the touring process. The next region is basically the moving line that encompasses
the reservation, interactive exchanges. And the last line is primary the involvement of management
(Nielsen, Nashon, & Anderson, 2009); 2). Different types of Contacts during Touristic interaction. Most
likely, the procedural presentation of the activities and local campus culture is very flexible as it
depends on the number of attractions and tourists and the size of the campus accessible. These
elements directly lead to the various contacts and interaction between tourists and guide and 3).
Improvement based on analysis of dysfunctional stations. To some degree, the analysis of the
destination is in line with the intention to maintain a high consistency in service quality and tourist
feedback. In short, it is to reduce negative influence through word-of-mouth or other types of fast-
spread communication. Afterwards, the management can assess the negative comments at each
possible point and improve that specific service provision point.
Campus Tour – Using NPUST as a Case Study
The development of the service industry in campus context has drawn increased attention to
the concept of “service encounter”, which is considered a core component of service marketing. Ac-
35
(P. 33-45)
cording to Solomon et al. (1985)”service encounter” referred to the interaction between the visitor
and the service provider during the service delivery process. Service encounter emphasizes the im-
portance of allowing visitors to assess the service delivered, such that the service provider manages
these impressions in relation to service quality. The theoretical basis of previous studies on consumer
satisfaction is built on the expectation-discrimination model. Levels of satisfaction are determined
by comparing the degree of consistency between the pre-purchase expectations of consumers
with post-purchase perceived performance (Oliver, 1980). Grove and Fisk (1983) indicated that the
process of service encounter involves interaction between clients and staff with many similarities
to dramaturgy. As a result, the dramaturgical viewpoint has been used to interpret the interactive
process of service encounters using a case study rooted in the National Pingtung University of Science
and Technology. To contextualize campus tours at the place, this study utilized four dramaturgical
elements proposed by Grove: “Actors” (service providers – tour guides); “audience” (recipients of
service – visitors); “setting” (location of service or service environment); “performance”(the service
itself – service encounter).
NPUST Agricultural and Ecological Education Tour
Introduction. The National Pingtung University of Science and Technology (hereafter referred to as
NPUST) is located in the Dawu foothills of Laopai Village, Pingtung County. It has the largest cam-
pus area of all universities in Taiwan and has been praised as the “National Park University” for its
natural beauty. Apart from faculty buildings, the university is also equipped with an ecological park,
an outdoor learning facility for soil and water conservation, and a botanical garden. To encourage
stronger ties with the community, NPUST developed the agricultural and ecological education tour,
during which visitors are guided through campus sites that are educationally meaningful, such as
the protected species shelter, farm equipment exhibition, outdoor learning facility for soil and water
conservation, and tropical/subtropical orchards. Based on the requirements of visitors, the tour can
be completed in one or two days, with the university providing meals and lodging.
Agricultural and Ecological Education Tour. Individuals who wish to participate in the tour can download
an application form from the NPUST website for submission at least three weeks prior to the tour date.
During summer and winter school holidays, visitors can make a booking by phone from Monday to
Thursday and then fax or email the application form to the university’s promotional office. The university
then arranges for guides according to the sites selected on the application form and requires payment
of the tour fee one week prior to the tour. The main tour sites are described below:
• Protected species shelter: Since its establishment in 1992, the shelter has rescued and cared
for more than 2,000 protected and non-protected animal species. The site is professionally
presented by tour guides and the Shalin Life Education Centre is also introduced.
• Farm: A variety of animals such as dairy cows, beef cows, pigs, laying hens, broilers,
chickens, and stray dogs are raised in this sprawling establishment covering 40 hectares
(including grazing land). The farm also includes a technical training centre, halfway home
for stray dogs, and a livestock waste management centre. Apart from providing students
and visitors with the opportunity to observe livestock up close, the farm also provides stu-
dents of animal husbandry and farmers with an excellent training and practice facility.
• Farm machinery exhibition: Using pictorial displays, models and multimedia methods,
the exhibition systemically presents the tools and machinery used in agriculture, fishery,
animal husbandry and rural life in each stage of development. The exhibition aims to
help visitors understand and appreciate the achievements of our ancestors in agricultural
science.
• Outdoor learning facility for soil and water conservation: This facility is an experimental
research and educational facility established in partnership with relevant government
departments. It is an excellent venue for outdoor learning in relation to soil and water
conservation.
36
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• Vanilla garden: Established in 1991 as Taiwan’s first vanilla garden, it is not only used for
research purposes but also opened to the public as an educational venue.
• Meditation lake: Ecological engineering methods were used to improve the surrounding
stability of the wetlands and aquatic plant restoration techniques were applied to provide
organisms with a stable habitat.
This study investigated the interactive process of service encounter from the respective view-
points of visitors and tour guides. We employed the cognitive script approach proposed by Smith
and Houston (1985) to identify the cognitive service scripts of visitor and tour guides and compared
the differences between the two. The results were used to construct an analysis framework based on
service theatre for service encounters, in order to explore its interaction process. Individual cogni-
tive scripts were used to obtain data on individual action. This study employed the service blueprint
concept to illustrate the overall process and various stages of service encounter, to allow both parties
to understand the potential behavioural model of the other. A behavioural guide can be derived
based on the cognitive service script, to prevent unexpected conflicting behaviour.
Sample
Most people are relatively familiar with and/or have participated in school or museum tours.
With the assistance of the NPUST General Education and Continuing Education Departments, we
used convenience sampling to interview 120 students, major in different discipline from departments
in NPUST. The subjects (informants) were given 50 minutes to complete the questionnaire before it
was written about an interview. This study recovered 120 questionnaires, making a recovery rate of
100%; the number of valid samples was 104, making a valid sample ratio of 86.67%.
We adopted a standardized process for the questionnaire survey, in order to infer more accu-
rately whether the visitors were equipped with the concept of cognitive script during the service
encounter. Subjects expressed why they felt satisfied or dissatisfied with specific events based on their
past experience and described problems they had encountered in the service process (Mortensen
& Smart, 2007).
Script Analysis
Based on the recursive self-assessment scale proposed by Bower et al. (1979), this study em-
ployed a recursive approach to analysing scripts process was divided into three steps: The script
resulting from the three step process described above can be considered the standard cognitive
script of a majority of subjects. Using the service blueprint to establish the service process The ser-
vice blueprint described in the literature review was used to deconstruct the tour service process,
creating an easy to follow graphic, as shown in Figure 1. This study also provides a feasible strategy
to improve the quality of tour services.
37
(P. 33-45)
Figure 1: Agricultural and ecological education tour.
Results of Research
Free Association
We sought to understand the order of NPUST sites by allowing subjects to select and rank sites.
A review of recovered data revealed that only the protected species shelter had complete data; all
other sites had some uncompleted areas. Table 1-3 shows the ranking of sites by research subjects.
Table 1-3 shows that 51.9% of subjects ranked the protected species shelter as a priority site to
visit; the second most highly ranked site was the farm (23.1%), followed by the botanical garden (19.2%),
38
(P. 33-45)
the vanilla garden (13.5%), the tropical and subtropical orchards (13.5%), the mediation lake and farm
equipment exhibition (9.8%), the visitor reception hall (9.6%), and finally the medicinal plants garden,
soil and water conservation facility, and wood science/industrial art exhibition centre (7.7%).
Table 1. NPUST site ranking (N=104).
Protected soil and water

Botanical
Order species Vanilla garden conservation Farm Lover’s slope
garden
shelter facility
N % N % N % N % N % N %
1 54 51.9 8 7.7 8 7.7 8 7.7 6 5.8
2 16 15.4 2 1.9 6 5.8 4 3.8 24 23.1 10 9.6
3 8 7.7 20 19.2 14 13.5 4 3.8 8 7.7 4 3.8
4 8 7.7 12 11.5 18 17.3 4 3.8 4 3.8 8 7.7
5 16 15.4 6 5.8 10 9.6 10 9.6
6 2 1.9 4 3.8 12 11.5 2 1.9 2 1.9 12 11.5
7 4 3.8 4 3.8 6 5.8 6 5.8 4 3.8 6 5.8
8 4 3.8 6 5.8 6 5.8 8 7.7 8 7.7
9 2 1.9 6 5.8 6 5.8 8 7.7 8 7.7 4 3.8
10 4 3.8 6 5.8 2 1.9 10 9.6 2 1.9 6 5.8
11 8 7.7 6 5.8 6 5.8 2 1.9 4 3.8
12 4 3.8 4 3.8 8 7.7 2 1.9 4 3.8
13 2 1.9 4 3.8 2 1.9
14 2 1.9 4 3.8 2 1.9
15 10 9.6 2 1.9
16 2 1.9 2 1.9 2 1.9 2 1.9
17 2 1.9 6 5.8 4 3.8
18 4 3.8 4 3.8 2 1.9 4 3.8
Deficiency 8 7.7 4 3.8 20 19.2 8 7.7 14 13.5
Tropical and Farm

Medicinal Swimming
Order subtropical Sports field Sports hall machinery
plant garden pool
orchards exhibition
N % N % N % N % N % N %
1 2 1.9
2 4 3.8 2 1.9 2 1.9 4 3.8
3 6 5.8 2 1.9 2 1.9 2 1.9
39
(P. 33-45)
Tropical and Farm

Medicinal Swimming
Order subtropical Sports field Sports hall machinery
plant garden pool
orchards exhibition
N % N % N % N % N % N %
4 8 7.7 6 5.8 2 1.9 2 1.9
5 14 13.5 6 5.8 6 5.8 2 1.9 6 5.8
6 10 9.6 10 9.6 4 3.8 2 1.9 8 7.7
7 10 9.6 4 3.8 6 5.8 2 1.9 10 9.6
8 10 9.6 10 9.6 6 5.8 6 5.8 4 3.8
9 4 3.8 8 7.7 4 3.8 6 5.8 2 1.9 8 7.7
10 6 5.8 2 1.9 10 9.6 4 3.8 2 1.9
11 6 5.8 4 3.8 8 7.7 2 1.9 6 5.8 8 7.7
12 12 11.5 2 1.9 6 5.8 8 7.7 6 5.8
13 6 5.8 2 1.9 18 17.3 14 13.5 6 5.8 4 3.8
14 10 9.6 10 9.6 8 7.7 16 15.4 4 3.8
15 2 1.9 4 3.8 10 9.6 10 9.6 10 9.6 10 9.6
16 2 1.9 4 3.8 10 9.6 2 1.9 6 5.8 10 9.6
17 4 3.8 6 5.8 6 5.8 4 3.8 2 1.9
18 4 3.8 6 5.8 2 1.9 6 5.8 6 5.8
Deficiency 8 7.7 14 13.5 24 23.1 14 13.5 22 21.2 14 13.5
Wood science
Mediation and industrial Visitor First Second
Order Library
Lake arts exhibition reception hall restaurant restaurant
centre
N % N % N % N % N % N %
1 2 1.9 10 9.6 4 3.8 2 1.9
2 2 1.9 20 19.2 2 1.9 2 1.9 4 3.8
3 6 5.8 10 9.6 4 3.8 10 9.6 2 1.9 2 1.9
4 6 5.8 14 13.5 4 3.8 2 1.9 4 3.8 4 3.8
5 4 3.8 10 9.6 4 3.8 4 3.8 2 1.9 2 1.9
6 10 9.6 4 3.8 2 1.9 14 13.5 2 1.9 4 3.8
7 8 7.7 10 9.6 6 5.8 6 5.8 8 7.7 2 1.9
8 4 3.8 6 5.8 6 5.8 8 7.7 4 3.8 2 1.9
9 2 1.9 8 7.7 10 9.6 4 3.8 4 3.8
10 4 3.8 8 7.7 6 5.8 10 9.6 2 1.9 8 7.7
40
(P. 33-45)
Wood science
Mediation and industrial Visitor First Second
Order Library
Lake arts exhibition reception hall restaurant restaurant
centre
N % N % N % N % N % N %
11 2 1.9 8 7.7 8 7.7 4 3.8 2 1.9
12 8 7.7 8 7.7 4 3.8 6 5.8
13 4 3.8 6 5.8 6 5.8 2 1.9 2 1.9
14 6 5.8 6 5.8 6 5.8 2 1.9 2 1.9
15 4 3.8 8 7.7 2 1.9 4 3.8 2 1.9
16 18 17.3 6 5.8 4 3.8 2 1.9 6 5.8
17 4 3.8 4 3.8 2 1.9 30 28.8 2 1.9
18 2 1.9 2 1.9 6 5.8 28 26.9
Deficiency 14 13.5 2 1.9 18 17.3 4 3.8 22 21.2 22 21.2
Comparison of Cognitive Script between Visitors and Tour Guides
This study designed a formal questionnaire based on the ranking of campus sites by research
subjects. This study surveyed subjects only in relation to a full day tour, and considered nine different
tour sites (protected species shelter, farm, farm equipment exhibition, wood science and industrial art
centre, soil and water conservation facility, tropical/subtropical orchards, vanilla garden, medicinal
plant garden, meditation lake) when comparing the tour routes.
The tour routes were ranked by visitors and tour guides, as shown in Table 4. The rankings of
tour guides were then compared with those of visitors, as shown in Table 5. Tour guides and visitors
were in agreement about which two sites to tour first (protected species shelter and the farm) and
which site to visit last (Meditation Lake). The views of tour guides and visitors were also consistent
as far as the tour sequence of the tropical/subtropical orchards, medicinal plant garden, and wood
science and industrial art centre.
The main difference between tour guides and visitors was in relation to the vanilla garden. Visi-
tors ranked the vanilla garden as the third site to visit, indicating that they wished to tour the vanilla
garden prior to visiting other sites. Tour guides felt they should first tour the tropical/subtropical
orchards, medicinal plant garden, wood science and industrial art centre, and lastly visit the vanilla
garden. Tour guides and visitors also held different views on the order in which to visit the soil and
water conservation facility and the farm equipment exhibition.
Table 4. Comparison of tour route scripts between tour guides and visitors.
Tour guide Visitor

Site
Number of Number of
Ratio (%) Ranking Ratio (%) Ranking
persons persons
Protected species shelter 62 59.6 1 58 55.8 1
Farm 28 26.9 2 36 34.6 2
Farm equipment exhibition 16 15.4 8 18 17.3 7
41
(P. 33-45)
Tour guide Visitor

Site
Number of Number of
Ratio (%) Ranking Ratio (%) Ranking
persons persons
Wood science and industrial

20 19.2 5 20 19.2 6
arts centre
Soil and water conservation

18 17.3 7 10 9.6 8
facility
Tropical/subtropical orchards 18 17.3 3 20 19.2 4
Vanilla garden 14 13.5 6 16 15.4 3
Medicinal plant garden 18 17.3 4 20 19.2 5
Meditation Lake 22 21.2 9 18 17.3 9
Table 5. Compiled rankings of tour guides and visitors.
Ranking Tour site Tour site
1 Protected species shelter Protected species shelter

2 Farm Farm
3 Tropical/subtropical orchards Vanilla garden
4 Medicinal pant garden Tropical/subtropical orchards
5 Wood science and industrial arts centre Medicinal plant garden
6 Vanilla garden Wood science and industrial arts centre
7 Soil and water conservation facility Farm equipment exhibition
8 Farm equipment exhibition Soil and water conservation facility
9 Mediation lake Mediation lake
Discussion
As indicated in the above tables 1-5, there are certain phenomena worthy of discussion in rela-
tion to the covered literatures. Firstly, as far as the type of tourism destination image is concerned,
cognitive script is equally functional in campus tour context as it is a commercial community activity.
There is no exhaustive evidence in the above analysis that shows that simplistic destination can lead
to satisfactory results. The basic image of a campus is essentially the image of the campus and the
attractions revolving around it. The local characteristics and the exact image also refer to the geo-
graphical differences such as cultural and historical backgrounds, and the scale tend to be larger for
the cognitive script to take effect as the space of places subject to changes overall the years.
Obliviously, farms received a high score. Contact with living animals, possibility to feed them and
watching the foraging behaviour. Visitors prefer animals to plants by the results (Fischer et al., 2011;
Herzog & Burghardt, 1988; Leong, 2010). Special natural environment and unique cultural meaning
for the development of a unique cognitive script is open for speculation as construction, culture, in-
dustry, landscape and urban planning are all parts of the regional characteristics (Fischer et al., 2011;
Muter, Gore, Gledhill, Lamont, & Huveneers, 2013; Sanders, 2007).
Conclusions and Recommendations
Based on the above analysis and discussion, there are some significant conclusion to be drawn.
The effect of existing script subjects to the environment of the domain itself which can be an ex-
42
(P. 33-45)
cavated area for later image and recognition. Table 2-3 shows that tour guides effect is mainly to
reflect the subconsciousness of a script. The attraction of the campus city is clearly visible and even
vivid to induce a personal powerful way to remember the campus image. Stronger scripts tend to
introduce and consolidate in mind the image of the force and living space with the trip. Depending
on the nature of scripts, the process and evaluation criteria are highly different. In table 5, the tourists
rather travel to the temporary stay. Therefore, the so-called image-related script is the force for cam-
pus recognition. The conceptualized destination evidently needs to work with the visitors’ personal
lives or living space to construct the campus tourism image. The unique and distinctive script can be
produced relevantly as the tourists often feel strange to find similar cognitive direction to a specific
location. Lastly, with a strong tourist atmosphere, the scripts mentioned in table 1-5 can continue to
receive exclusive trip satisfaction thus improving the local travel service and leaving deep memories
to consolidate the tourist image with visual and verbal reinforcement.
Recommendations
1. Four recommended tour routes based on cognitive script results. Based on the core script re-
sults and the campus regulation that a one day tour can cover a maximum of four sites, we
recommend the following four routes for NPUST one day tours (Table 6):
Table 6. Recommended tour routes for NPUST one day tours.
Route Morning Afternoon
Route A Protected species shelter →Farm Vanilla garden – wood science and industrial art centre
Route B Protected species shelter →Farm Tropical/subtropical orchards →Medicinal plant garden
Route C Protected species shelter →Farm Farm equipment exhibition → soil and water conservation facility
Route D Protected species shelter →Farm Vanilla garden→ Mediation lake
2. The core script of NPUST tours covers nine sites. Tu et al. (2008) proposes that using the free
associations model, subjects listed the sites that they most wished to visit. After coding
the results, we identified the nine sites comprising the core script of NPUST campus tours:
protected species shelter, farm, tropical/subtropical orchards, medicinal plant garden, wood
science and industrial art centre, vanilla garden, soil and water conservation facility, and
farm equipment exhibition.
3. Preference for animal-related sites compared to vegetation or industrial arts related sites.
Pyhek, Perse, and Sorgo (2012) also concluded that the tour guides and visitors agreed on
which two sites to visit first: the protected species shelter and farm. These animal-related
sites were preferred over the vanilla garden, orchards, medicinal plant garden, wood science
and industrial art centre, farm equipment exhibition and soil and water conservation facility
(Herzog & Burghardt, 1988; Leong, 2010). Both groups ranked the mediation lake as the last
site on the tour to visit. We infer that this may be because the mediation lake is geographi-
cally located further away from the campus teaching area (Wecker & Fischer, 2011).
Research Limitations and Future Direction
Tour guides use verbal presentation, demonstration, and practice exercises when introducing
each of the sites on the tour. Therefore, skills such as holding the interest of the audience, technical
demonstrations, and properly executing and monitoring activities are paramount. Although the
emphasis on their performance varies according to the tour site, tour guides must try to capture
the attention of visitors (students) from the outset and assist them in acquiring new knowledge and
broadening their perspectives (Vedder-Weiss & Fortus, 2013).
Kobbe et al. (2007) pointed out that, because script theory is more applicable to industries
43
(P. 33-45)
with a high level of social interaction, this study used the university campus as the research context.
Consequently, the results cannot be generalized to all service industries. The subjects (script analysis
and case analysis) were selected using random sampling, thus the sample is not representative of
the population. However, because campus tours are common experiences for junior and senior high
school students, this should not cause bias in our conclusions. Also, this study only briefly outlined
the cognitive script of tour participants, as a means of tangibly representing visitor expectations.
We did not compare the dynamic process of service encounter between service providers and visi-
tors. Ryszard (2013) suggests future research could study inconsistencies between the expectations
of service providers and visitors and how these discrepancies influence visitor response, as well as
explore the function of other interfering variables.
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Received: August 16, 2013 Accepted: December 28, 2013
Wen-Wei Chiang Ph.D. Candidate, Graduate Institute of Science Education and

Environmental Education, National Kaohsiung University,
Taiwan (R.O.C.).
Feng-Hsien Tu Associate Professor, Centre for General Education, National
Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan (R.O.C.).
Chia-Ju Liu Professor, Dean of the College of Science, Director of Science
Education Centre & Educational Neuroscience Lab, Graduate
Institute of Science Education and Environmental Education,
National Kaohsiung University, 62 Shenzhong Rd., Yanchao Dist.,
Kaohsiung City 82444, Taiwan (R.O.C.).
E-mail: chiaju1105@gmail.com
45
UNDERSTANDINGS OF
ADVANCED STUDENTS
ON NATURE OF SCIENCE
AND THEIR MOTIVATIONAL
STATUS TO LEARN NATURE
OF SCIENCE: A TURKISH
CASE
Abstract. In this study, the purpose is to Mustafa Serdar Köksal,

describe advanced students’ motivational
status to learn Nature of Science (NOS)
Canan Tunç Şahin
and their understandings on NOS by using
Ranking Questionnaire for “interest” and
“importance” and modified version of
Views on Nature of Science Questionnaire. Introduction
The results indicated that the participants
did not see NOS as an important sub- It is certain that people and their lives are affected by in-
ject compared to mathematics, science novations which are the products of science. The number of
and social science subjects. Moreover, innovations (gene technology, nanotechnology, stem cell cure)
the participants were more interested is so high that we are continually being introduced to new jobs,
in mathematics and science subjects technologies and medicines as products of the innovations. In
than in NOS subject. The results on NOS parallel, new learning areas and skills needed in life also emerged
understandings also showed that the to operate life in line with these innovations. Based on these
participants were transitional in terms of needs, new educational programs were prepared to teach about
“evidence and observation based science” the required content knowledge and skills regarding science and
and “subjectivity” while they had informed scientific innovations (Project 2061, 2007; Turkish Ninth Grade
understandings on “place of imagination Biology Curriculum, 2007). In science teaching literature, content
and creativity in science”. They were also knowledge and skills needed to be understood and used. Scientific
naïve in terms of “existence of one method innovations and scientific knowledge have been defined in daily
in science”, “no hierarchy between theory life under the title of “scientific literacy” (Demastes & Wandersee,
and law”, “tentativeness” and “difference 1992; Uno & Bybee, 1994).
between observation and inference”. The Scientific literacy includes understanding and using scien-
results explained an important motiva- tific knowledge to make informed decisions in life (Bybee, 1997).
tional problem to implement any NOS Acquiring skills as to be scientifically literate in modern society
teaching methods to change misunder- has been advocated by educational reformers (Dillon, 2009; Uno
standings. & Bybee, 1994) and has been emphasized in science curricula and
Key words: advanced high school reform papers (Project 2061, 2007; Turkish Ninth Grade Biology
students, motivation, nature of science, Curriculum, 2007). Palinscar, Anderson and David (1993) defined
school subjects. abilities of a scientifically literate person as applying scientific
knowledge or concepts in principled ways in different situations
and using the language of science for interpretation, production
Mustafa Serdar Köksal and evaluation of spoken and written texts. Hurd (1998, p. 413-414)
Inonu University, Turkey specified other characteristics of the scientifically literate person
Canan Tunç Şahin as the ability to know about the requirement for a synthesis of
Bulent Ecevit University, Turkey knowledge from different fields including natural and social sci-
ences in problem solving. By this ability, he/she can understand
46
ISSN 1648–3898 UNDERSTANDINGS OF ADVANCED STUDENTS ON NATURE OF SCIENCE AND THEIR
(P. 46-58)
that synthesis is a requirement for dealing with science-social and personal–civic problems and also
that synthesis is required for knowing about the existence of dimensions in political, judicial, ethical, and
sometimes moral interpretations when science is considered in social context during problem solving.
Hence, as emphasized by Hurd (1998), scientifically literate people should have the ability to use science
knowledge when it is appropriate in making informed life and social decisions, forming judgments, re-
solving problems, and taking action. These characteristics have importance in daily life, since knowing
about structure of science and its products and using this knowledge to solve problems and to make
decisions give advantages to find a job, to evaluate alternatives based on information, to decide about
the quality of scientific claims, to manage more effectively technological tools and to make informed
decisions on social-scientific issues.
The two fundamental components of scientific literacy are learning content knowledge and learning
about aspects of nature of science (NOS) in general (Damastes & Wandersee, 1992; Uno & Bybee, 1994).
NOS refers to the epistemology and sociology of science, science as a way of knowing, and the values
and beliefs inherent to scientific knowledge and its development (Lederman, 1992, p. 331). The aspects
of NOS are described as follows (Lederman, Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Schwartz, 2002; McComas, 1998):
a) Scientific knowledge is tentative (Tentativeness)

b) Science is a way of knowing (Definition of science)
c) Scientific knowledge is based on evidence and observation (Evidence and observation
based science)
d) Scientific knowledge is embedded in social and cultural context (Role of social and cultural
factors in science)
e) Observation and inference do not have the same meaning (Difference between observation
and inference)
f ) The scientist is not objective when he or she begins to study; he or she has a background
(Subjectivity)
g) Creativeness and imagination are also important to produce scientific knowledge (Place of
creativity and imagination in science)
h) There is no hierarchy between theory and law and they have different roles (No hierarchy
between theory and law)
i) There is no universally accepted one way to do science (Ways of doing science).
Understanding NOS aspects is a basic requirement to “help students improve their general under-
standing of science” (National Research Council, 1996, p. 200). Without holding adequate and informed
understandings of NOS, teachers and students tend to believe unrealistic ideas that “science is ‘done’
and is a list of facts to memorize” instead of using scientific knowledge for life (Akerson, Morrison &
McDuffie, 2006).
Quality of learning and teaching NOS aspects as a knowledge type presented in schools, similar
to learning of other knowledge types presented in schools, depends on certain measurable affective
and cognitive factors. Frequently considered measurable factors in cognitive domain include reasoning
ability, information processing level, academic achievement and understandings (Lawson, 2006; Lawson,
Banks & Logvin, 2007; McComas, 2003; Schunk, 2000; Tunc Sahin and Koksal, 2010;Yumuşak, Sungur, &
Çakıroğlu, 2007). Especially understandings of NOS are a current and frequently studied factor (Khishfe,
2012; Köksal, Cakıroglu & Geban, 2013). The most frequently measured affective factors include attitude,
self-efficacy, anxiety and motivation (Baldwin, Ebert-May, & Burns, 1999; Ekici, 2005; Glynn & Koballa, 2006;
Mallow, 2006; Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003; Savran & Çakıroğlu, 2001, Yumuşak, Sungur, & Çakıroğlu,
2007). Among the affective factors, motivation was determined as effective in action for learning science
by some researchers (Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003). Based on the importance of motivation to learn
and NOS understandings, this study purposed to examine the motivational status of Turkish advanced
students to learn NOS knowledge as a school subject and their NOS understandings.
Currently, Pintrich and Schunk (2002) defined motivation as the process which instigates and
sustains a goal directed activity in learning. Motivational factors are also effective in learning NOS simi-
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larly to other learning processes, so motivational status of students in learning NOS is thought to be a
starting point to increase scientific literacy (Tunc Sahin and Koksal, 2010). There are different models for
explaining motivation in education and psychology literature (Keller, 1999; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Wigfield
& Eccles, 2000). But, motivation for learning, understanding and using scientific knowledge for daily life
purposes, requires a more dynamic explanatory model, considering the active knowledge construction
process of individuals. Based on the importance of scientific literacy components, making informed
decisions and life-long individual learning, it should be said, that motivational situations of students to
learn NOS should be taken into account by considering their active and idiosyncratic construction of
knowledge on NOS, when studying motivational aspect of misunderstandings regarding NOS. Among
the most emphasized models, expectancy-value model has merits to explain motivation in learning NOS,
since the model accepts the individual as an active, constructive and rational decision maker (Pintrich
& Schunk, 2002). The model has a strong potential for explaining the motivational status of individuals
who have been acquiring, using and constructing knowledge about science for their daily lives (Pintrich
& Schunk, 2002). The model has two components: expectancies and values. Based on these components
the model explains that individuals’ choice, persistence and performance in learning situations can be
explained by their beliefs in doing a task well and giving value to a task. In other words, the model asserts
that expectancies and values are main motivational factors that are directly effective on performance,
effort, achievement choices and persistence (Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). In the literature, it was shown that
task value component of the model was positively correlated with other variables, including intrinsic
motivation, extrinsic motivation, control of learning beliefs, self-efficacy and cognitive factors (Bong,
2001; Douglas, 2006, Pintrich, 1999; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990, Yumuşak, Sungur, & Çakıroğlu, 2007).
The relationship between task value and, affective and cognitive factors make task value a powerful
predictor of the motivational status of individuals on a learning task regarding science. The task value
like overall model of expectancy-value has also sub-components. Wigfield and Eccles (2000) pointed
out that the most studied subcomponents of the task value were importance, interest (intrinsic value)
and utility. The researchers defined “importance” component as “the importance of doing well of a
given task” (p.72), “interest” component as “the enjoyment one gets from doing a given task” (p.72), and
“utility” component as “a degree of how a given task fits into an individual’s future plans” (p.72). Among
the sub-components of task value, importance and interest factors are more associated with intrinsic
processes in explaining choices, persistence and performance during a learning task while utility fac-
tor is more associated with external benefit of learning. Intrinsic factors are composed of complex,
comprehensive and unobservable constructs; therefore, they have the potential to explain learning
choices, persistence and performance in learning more than pragmatist surface ideas such as useful or
not useful for the aim. Therefore, importance and interest components of the motivation have a strong
potential to predict educationally important outcomes that might be associated with the construction
of misunderstandings in learning NOS aspects.
The NOS aspects are not understood well enough by the advanced science students, ordinary
students, even scientists, teachers and prospective teachers, they present misunderstandings on NOS
aspects (Blanco & Niaz, 1997; Dagher & Boujaoude, 2005; Irez, 2006; Koksal & Sormunen, 2009; Ryan
& Aikenhead, 1992; Sandoval & Morrison, 2003; Sormunen & Koksal, 2011; Tsai, 2006). The reasons of
their misunderstandings were studied and the researchers showed textbooks, teachers and the media
were the resources of frequently determined misunderstandings in literature (McComas, 2003; Irez,
2008). But, motivational preparedness (degree of interest and importance values in NOS learning at the
beginning of teaching on NOS) of students or their perception regarding NOS knowledge as a school
subject was not considered as a resource. Hence, there is a need to consider students as active learners,
doing research on their motivational status. Learning NOS might contribute to understanding possible
resources of NOS misunderstandings.
High school science lessons are important for learning about NOS aspects, because they are com-
posed of subjects referring to NOS aspects and students meet scientific disciplines with their separate
titles (Biology, Chemistry etc.) for the first time in high school years. But high school lessons do not
include only teaching NOS, they also include teaching of other knowledge types such as health, physics,
chemistry, biology and social sciences. Sometimes, NOS teaching might be a limited part of a teaching
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of another type of knowledge (biology, chemistry, physics) in a certain time interval. Relative place of
learning NOS knowledge and other knowledge types in terms of motivational perceptions of students
in high school years might be an effective factor on tendency to do an activity or choosing activities
(choice), giving more time on one type than the other (persistence) and reading more on some types of
knowledge (performance) than the others. Therefore, the motivational status of high school students to
learn NOS knowledge might be an important explanatory resource for NOS misunderstandings, the status
might also explain the place of NOS knowledge among science or social science content knowledge.
In high schools, students differ in terms of their achievement and ability. Some of them present
ordinary achievement and ability while the others represent advanced success and ability in science or
social sciences. The advanced students can be defined as individuals who are good at content knowl-
edge in science and social sciences, and have higher motivation and more positive attitudes toward
learning science or social science subjects, and need to improve their learning in their own field of
study (Koksal & Sormunen, 2009; Koksal & Sormunen, 2011). Advanced students are important for
studying on misunderstandings regarding NOS aspects. Since advanced students are more active in
terms of learning tasks and more aware of the importance of getting knowledge about any discipline,
they also represent different behaviors more than ordinary students when they are learning science.
Park and Oliver (2009) studied on in-class behaviors of advanced students, they pointed out that in sci-
ence classes they frequently represented behaviors including “being impatient with the pace of other
students” (p.339), “having perfectionist traits” (p.339), “asking challenging questions” (p.339), “disliking
routine and busy work” (p.339), “being critical of others” (p.339) and “being aware of being different”
(p.339). By taking into account their advanced features, they should be investigated separately from
the other groups of students in high schools; since their experiences in the knowledge gain process
are more effective than of ordinary students and they experience more individual learning opportunity
on school-related subjects.
In addition to their individual advanced features, advanced students are also members of our
society which should make informed decisions on daily life subjects, socio-political issues, democracy
and science. For advanced students, knowing about science and its aspects (knowing about NOS) is as
important as knowing about science or social science content for being scientifically literate (Damastes
& Wandersee, 1992; Uno & Bybee, 1994). In other words, advanced students need to make their knowl-
edge meaningful and systematic by combining their content knowledge and knowledge about nature
of science during their decision making processes. As a starting point, their initial understandings on
the NOS aspects and motivational status to learn the NOS aspects should be determined to teach NOS
aspects to them effectively.
By considering importance and interest as the effective motivational factors on the components
of task value, this study purposed to examine the motivational status of advanced students regarding
importance and interest about NOS knowledge among the other types of knowledge as school subjects.
In addition, NOS understandings of advanced students are also purposed to determine.
General Background of Research
In this study, descriptive cross-sectional research method was preferred to determine the percep-
tions and the understandings of the participants. One hundred eighty six ninth grade advanced students
enrolled in one science (n=99, female=44, male=55) and one social sciences (n=87, female=48, male=39)
high schools participated in the study. Ninety two female and 94 male students were included in the
study. The majority of them (n=175) had not taken any course or seminar on the nature of science and
had not participated in any program regarding NOS. In Turkish educational system, social sciences and
science high schools were established for advanced students and these schools are located at only cen-
ters of provinces in the whole country. Science and Social Sciences high schools allocate more time and
dense content for science courses than ordinary high schools; 6 lessons per week for the ninth grade,
12 lessons per week for the tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades. Ordinary schools allocate 6 lessons per
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week for the ninth and tenth grades, 9 lessons per week for the eleventh and twelfth grades. The teach-
ers and students are selected to the schools via applying selection rules determined by the Ministry of
Education. For the students, selection process includes taking high nation-wide examination score and
having high background Grade Point Average (GPA). In the sample of this study, the participants were
among top scorers (5% of all test takers) in nation-wide examination including multiple choice items.
Instrument, Procedures and Data Analysis
To collect data on advanced students’ NOS understandings and their motivational status to learn
NOS as a school subject, two different instruments were utilized. The first one was a ranking questionnaire
developed by the researchers. The questionnaire included 17 knowledge type names as knowledges
given in the schools. For example, math knowledge, science knowledge, history knowledge and nature
of science knowledge were put into the questionnaire as knowledge type names. In the questionnaire,
the students were asked to rank the knowledge types by scoring “17” for the most important and inter-
esting and 1 for the least important and interesting. They could give the same ranking to two or more
different types of knowledge. The instrument was administrered to the students by the researchers.
The analysis of the answers to the questionnaire was done by counting frequencies of the participants
giving a number (1-17) for a subject. In other words, researchers counted the participants scoring each
number from 1 to 17 for a knowledge type. In the analysis, 9 was accepted as transitional point due to
its location at the mid-point, then frequencies regarding to lower and higher points were calculated as
negative and positive perception evidence.
The second instrument was a modified version of views of nature of science (VNOS) questionnaire
including 11 open-ended questions. The modified VNOS instrument was applied to randomly selected
participants (N=46 (SHS=25, SSHS=21) from the sample of this study. The answers to the VNOS instru-
ment were analyzed by using profiling sheets structured by considering the literature (McComas, 1998;
Lederman et al., 2002; Abd-El-Khalick, 1998). The profiling (E=expert, N=Naïve, T=Transitional, NA=Not
Applicable) was made by two different researchers who have four-year experience on nature of science
studies. The inter-coder agreement was calculated and found as 75%. After discussion on the disagree-
ments, the final profiling was done with consensus.
Results of Research
The findings of this study will be introduced by two different sections; “NOS understandings”, “Im-
portance perception” and “Interest perception”. In the first section the answers to the VNOS questions
are presented as profiles of the participants in table 1 and table 2.
Table 1. Nature of science understandings of the advanced students in SHS
Participant Codes (SHS)

Misunderstandings on
NOS Aspects
Pt1 Pt2 Pt3 Pt4 Pt5 Pt6 Pt7 Pt8 Pt9 Pt10 Pt11 Pt12 Pt13
Use of only one method

N T N N N T T E N N N N N
myth in science
Hierarchy between theory
N N N NA NA N N N NA NA N N N
and law
Sameness between obser-
T E E N T N N N N N N NA N
vation and inference
Objectivity E E NA T T N E NA N N E T T
No place for imagination
T E N T N T T E E E N E N
and creativity in science
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NOS Aspects
Pt1 Pt2 Pt3 Pt4 Pt5 Pt6 Pt7 Pt8 Pt9 Pt10 Pt11 Pt12 Pt13
Absolute and fixed scien-

N N N N N E E N N N E E N
tific knowledge
No emphasis for observa-
tion and evidence in N E NA E T NA T NA T N E N N
science

NOS Aspects
Pt14 Pt15 Pt16 Pt17 Pt18 Pt19 Pt20 Pt21 Pt22 Pt23 Pt24 Pt25
Use of only one method

N N T N T T N T T N NA T
myth in science
Hierarchy between theory
NA N N NA N NA NA N N N N N
and law
Sameness between obser-
N T N NA N N N E N N N N
vation and inference
Objectivity T E E T T E N T NA E E T
No place for imagination
T T T E E E T E E E E E
and creativity in science
Absolute and fixed scien-
N N N N N N E N N E N N
tific knowledge
No emphasis for observa-
tion and evidence in N T E T E N E N E E N N
science
Table 1 shows misunderstandings of the advanced science students on “use of only one method
in science”, “hierarchy between laws and theories”, “difference between observation and inference” and
“existence of absolute and fixed scientific knowledge”. In the table, it is also seen that nearly half of the
participants in SHS have expert understandings on “no place for imagination and creativity in science”.
For the remained aspects; “objectivity” and “no emphasis for observation and evidence in science”, the par-
ticipants represent different understandings including expert, naïve and transitional without showing
a tendency. The naïve understandings of the participants in science high schools can be represented
in the following quotations;
“Experiments are the processes of finding something by experiencing. In development of scientific knowledge,
experiments are a requirement so we must evaluate scientific knowledge based on experiment results” (Existence
of one method in science, Science High School, Female, VNOS-C Questionnaire, Question 2)
“Theories result from existent experimental results, laws are advanced form of theories” (Hierarchy between
theories and laws, Science High School, Male, VNOS-C Questionnaire, Question 5)
“Difference between observation and inference is ignorable so they are similar” (Difference between observation
and inference, Science High School, Male, VNOS-C Questionnaire, Question 8)
“Theories can change but laws are fixed, for example atom theory of Dalton changed but gravitation law of
Newton did not change, there is no way to change laws” (Tentativeness, Science High School, Male, VNOS-C
Questionnaire, Question 4)
For the aspects of place of creativity and imagination in science, one of the female participants rep-
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resented an example of an expert view by writing that “scientists use their creativity and imagination, e.g.,
in planning stage of scientific research, everything we have now, includes creativity and imagination” (Place of
imagination and creativity in science, Science High School, Female, VNOS-C Questionnaire, Question 11).
Table 2. Nature of science understandings of the advanced students in SSHS
Participant Codes (SSHS)

Misunderstandings on NOS
Aspects
Pt1 Pt2 Pt3 Pt4 Pt5 Pt6 Pt7 Pt8 Pt9 Pt10 Pt11
Use of only one method myth in

N N NA N NA T N N NA N NA
science
Hierarchy between theory and law N N N N N N NA N N N NA
Sameness between observation and
N N N N N N NA N N N NA
inference
Objectivity T T E T E T NA N T T E
No place for imagination and creativity
E T NA E E E E E E NA E
in science
Absolute and fixed scientific knowledge N E E N N N E N N N E
No emphasis for observation and
N N N E E E N E E N E
evidence in science
Participant Codes (SSHS)

Misunderstandings on NOS
Aspects
Pt12 Pt13 Pt14 Pt15 Pt16 Pt17 Pt18 Pt19 Pt20 Pt21
Use of only one method myth in

NA T N N E N N N N N
science
Hierarchy between theory and law N NA N N N N N N N N
Sameness between observation and
NA N N N NA N N N N N
inference
Objectivity E NA N T T T T E T T
No place for imagination and creativity
NA NA E E E E E E E E
in science
Absolute and fixed scientific knowledge N N N N N N E N N N
No emphasis for observation and
N NA E N T N N T N N
evidence in science
According to table 2, the majority of the participants in SSHS are experts on “no place for imagination
and creativity in science” aspect while the majority of them are naïve in terms of “use of only one method
in science”, “hierarchy between laws and theories”, “difference between observation and inference” and “ex-
istence of absolute and fixed scientific knowledge”. They also represented expert, naïve and transitional
understandings on “no emphasis for observation and evidence in science”. The participants are transitional
in terms of “objectivity” aspect in general. The naïve understandings of the participants in social sciences
high schools are represented in the following quotations;
“For doing science, there is a universal way: determining problem, establishing hypotheses, making experiments
and observations, establishing theories and laws” (Existence of one method in science, Social Sciences High
School, Female, VNOS-C Questionnaire, Question 3)
“If a scientific theory is accepted by everybody, it becomes a law” (Hierarchy between theories and laws, Social
Sciences High School, Male, VNOS-C Questionnaire, Question 5)
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“There is no difference between observation and inference” (Difference between observation and inference,
Social Sciences High School, Female, VNOS-C Questionnaire, Question 8)
“Theories might be refuted by anti-theses but laws are fixed and absolute” (Tentativeness, Social Sciences High
School, Female, VNOS-C Questionnaire, Question 5)
In addition to these misunderstandings, one of the participants in social sciences high school rep-
resented an expert view that “scientists use creativity and imagination in all stages of a scientific research”
(Place of imagination and creativity in science, Social Sciences High School, Male, VNOS-C Questionnaire,
Question 11).
In the second section we present the findings concerning the perception of the participants regard-
ing the importance of NOS knowledge as a school subject. The findings are presented in table 3.
Table 3. Frequencies regarding the perceptions of the advanced students on nature of science as
a school subject in terms of “importance”.
Categories
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 9 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17
Subjects Missing
Transitional
Negative Perception Positive Perception
Perception
Frequency Frequency
Frequency
Language and Expression 3 48(SSHS=7, SHS=41) 7 128 (SSHS=75, SHS=53)

Turkish Language 5 46(SSHS=11, SHS=35) 4 131 (SSHS=71, SHS=60)
Religion Knowledge 8 63**(SSHS=31, SHS=32) 4 111 (SSHS=48, SHS=63)
History 3 29(SSHS=8, SHS=21) 7 147(SSHS=75, SHS=72)
Mathematics 4 11 (SSHS=8, SHS=3) 1 170 (SSHS=74, SHS=96)
Nature of Science 15 66**(SSHS=46, SHS=20) 8 97(SSHS=32, SHS=65)
Geography 3 33 (SSHS=11, SHS=22) 11 139(SSHS=69, SHS=70)
Geometry 3 8 (SSHS=7, SHS=1) 8 167(SSHS=73, SHS=94)
Physics 3 27(SSHS=22, SHS=5) 5 151(SSHS=66, SHS=85)
Chemistry 2 45(SSHS=33, SHS=12) 8 131(SSHS=37, SHS=94)
Biology 6 26(SSHS=21, SHS=5) 9 145(SSHS=56, SHS=89)
Health Knowledge 7 74**(SSHS=34, SHS=40) 10 95(SSHS=43, SHS=52)
Foreign Language 7 15(SSHS=10, SHS=5) 1 163(SSHS=74, SHS=89)
Second Foreign Language 9 56(SSHS=21, SHS=35) 5 116(SSHS=60, SHS=56)
Physical Education 3 83**(SSHS=49, SHS=34) 8 92(SSHS=35, SHS=57)
Visiual Arts 5 137**(SSHS=67, SHS=70) 3 41(SSHS=20, SHS=21)
Music 4 131**(SSHS=63, SHS=68) 7 44(SSHS=18, SHS=26)
Note: SSHS: Social Sciences High School, SHS: Science High School
The findings on the perceptions regarding “importance” of NOS knowledge show insufficiency in
giving importance to NOS knowledge as a learning subject in high schools of advanced students. When
looked at the positive perception frequency, it is seen that importance of NOS knowledge is 13th impor-
tant knowledge type for learning in school. Hence, importance of NOS knowledge is not perceived as
high as of the knowledge regarding social science and science subjects. Moreover, school types (social
sciences high school vs. science high school) also contribute to the difference in importance percep-
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tion among advanced students. Social science high school students have less positive perceptions on
importance of NOS knowledge (frequency of negatives=46, frequency of positives=32) than science
high school students (frequency of negatives =20, frequency of positives=65).
In the second part of the second section, we present the findings on “interest” perception of the
participants in relation to NOS knowledge as a school subject. The findings are presented in table 4.
Table 4. Frequencies regarding the perceptions of the advanced students on nature of science as
a school subject in terms of “interest”.
Categories
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 9 10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17
Subjects Missing
Transitional
Negative Perception Positive Perception
Perception
Frequency Frequency
Frequency
Language and Expression 1 78 (SSHS=37, SHS=41) 6 101 (SSHS=48, SHS=53)

Turkish Language 2 64 (SSHS=29, SHS=35) 5 115 (SSHS=55, SHS=60)
Religion Knowledge 1 82**(SSHS=50, SHS=32) 4 99 (SSHS=37, SHS=62)
History 2 39 (SSHS=18, SHS=21) 12 133 (SSHS=61, SHS=72)
Mathematics 2 21(SSHS=18 , SHS=3) 1 162 (SSHS=66, SHS=96)
Nature of Science 14 82** (SSHS=62, SHS=20) 7 83 (SSHS=18, SHS=65)
Geography 2 46 (SSHS=24, SHS=22) 9 129 (SSHS=59, SHS=70)
Geometry 3 24 (SSHS=19, SHS=5) 5 154 (SSHS=60, SHS=94)
Physics 4 50 (SSHS=45, SHS=5) 7 125 (SSHS=31, SHS=94)
Chemistry 5 56 (SSHS=44, SHS=12) 10 115 (SSHS=31, SHS=84)
Biology 5 31 (SSHS=26, SHS=5) 10 140 (SSHS=51, SHS=89)
Health Knowledge 7 89** (SSHS=49, SHS=40) 9 81 (SSHS=29, SHS=52)
Foreign Language 5 28 (SSHS=23, SHS=5) 10 143 (SSHS=54, SHS=89)
Second Foreign Language 5 74(SSHS=29, SHS=35) 6 101 (SSHS=45, SHS=56)
Physical Education 3 76 (SSHS=42, SHS=34) 2 105 (SSHS=48, SHS=57)
Visual Arts 3 120** (SSHS=50, SHS=70) 3 60 (SSHS=36, SHS=24)
Music 3 116** (SSHS=48, SHS=68) 5 62 (SSHS=40, SHS=22)
Note: SSHS: Social Sciences High School, SHS: Science High School
The findings on “interest” factor of motivation indicate existence of insufficient number of the
participants who find NOS knowledge interesting to learn at school. Frequencies of negative interest
perceptions show that NOS knowledge is seen as 14th interesting subject to learn in high school. Posi-
tive interest perception frequencies also represent the same order of NOS knowledge among other
types of knowledge taught in schools for advanced students. Moreover, the findings based on school
type difference show that advanced students in social sciences high schools see NOS knowledge less
interesting than social sciences and science knowledge by expressing more negative perception on
interest aspect of motivation in learning NOS knowledge (frequency of negatives=62, frequency of
positives=18). However, science high school students have more positive interest perceptions regard-
ing NOS knowledge than social science students in spite of insufficient number of the participants
accepting NOS knowledge as interesting as social sciences and science subject knowledge (frequency
of negatives= 20, frequency of positives=65).
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Discussion
The findings of this study have shown misunderstandings of the advanced students in both SHS and
SSHS on different NOS aspects; “use of only one method in science”, “hierarchy between laws and theories”,
“difference between observation and inference” and “existence of absolute and fixed scientific knowledge”.
Although the participants in the groups have misunderstandings on four aspects of NOS, they are
experts on “no place for imagination and creativity in science” aspect and have transitional understand-
ings on “objectivity” aspect. Similar misunderstandings have also been represented by previous studies
(Koksal & Sormunen, 2009; Koksal & Sormunen, 2011). Koksal and Sormunen (2011) by studying with
39 Finnish advanced science students have found that VNOS-C answers of the participants are naive
in terms of “tentativeness”. In the literature, there is a conflicting study; in this study Liu and Lederman
(2002) focused on NOS understandings of 29 Taiwanese advanced students in junior high school level.
As a result of this study, the authors reported that the majority of students have basic understanding on
tentative and empirical NOS. This finding is not in line with the result of this study, but as reported by
the authors the study has internal validity threat. Hence it can be said, that advanced science students
represented misunderstandings on various NOS aspects in spite of their advanced content knowledge
and high achievement. These findings are contradictory with the findings of Schwartz and Lederman
(2002). They showed that the students having more comprehensive science background knowledge
were better able to learn and to apply NOS knowledge into science content than the students with
weak science background. The confliction with the findings of this study might be caused by sample
and cultural difference because Schwartz and Lederman (2002) studied with beginning secondary sci-
ence teachers in USA context.
Resources of NOS misunderstandings are explained as teachers, textbooks and the media (Abd-
El-Khalick, Waters and Lee, 2008; Irez, 2008; McComas, 2003; Tsai, 2006), but teaching to overcome
misunderstandings requires having appropriate affective preparedness of students for changing their
conceptions regarding NOS aspects (Duit and Treagust 1998; Lee and Brophy 1996, Pintrich et al. 1993).
Motivational status is a dominant affective characteristics to initiate and follow a performance due to the
fact that motivation is correlated to various cognitive and affective variables (Koksal & Tasdelen, 2007;
Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003). Especially, task value component of motivation is associated with the
use of effective learning strategies, self-efficacy, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Bong, 2001; Douglas,
2006; Koksal &Tasdelen, 2009; Yumuşak, Sungur, & Çakıroğlu, 2007). But the results of the present study
showed insufficiencies in having appropriate levels of “importance” and “interest” perceptions as com-
ponents of task value on NOS knowledge. The participants do not see NOS knowledge as important as
social science and science subject knowledge while they also do not find NOS knowledge as interesting
as social science and science subject knowledge. Bong (2001) indicated that “value of the task” is directly
related to learn a type of knowledge correctly by effecting enrollment and performance. As previously
stated, having insufficient “importance” and “interest” perception is a disadvantage to learn NOS aspects
and might contribute to the formation of misunderstandings on NOS aspects. By giving more value to
science and social science subject knowledge, the participants might read more about science and social
science subjects than those for NOS knowledge. The difference in reading actions rooted from the differ-
ence in task value perceptions might be a reason for acceptance science and social science knowledge
more believable than NOS knowledge by advanced students. Moreover, reading more about these
knowledge types is problematic because of insufficiencies in textbooks and resources. Abd-El-Khalick,
Waters and Lee (2008) studied on chemistry textbooks by focusing on representation of NOS aspects;
they found that the textbooks represented NOS aspects poorly. Similarly, Irez (2008) analyzed five most
frequently used biology textbooks in Turkey and the author found that the textbooks represented various
NOS aspects inappropriately; even some of them did not include important aspects of NOS. In addition
to reading more about science and social science subject knowledge, having less level of task value for
NOS learning, might also cause to follow more media representation (periodicals, news, movies etc.),
regarding science and social science subject knowledge than NOS knowledge. This situation can be
speculated, that motivational insufficiencies (giving low value to learn NOS aspects) of the participants
might be another contributor of misunderstandings on NOS aspects. Because this insufficiency might
55
(P. 46-58)
drive the students to give more time and more value for reading textbooks or other written materials
in which NOS is implicitly and inappropriately explained and misunderstandings are in case.
For another finding of this study, it can be said that the advanced science students enrolled in sci-
ence high schools, have more appropriate “interest” and “importance” perception on NOS knowledge
than the advanced students in social sciences high schools, although they do not have high “interest”
and “importance” perceptions as for social sciences and science subject knowledge. This finding might
be related to the meaning of “science” word in “nature of science” because “science” word calls “natural
sciences” in Turkish. Dikmenli (2010) showed that Turkish students see “natural sciences” as scientific
while they ignore social sciences as scientific disciplines. Therefore, science high school students might
feel more relation with science than the students in social sciences high school.
Conclusions
In conclusion, insufficiency in NOS understandings of the advanced students was observed in this
study. They are also less motivated (giving less value to learning task) to learn about NOS knowledge
than social sciences or science knowledge. Being less motivated to learn about NOS might be another
potential resource of the misunderstandings about NOS aspects, due to the fact that giving more value
to science and social science subjects and being more interested in science and social science subjects
drive learning actions and attentions to these subjects. NOS subject is abstract and needs more time
to learn about it than concrete learning subjects such as science and social sciences. In addition, in-
sufficiency of appropriate value given to NOS knowledge should be seen as an important obstacle to
implement explicit-reflective NOS teaching in advanced classrooms. As another point, in spite of insuf-
ficient value given by science high school students for NOS knowledge, more improved motivational
status of science high school students for the value of learning NOS knowledge than of the students in
social sciences high school is seen as another significant point showing group differences in teaching
NOS in advanced classrooms.
The findings of this study might provide information about beginning motivational status of two
different groups of advanced students to instructors for making NOS instruction more comprehensive
and effective, and to overcome misunderstandings. Moreover, the need of studying motivational com-
ponents in explicit-reflective NOS teaching is also shown by the findings of this study. At the same time,
the findings on misunderstandings of NOS aspects and motivational status of advanced students who
have not frequently studied together might contribute to the literature by speculating possible resource
of misunderstandings. As another important implication of this study is the status of NOS knowledge,
among other types of knowledge presented in advanced schools is also shown by this study.
The findings of the study give meaningful results on NOS understandings and values given by
advanced students on NOS knowledge, but the study has some limitations. The study is limited to
186 advanced students enrolled in two different schools for advanced students (Science High School,
Social Sciences High School). At the same time, nature of data collection tools for certain NOS aspects
is based on existent NOS frames provided by McComas (1998), Lederman et al. (2002); Abd-El-Khalick
(1998), other aspects of science might also have arisen if we had used more open-ended procedure of
data collection. When looked at the data collection way on task value components, it is seen that data is
collected at ordinal level; this limits us to use inferential statistical methods for investigating task value
perceptions of the participants in detail.
Based on these limitations, it can be suggested that open-ended data collection way focusing on
examples from social sciences and science contents should be applied to more number of advanced
students for determining other important aspects of nature of science. At the same time, follow-up
likert type scale application to reach more comparable motivational status of the participants in differ-
ent schools might be done. Then, inferential statistical methods can also be applied to the data set on
motivational status. As a final suggestion, motivational strategies such as goal setting and monitoring
should also be incorporated into explicit-reflective NOS teaching and the modified instruction should
be tested for effectiveness in changing NOS misunderstandings.
56
(P. 46-58)
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Received: September 01, 2013 Accepted: January 10, 2014
Mustafa Serdar Köksal PhD., Assist. Prof. Dr., Inonu University, Education Faculty,
Department of Elementary Education, 44280, Campus/Malatya,
Turkey.
E-mail: bioeducator@gmail.com
Canan Tunç Şahin PhD., Dr., Bulent Ecevit University, Eregli Education Faculty,
Department of Elementary Education, 67300, Eregli/Zonguldak,
Turkey.
E-mail: cnntnc@gmail.com
58
PROSPECTIVE
PHYSICS TEACHERS’
USE OF MULTIPLE
REPRESENTATIONS FOR
SOLVING THE IMAGE
FORMATION PROBLEMS
Serap Kaya Şengören Abstract. The aim of this research is to

determine the role of multiple representa-
tions such as problem picture, ray diagram,
and equation used by the students in
solution of the image projection problems.
The study is performed by the survey
method. The participants of this study
Introduction
were prospective physics teachers of a
faculty of education from a state university
The Importance of Representations
in Turkey. Fifty-three teacher candidates
solved open-ended questions and 20 of
As Lasry and Aulls (2007) stated, demonstrating an object or
them were also interviewed.
a phenomenon by various illustrations may facilitate its understan-
The results have shown that the students
ding. When considered from this point of view, it is quite obvious
used two different types of solution
that the symbolic representations where conceptual knowledge or
method; in solution 1, they used the solu-
problem is given in science or mathematics are intended for incre-
tion method where “problem pictures,
asing the comprehension. In other words, correct understanding
mirror/lens equations and ray diagrams”
of what the symbolic representations mean is an important part
are used, and in solution 2, they used the
of education. Alibali, Phillips and Fischer (2009) expressed that
solution method where “problem pictures
while solving problems, children may use incorrect or inefficient
and mirror/lens equations” are used. The
strategies, because they are unable to achieve to represent key
results show that students mostly prefer
features of the problems accurately.
the second solution method, however, the
The studies related to the effect of the use of multiple rep-
students who prefer the first solution meth-
resentations in problem solving on the development of problem
od are more successful than them. Also,
solving performances (Dufresne et al. 1997; Heuvelen and Zou
it is found that the students have various
2001; Meltzer 2005) or the effect of knowledge on the problem
alternative ideas about the usage of these
representations (McNeil and Alibali 2004; Rittle-Johnson and
multiple representations. The reasons of
Alibali 1999; VanHeuvelen 1991) support the importance of the
these alternative ideas are discussed at the
representations. These studies reveal that there is an important
end of the study.
correlation between the conceptual understanding and problem
solving process and the multiple representations. Rittle-Johnson Key words: alternative ideas, image
et al. (2001) stated that developed problem representations would formation, multiple representations, ray
bridge over the rote knowledge to conceptual knowledge. diagram.
Revealing conceptual understandings or problem solving
strategies of the students is possible by finding out how they used
these representations. The fundamental problem of this research is
to determine the students’ alternative ideas and problem solving Serap Kaya Şengören
Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey
strategies by benefiting from these symbolic representations used
by the student. Alibali et al. (2009) displayed that both features
of a presented problem encoded by the problem solver, and the
59
PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS TEACHERS’ USE OF MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS FOR ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 59-74)
activated knowledge from long-term memory are included within the problem representations. In this
present study, multiple representations have been defined as external representations used in practice
such as mathematical, diagrammatic or graphical representations as indicated by Meltzer (2005).
Multiple Representations in Physics Education and the Underlying Reasons to Choose Studying about
How Students Use these Representations
Usage of multiple representations (MRs) is a very important part of physics education. In other
words, representing a physics problem by words, equations, graphs, or pictures can significantly affect
the performance of students on that problem (Kohl and Finkelstein 2006). Rosengrant et al. (2009)
stated that we must help our students learn to construct different representations and to use them for
problem solving in order to make them expert problem solvers.
Various studies emphasized the importance of MRs in learning physics and solving problems. Mul-
tiple representation studies done by physics education research community between 2003-2005 were
categorized into three categories by Rosengrant et al. (2007). And the next studies can be classified into
these groups. According to this, MRs studies can be grouped as the studies (Heuvelen and Zou 2001; Kohl
et al. 2007; Kohl and Finkelstein 2006; Van Heuvelen 1991) where MRs were used to help students learn
concepts, solve problems and use representations, the studies (Kohl and Finkelstein 2008; Rosengrant
et al. 2009; Rosengrant et al. 2006) about how MRs were used by students in problem solving, and the
studies (Kohl and Finkelstein 2006; Meltzer 2005;) where MRs were used in constructing the problem.
Also, some earlier studies have focused on how experts and novices differ in their use of MRs (Kohl and
Finkelstein 2008; Rosengrant et al. 2009).
Whereas there are many studies reporting that the usage of multiple representations in physics
education literature increase students’ learning. As stated in the studies of Kohl and Finkelstein (2008),
Rosengrant et al. (2009), and Rosengrant et al. (2006), there are only a few studies reporting how stu-
dents use these representations, the thinking processes used by them meanwhile, and the quality of
the representations developed by the students. However, as McDermott stated, special difficulties with
various representations used by the students should be defined (Meltzer 2005). In his study, Meltzer
(2005) revealed these difficulties on the problems presented by various representations. In the study by
Rosengrant, Heuvelen and Etkina (2009), the usage of one of the representations, the qualities of free
body diagrams used by the students especially, and the reasons of the usage were analysed in detail.
In this study, the students’ usage of multiple representations in optics problem solutions will be
analyzed.
Why Geometrical Optics Problems Were Chosen in this Study?
All of the aforementioned researches related to MRs in physics education have been in electricity,
magnetism, work-energy or force and motion. However, this study focussed on the representations
used in geometrical optics problems. In the study, the representations will be used as external repre-
sentations. External representations in physics include words, pictures, diagrams, graphs, computer
simulations, mathematical equations, etc. (Rosengrant et al. 2006).
In geometrical optics, these representations will be considered as ray diagrams, mirror/lens equa-
tions, and problem picture. Light-Ray Tracing (ray diagram) is one of the geometrical optics techniques
which analyzes the interaction of light with optical instruments based on divergence and convergence
of light (Isık 2008). A ray diagram is a tool used for determining the location, size, orientation, and type
of image formed by an optical device.
The mirror/lens equations (Ohanian 1989) are the equations used for calculating the image distance
by means of focal length and object distance which occurred by the usage of the ray diagram based
graphical method in order to calculate the place of the image. The most important characteristics of these
equations are the sign conventions which are a bit different for mirrors and lenses. In addition to this,
the problem picture has a quite important place in the geometrical optics problems as well as in many
60
ISSN 1648–3898 PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS TEACHERS’ USE OF MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS FOR
(P. 59-74)
physics problems. General view of the optical system, that is the shape and place of the optical devices
and drawing of principal axis and distance drawings on it are quite important in problem solutions.
In geometrical optics, there are many important studies related to especially diagrammatic repre-
sentation of light and image projection which are done on various age groups (Colin et al. 2002; Colin
and Viennot, 2001; Galili et al. 1993; Galili and Hazan 2000; Goldberg and McDermott 1987; Goldberg and
McDermott 1986). As a result of these studies, significant misconceptions of students were determined
relating to the nature of light rays, their knowledge about the image, image formation in the mirror
or lens systems; the relation between the observer and the image; the difference of images in plane
and concave mirrors and the roles of lenses and mirrors. These studies also revealed, that students at
various levels from primary school to the college level had difficulty in drawing the correct ray diag-
ram, understanding the sight at a plane mirror, understanding the image formation process in a plane
mirror. However, usage of problem picture, ray diagram, and mirror / lens equation representations
in problem solutions, furthermore, usage of them in different type of optical problems where optical
systems consisting of two optical devices exist, were analysed in none of these studies. Moreover, the
quality of the representations used by the students in geometrical optics problem solutions, and the
correlation of it with the students’ problem solving success were not investigated. However, the analysis
of image formations in the optical systems where more than one optical instrument is used, is asked
in many physics textbooks and the examinations at the secondary school and college levels. In these
systems the procedure of the multiple image formation of a single object is analysed and at this step
students have many difficulties. The tools which are put in for the solution of these problems are mostly
problem pictures, light ray diagrams and equations. This also indicates, that students’ difficulties should
be investigated in these representations.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to analyse how the students use multiple representations (problem
picture, ray diagram, mirror/lens equation) in the solutions of the image projection problems constructed
by more complex optical systems where two optical devices exist and then to reveal the alternative
ideas developed by the students related to the usage of them. The research questions which direct this
research are:
1. How often do the students use multiple representations for solving these problems?
2. What are methods of solving these problems regarding their use as multiple representa-
tions?
3. How does the correctness of their solutions vary regarding their methods of solving?
4. What is the quality of the multiple representations they used during the solution of these
problems?
5. What are the students’ alternative ideas related to the use of multiple representations in
their solutions?
The current investigation was in survey model to describe the understanding of multiple repre-
sentations of the prospective physics teachers while solving image formation problem of geometrical
optics. The nature of student failures in solving geometrical optics problems prompted the investigation
of how students construct and apply representations to the geometrical optics problems. The data of
the research were gathered in autumn 2012.
Participants
The participants of this study were prospective physics teachers of a faculty of education from a
state university in Turkey. Fifty-three teacher candidates participated in the study, and 20 of them were
also interviewed. The average age of the participants was between 20 and 22. The students who par-
61
(P. 59-74)
ticipated in the study had completed optics course at least one semester before. Optics course is given
as five theoretical and two laboratory hours at physics education department.
The course includes the subjects of electromagnetic waves and optics, reflection, refraction,
dispersion, phase, geometrical optics, optical instruments, polarization, optical activity, birefringence,
interference, Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction. This course is very similar to courses called mostly
optics or optics and waves given at some western European or American Universities regarding either
its credits or content. Nevertheless, the course includes brief introduction to some modern optics ap-
plication (such as lasers, masers and holography) but the quantum optics. In addition, the content of
these subjects is deeper than the optics sections in general physics courses, but more superficial than
the optics courses which are specially given. The same situation is valid for the optics laboratory. In the
laboratory applications, recipe type experiments are conducted towards ray optics, wave optics, interfer-
ence and polarization. The students enrolled in this course did not receive the optics subjects in general
physics course in their previous years at university and their prior knowledge about optics is based on
the physics course they received at secondary school. Therefore, this course should be considered as
basic optics course at first step. Another reason for not delivering this course at advanced level is that
the students are educated to be physics teachers in secondary schools. The highest disadvantages of
the course are the misconceptions due to the practical solutions to the problems which are developed
as a result of anxiety to the limited time during the university settlement examination, the recipe type,
low capacity experiments which are conducted as a result of inadequate circumstances.
In geometrical optics part of this course, refractive and reflective optical devices and image projec-
tions in the optical systems constituted by these optical devices are discussed in detail, and in laboratory
part, experiments are carried out about refraction index, the focal length of reflective and refractive
systems, and the place of the image in optical systems. The lectures were given by the lecturers using
discussion method. Ray diagrams are frequently used in image projection and distance equations have
been used from four numerical solutions.
Instrument
Data of the research were obtained by using a questionnaire form and a semi-structured interview
form which includes three types of image projection problems in geometrical optics (see Appendix A).
These are the problems where the place of the object is known, but the place of the image is asked (N=2),
the place of the image is known, but the place of the object is asked (N=1), and the places of the optical
devices within the optical system are asked (N=1). Problems were constructed on the optical systems,
including at least two optical devices, where mirrors and lenses are used. The problems include many
events which can be acquired during the analysis of image formation procedure where more than one
image is formed from a single object. These are re-reflection and refraction, drawing of backswept rays,
the real images of virtual images, the virtual images of real images, drawing of the optical system, use
of sign and etc. Problems especially are defined verbally so that allowing students organise their own
problem pictures which are assumed to be one of the multiple representations.
By the help of two experts, four problems in medium difficulty and appropriate to students’ levels,
at least one from each problem types above, were selected among 12 problems constructed. In order
to check the comprehensibility of the problems, a pilot experiment was carried out with five students,
and the incomprehensible points were corrected. Selected four questions were given to 53 students on
a question form, and 60 minutes were given for the solution of the problems. The students were asked
to write down every representation that they think of, or use in the solutions of the problems. This ap-
plication is done both for displaying the performance of the students in the representations they used
according to the problem type, and for determining the students to be selected for the interview. After
the analysis of the students’ answers, 20 students were selected from the groups constituted accord-
ing to the representations they used in the problem solutions. A semi-structured interview was carried
out with these students three months after the application intended to make them resolve the same
questions.
62
(P. 59-74)
Data Analysis
Teacher candidates answered the questions by writing their solutions on the paper where four
questions exist. In the analysis of these answers, first of all, the usage frequency of the problem picture,
ray diagram and mirror/lens equations which are the representations used by them in their solutions
were determined according to the problem type. As a result of this, two solutions used by the students
for each type of problem were determined. After this stage, in order to determine the quality of the
representations, each representation was coded using the rubric in Table II, a similar ratio rubric was
also used for the same aim by Rosengrant et al. (2009). Data were separated for two different solution
methods. The answers were recoded in a one-month interval with this rubric. This encoding performed
at two different times had an inter-rater reliability of 0.80.
At the end of these analyses, in order to evaluate the students’ mistakes in detail, interview data
performed with 20 students were selected, as at least 10 students from both solution methods corre-
sponding to each problem type were analyzed by qualitative data analysis method for each problem
type. Interview data were collected by means of the notes taken by the researcher, sound recordings,
and the solution paper of the students. During the interview, the students were asked to think aloud
while solving the problems, and when their ideas were not clear or they had difficulty in thinking aloud
they were asked some probing questions (such as “why did you think like that?”, “what if…?, ”how would
you do….?”). Drawings and explanations containing mistakes within data obtained were encoded and
called as “alternative ideas”, and these ideas were classified into categories in itself, and each category
was named by the researcher. In order to validate the interview data the name and the context of the
categories were discussed with an expert of physics education and the common results were concluded.
The answers were recoded in a one-month interval by the same researcher. The level of agreement
between this coding, considered as the reliability of the procedure, was found as 0.86.
Table 1. Rubric for coding representations.
1 2 3
Representations
Inadequate Needs improvement Adequate
Problem pictures Representations are constructed, but The problem picture drawn is not Shapes and places
contain major errors or misconceptions wrong, but contains missing points of optical devices are
such as focal point displayed behind such as undrawn focal point, or non- drawn correctly, and
the convex mirror, a lens with a single symmetrical principal axis drawn, etc. focal point and center
focal point, the convex mirror drawn as on the principal axis are
a concave mirror, etc. correctly determined.
Lens/ mirror Representations are constructed, but The equations written are not wrong, Equations are written
equation contain major errors or misconceptions except that there are some mis- correctly, distances and
such as missing or extra equation, takes, such as, the mistakes due to signs are taken correctly,
wrong signs taken etc. operational mistakes, wrong placed and the operations are
distances although displayed correctly done correctly.
in drawing, etc.
Ray diagram Representations are constructed, but The rays drawn are not wrong, drawn Rays are drawn ad-
contain major errors or misconceptions ray diagram is correct, but deficient, equate and correctly as
such as single ray usage, confusing not all of the images are drawn by ray to form all images.
reflection and refraction with each diagram.
other, etc.
Results of the Research
Document Analysis
The features of the problems given to the students to solve are displayed in Table 2. Usage frequen-
cies according to the problem type of problem picture, ray diagrams and mirror/lens equation which
students use while solving optical problems are presented in Table 3.
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Table 2. Problem types related to image projection.
Problem types Total number of

The features of the problem
(Total number of the problems) solutions
First type problem (2) The place of the object is known, but the place of the image is asked 53 x2= 106
Second type problem (1) The place of the image is known, but the place of the object is asked 53
Third type problem (1) The place of the optical devices is asked 53
Total 212
Table 3. Usage frequencies of the representations used in the solution of each problem type.
Representations
Problem types
(Total number of solutions for this
problem) Pictures Ray diagrams Focus Equation
Unanswered (f)
(f) (f) (f)
First type Problem (N=106) 87% (92) 29 % (31) 87% (92) 13% (14)
Second type problem (N=53) 83 % (44) 30 % (16) 83 %(44) 17 %( 9)
Third type problem (N=53) 83 % (44) 36 % (19) 83 %(44) 17 % ( 9)
Total (212) 85% (180) 31%(66) 85%(180) 15% (32)
According to Table 3, all of the students who solved the problem used the problem picture and
mirror/lens equation for all three problem types. Table 3 displays that the students use two types of
solution methods for these three problem types. In the first type of solution method, the students used
problem picture, ray diagram, and focal point equation; and in the second type of solution method, the
students used problem picture, and focal point equation without using ray diagram. In this study, these
solution methods will be called as “First Solution Method (FSM)” and “Second Solution Method (SSM)”.
Table 4 shows the distribution of the students’ answers according to these solution methods for
each problem type.
Table 4. Distribution of the solution methods according to the problem type.
Problem types FSM SSM Unanswered

(Total number of solutions for this problem) % (N) % (N) % (N)
First type Problem (N=106) 29 (31) 58 (61) 13 (14)

Second type problem (N=53) 30 (16) 53 (28) 17 (9)
Third type problem (N=53) 36 (19) 47 (25) 17 (9)
Total (212) 31 (66) 54 (114) 15(32)
It is understood from Table 4, that the FSM is frequently used in the third type of problem (36%),
and the SSM is frequently used in the first type of problem (58%). Moreover, it is seen that the second
solution method (SSM) (54%) is preferred more than the first solution method (FSM) (31%).
From here on, the answers whose solutions are not understood or not solved, i.e., the “unanswered”
part in Table 4 will not be taken into consideration since they can not be classified into any solution
method.
Distribution of the correctness or wrongness of the results reached by the solution methods used
according to the problem types are given in Table 5 and Table 6. Here, not only the “Adequate” answers,
but also the solutions corresponding to “needs improvement” part in Table 1, which does not contain
any mistake, are taken as a correct answer.
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Table 5. Total values of correct and incorrect responses for the first solution method.
Problem types Correct Incorrect

(Total number of solutions for this problem.) % (N) % (N)
First type Problem (N=31) 61 (19) 39 (12)

Second type problem (N=16) 69 (11) 31 (5)
Third type problem (N=19) 53 (10) 47 (9)
Total (66) 61 (40) 39 (26)
According to Table 5, the students who used the first solution method are most successful, the
second type of problem (69 %), and the least successful are those, who used the third type of problem
(53%).
Table 6. Total values of correct and incorrect responses for the second solution method.
Problem types Correct Incorrect

(Total number of solutions for this problem.) % (N) % (N)
First type problem (N=61) 33 (20) 67 (41)

Second type problem (N=28) 29 (8) 71 (20)
Third type problem (N=25) 40 (10) 60 (15)
Total (N=114) 33 (38) 67 (76)
According to Table 6, the students who used the second type of solution method are most successful,
in the third type of problem (40%), and the least successful are in the second type of problem (29%).
Table 5 and Table 6 display, that the students who used the first solution method (61%) are more
successful than the students who used the second solution method (33%).
The results of the analysis for determining the comprehensibility level of the representations used
by the students are given in Table 7.
Table 7. Students’ success rates of the representations used in the problem solutions.
Representations Success rate

(Total number of solutions which this
representation was used.) 1 2 3
Inadequate % Needs improvement % Adequate %
Pictures (N=180) 15 (27/180) 70 (126/180) 15 (27/180)

Ray diagrams (N=66) 65 (43/66) 21 (14/66) 14 (9/66)
Mirror/lens Equations (N= 180) 57 (102/180) 10 (19/180) 33 (59/180)
Table 7 shows, that the students have mistakes related to the usage of problem picture, ray diagram,
and mirror/lens equation representations. They have quite a lot inadequacies especially in the subject of
the ray diagram (65%) and focal point equation (57%) usage. Details of these will be given in interview
analyses. In addition to this, it is seen for the problem picture, that in the question containing lenses,
65% of the students had shown the lenses by arrow sign, and the rest of them had drawn glass lenses
having two spherical surfaces. These two drawings are evaluated similarly at this stage, but different
results caused by these two drawings are encountered, as mentioned in discussion part.
The results of the analysis done to observe the change in the comprehensibility of the representa-
tions according to problem solution methods are given in Table 8 and Table 9.
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Table 8. Students’ success rates of the representations who used the first solution method.
Representations Success Rate

representation was used.)
1 2 3
Pictures (N=66) 27 (18/66) 32 (21/66) 41 (27/66)

Ray diagrams (N=66) 65 (43/66) 21 (14/66) 14 (9/66)
Mirror/lens Equations (N= 66) 38 (25/66) 9 (6/66) 53(35/66)
Table 9. Students’ success rates of the representations who used the second solution method.
Success Rate
Representations
representation was used.) 1 2 3
Picture (N= 114) 8 (9/114) 92 (105/114) -

Mirror/lens equation (N=114) 68 (77/114) 11 (13/114) 21(24/114)
According to Table 8 and Table 9, there are some inadequacies related to representations while using
both solution methods. However, adequacies of the students who used the FSM in usage of the mirror
/ lens equation (53%) are quite higher than the students who used the SSM (21%). Moreover, problem
pictures of the students who used the FSM are more adequate than the students who used the SSM.
The quantitative analyses performed above displayed that there are some inadequacies of repre-
sentation usage in both solution methods. In the next part, the interview analyses will be given, and
what kind of difficulties the students have while using representations in the first solution method and
the second solution method will be discussed.
Interview Analysis
This part is composed of the detailed analysis of semi-structured interview, which tried to figure
out the alternative ideas which students had behind their multiple representations. As a result of the
investigation of the students’ answers, interviews were performed with 20 students selected, provided
that 10 students correspond to one type of solution methods for each problem. As a result of the analysis
of data obtained from the interviews, students’ alternative ideas are classified into certain categories.
Frequencies of these alternative ideas within the total number of solutions are given in the tables.
According to this, Table 10 shows the alternative ideas of 10 students who solved all problems by the
FSM related to ray diagram representation usage in their solutions. Table 11 shows the alternative ideas
related to the usage of problem picture and lens/mirror equation representations in the solutions of
10 students who used the SSM and 10 students who used the FSM; and Table 12 shows the common
alternative ideas of both student groups related to the subject of “reality” and “virtuality”. The alternative
ideas given in tables were obtained from their oral explanations and drawings during the interview.
In order to support these ideas which are thought to be understood better visually, some samples of
students’ solutions during the interview are given (Figure 1-7).
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Table 10. Alternative ideas of the students who used the first solution method related to ray diagram
representation.
FSM
Categories Students’ alternative ideas
(f)
1. Image projection from image by 1.1. Image behaves like a light source, and emits light in all directions. (Fig. 1b) 17
means of the rays
2. Image projection by means of 2.1. Image can be formed by means of a single light ray. (Fig. 1;2;4) 29
the rays
2.2. A light ray coming from a point of the object can form a different point of the 8
image.
2.3. The image is formed on the point where a light ray coming from the object 29
intersects the principal axis. (Fig. 1;2)
2.4. The image is formed on the point where any two light rays intersected each 3
other.
3. Behaviour of spherical mirrors 3.1. The light ray coming parallel to the convex mirror reflects and passes from 3
on light the focal point in front of the mirror.
3.2. The light ray coming parallel to the convex mirror refracts and passes from 2
the focal point behind the mirror.
3.3. Refraction of rays coming to the mirrors 7
4. Behaviour of lenses on light 4.1. Reflection of rays coming to the lenses 6

4.2. The light ray coming parallel to the concave lens refracts and passes from 4
the focal point behind the lens.
4.3. The light ray coming from behind of the lens is not affected by the lens. 4
(Fig. 2)
5. Virtual image projection in lenses 5.1. The convex lens which forms a virtual image behaves like a concave lens. 4
The convex lens forms virtual image by diffusing light. (Fig. 1a)
5.2. The lens forms image in front of it by reflecting the rays. (Fig. 1c) 5
It is seen from Table 10, that most of the students have misconceptions on image projection by a
single ray, and image projection where the rays intersected the principal axis. In addition to this, the stu-
dents have more misconceptions about the behaviour of lenses on light as compared to the mirrors.
One of the common explanations of these students having the alternative idea of 1.1 related to this
situation is like that “… now as the new object is this (i1) we have to send new rays from this.”
Alternative idea 2.1 is found in many solutions. As can be seen from the Figures1, 2, and 4, the
students use only one ray in order to obtain the image. Moreover, the students formed the images
where the rays crossed the principal axes in a way to support the alternative idea of 2.3 as seen from
the Figures 1 and 2. This situation was usually met with the students who tried to obtain image by us-
ing only a single ray.
Table 11. Alternative ideas of the students who used the first and the second solution method
related to problem picture and mirror / lens equation representations.
FSM SSM
(f) (f)
6. Property of the opti- 6.1. The focal point of the convex mirror is in front of it. 3 2
cal system
6.2. There is a focal point both in front of and behind the convex mirror. 2 1
6.3. Convex lens has focal point only in front of it. 2 7
6.4. Optical system has only optical devices. - 6
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FSM SSM
(f) (f)
7. Using mirror / lens 7.1. Distances are taken/displayed according to the points where the rays or 29 -
equation their projections intersected the principal axis. (Fig.1; 2)
7.2. All image distances on the opposite side of the object are taken as nega- 5 9
tive.
7.3. “Minus” (-) sign means that the image is on the opposite side of the 7 15
object. (Fig. 1c;7)
It is seen from Table 11, that the students have difficulties in deciding the place of the focal point
especially in a convex mirror. As in the mirror and lens equations, it is seen that the students who use
the FSM make mistakes in determining the distances; whereas the students who use the SSM have more
misconceptions about the signs.
As it can be seen from the alternative idea 7.3, some students often used the expression of “the
place for this image is on the other side of the object” for the “negative” distances in their solutions.
In the examples of Figures 1c and 7, some students placed the image in the wrong side by having this
alternative idea based on the “negative distance” they found in their solutions.
Table 12. Alternative ideas of the students who used the first and the second solution method
related to virtuality and reality subjects.
FSM SSM
(f) (f)
8. The place of the virtual im- 8.1. The virtual images occurring on convex lens and concave mirror are in 3 5
age in lenses and mirrors. the same side of the object.
8.2. The virtual image occurring on concave lens and convex mirror is in 3 5
the opposite side of the object.
9.Determining on virtuality 9.1. All of the images on the other side of the optical device according to 8 22
and reality. the object are virtual. (Fig. 1b).
9.2. The virtual image formed by an optical device in a system is always 9 22
the virtual object of the other optical device. (Fig. 3;5a;6)
9.3. Not able to recognize the virtuality of the image given in the question. 5 7
9.4. The virtual image of a virtual object is on the same side with the object. 2 19
(Fig. 5b;6).
The alternative ideas given in Table 12 are the alternative ideas which we encountered on the stu-
dents’ explanations done by both solution methods. It is understood from Table 12, that the students
who use the SSM have more difficulties related to the category of “determining on virtuality and reality”
than the students who use the FSM.
The students, having alternative idea of 9.4, during the solution shown in the Figure 5b explained
the position of i3 that “it is at the same side with the object” by obtaining the virtual image i3 from the i2
object which is virtual according to the lens. When its reason is asked, they indicated that both of them
were virtual. On the other hand, in the Figure 4, the students viewed the image i1 as virtual object for
the convex mirror and used the idea of virtuallness being on the same side while determining the place
of the virtual image (i2) of i1 in the convex mirror.
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Figure 1: Types of students’ multiple representations in their responses to the problem 3: first solu-
tion method.
Figure 2: A type of students’ multiple representations in their responses to the problem 2: first
solution method.
solution method.
solution method.
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Figure 5: Types of students’ multiple representations in their responses to the problem 2: second
solution method.
Figure 6: A type of students’ multiple representations in their responses to the problem 1: second
solution method.
Figure 7: A type of students’ multiple representations in their responses to the problem 3: second
solution method.
Discussion
In this study, the role of the multiple representations (problem picture, ray diagram, mirror / lens
equation) which are used as a tool in the solution of image formation problems containing two opti-
cal devices were investigated. In this way, it was trying to set forth how often the students use those
representations in the solution of the problems mentioned, what kind of solution methods they used
according to their representations, their problem solving success according to their methods of solu-
tions, the quality of the representations they used during these solution methods and their alternative
ideas towards the use of these representations during the image formation process.
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In the study it is seen, that the students continuously used the problem picture and mirror / lens
equation spontaneously while solving image projection problems (Table 3). When we think of the im-
portance of mirror / lens equation in the solutions of such problems, it can be said that problem picture
which is also used in the same frequency is also as important as the equations which help them solve
the problem for the students. The importance of the problem picture was emphasized in many studies.
In comprehending the problem, drawing the problem picture is quite important. In addition to this,
it is seen that the students did not use the ray diagram in all of the solutions. And this situation shows
us that the students used two types of solution methods in such types of problems; 1. first one is the
problem solution by using the ray diagram, problem picture and the mirror / lens equation, that is the
First Solution Method (FSM); and 2. second one is the problem solution by using the problem picture and
the mirror / lens equation without drawing any ray diagram , that is Second Solution Method (SSM).
The results show that the students use the SSM more often than the FSM (see Table 4). It is thought
that this situation is caused by their difficulties in drawing a light ray diagram, and not understanding
the importance of light ray diagrams since they could not read the light ray diagrams correctly.
An important result is that the students who use the FSM, in other words, who use the ray diagrams
are more successful than the students who use the SSM in all of the problem solutions (Table 5 ve Table
6). The reason of this is that correctly drawn and correctly read light ray diagrams mostly prevent the
students from making mistakes during the solution.
When the qualities of the representations used by the students are examined, it is seen that there
are inadequacies in the usage of all three representations (Table 7). It is remarkable that there is a high
rate of inadequate usage, especially for the light ray diagram, and then the mirror / lens equation. The
reason of light ray diagrams’ being adequate in a quite low percentage ratio of 14% is that the students
do not draw the ray diagrams completely. This situation is understood from both written answers and the
interview easily. And the students’ inability to draw the light ray diagrams completely is caused by their
not knowing how the light rays would behave except the special light rays. And this generally causes a
drawing which starts with a special ray not to be completed when the ray passed to the second optical
device. And the problem pictures of the students are mostly in “needs improvement” stage (Table 7).
The reason for having the great majority of this ratio in the SSM stage can be that the students, who use
this solution method, did not need to draw the problem picture in detail (Table 9).
The most remarkable result is that the students who use the FSM have a quite higher adequacy
of mirror / lens equations (53%) than the students who use the SSM (21%) (see Table 8; Table 9). The
most important reason of this situation is that the ray diagrams help the students use the mirror / lens
equations and especially the signs correctly as definitely seen from the interviews. Even inadequate ray
diagrams drawn by a single light ray help the students differentiate between reality and virtuality and
use the correct sign in the equation.
It appears in the analysis of interviews more clearly how students use the representations in prob-
lem solving, and what kind of alternative ideas they have (Table 10-11; Figure 1-7). For the students who
use the first type of problem solution, their alternative knowledge related to usage of ray diagrams is
collected under the following subfields such as “Image projection from image”, “Image projection by
means of the light rays”, “Behaviour of spherical mirrors on light”, “Behaviour of lenses on light”, “Virtual
image projection in lenses”. In the alternative knowledge existing in the first category, the idea of “the
image will behave as a light source” is accepted; this situation supports the holistic conceptualization
model of the image in the studies of Galili and Hazan (2000) and Tao (2004). Whereas in the subcategory
of “Image projection by means of the rays”, it attracts attention that the students prefer a single ray for
image projection as encountered in the studies of Galili and Hazan (2000) and Galili, Goldberg and
Bendall (1993). As encountered in these studies, here the students also have the idea of “any point of
the object can be represented by a light ray” and “a single light ray can represent whole of an object”
(2.1.; 2.2.; 2.3. in Table 10). Moreover, the students’ forming the image by intersecting a light ray coming
to a system with a light ray going out from another system (2.4. in Table 10) shows us that they are not
aware of the rules of image projection and they do not know how to use the light ray diagrams.
The most important difficulty in the subcategories of “Behaviour of the optical devices (spherical
mirrors and lenses) on light” is the students’ confusion of the behaviours of the mirror and lens as seen in
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some other studies (Cazorla and Cervantes, 1989; Kocaküllah 2002; Palacios et al. 1987). These confusions
are caused by not knowing how and why the optical devices are used as Palacios et al. (1989) stated. It is
thought that students’, especially the great majority of the students using the reflection instead of refrac-
tion in the lenses is caused by their use of an arrow shape lens representation. The quantitative data of
the study also support this situation which is observed in the interviews. When the students’ drawings
are examined for this purpose, it is seen that the great majority of the students who made this mistake
drew the lenses in arrow shapes (82%), whereas it is seen that the students who drew both sides of a
lens can be differentiated as they made a very few mistakes in this subject (18%). The representations
drawn in arrow shape do not give the students feeling of the light’s entering into a different media.
Moreover, the expression of “the light ray coming parallel to the principal axis passes from the focal
point” memorized as a jingle for the parallel light ray, causes mistakes in the drawings done in diffusing
systems. The diffusion phenomenon in convex mirror and concave lens is still an unsettled knowledge.
Moreover, the students think of the lenses as affecting only the light rays coming from in front of them
as similar to the mirrors (4.3. in Table 10). These faulty “front” and “behind” concepts in the lenses cause
the students find the number of images wrong.
For the students who solved according to the FSM, the difficulties in equation usage are mostly
encountered in determining the distances (7.1. in Table 11). The most important reason for this is, that
the students often try to display the images by a single light ray, and they think that the image will be
formed on the point where the ray intersects with the principal axis. Moreover, although it is rarely
encountered in the FSM solutions, in the SSM, it is seen that the students often have difficulties in
commenting the meaning of the minus sign (-) or in deciding which distances they will display with a
minus sign (-) (7.2.; 7.3. in Table 11). This situation is resulted from the students’ alternative ideas related
to the “virtuality” and “reality” (Table 12). It is also put forward in the studies of Palacios et al. (1989) that
the students have difficulties in differentiating the virtuality and reality. It is understood from Table 12
that misconceptions related to the category of determining virtuality or reality are encountered more
often among the students who use the SSM than the students who use the FSM. This situation shows
that using the rays is a more practical way for the students to differentiate between the virtuality and
the reality. While the students who use the FSM make correct decisions about the virtuality and the
reality mostly by means of the light rays, the students who use the SSM make wrong decisions mostly
regarding the place of the image with respect to the object ( 8.1.; 8.2.; 9.1 in Table 12). Especially the
idea of the image in the opposite direction with respect to the real object indicating the “negativeness”
is quite dominant (9.1. in Table 12).
In addition to this, the idea of thinking that these signs represent the directions causes the devel-
opment of the idea that the images which have similar characteristics (virtual / real) will always be on
the same side with respect to the optical device, in other words, there is an area where virtual images
occur within the system (9.4. in Table 12).
Another important result is the alternative idea that the image of a virtual object should also be
virtual which is also seen among the students who use the FSM, but not as much as among the students
who use the SSM (9.2. in Table 12). As stated by Galili and Hazan (2000), the students think that the im-
age is a copy of the object. For the students who use the FSM, this situation resulted from the students’
accepting the rays as a physical substance responsible to transfer the image, as stated by Hubber (2005).
This situation is also supported by the misconception of image projection by a single ray (Table 10).
This idea was developed only for the images of the virtual image in both groups, the students could
not imagine the transformation from virtuality to reality, and they perceived the virtual image as an
abstract substance, and the real image as a concrete substance.
Conclusions
The results of the study have shown that the light ray diagram representation which is used in
image formation problems reduces the mistakes in problem solutions. Drawing the light ray diagram
results in the correct use of the other representations. Light ray diagrams are very important for the
comprehension of the image formation process. Especially, light ray diagrams are important for com-
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prehending the virtuality and reality concepts, and finding the number of images. On the other hand,
students’ assignment of a different meaning to the rays or their inability to draw or read the ray diagram
correctly leads them to develop different misconceptions. As stated by Raftapolus et al. (2005), the light
ray diagram is an important tool necessary to be used in teaching the optical phenomena as long as a
geometrical model of it is developed in appropriate content according to the optics subject, and neces-
sary precautions are taken. The precautions to be taken here are very important, especially, the students
should have developed the idea of the light rays being only a tool displaying the way of light.
The results of the study have shown that some phenomena should be emphasized during the
instruction of optics subject. It is necessary to explain the image projection process by means of ray
diagrams, and the virtuality and reality concepts during this process, to develop the idea that the image of
virtual object would be real as the real object might have virtual image by applying the light ray principle
of returning back on the same way, and to infuse that light ray diagram is actually a technique to apply
reflection and refraction laws into the students, thus to make them comprehend how to use the other
rays except the special rays, and to explain the functions of lens and mirror by means of experiments.
It is thought that the results of the study would be helpful for teaching optics for secondary and
tertiary levels. Moreover, it is obvious that more detailed ideas would occur by increasing the variety of
question types in the study, for example by various questions where object and image properties were
added to the distances. Also, important contributions can be made to pedagocigal content knowledge
and MRs literature by comparing the usage of these MRs by teacher candidates with the usage of sec-
ondary school students.
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Appendıx A: Exam problems analysed
Question 1. A concave mirror and a convex mirror which has a focal length of 12 cm have been
placed as their principal axes coincide with each other. The distance between the
mirrors is 12 cm., and there is a candle in the middle of the mirrors. Find the distance
of the 2nd image occurred in the system to the concave mirror after making the first
reflection on the concave mirror.
Question 2. An object is placed 4 cm distance from the divergent (concave) lens which has a focal
length of - 4cm on the left of the lens. Find the distance of the final image occurred
in the system to the lens after a concave mirror with a radius of 6 cm is placed 3 cm
distance from the lens on the right.
Question 3. Two convergent (convex) lenses which have focal lengths of 10 cm and 20 cm respec-
tively are placed 50 cm distance from each other as their principal axes coincide with
each other. It is expected that the final image will be between the lenses and 31 cm
distance from the first lens. In this case, how much distance should the object be from
the first lens on the left?
Question 4. In a system consisting of convex lens and concave mirror which have focal lengths
of 60 cm and 40 cm respectively, how much should the distance between lens and
mirror be for the object placed 90 cm distance from the lens on the left to have a final
image occurred in the system which is on the same part with the object, inverse and
in same length with the object?
Received: October 21, 2013 Accepted: January 12, 2014
Serap Kaya Şengören PhD., Associate Professor of Physics Education, Dokuz Eylül
University, Education Faculty of Buca, Department of Secondary
Science and Mathematics Education, 35160, Buca, Izmir, Turkey.
E-mail : serap.kaya@deu.edu.tr
74
THE VIRTUAL SCIENCE
TEACHER AS A HYBRID
SYSTEM: COGNITIVE
SCIENCE HAND IN
HAND WITH CYBERNETIC
PEDAGOGY
Boris Aberšek, Abstract. The findings of cybernetic

pedagogy and didactics developed in the
Bojan Borstner,
1970s, which were in those times limited
Janez Bregant due to poor technological capabilities, are
taken as a starting point in this research.
A revised version of cybernetic pedagogy
is proposed and is used to develop the
hybrid cognitive model presented. It is not
based purely on the symbolic notation
Introduction of the teaching algorithm alone, as done
in the past, but also on the connectionist
It can be argued that teaching is something unique, unpre- model of our cognition, which draws on
dictable, and closely related to a person as an individual in a society. the brain’s characteristics and their physi-
Formal constants can be established for this individual, on the basis ological and functional structure, such as
of which they are objectivised and formalised. By writing them parallel data processing, content associa-
down in the form of a mathematical model, conditions are created tive memory and divided presentations.
for the development of a virtual teacher or intelligent e-learning The learning process algorithm can be, on
material. The starting point or an example of this kind of naturalist the basis of this idea, re-defined as a hybrid
approach to the development of an artificial tutor is the modern cognitive model, i.e. a combination of a
philosophy of mind, cognitive and neuroscience. symbol system and a neural network, and
On the presumption that there is a correlation between a hu- named mRKP.
man and a machine in the sense of a naturalist basis and a reductive The article concludes that an intelligent ar-
path which brings us to it (Dreyfus, Dreyfus, 1986), it is argued that tificial tutor can independently, i.e. without
it is possible, with certain limitations and simplifications, to create the need for reprogramming, accommo-
an intelligent autonomous system (programme, intelligent tutoring date the learning process to the needs and
system) capable of learning, adapting to new circumstances, and possibilities of an individual student if it
at the same time implementing critical self-evaluation (Bechtel, uses mRKP as its basis, and can eventually
Abrahamsen, 2002; Bermudez, 2010; Aberšek, Bregant, 2012). replace a human tutor in some situations,
Since a positive answer to the question can the human mind and but a human teacher must decide where
learning be formalised and reduced to the language of science is and when it should be used.
essential for the success of our research, an attempt will be made
Key words: cybernetic pedagogy, cogni-
to prove this by using revised cybernetic pedagogy and didactics
tive science, hybrid systems, learning
(Bregant, Aberšek, 2011).
algorithm, e-learning material.
Society is defined by interrelations between its elements, i.e.
the individuals that form it. These interrelations are highly com-
plex and thus cannot be addressed in their entirety, that is why
Boris Aberšek, Bojan Borstner,
this social reality can never be understood entirely. In order to be
Janez Bregant
able to understand society at least partially, we need to examine University of Maribor, Slovenia
how it is influenced by the physical environment, culture and in-
terpersonal relations, since each of these generates social values
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IN HAND WITH CYBERNETIC PEDAGOGY
(P. 75-90)
and institutions that in return change society; for example, education affects the attitude towards one’s
surroundings (it ultimately also affects the economy) and thereby changes cultural relations and the
entire society. In this context we are mostly concerned about the social development of an individual
and their behaviour in the specific cause-and-effect relationship of a teacher and student as is shown
in the process of education (Lamanauskas, 2012).
Cybernetics and Society
Couffignal (1933), one of the pioneers of cybernetics, considered it “the art of ensuring the efficacy
of action” and Wiener (1948) defined it as “the scientific study of control and communication in the ani-
mal and the machine”. A less poetic definition describes it as the science of dynamic time-dependent
relations between the parts and a whole and the parts themselves (Müller, 2008). Cybernetics is used
in technical and natural sciences as well as in social studies and education (Müller, 2011). Its most im-
portant field of use is computer science. Because cybernetics is so closely connected with the concepts
of structures and levels of organisation, we need to clearly define its elements. The interaction of these
elements is shown in the figure below.
Figure 1: Simple cybernetic system.
An effector1 is a mechanism that produces certain effects. Factors (stimuli) are conditions needed for
their operation. Feedback is a phenomenon by which effects (output) influence the effector (input) via
factors. The purpose of the effector is to achieve a certain/desired effect. There are two types of effectors,
constancy and tendency effectors. The first type tries to keep the effect at a constant level, while the other
type tries to move the effect toward a maximum level. The majority of the physiological mechanisms
that help to maintain internal equilibrium in living organisms are constancy effectors.
Figure 2: Cybernetic system with a servomechanism.
1 An effector has a different meaning in different fields; in technical sciences it is also called an actuator and represents a device
that transforms input signals into motion; in biology it can be a molecule that binds a protein and thereby modifies its activity,
or a muscle that is capable of responding to stimuli.
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(P. 75-90)
Another important element in cybernetics is also a regulator. It refers to a part of the constancy
effector that maintains equilibrium at close to an ideal value of the feedback loop. It can also include a
servomechanism, which represents a control that is external to the system and influences it as a feedback
loop in the sense of modifying its values, as is shown in the figure below.
This type of servomechanism is central to the science of physiology because it takes into account
the existence of various levels of organisation in living organisms and their distinctive features; regulated
systems of which it is a part are found at all of the mentioned levels. For example, at the molecular level,
a set of enzymes necessary for a particular biochemical reaction can be regarded as a regulator. This
regulator is influenced by an external control – servomechanism – from the next level up, in this case,
the cell, which, for example, determines how a neuron maintains the cell membrane potential. But this
regulator is also influenced by a servomechanism from the next level, i.e. the organ to which the cell
belongs. This organ is subject to the external control from the next level, and this continues for the en-
tire organism which is influenced by information from its external environment. The described chain of
servomechanisms is the result of the evolution of living structures; an organism is thus an open system
since information flows down to every level from the level above it and vice-versa (Müller, 2008; Müller,
2011). It must be noted that in contrast to the structural information supplied by the genes that can be
modified by the environment and thereby produce a unique individual, the circulating information is
carried mainly by neurons and glands of the endocrine system. While structural information serves to
distinguish living beings, for example to distinguish a person from a monkey, circulating information
serves to maintain the organism’s overall structure and the integrity of each of its levels. By accomplish-
ing its own purpose, each of these regulated systems helps to accomplish the purpose of the system
as a whole.
Cybernetics thus teaches us that life is both a system and information, whereas it is presumed that
a machine is only a system that “feeds” on information. If we turn a computer off, it will no longer be able
to use the information stored in its memory, but it will still be a computer ready to work as soon as we
turn it back on. But if we, for example, withhold food from a plant or an animal, it will quickly become
an inert body that is dying since its structure coincides with the energy that feeds and transforms it, i.e.
supplies it with information. Despite this, further on in the article, similarities will be looked for and argued
for between natural and artificial intelligence on the basis of the fundamental findings in cybernetics,
with an emphasis on modern trends in cognitive science that swears by the connectionist approach to
considering and creating “thinking machines”;2 the authors believe that this gives standard cybernetic
pedagogy а possibility for further development. One of the artificial teacher’s (computer system) main
advantages is that it can prepare a specifically tailored curriculum (teaching system) for each student
and, based on that, provide a correct evaluation of the individual’s achievements.
Cybernetic Pedagogy
Let us now try to transfer the mentioned general principles of cybernetics to the field of education.
Cube (1982) set the cybernetic foundations for learning and teaching. Frank and Mader (1971) devel-
oped the so-called “cybernetic pedagogy” that was based on natural sciences. Cybernetic pedagogy is
the science of how a learning process can be influenced. The fundamental goals of cybernetic pedagogy
are therefore the following:
• identification and analysis of teaching and learning processes expressed in partial systems,
and their function in objectivising the educational process; this means the transfer of all
activities from human to technical systems or computer programmes;
• analysis of relations and effects between objectivised (technical) and non-objectivised (hu-
man) systems of the educational process, for example, evaluation of the interaction between
a human teacher and e-learning material with the purpose of achieving set didactic goals;
• explanation of the relations between different forms of partial systems in a given educa-
tional system.
2 Connectionism models mental phenomena and consequential behaviour with the help of interconnected networks of simpler
units.
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According to Frank and Mader (1971), it is possible to formalise or objectivise the learning process
as an educational algorithm and express it as a mathematical logical function with the following five
conditional variables: L – learning material, M – media, P – psychological structure, S – social structure,
Z – setting learning goals and B – teaching or learning algorithm, i.e. a system connecting all the afore-
mentioned elements in an indivisible whole. Accordingly, the teaching-learning process must be subject
to supervised and guided cybernetic models, as shown in the figure below.
Figure 3: Elements and functions in a teaching-learning process applied in cybernetic pedagogy.
A learning process can also be (technically) realised as a learning programme (intelligent tutor)
(Frank, Mader, 1971; Frank, 1999); if so, it has to include a learning algorithm B formally written in symbol
form with a mathematical logical function with the presented five conditional variables:
B = f (Z, L, M, P, S)
Thus, from the viewpoint of cybernetics, the teacher and students, learning process and the
organisation of lessons are only a subsystem of the entire education system. A teacher is a subsystem
functioning as a transferor and a guide who holds plans and provides information. A student is a subsys-
tem functioning as the guided one, one who receives, processes and stores information, and responds
to it or is guided by it. Teaching within this meaning is a deliberate interaction in which students and
the teacher change their characteristics and their actions in a quantified and qualified manner, and
can therefore be considered as an adaptive system; in other words, learning is a process that leads to
adaptive changes in the system. Changes that are a consequence of learning make it possible for the
same population to solve the same tasks faster and more successfully than before the learning process
(Aberšek, Kordigel Aberšek, 2011; Hus, Kordigel Aberšek, 2011).
Mistakes in Cybernetic Pedagogy
When it was first developed and its authors attempted to realise it in practice, cybernetic pedagogy
must have been considered a breath of fresh air in the standard didactic thinking. Despite being, in a way,
ahead of its time, it has now been almost completely forgotten due to the following three reasons:
1. It paid too much attention to how a learning process could be formalised or objectivised as
an educational algorithm and expressed as a mathematical logical function with which the
learning process could be influenced (optimisation of the learning process) and did not pay
enough attention to the learning process itself.
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2. It disregarded the differences between the distinctive psychological and pedagogical features
of mental operation on one side and the characteristics of technical systems on the other.
Subjugating anthropological characteristics to technical models with the reasoning that
the same kind of organisation and laws apply to human thinking as they do for the world
of machines is a concept otherwise also known in structuralism (Searle, 1983a; 1983b). Even
though the belief that by using cybernetic methods, based exclusively on symbol systems,
higher mental activities and processes can also be formalised, modelled and automatically
supervised is not uncommon (Cube, 1982; Frank, Mader, 1971), not enough attention is paid
to the distinctive features of the educational field in which the student is not only the object
of teaching but also the subject of its own control and modification; this is also true when
not only one “ideal” student but several students who differ in their cognitive abilities, and
thus require different methodology and didactic approaches, are included in the process.
(Jank, Meyer, 2002). What is striking are the differences between the objectives of human
learning and cybernetic learning paths, i.e. between the demand for developing higher, in-
dependent mental activities and strictly supervised learning, between generalised, synthetic
thinking and particular analytic learning processes, between creativity, differentiation, indi-
vidualisation and automated learning. It is not easy to abstract from the learning material’s
content and value and to reduce it to symbols, formulas and models without turning it into
formalistic knowledge – into educational clichés. Despite all of this, today the authors cannot
agree with Gilbert’s recommendation: “If you do not have a teaching machine, do not get
one…”, but should agree with his warning: “Never allow the machine to give commands to
the programme” (Gilbert quoted in Strmčnik, 1978, p. 68).
3. In programming the learning process according to its principles there were particular
limitations due to the level of technological progress at the time (Winograd, Flores 1986,
Dreyfus, Dreyfus 1986); therefore, there was not enough available and capable hardware
and software.
Results of Research (Revised Cybernetic Pedagogy)
Let us try to reject the reasons above and thereby bring cybernetic pedagogy back to life.
Rejection of Reason no. 1
Answers to the question of what a learning process should be like, neglected by cybernetic peda-
gogy, can be found in the didactics of learning theory (Heimann, 1976; Reich, Thomas, 1976; Straka,
Macke, 2006; Jank, Meyer, 2006), which places the “structural analysis of lessons” at its centre; with this
cybernetic pedagogy can be enriched, and the criticisms rejected if need be. Heimann came up with a
surprisingly simple idea of how to set the “basic framework” of a lesson. In order to do so, a particular
learning process must be observed closely enough to be able to extract the “formal constants” from
different types of lessons. Thus established constants can become the guiding constants in analysing
as well as planning the lessons (Heimann, 1976).
This is based on the realisation that the teacher has to always think about their lesson, what its
goals/intentions are, what the learning topic is, which methods are best suited to achieve the goals set
and which teaching aids will be needed. This can be defined with four essential characteristics: inten-
tionality, topic, methodology and tools; and as will be shown later on, two more can be added. For all
four constants the teacher has to decide what it is they want; this is therefore called a decision making
area. In their decisions the teacher is limited by certain characteristics they or the students already
have and can therefore not be changed. They are anthropogenic, i.e. inherent to human beings, and
socially-cultural characteristics which are the result of fast or slow social changes (historical memory).
Regarding these two constants the teacher is, in a sense, a “victim of the situation”; therefore, this is
called the area of conditions.
The didactics of learning theory has at its centre a relatively simple structured network made up
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of six phenomena, which categorises those phenomena and places them in the whole via a system
of symbols that enable a comprehensive inclusion of all the essential circumstances and decisive
tasks of the lesson.
After almost forty years since this model of a structured lesson was presented, it is clear that
the statement, which was regarded as stemming from it, is the first problem and the source of all the
problems: lessons are an example of a formally constant structure or a structure whose validity is unlim-
ited (Heimann, 1976). This thesis is untrue since there are no structures whose validity is unlimited;
they are always created by humans through their practical operation in a certain time-specific social
system. For example, emphasising certain teaching aids in a model can thus only be explained on
the basis of current social-political circumstances and school policy.
Another problem is represented by the fact that two entirely different areas are included in the
model of a structured lesson from the viewpoint of symbolisation. It is relatively simple to formalise
decision-making areas or to write them in symbol form with a limited number of modifications of
individual factors since the number of methods for achieving the set goals is limited, as is the num-
ber of teaching aids and topics. Problems with formalisation occur in the area of conditions when
we no longer talk about a certain specific process with clearly defined goals and limited quantities
of content, method and teaching aids related to them. Here we are faced with a completely open
system of anthropogenic and socially-cultural characteristics that are usually entirely individualised:
anthropogenic characteristics are wholly connected to a human being as an individual, whereas the
socially-cultural characteristics are wholly connected to certain groups and communities on the basis
of their social and cultural relations (Bateson, 1979; Anderson, 2007).
Therefore, since lessons are supposedly a structure with unlimited validity, which is not true, and
because cybernetic pedagogy at those times was not able to symbolise the area of conditions, and
dynamic models used for programming had not yet displaced symbol models, the criticism was made
that it does not provide answers to questions regarding what a learning process should be like. It is
clear that every model should be, at least partially, dynamic, which means it should include socially-
cultural as well as anthropogenic characteristics and development levels and also take into account
the level of society’s technological development (in information and communication technology),
students’ abilities and habits, and all other influential factors that co-create the lesson. Didactics and
its models must follow continuous changes and adapt to all changes. The goal of each model must
be to maximise the quality of the student’s knowledge. The learning process is indeed an indivisible
union between the teacher and the student or between teaching and learning; however, the latter
is more important.
The use of an unfinished concept and the impaired transfer of a model of a structured lesson
into practice were regrettable, and it is therefore clear to see why it was buried by the three reasons
mentioned. However, its starting points provide almost ideal possibilities for further development,
especially when taking into account the modern connectionism trends in the field of cognitive science.
This is why, later in the article when the other reasons are rejected, more attention is paid to this and
to the possible directions of its further development (Reich, Thomas, 1976; Aberšek, 2012).
Rejection of Reason no. 2 (solution to the philosophical problem)
In structuralism it is common belief that the same organisation and laws apply to human thinking
as for the world of machines; critics consider this as ignoring the differences between the distinctive
psychological and pedagogical features of mental operation on one side and the characteristics of
technical systems on the other. To overcome this criticism and take into account in the modelling of
higher cognitive processes the distinctive features of the educational field, where the student is not
only the object of teaching but also the subject of its own control and change, structuralism must
be replaced with modern cognitive science as the fundamental premise (Bermudez, 2010; Winograd,
Flores 1986; Markič, 2011).
Modern cognitive science developed from cybernetics in the 1950s and has undergone numer-
ous paradigmatic changes since then. In previous years, cognitive science’s study of mental processes
80
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has too often been done only from the viewpoint of one of its constituent disciplines, either cognitive
linguistics, cognitive neuroscience or cognitive anthropology. But today the prevailing conviction
is that only an equal treatment of all its constituent fields – philosophy, psychology, linguistics, so-
cial sciences, computer science and neuroscience – can ensure an adequate explanation of mental
processes. Cognitive scientists are trying to transfer their findings into practice – particularly in the
fields of teaching and studying, co-working, machine learning and decision-making. Connectionism
(Bechtel, Abrahamsen, 2002; Anderson, 2007; Horgan, Tienson 1996), one of the directions in cognitive
science, was developed in the mid-1980s as an alternative to symbol models (traditional computer
paradigm). This alternative computer paradigm is based on an analogy between a digital computer
and the mind, according to which thinking constitutes a special kind of symbol calculation. The con-
nectionist model of the mind is a discreet dynamic system with the same kind of learning algorithms.
Their main characteristic is that they are composed of simple units, i.e. idealised neurons, which are
interconnected. Each unit has a certain activation value that is forwarded to other units via bonds
of varying degrees of strength and thereby contributes to an increase or decrease in their value. The
entire process is performed in parallel and does not need a central part for its control. Such a network
learns the selected cognitive tasks in the learning process by changing the strength of the connections
between units on the basis of a learning rule (algorithm). The choice of the network’s architecture
and the learning algorithm depends on what kind of cognitive task we would like to model using the
network, or how neurologically credible we would like the model to be.
Since both standard symbol as well as connectionist models suffer from many imperfections,
Horgan and Tienson (1996) proposed a new theoretical framework for cognitive modelling, i.e. the
theory of dynamical systems, which draws on connectionism but also on certain fundamental findings
of symbol models, particularly the importance of syntax. With dynamical systems and this kind of
modelling of the human mind, theorists are trying to answer long-standing philosophical questions,
such as what is a conscience, where is the source of knowledge, what are the mechanisms of perception,
remembering and learning, what is the role of language, what is the relation between physical and men-
tal, i.e. between the mind and the body etc. Increasingly powerful computers have become a powerful
weapon that enables the empirical testing of theoretical ideas and the developing of models that,
more or less, correspond to human cognitive functions. Dynamical systems are essentially a cross
between symbol and connectionist (network) models and are therefore known in short as hybrid
models; one of the most refined models is Anderson’s ACT-R (2007).
Findings so far have shown that there are different types of learning; they can be divided into
four groups, shown in the figure 4 below, with regard to what type of memory is being used, whether
new symbol structures are being created or whether only sub-symbols are being inserted in already
existing ones (Anderson, 2007, p. 92).
Declarative memory Procedural memory
Symbolic learning Learning facts Acquiring skills

Sub-symbolic learning Reinforcing Conditioning
Figure 4: 4 types of learning.
1. Learning facts: New memories can be created in declarative memory. This is memory in
the strict sense of the word; this is what most people understand as memory. This is the
only way of learning that results in new conscious memories.
2. Reinforcing: When creating new declarative memories we can also work on making these
memories more accessible. This process of learning is called reinforcing knowledge.
3. Acquiring skills: Different types of learning lead to new work procedures (new production
rules). Acquiring skills leads to a routine where we perform individual tasks unconsciously,
e.g. blind typing or driving.
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4. Conditioning: Through experience we learn that particular activities are more efficient in
certain circumstances. Conditioning is generally seen as the most common learning proc-
ess; classic examples are Pavlov’s conditioning experiments conducted on dogs (Pavlov,
1927).
As a result, two types of obtaining new knowledge, i.e. symbolic and sub-symbolic learning,
must be taken into account in the taxonomy of learning. Since they both have their own specifics,
different “tools” have to be used for their modelling. Therefore, when cognitive psychologists look
for answers to the question of how does one remember and how does one learn, their starting point
is finding the internal mechanism of human thinking and obtaining knowledge (Searle, 1983a, Hor-
gan, Tienson, 1996). In other words, they are looking for the mental process that is related to how
integration and information retrieval work. When this process is known, there is only one step left
to its formalisation.
To overcome the criticism of ignoring the differences between the distinctive psychological and
pedagogical features of mental operation on one side and the characteristics of technical systems on
the other, and take into account in modelling higher cognitive processes also the distinctive features
of the educational field, where the student is not only the object of teaching but also the subject of its
own control and change, structuralism with symbol models must be replaced with modern cognitive
science with dynamical systems as the fundamental premise.
Rejection of Reason no. 3
The third criticism of cybernetic pedagogy is closely connected to the technological capabilities or
incapability’s of the period when it was developed. It was based exclusively on the symbolic notation
of the teaching algorithm and thus faced insurmountable barriers. By replacing structuralism with
cognitive science we can remove this criticism. The latter supports symbol as well as network systems
– this is key to programming a learning process, which only works if the formalisation is partially a
symbol formalisation and partially a network formalisation.3 The connectionist models, which draw
on the brain’s characteristics and their physiological and functional structure, vary from the standard
symbol models in certain essential characteristics, such as parallel data processing, content associa-
tive memory and divided presentations. On this basis (see Figure 5) the learning process algorithm
can be re-defined and named mRKP:
B = f1(I, T, L f(T), LA, ME) f2(SC, A)
(Two types of functional dependency are included in the equation, f1 for decision-making areas
and f2 for area of conditions.) Under this equation the learning process algorithm is expressed as a
mathematical-logical function of seven conditional variables:
• I – intentionality: Its definition is complex since the goals are essentially connected with
the topic; despite this it makes no sense to develop a neutral catalogue of goals (Searle,
1983b). The teachers should themselves determine which orientation patterns and
structures are behind a particular goal since it makes a significant difference whether it
refers to only knowledge transmission or to creating something new. A reference point
for regulating intentionality can also be found in anthropology: Since human behaviour
does not exist on its own, but is always a consequence of thinking and emotions, Heimann
(1976) defines thinking, wanting and feeling (head, heart and hands) or, according to Bloom
(1956), cognition, affection and psychomotor skills as the three fundamental dimensions of
3 It is true that only those connectionist models that take place in continuous time (not all of them can do this, e.g. hybrid
models, such as ACT-R, are discreet systems) are considered real dynamical systems, but hybrid systems suffice for modelling
a learning process.
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human behaviour. What is of particular importance is their combined operation, which

has to be in tune.
• T – topic;
• L – learning material, which should be seen in a slightly wider sense than in standard
cybernetic didactics and is mainly dependent on the topic and closely related to learn-
ing aids;
• UP – learning aids;
• ME – didactics or methodology of lessons in the strict sense. Different topics can be pre-
sented in different ways; however, selecting them depends mainly on the desired goals
and results of the lessons. This conditional variable is the basic factor in optimising the
learning process.
• SC– socially-cultural character;
• A – anthropogenic character.
What does this mean for the formalisation of classes from the viewpoint of the third criticism
and for reviving cybernetic pedagogy?
• Decision-making areas: It is relatively simple to formalise the methodology, topic and
learning aids or write them in symbol form with a limited number of modifications of indi-
vidual factors since the number of methods for achieving the set goals is limited, as is the
number of teaching aids and topics. The only problem we are faced with is intentionality,
particularly as regards learning, since a network system instead of a symbol model would
have to be used for its formalisation.
• Area of conditions: Here we are faced with a completely open system of anthropogenic
and socially-cultural characteristics that are usually entirely individualised: the former are
completely connected to a human being as an individual, whereas the latter are connected
to certain groups and communities on the basis of their social and cultural relations. Since
we are no longer talking about a specific process with clearly defined goals and limited
quantities of content, method and teaching aids related to them, we must use a network
system for their formalisation.
It follows that the same tools and the same work methods cannot be used for the symbolisation
of both areas (except for intentionality). Symbol systems can be used for modelling decision-making
areas, as was done in the past, while the area of conditions must be modelled using network systems
that enable complex individualisation and differentiation of the learning process. Cybernetic peda-
gogy should be treated and presented as a hybrid system since it nowadays combines two different
methods of formalisation supplied by the cognitive platform, symbol and connectionist ones, and
not as a symbol system as it was treated and presented in the past.
Symbol Systems versus Connectionism
Since the mRKP of the learning process is a hybrid system, i.e. a combination of a symbol system
and connectionism (neural networks), let us first look at the advantages and disadvantages of such
systems. We will analyse the symbol system in the case of Eliza, a computer programme for simple
natural language processing, from the early stages of the development of artificial intelligence – AI.
Some see it as the first intelligent system, even though the same could be said of The Checkers Program,
developed by A. Samuel in the early 1950s, or the so-called Logic Theorist, developed a little later by
Newell, Shaw and Simon (Copeland, 1993). It should be noted that in 1966, when Eliza was written,
interactive computing4 (then only by using the keyboard) was a completely new thing. It would be 15
years before the general public became familiar with the personal computer, and three decades before
4 Interactive computing enables communication between the machine (computer) and human. In the early stages this could
only be done via a keyboard; today other elements (e.g. mouse) and other channels (e.g. speech) are also being used.
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most people encountered attempts at natural language processing in PC help systems. The source
code was written by Jospeh Weizenbaum at MIT; it was based on the principle of pattern matching
and it worked by converting answers into new questions. It used a programming trick that enabled
Eliza to evoke a special response in situations when no patterns matched. When an incoming phrase
with a predominant pattern, e.g. “my”, appears, in its response Eliza uses the transformation from the
top of the list of transformations and also chooses another transformation from another list; it then
saves the results in order to use them when there is no match.
The programme shows considerable lack of comprehension; however, problems appear later
when a slightly modified form of the incoming phrase is repeated too many times. Eliza’s success
depends to a great extent on luck, since the entire system depends on the probability of the right
pattern evaluation and the corresponding transformation. What are the advantages and disadvan-
tages of symbol models?
One of the main intuitive advantages of standard symbol computer-based approaches to cogni-
tion is a clear traditional notation of cognitive presentations. Presentation is a precise data structure
with a semantic context (by taking into account the interior or exterior of a cognitive system). It can
be modified and adapted to current needs, and these kinds of symbols are undoubtedly similar to
the real world and phrases from the natural language (Fodor, 1983). Their main disadvantage is that
symbol structures are not capable of learning, and therefore they are not capable of solving tasks
that cannot be written in the form of algorithmic symbol systems.
In a connectionist model the neural networks are composed of elements, so-called artificial
neurons, which copy the biological neurons in terms of their structure and operation (Morris, Filenz,
2003). The figure 5 below illustrates the structure of neurons and clearly shows that the structure of
an artificial neuron is essentially the same as that of its biological counterpart.
Figure 5: Neuron models.
In an artificial neural network neurons are interconnected in different ways. The main charac-
teristic of a neural network is that it is capable of learning how to connect the input data with the
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output data. The acquired knowledge is stored in synapses and is called weights. In the learning pro-
cess individual weights change in order to achieve an optimally balanced neural network. In such an
optimally balanced state a neural network is capable of generalisation; this means that it is capable
of connecting an unknown input pattern with the correct or desired output pattern.
As shown in the figure 6,5 the artificial neuron’s structure is composed of three basic elements.
The first element is a set of synapses or input connections; each of them has its own weight (Wkj). (Each
neuron’s input is marked by index j and individual neurons in a neural network by index k). The sec-
ond element is an Adding element, in which all products of input signals and weights are cumulated.
The sum of the neuron’s products is marked by the symbol Uk and is called action potential. The third
element is a transfer function with an output yk. In this element the input is the action potential; the
threshold value (Uk − θk) is deducted from it. The threshold sets the limit of the neuron activation
marked by the symbol θk. An artificial neuron model can also be operationalised by transferring the
threshold to neuron input. In order to do this input, variables (Xj) need to be expanded for one addi-
tional variable with the value minus one (X0 = −1). Weights must also be expanded for one additional
weight equivalent to the threshold (Wk0 = θk). The figure below shows the operationalisation of the
artificial neuron model or the new synapse added in the artificial neuron model that was inserted at
the position with zero index (j = 0).
Figure 6: Artificial neuron model and its operationalisation.
The learning process of neural networks is defined as a process in which the free parameters of
the neural network, i.e. weights, adapt through the process of encouragement from the environment
in which the neural network is performing the desired activities. In the learning process of a neural
network different rules or algorithms can be used, such as the Hebb Rule, the delta rule, the competi-
tive rule, the Boltzmann rule, etc. (Bermudez, 2010).
What are the advantages and disadvantages of neural networks? Their main advantage is their
usability, even when the input data is incomplete or incorrect, since they can correctly predict the
sought after results, provided that the right learning algorithm was selected. The main disadvantage
of neural networks lies in the fact that they are not explanatory since they operate on the principle
of a black box into which data is sent and from which results are obtained. Since there are no pre-
defined rules that would make it possible to set the parameters for an optimal modelling of a neural
network (black box structure), and this is more or less left to our own ingenuity and experiences, this
can mean that the desired result is not achieved.
It can be concluded that significant theoretical differences between connectionist and symbol
models lie in the dissimilar understanding of presentation of knowledge. Presentation of knowledge
in connectionism is no longer an internal state that is static, simple and can be described by lan-
guage. It no longer necessarily forms a symbol system, is made of sub-symbols, divided and context-
dependent. Knowledge is no longer presented in the formal notation of a language or logics, but is
5 Adapted from Bermudez, 2010, p. 233.
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stored in weights in neural networks as a consequence of learning. The essential advantage of neural
networks compared to symbol systems is that during operation they themselves recognise the rule
that connects the output data with the input data. This means that they can learn, and when a neural
network is capable of learning, it is also capable of solving tasks for which no prior solutions in the
form of consecutive steps, i.e. algorithms, exist.
Since a hybrid model (Anderson, 2007) would ensure the minimalisation of disadvantages and
maximisation of advantages of both systems, it will be explored later in the article whether a hybrid
mRKP system meets this expectation; this will be done in the example of electronic learning mate-
rial.
Case Study: Intelligent tutoring system – e-learning material
One of the main methodological problems of today’s electronic learning material is their inability
to adapt to user’s demands, needs and, most importantly, their abilities and previous knowledge.
E-learning material often has the same scenario, content and goals for all users, regardless of their
different abilities and level of knowledge. In other words, all current e-learning material is missing
differentiation and individualisation of the learning process from which it is composed (Gur-Zéev,
2005). An answer as to how to avoid this problem can be found in the presented revised cybernetic
pedagogy on which the so-called programmed learning, developed at the beginning of the 1970s, is
based; the latter was enabled by the fast development of industry, science and technology as well
as the need for self-education.
Thus, from the didactic point of view, electronic e-learning material should be designed in a way
that would enable the student to learn effectively and independently without the direct presence of
a teacher; in this way it would come closest to learning with a teacher and would ensure that the stu-
dent obtains new knowledge in a permanent and high-quality manner (Bregant, Aberšek, 2011). With
certain simplifications, the presented mRKP model of the revised cybernetic pedagogy would meet
this demand immediately and could also be very easily implemented in the current school practice.
Let us have a closer look at the demands of programmed learning and see which of them can
be met by the virtual teacher based on the hybrid mRKP model.
Definition of Programmed Learning
The beginnings and principles of programmed learning can be found throughout the entire his-
tory of didactics. The desire for efficient learning aids and self-education can be found in Socrates, or
as Skinner wrote back in 1963, if by some magical invention books were changed so that the second
page in a book would only be clear to those who have mastered the first page, a large part of what
today requires direct activity by the teacher could be learned by the students themselves (Skinner,
2005).
Programmed Learning and Individualisation
The view that individualisation of e-learning material considers only the way people adopt in-
formation or what type of people they are (auditory, visual or kinaesthetic), on the basis of which we
prepare e-learning material that suits the highest number of people, is false. Such an individualisation
method is part of the essence of electronic e-learning material since it must be interactive and, at the
same time, include elements of multimedia. Additionally, such a solution can only be a part of the
didactic-methodical differentiation and individualisation where, in addition to the mentioned chang-
ing of media, sources and methods can also be changed in order to ensure that electronic e-learning
material is acceptable, interesting and effective for every student (Newel, 1990).
Programmed learning offers the following four principles of individualisation (Pritchard, 2009;
Dolenc, Aberšek, 2012):
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• individualisation of personal pace;

• individualisation of learning content;
• individualisation of teaching methods;
• individualisation of learning support.
Personal pace, also called learning pace, differs in every student. It mainly depends on the
individual’s prior knowledge, their motivation, learning habits, content understanding and, most
importantly, their thinking ability subject to the complexity of the process. Individualisation of the
learning content offers students several additional side paths with new information that help them
overcome certain obstacles on the main learning path or to enhance and expand their knowledge.
It enables the following (Gur-Zéev, 2005):
• inserting information and tasks of varied levels of difficulty;

• predicting obstacles and planning their avoidance by choosing a different learning
path:
• returning to content not mastered by the students;
• giving additional assignments to students who do not understand something;
• shorter and longer learning steps.
The most widely accepted principle in today’s e-learning material is the individualisation of teach-
ing methods (forms, means and techniques). When programmed learning first appeared, it was not
possible to add interactive and multimedia elements, whereas today we cannot imagine e-learning
material without images, sound, animation and video.
The last dimension of individualising programmed learning is the individualisation of learning
support. A question that always arises is how to provide learning support for students when they need
it. Most problems can be avoided with good programming, appropriate instructions, suggestions,
impulses, encouragement and additional explanation; nevertheless, individuals and groups can still
come across certain difficulties. Experts’ views on how machines cope with this are different. In the
past, some argued that machines would soon be able to provide direct learning support to every
student at any time; but this is still not possible today. It is obvious that the path to individualising
learning support lies in a good programme, but it is also true that the progress and development of
artificial intelligence, as well as the accessibility of this technology in the educational process, is still
in its early days. Smaller problems that could be encountered by students during learning can be
avoided by testing, but bigger problems can only be resolved by a teacher. Although software can
enable the student to come back to the problem several times to try to solve it, it cannot discover
the student’s weaknesses on its own. Concrete or personal help by the teacher is thus still a big ad-
vantage (Aberšek, 2012).
Discussion
From the viewpoint of pedagogy and didactics, the electronic e-learning material should be
designed so that it enables students to learn efficiently and independently without the direct pres-
ence and help of a teacher. The preparation of such e-learning material must take into account and
include the following essential functions of a learning system (Dolenc, Aberšek, 2012):
• presentation of relevant information, e.g. learning content, initial questions, assignment,
problem, instructions, evaluation, value judgments;
• adopting, storing and analysing information presented by the learning system, e.g. infor-
mation on reactions, modes of behaviour and reactions, and answers;
• evaluating the condition diagnosed by the learning system and its comparison with the
planned target value;
• selecting suitable alternative learning steps/programmes for further influence on the
learning system (feedback, learning support for the learning system etc.).
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The following essential goals of cybernetic pedagogy must be met:

• identification and analysis of teaching and learning processes expressed in partial systems
and their function in objectivising the educational process; this means the transfer of all
activities from human to technical systems or computer programmes;
• analysis of the relations and interactions of objectivised technical and non-objectivised
human partial systems of learning processes, e.g. the interaction between a human teacher
and e-learning material, in order to meet didactic goals;
• explanation of relations between different forms of partial systems in a given educational
system.
Before beginning to prepare e-learning material, a precise algorithm (mRKP) that follows the
set learning goals and provides unambiguous answers to all functions and requested goals must
be prepared. The right use of all the mentioned didactic characteristics ensures that the electronic
learning material will be as close as possible to the standard teaching and learning. Finally, attention
should be paid to previously defined learning goals since it is pointless to prepare e-learning mate-
rial without them. With well-defined learning goals in electronic learning material the student can
be clearly informed what they can expect from a certain learning programme; well-defined learning
goals are also a good starting point for preparing tests of knowledge and activities that encourage
interaction in the learning process. Usually, e-learning material contains several learning goals, and
their number depends on its extensiveness. Learning goals are often divided into sub-goals. Basic
goals refer to e-learning material as a whole, whereas the sub-goals refer to individual sets of content.
In determining learning goals special attention must be paid to their escalation. Most commonly used
is a hierarchy of goals with general (directional) goals at the top, followed by interim (partial) goals
and operational (fine) goals at the bottom. Theoretical specialities apply to the hierarchy of goals,
particularly the cohesion of parts and the whole, specific reciprocal relations and interaction, and
hierarchical structure (Jank, Meyer, 2002).
E-learning material prepared in this way has certain structural similarities with the principle of
action research in which every research step is followed by continuous evaluation, and, in accordance
with the grade obtained; the research plan or even the initial research idea can be changed (amended)
(Reinmann-Rothmeier, 2003; Aberšek, 2012).
Conclusion
The presented hybrid mRKP model does not only symbolise the learning process but also the social
environment in which it takes place. The proposed formal lesson model presents a starting point for
the development of an independent, adaptive tutor (virtual teacher, computer programme, artificial
teacher) that can independently (and without the need for re-programming) self-adapt the learning
process to the needs and possibilities of individual students as does a human teacher.
Information-communication technology (ICT) is already an integral part of all school systems,
while e-education and e-material are notions without which we cannot imagine schools today. This is
why it is even more important that electronic learning material is prepared in a high-quality manner
and is intended for active education without the direct presence of a teacher or with their “limited”
help, and is not an end in itself, as is often the case today.
We should not be satisfied with copied content from student books and added multimedia and
interactive elements since this can cause more damage than benefit. Although such preparation of
e-learning material is quick, simple and cheap, it is not necessarily didactic. Electronic learning mate-
rial is didactic when it enables an individual to achieve the desired goal by stepping onto a path that
ensures gradual progression and one’s own, personal pace; in short, when it suits the individual. The
preparation of electronic learning material demands differentiation and individualisation of individual
participants and continuous evaluation not intended as an assessment, but with the purpose of lead-
ing the individual toward the goal on the path that is most suitable for them.
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Modern research in education processes shows that the highest educational goals cannot be
achieved without active participation by the student. In order to follow the appropriate development
of the student’s potential it is therefore of utmost importance that we continuously follow and evaluate
the educational process, and implement the necessary corrections when needed. This way of working
is to a great extent enabled by modern (intelligent) electronic learning material, but only if it is cor-
rectly designed (from the viewpoint of pedagogy and didactics) and technologically implemented.
Such material must also, among other aspects, evaluate the user and upon poor results change the
path to achieve the planned goals. With cleverly set goals not only can the participants obtain the
prescribed knowledge suitable for their level, but this can also enable continuous adaptation of the
path towards those goals. The authors believe electronic learning material designed on the basis of
the hybrid mRKP model can lead to the fulfilment of all of these requirements.
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CONTINUING
PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT (CPD)
PROVISION FOR SCIENCE
AND MATHEMATICS
TEACHERS IN SAUDI
ARABIA: PERCEPTIONS AND
EXPERIENCES OF CPD
PROVIDERS Abstract. This study examines the
perspectives of science and mathematics
Continuing Professional Development
(CPD) providers regarding the nature and
status of CPD provision in Saudi Arabia. It
Saed A. Sabah, Merfat Fayez, was carried out during a time when current
government reforms in Saudi Arabia have
Saeed M. Alshamrani,
placed the teaching and learning of math
Nasser Mansour and science in the schools at the core of its
agenda. To achieve the study results, an
open-ended questionnaire was developed
and used in the data collection process.
Twenty science and mathematics CPD
providers completed the questionnaire.
Data were analyzed inductively using
Introduction
thematic analysis. Three themes were
elicited from the study analysis: CPD plan-
High quality teaching demands qualified, knowledgeable and ning and delivery, assessing the impact of
skilful teachers throughout their career (Day & Sachs, 2004). Ac- CPD, and views of effective CPD. The article
cording to Kennedy (2005), promoting quality education in schools concludes that the dominant model of
requires paying more attention to the Continuing Professional CPD in Saudi Arabia is based on tradi-
Development (CPD) of teachers which is considered an essential tional notions that are focused on a single
component for creating a positive impact on their pedagogy and shot design (such as training courses and
teaching practices. The term CPD is used to “describe all the activi- workshops). The study suggests increasing
ties in which teachers engage during the course of a career which the scope of CPD efforts in Saudi Arabia to
are designed to enhance their work” (Day & Sachs, 2004, p.3). CPD allow for other forms of CPD opportunities
and that science and mathematics Saudi
activities may include professional development meetings, at-
CPD providers require support and fine
tending internal and external courses and conferences, coaching
tune training in order to assure the success
and mentoring, joining PD networks, participating in reflective of the CPD efforts.
discussions, and conducting action research and investigations Keywords: continuing professional
(The Training and Development Agency TDA, 2007, p. 4). Guskey development, providers’ perception, Saudi
(2002) describes three aspects for the aspired change as major Arabia, science and mathematics educa-
goals for professional development programs. These are: change in tion.
teachers’ classroom practices, change in their attitudes and change
in their students’ learning outcomes. Saed A. Sabah, Merfat Fayez
In recent years, there has been a call for a substantive change Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan
in Professional Development (PD) forms, models and practices in Saeed M. Alshamrani
King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Acknowledgement: This research was conducted as part of the professional Nasser Mansour
development for an in-service science and mathematics teachers’ research
Tanta University, Egypt & University of
group with support from the Excellence Research Center of Science and Math-
Exeter, UK & King Saud University,
Saudi Arabia
ematics Education (ECSME) at King Saudi University in Saudi Arabia.
91
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) PROVISION FOR SCIENCE AND ISSN 1648–3898
MATHEMATICS TEACHERS IN SAUDI ARABIA: PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF
CPD PROVIDERS
(P. 91-104)
order to attain a change in pedagogy and development of teaching practices (NRC, 1996; TDA, 2007).
More emphasis has been placed on alternative models that engage teachers in a life-long professional
development process (Day & Sachs, 2004; NRC, 1996). Kennedy (2005) proposed nine categories of
CPD models: (1) training; (2) award-bearing; (3) deficit; (4) Cascade; (5) standard-based; (6) coaching/
mentoring;(7) community of practice; (8) action research; and (9) transformative model. Kennedy also
organized these nine models into three categories based on the professional autonomy they provide for
teachers. The first three models were categorized under the transmission category where teachers have
low control over their learning. The other three models, the standard- based, the coaching / mentor-
ing, and the community of practice models, are transitional models where teachers have professional
autonomy. The third category, transformative, involves the action research model and offer even more
professional autonomy for teachers. According to Kennedy (2005), moving from transmission through
transition to transformative would increase the capacity for professional autonomy of the teachers.
The delivery and diversity of CPD models are affected by the nature of the educational system
(i.e., whether they are centralized or non-centralized systems) (Stadler, 2010). As to Stadler, in the non-
centralized systems (e.g., Denmark), schools are responsible for organizing the CPD activities that meet
the needs of teachers at a particular context. On the other hand, in centralized educational systems (e.g.,
Turkey, and Saudi Arabia), the CPD activities are usually organized by the ministries of education (Stadler,
2010). Yet what is important is not the professional development per se, but the successful implementa-
tion of these efforts and a clear evidence of their effectiveness. The Training and Development Agency
TDA document Impact evaluation of CPD (TDA, 2007) identified key components which may lead to
effective CPD. Some of these components are: identifying intended outcomes, taking into account the
previous knowledge of participants and providing them with relevant CPD activities, modeling effective
teaching practices and models, and including impact evaluation as part of the CPD activities.
Impact evaluation of professional development programs is very important to determine whether
the investment in professional development yields ‘tangible payoffs’ as the budget is being more limited
(Guskey, 2002). In addition, evaluation is necessary to determine whether the PD programs achieve their
objectives or planned purposes. According to Lowden (2003), evaluation is a crucial component of all
PD activities for providing high quality PD programs that improve teachers’ knowledge and instruc-
tional skills. Evaluation should be sophisticated to include the impact of CPD at different levels such as
teacher, school, and student (Kennedy, 2005). There is an urgent need for evaluation that focuses on
the outcomes of CPD (Bolam & McMahon, 2004).
Guskey introduced five levels of evaluation to improve professional development programs
where success at one level is a prerequisite for the success at the higher levels. These levels are level1:
participants’ reaction, level 2: participants’ learning, level 3: organizational support and change, level 4:
participants’ use of new knowledge and skills, and level 5: students’ learning outcomes (Guskey, 2002).
Harris et al., (2006), however, found that the impact of CPD on students is usually and significantly under
evaluated especially at the higher levels. To evaluate the impact of PD at higher levels (e.g., level 4: partici-
pants’ use of new knowledge and skills), evaluators should allow enough time for participants to adapt
the new skills and practices before starting the evaluation process at this level. Having into account the
complexity of the evaluation process at higher levels, one would understand why CPD providers focus
on evaluation at lower levels. Also, the evaluation process at the higher levels requires more evaluation
tools and methodologies. For example, the evaluation process at level 1 may be completed by simply
administering questionnaires at the end of a certain PD session, while the evaluation process at level 5
may require more tools such as students’ records, school records, questionnaires, structured interviews,
and portfolios. Guskey’s model of CPD impact evaluation is considered comprehensive and has been
utilized by different researchers (e.g., Goodall et al., 2005). Hence, this study is utilizing Guskey’s five-
level evaluation framework as a benchmark to examine at what levels CPD providers in Saudi Arabia
evaluate the impact of CPD.
Literature has focused more on evaluating of CPD in recent years (e.g., Rivera, Manning, & Krupp,
2013). However, earlier studies (e.g., Harris et al., 2006) indicated that the impact of CPD is rarely com-
prehensive enough to cover the five levels of Guskey’s evaluation model. Impact of CPD is also rarely
assessed based on outcomes or at the long term (Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Rose & Reynolds, 2008). To
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evaluate the impact of CPD effectively, there is a need for developing general evaluative models which
consider the most important aspects of effective CPD and following systematic approaches that con-
sider the complexity of educational systems (Stadler, 2010). Moreover, because the providers of CPD
are primarily responsible for evaluating the effectiveness of CPD activities (Mullins, Lepicki, & Glandon,
2010), they need high quality preparation to do their evaluation duties effectively and professionally
(Harries et al., 2006; Sadler, 2010).
Few studies investigated the provision (planning, organizing, evaluating) of CPD (Bolam & McMa-
hon, 2004); this is particularly true in countries such as Saudi Arabia where interest in the professional
development of teachers is relatively recent. Therefore this study intends to explore the nature and
status of CPD provision for science and mathematics teachers from Saudi providers’ perspectives. More
specifically, this research intends to answer the following research questions:
1. How do science and mathematics CPD providers plan for and implement teachers’ CPD in
Saudi Arabia?
2. How do science and mathematics CPD providers assess the impact of CPD in Saudi Ara-
bia?
3. What are the CPD providers’ views of effective CPD?
Significance of the Study
It is widely recognized that providers’ knowledge, skills, perceptions and approach are decisive in
the success of any CPD experience. Hence, this research attempts to explore and understand how CPD
providers plan for, implement, and asses their CPD programs and activities. Knowledge of how providers,
particularly in Saudi Arabia, perceive their CPD efforts within their contextual experiences may shed light
on how CPD is affected by the nature of the educational system in a particular context. Findings therefore,
may help direct and plan future CPD trajectories and Policy- amenable effectiveness features.
The findings of the current research may also help educational policymakers better plan for and
organize CPD activities for science and mathematics teachers in the Kingdom of the Saudi Arabia (KSA)
and other countries. It will also provide policymakers with recommendations related to providers’
preparation to do their job effectively, and introduce suggestions for improving the evaluation of CPD.
Furthermore, the findings of this study will add to the limited accumulative knowledge and research
on CPD in KSA and abroad.
Context of the Study
To better understand the scope of this research, it is imperative to explain the professional devel-
opment route for teachers in Saudi Arabia; specifically mathematics and science teachers. Pre-service
teachers in Saudi Arabia are usually prepared through two types of institutes. The first type is the colleges
of education, which prepare teachers for the middle and secondary schools; these colleges concentrate
on preparing science teachers to teach mainly specific subjects, such as physics, chemistry, or biology;
and mathematics teachers to teach mathematical content. The second type of institutes is the teacher
colleges which prepare teachers for the elementary schools; these colleges provide pre-service teachers
with general courses in science and mathematics.
While the job of preparing pre-service teachers is left to the universities and teachers colleges, Saudi
Ministry of Education is considered the sole authority responsible for teachers’ in-service programs (Al-
harbi, 2011). Interest in the professional development of teachers in Saudi Arabia has increased (Obikan
for Research and Development, 2010) and the Saudi Ministry of Education is putting more efforts toward
increasing the professional development of teachers. Yet, literature indicates that these efforts are not
yet mature or effective enough to create the needed change in teachers’ attitudes or pedagogy.
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Research Approach
The general design of this study was led by an interpretive qualitative approach. The qualitative
approach helps researchers gather rich and in-depth information from participants and involves the
interpretation or the examination of what they think or how they behave with respect to certain phe-
nomena or contextual experiences.
Study Participants
Only twenty participants volunteered to participate in this study and completed the written ques-
tionnaires which were mailed to them. All the collected questionnaires qualified for analysis. Participants
covered four geographical educational directorates in Saudi Arabia.
Fourteen participants were males, while six were females. In addition, 10 participants were science
CPD providers, and 10 were mathematics CPD providers. Participants also varied in the number of their
years of training experience. (i.e., four had 1-3 years; 11 had 4-10 years, and five had more than 10 years
of training experience). With regard to educational degrees, 4 participants had MA; one had a PhD, while
the rest had a bachelor degree. It is worth noting that names utilized in this study are pseudonyms.
Data Collection
An open-ended questionnaire) see Appendix 1) was developed by the research team to gather
information from CPD providers in Saudi Arabia. The choice of collecting data using open-ended ques-
tionnaire was made after taking into account different considerations.
First, the open-ended questions have an inviting quality and encourage participants to react and
qualify their responses. Second, they help researchers invest time with others, and allow for greater
geographical coverage (Phellas, Bloch & Seale, 2012). In addition, the open-ended questionnaire was
preferred over interviews because interviewing is relatively a recently recognized method of data col-
lection in Saudi Arabia and, hence, may require effort and caution from the part of the researchers to
sensitive issues that are particular to the Saudi Arabian culture.
The open-ended questions were developed after reviewing an extensive literature review related
to CPD (e.g., Goodall et al., 2005; Guskey, 2002) and were clustered around the research questions set
for this study. Attention was paid to keep the questions clear, specific and short to provide meaning-
ful and interpretable data. Also several prompts for each question were developed and added to the
questionnaire to help researchers collect richer data. The open-ended questionnaires were reviewed
by faculty members and experts in Science Education and professional development to check the ap-
propriateness of the questions and their prompts. The questionnaire was developed and piloted in the
Arabic Language as it the native language for the participants. The emerging themes and some selected
excerpts were translated into English for the purpose of publication and the translation was checked
by two bilingual (Arabic-English) specialists.
The final version of the questionnaire consisted of two parts. The first part requires participants
to complete a demographic sheet to provide information about their level of education, major, and
years of training experience. The second part contained 14 open-ended questions that covered four
main dimensions of professional development: planning, implementation, evaluation, and effective-
ness. The review of related literature helped us select and design questions that best represent each
dimension of PD. The dimension of evaluation, for example, consisted of questions such as: What are
the areas you evaluate (e.g., participants’ satisfaction, changes in participants’ knowledge, skills, and
behaviors, students’ outcomes, etc); which area, you believe, is the most important for measuring the
impact of PD; Clarify how do you evaluate the CPD activities you organize; and how you benefit from
the collected data and evidences?
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Data Analysis
The researchers followed certain procedural steps during the analysis of data. First, all question-
naires were read several times individually to ensure that they are of sufficient value that warrant coding.
The passages that represent participants’ answers to a single question were then compiled in one file.
Second, data were analyzed thematically following Braun and Clarke (2006) procedures: familiarizing
self with the data through reading and re-reading and noting down initial ideas, generating initial
codes in a systematic fashion, collating codes into potential themes, reviewing themes and generating
a thematic map for the entire analysis, defining and naming themes, producing the report and select-
ing vivid extract examples.
It is worth noting that the coding process was conducted independently by two of the research team
who generated, refined, and compared the initial codes. Researchers’ agreement on this step determined
the final codes that determined the potential themes. This was done to establish trustworthiness in data
analysis and ensure replicability of codes. Furthermore, the coding process was conducted in Arabic.
Only the emerging themes and some selected excerpts were translated into English by the research
team who were fluent in Arabic and English. An external reader helped in warranting the translation
and back translation process.
Results of Research
Three major themes that correspond to the research questions appeared through data analysis of
the open-ended questionnaires. These themes are: CPD planning and delivery, assessing the impact of
CPD, and views of effective CPD. In what proceeds, we present and discuss the emerged themes.
CPD Planning and Delivery
This study aimed at uncovering the CPD models and types that are provided for science and math-
ematics teachers in Saudi Arabia and learn about how CPD providers plan for and implement teachers’
CPD. Analysis of the collected data indicate that participants in general refer to two approaches of CPD:
one relates to the formal CPD programs that are usually coordinated by the Ministry of Education and
another is a less formal type of CPD that is usually performed by the providers themselves through the
schools. Khaled who has a bachelor degree in Mathematics Education and has been a supervisor for 4
years reported:
There are two types of programs for CPD that we provide for teachers. The first type of these pro-
grams is coordinated by the ministry and our role here is to execute the training plans prepared by the
training management center in the ministry. The second type is prepared by us [supervisors] based on
teachers’ needs like how to deal with the computer programs and other programs.
Fathi also refers clearly to these two types of CPD programs when he reported:
The Ministry determines the CPD programs that science teachers are in need and their intended
outcomes. Our role here is to execute these programs and train teachers on them and achieve the pro-
gram outcomes. As for the integrated CPD plans for science teachers, besides the training programs,
we have a plan usually prepared by the department or the supervisors themselves that usually includes
diverse strategies implemented throughout the year according to the set plan.
When providers were asked about how they plan for teachers’ CPD, all of them have directly referred
to the formal type of training programs coordinated by the Ministry of Education and clearly indicated
that they do not participate in planning the intended objectives for these training programs. Exemplary
responses from the participants were as follows:
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Rami: my role is restricted on just training teachers on pre-planned training kits.

Shaher: we have ready kits from the Ministry. It is planned, designed and chosen by the experts.
Mused: I have no role in the planning for CPD.
Nuha: the CPD planning is done by project experts.
Suleiman: the planners are the CPD team in the ministry, we are the central trainers. We don’t set plans,
we just execute them.
The excerpts taken from participants’ written reports assure that they don’t participate in the plan-
ning process for the formal type of CPD nor they choose the goals and the intended outcomes of these
programs. Participants have also noted that the delivery of the training kits for teachers is a top-down
training process starting form a project expert to a central trainer to a supervisor and finally delivered
to teachers. According to Shaher who has a bachelor degree in Science Education and has three years of
supervisory experience, “training is conducted by a team of experts. When the central trainers finish the
training course, they start training their colleagues.” Similar to all participants, Rami also referred to the
same training process when asked how trainers are being prepared to provide training. He responded:
“through a training course in which I am a trainee and then I become a trainer.”
This top-down approach, however, was criticized by participants and was described as having a
theoretically-oriented nature. The following excerpt taken from Khaled’s response is rather lengthy, but
clarifies this thought very well. According to him:
As for the Ministry programs, [trainers are being trained] through attending the programs in the ministry
and often the programs have a theoretical nature because the expert trainers in the Ministry don’t have a
practical experience in the field which they train on. They just collect theoretical materials from different
references and internet sites. Some of these references are in Arabic while most are in English. That is why
when we ask about the practical side, there are always unrealistic and confusing responses.
Faisal also criticized how providers are being trained on the formal CPD. He reported:
Trainers are not well qualified. They just attend a training program by another trainer who was trained on
the program by other supervisors and then the supervisor is given the job of training teachers without
good preparation.
Participants noted that they don’t even participate in choosing the type of the training program
nor its content. According to Fathi, who has a non-educational science degree and has been a science
CPD provider for 4 years:
The ministry decides and chooses the programs that we train teachers on. The ministry also designs the
training kits. Our role is to attend a training course on these kits and then train teachers on them
With the exception of Sameera who reported that even the material of the kits are unchangeable,
participants have noted that their role in the formal CPD was restricted to modifying and slightly chang-
ing the ready training kits. For example, Samer reported, “ training kits are prepared and planned by the
ministry, we just modify them based on certain needs… the kits are prepared by the experts, we add
the design and final production.”
The training model of CPD which was mentioned by most participants, albeit universally common,
has been described by Kennedy (2005) as, “often subject to criticism about its lack of connection to the
current classroom context in which participants work.” This criticism echoes what have been reported
by the participants in this study.
From a different angle, when participants were asked to mention all the CPD models or types they
implement, analysis of their written reports showed that their CPD efforts were limited to certain types.
In addition to the formal training programs which all participants referred to, participants reported
that they implement workshops mentioned by14 participants, selected readings that guide teachers
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mentioned by 5, educational bulletin mentioned by 6, individual and group meetings with the supervi-
sor mentioned by 8, and practical lessons mentioned by 4. Extremely, Mused who has a PhD in Science
Education and has been providing CPD to teachers for 6years, and Sameera who has a bachelor degree
in Mathematics Education and has been providing CPD to teachers for 11 years reported that the only
CPD model they implement was the formal training of CPD. The Direct teaching model of CPD includ-
ing courses and workshops which was described by Lieberman (1996) was the dominant model of CPD
which Saudi providers relied on.
The other models and types of CPD mentioned by Lieberman (i.e., school enacted CPD such as
peer coaching, critical friendships, mentoring, action research, task-related planning teams, and the
community of practice model); and out of school learning (such as joining professional development
networks, school-university partnerships, conferences etc.) were all absent from the general models
that CPD providers in Saudi Arabia use. These forms have been perceived by Kennedy as allowing for
transformative practice and professional autonomy compared to all the forms mentioned by participants
that were perceived as embodying a traditional transmission view of CPD. Exceptionally, Nuha and
Salwa- who have bachelor degrees in Mathematics Education and have worked as CPD providers for 4
years- mentioned that they implement the models of peer coaching and mentoring in their provision
of CPD above and beyond workshops, meetings and seminars and educational projects. Peer coaching
and mentoring, however as Kennedy explained, can support either a transmission or a transformative
view of CPD based on the underlying philosophy behind its use. In recent years more educators (e.g.,
Knight, 2002) call for increasing the scope of CPD efforts to allow for more informal CPD opportunities
that are based on professional dialogue about teaching and learning. These reflective forms of CPD were
described by Warwick (2004) as the most valuable in enhancing the teachers’ instructional practices.
In an attempt to understand what CPD providers have already delivered to teachers, participants
were asked about the content of their delivered CPD. All participants referred to common content and
core activities. Teaching strategies, classroom management, project based learning, differentiated learn-
ing, active learning, inquiry, and constructivism were general to 19 of the participants. Only Nuha- who
has a non-educational mathematics degree- reported training teachers on subject matter knowledge
including conceptual understanding of mathematical concepts such as measurement, geometry, algebra,
numbers and operations and so on.
The emphasis on delivering pedagogical knowledge over subject matter knowledge can be ex-
plained in light of the participants’ educational backgrounds. All the 19 participants had educational
Science and Mathematics degrees; therefore pedagogy was part of their specialty.
Assessing the Impact of CPD
In addition to clarifying the intended outcomes and identifying effective teaching and learning
strategies, impact evaluation is seen as an important element to determine the effectiveness of a CPD
program (TDA, 2007). According to Guskey (2002), evaluation is a multifaceted process that requires
analysis and assessment of five succeeding levels of information. These levels are: participants’ reaction,
participants’ learning, organization support and change, participants’ use of new knowledge and skills,
and students’ learning outcomes. Guskey’s framework of CPD evaluation is considered a comprehensive
framework that brings about the multilayered complex nature of CPD assessment (Bolam &McMahon,
2004).
In this research question, we aimed at understanding how Saudi CPD providers assess the impact of
CPD. We attempted to understand their perceived practices of CPD assessment in reference to Guskey’s
model of CPD evaluation. We asked participants to identify the aspects of evaluation that they use. Three
participants have pointed out that they don’t have a specific mechanism for evaluation and that their
evaluation of the impact of CPD is thought of and implemented on the spot. According to Rami who
has a master degree in Science Education and has been training teachers for three years, “I have never
assessed CPD based on a scientific method. I just ask teachers and principals general questions and I
use the classroom observation to discover the CPD impact.” Similarly, Majed and Suleiman- although
reported using classroom visits- have also indicated that they don’t have a particular mechanism for
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evaluation. Other participants, on the other hand, have referred to some ways and methods that they
use to assess CPD. The following excerpts exemplify participants’ responses when asked about the fields
of assessment that they implement.
Turky: I observe how teachers interact with each others. I observe the enthusiasm they show while par-
ticipating in the activities.
Nuha: I implement classroom visits and study the impact of the training on teachers’ learning through
the worksheet they have to finish during the training workshop.
Ahmed: I assess the trainees at the end of the program, and assess their classroom application of the
new skills and knowledge. I also ask trainees about their opinions about the CPD program through a
questionnaire.
Mused: during the program, first I assess change in teachers’ attitudes through their participation in the
activities, and the discussion, second, during field visits for the teachers’ classrooms and observing their
performance competency and teaching strategies.
Sameera: I conduct classroom visits for the teachers and observe their teaching practices. I also assess
participants’ satisfaction about the program.
As revealed through the analysis of participants’ reports, we find that most participants (13 partici-
pants) have referred to level 4 of Guskey’s model of CPD evaluation. According to Guskey, level 4 assesses
participants’ use of new knowledge and skills which may involve questionnaires, interviews and direct
observation of the teachers. Many participants have clearly indicated that observing participants’ use of
new knowledge and skills in the classroom is very important and that they feel it is the most important
aspect of CPD evaluation.
Two key points, however, are relevant when discussing this level of evaluation as pointed out by
Guskey. The first point relates to the necessity of specifying indicators about the degree and quality of
implementation. The second point rests in allowing sufficient time to pass after the completion of a PD
session. Although the 13 participants have generally referred to level 4 of Guskey’s model, none of them
indicated setting indicators for the classroom implementation or assuring that sufficient time pass to
allow teachers adapt the new acquired knowledge and skills.
Another level of evaluation that was mentioned by most participants in reference to Guskeys’ model
was level 1. In this level, information are gathered about participants’ reaction to the experience of the
PD since it is considered a prerequisite to higher-level evaluation results. Furthermore, information for
this level are usually gathered through questionnaires that are general enough to be used in many PD
activities. Level 1 of Guskey’s evaluation model was also mentioned by participants as very important
aspect of their CPD evaluation. For example Shaher who has a bachelor degree in science education and
has three years of training experience reported when asked about the CPD aspects that he assesses, “[I
use] questionnaires to assess teachers’ opinions and satisfaction about the trainer, the training mate-
rial, the place of training, and if trainees have additional suggestions.” In total, 9 participants reported
assessing this level of evaluation.
From a different angle, only few participants referred to level 2 of Guskey’s model. The focus in
this level is to assess the knowledge and skills that participants have acquired from attending the CPD
session. Yet, evaluation information at this level requires that some indicators of successful learning to
be outlined prior to a certain professional development experience. Information are usually gathered in
this level through pre-post assessment. The five participants, who referred to this level, however, used
different information gathering techniques. Basemah who has a bachelor in science education and 15
years of training experience described her practices at this level, “I evaluate teachers’ performance before
the start of the CPD activities. I assess their performance during the CPD experience through observing
group work, and I evaluate at the completion of the CPD experience through conduction projects that
require teachers to translate what they have learned.” Salwa also pointed out that she measures the
training effect on teachers’ knowledge and skills through some written worksheets that participants
have to finish during the experience.
It is worth mentioning that most participants either referred to one level or at maximum to two
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levels of Guskey’s evaluation model. Only Hissah (who has a bachelor of science and 7 years of training
experience) and Faisal (a math education supervisor and a trainer for 17 years) reported evaluating their
CPD activities at three levels. Hissah indicated:
To determine the effectiveness of the CPD activities and experiences I provide, I have to assess the train-
ing effect on participants’ knowledge and skills and determine to what extent the program goals have
been achieved according to the criteria we are interested in. I also assess the trainees’ reaction after the
completion of the training immediately through the questionnaires. I assess what participants have
learned from the program through some activities they have to finish. I assess teachers’ use of the new
knowledge and skills in the classroom. I also assess how teachers benefit their colleagues through the
exchange visits between them and implementing some lessons.
It becomes clear from the above excerpt that Hissa implements three levels of evaluation. These
levels in reference to Guskey’s model of CPD evaluation are: participants’ reaction (level 1), participants’
learning (level 2), and participants’ use of new knowledge and skills. Faisal also described a three-level
evaluation approach of CPD. He described his assessment practice as follows:
I visit the teacher after the completion of the CPD experience and observing the improvement in his
performance. I examine students’ academic achievement before and after the teacher enrollment in the
CPD program. I also communicate with the school administration to know about and assess the students’
performance after the program.
In addition to levels 2 and 4, Faisal describes some of his assessment practices that fall within level
5. In this level, the focus of evaluation is on students’ learning outcomes (i.e., what was the impact of the
program on students’ learning?) information are usually gathered for this level from students and school
records and usually the purpose of this level evaluation is to document the program’s overall impact.
It note worthy that Faisal was the only participant who implement evaluation practices from level 5 of
Guskey’s model in addition to practices in levels 2 and 4. The impact of CPD on students’ learning has
been found to be under-evaluated in other studies as well (e.g., Harris et al., 2006).
Views of Effective CPD
This study aimed at understanding the perspectives of science and mathematics CPD providers
about the features of effective and less effective CPD. Analysis of data showed that participants have
some views about the factors that make a CPD program successful. To ease the presentation of these
factors, we have combined the factors reported by participants under three aspects: factors that relate
to the nature of the training program itself, factors that relate to the trainer and factors that relate to
the teachers (i.e., the trainee).
One of the factors about the nature of the training programs that was repeatedly mentioned by
the participants relates to the applicability of the CPD programs provided for teachers. Most participants
have emphasized the importance of the relevance of the CPD content to classroom applications.
Most participants have also called for tracking the effectiveness of a CPD effort in relation to
whether it meets the overall needs of the teachers or not. Nuha expressed this idea well when she
reported, “the factors that make a CPD program less effective is when it is not applicable and doesn’t
meet the needs of the teachers or when it is not related to the implemented curriculum.” This finding
indicates that participants in this study recognize the importance of identifying teachers’ professional
needs as a starting point for planning for CPD.
Different other factors that participants felt is important in determining the effectiveness of a certain
CPD program were: the design of the CPD program is not based on a single one shot design, its content
is not repeated or over copied by other CPD programs, it includes activities that are rich in content and
creative in nature, fun, their implementation is simple and require short time, and the place of their
implementation is convenient, organized, clean, and includes the needed materials and resources.
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From a different angle, participants reported factors that relate to the CPD providers themselves
such as being skilled, competent, and specialized. Few participants have also referred to the personal
and moral characteristics of the trainers. The personal and moral characteristics of the trainers are
important specifically in countries like Saudi Arabia where Islamic and moral teaching is central and
critical to the KSA culture. Two participants have also referred to the work load and the combined job
of the trainers as being both supervisors and CPD trainers as factors that make the CPD programs less
effective. Suleiman, for example, have called for “separating the duties of the supervision from the du-
ties of CPD provision.”
With regards to teachers, participants reported features that make the CPD more effective such as
teachers’ desire and willingness to change. Other participants referred to teachers’ convictions and the
discrepancy between those of the teachers and those set for the programs to achieve. Providers also
see that providing teachers with incentives upon finishing and achieving the goals of CPD and holding
them accountable for their PD may make the CPD efforts more effective and successful. When asked if
they have ever developed creative aspects in the CPD they provide, surprisingly six participants reported
that they have never developed creative aspects or activities in their CPD provision. Suleiman, for ex-
ample reported: “as I mentioned before, the CPD team in the Ministry is responsible for planning and
developing these programs. We are the central trainers; we just implement them.” Rawan elaborated:
“I just follow what is in the training kits.”
The other participants, on the other hand, reported some aspects that they developed and consid-
ered creative. A repeatedly mentioned aspect (i.e., mentioned by7 participants) is translating theoreti-
cal concepts into practice and providing teachers with the opportunity to implement what they have
learned. From a different aspect, three participants reported that they give teachers active role in their
learning and follow a learner-centered approach in their training. Other participants reported providing
teachers with videos from YouTube, experiments, and how to deal with technological tools like Quiz
Creator while some participants reported paying attention to how the material is presented, the slides
design, and using different strategies to convince teachers to implement what they are learning.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to understand the status and nature of CPD provision in Saudi Arabia
from the perspectives and experiences of science and mathematics CPD providers. Planning for CPD,
implementing its activities and the evaluation of its impact are all integral parts of teachers’ CPD in any
given country (TDA, 2007). The knowledge, skills and approach of the CPD provider could influence,
positively or negatively, the success of any CPD experience.
A central finding in this study indicates that the dominant model of CPD in Saudi Arabia is the train-
ing model which usually depends on a training plan established to meet the educational priorities of a
central authority (e.g., Ministry of education) in terms of identifying the needed skills and competences
of the teachers. Saudi CPD providers’ role in these plans is kept on minimal and many CPD providers
expressed negative feelings toward their preparation as trainers. Most providers have also indicated
providing traditional notions of CPD that are based on a single shot design (such as courses and work-
shops). As for the activities that CPD providers implement, most can be seen as features of a top-down
delivery approach and rarely recognize teachers as a source for critical and reflective practice that leads
to their professional development.
As for the CPD strategies and activities, participants reported activities such as lecture style, group
learning, exploration and inquiry, direct application on the teachers’ guides, advanced organizers,
concept maps, case study and discussion. At this point, it is valid to point out the distinction made in
literatures between direct teaching or training versus the horizontal approach that considers teachers
themselves as a resource for critical and reflective practice that leads to their professional development.
All the activities mentioned by the participants are recognized as features of a top-down delivery model
in contrast to activities such as classroom observation and reflection; encouraging and extending pro-
fessional dialogue which are considered as features of successful CPD efforts (Kazemi & Franke, 2004;
Rose & Reynolds, 2008).
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Although participants in this study reported that they do not plan for the formal CPD activities and
programs, some of them have shown a practical knowledge about how to plan for CPD and most seemed
aware of the importance of collecting information about teachers’ needs in the planning process. When
teachers were asked about how they collect information about teachers’ needs, participants balanced
between the necessity of meeting teachers’ individual needs and meeting national needs. Common
answers related to self-identification of the teachers to their individual needs through teachers’ surveys
and meetings with the supervisors, and identifying national or country priorities and needs through
supervisors’ classroom visits and observations, principals’ surveys, and meetings on the Ministry level to
identify national needs. Literature indicates that CPD efforts in general may tend to prioritize national
needs over teachers individual needs. According to Cordingley, Bell, Rundell, and Evans (2003), involv-
ing teachers in planning and conducting need analysis to ensure that the new practices and strategies
are well aligned with what individual teachers value has been recognized as an important component
of successful CPD efforts.
Furthermore, study findings indicate that while most participants held general views about how to
assess the impact of CPD, some admittedly reported not adopting systematic procedures for evaluation.
Analysis of data showed that none of the participants implement a comprehensive evaluation of their
CPD, despite the fact they implement different aspects of evaluation. Guskey’s describes each level of
evaluation in his model as important by its own and that in order to have a range of perspectives about
the impact of the CPD; evaluators have to track the efficiency and effectiveness of the program at each
level. From a different angle, level 3 of Guskey’s model was not mentioned by any of the participants
in this study. At level 3 of Guskey’s evaluation model, the focus is on the school or the organizational
policies that are compatible with the implementation efforts. Evaluators at this level usually assess the
organizational attributes necessary for success of the CPD programs and efforts. This level, however, has
been described by Guskey as the most complicated level which requires specialized and varied proce-
dures of data collection, which may explains why none of the participants reported implementing it.
From a different angle, providers identified some factors that they think enhance the effectiveness
of a CPD effort. Among these is the applicability of the CPD content and its relevance to classroom ap-
plication. According to Scherz, Bialer, and Eylon (2010, p: 2), in order to make a CPD program effective
we need to “base part of it on records of practice, which we call ‘evidence’.” Similar to Saudi CPD providers,
Hustler et al. (2003) found in a study that examined teachers’ perceptions of CPD that teachers perceived
the relevance and applicability of the CPD as key features of worthwhile CPD experiences.
Another factor that participants referred to is the necessity of meeting teachers’ needs. Bekiroğlu
(2007) emphasized the importance of continuously assessing the emerging needs of teachers to im-
prove the designs of CPD. Although recent literature call not only for ensuring that teachers’ needs are
met but also allowing teachers to identify their own learning needs and jointly plan for and assess the
impact of CPD (Cordingley, Bell, Rundell & Evans, 2003), we see that providers perspectives in this regard
are positive and may form a base to help shifting to more collaborative forms of CPD, which according
to Cordingley et al. (2003, p.3), help the CPD become, “a joint mission, flexible enough to ensure that it
was fit for purpose rather than a ‘one size fits all’ package of imposed change.”
With regard to the aspect that relates to CPD providers, participants mentioned that providers should
be skilled, competent, and specialized. Research (e.g., Goodall et al., 2005; Harries et al., 2006) started
to study providers’ skills and knowledge upon recognizing that the status, knowledge, and approach
of the CPD providers have a critical role in influencing teachers’ attitudes towards and understandings
of CPD. Participants also realize that teachers and their motivational aspects such as their desires and
expectations are also important factors to enhance the effectiveness of any CPD effort and suggest
providing teachers with certain forms of incentives for participating in the CPD program. Understanding
motivational aspects of the teachers and what influence their motivation to participate in CPD is critical to
assume the success of any CPD efforts (Thomson & Kaufmann, 2013). Furthermore, Kelchtermans (2004)
explains that PD should not be conceived only in terms of technical issues. There should be recognition
that it is also based on internal and moral dimension from the part of the teachers.
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Implications
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are offered:
• Increasing the scope of CPD efforts in Saudi Arabia to allow for other forms of CPD opportuni-
ties. CPD opportunities can vary in models and types. Examples may include school enacted
CPD such as (peer coaching, critical friendships, mentoring, action research, task-related
planning teams, and the community of practice model); and out of school learning (such
as joining PD networks, school-university partnerships, conferences etc.). More attention,
however, should be paid to assure the sustainability of these efforts and document change
in teachers’ (improvement) over time (Singh, Yager, Yutakom, Yager, & Ali, 2012).
• The CPD providers’ role is very important in assuring the success of the any CPD effort. Hence,
emphasis should be place on how to prepare and equip these trainers with the required skills
and competencies. Providers’ training should be expanded to allow them adopt different
activities as classroom observation and reflection; and encouraging and extending profes-
sional dialogue which are considered as valuable for critical and reflective practice.
• CPD providers in Saudi Arabia also need to have sufficient support and training about the
modes of evaluation available for use and their evaluation should be comprehensive enough
to allow tracking the effects of CPD at the five levels of Guskey’ model.
• Efforts should be paid to focus on how best to provide PD activities and models for science
and mathematics teachers. These efforts should recognize the factors or features of more
effective CPD programs which would ensure attaining positive outcomes on the levels of
teachers, students, and schools.
• Future research should consider the following points. First, it is necessary to conduct detailed
research that captures the CPD experiences through observing the interaction between
the provider and teachers and among teachers themselves. Moreover, it is important to
investigate policy makers’ views of what is considered effective CPD and their vision for PD
in Saudi Arabia to measure future trends and directions.
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Appendix 1
Open Ended Questionnaire: Perceptions and Experiences of CPD Providers
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Provision for Science and Mathematics Teachers in
Saudi Arabia: Perceptions and Experiences of CPD Providers
Dimension 1: Planning for CPD :

• How do you plan for CPD? What are the factors that you take into consideration when
you plan for CPD?
• How CPD programs are being selected? Who participates in selecting and designing
CPD programs?
• How is information being gathered about teachers’ needs for CPD? Explain how this
information is being utilized to identify the goals and priorities of CPD
Dimension 2: CPD Delivery:
• What are the CPD models that you organize?
• Give examples about the content of some of the CPD programs you provide
• What are the strategies and tools that are used in the delivery of CPD?
Dimension 3: Assessment of CPD
• What are the aspects that you assess to evaluate the effectiveness of CPD programs /
activities?
• Explain the procedures for assessing the activities of CPD
• Explain how do you benefit from the evaluation of CPD
Dimension 4: Effectiveness of CPD:
• How do you see your role and the teachers’ role in CPD?
• In your opinion, what are the aspects that make CPD activities more/less effective?
• Do you develop creative forms of CPD?
Saed A. Sabah PhD., Assistant Professor of Science Education, Faculty of

Educational Sciences, Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan.
E-mail: saed_sabah@yahoo.com
Merfat Fayez PhD., Associate Professor, Queen Rania Faculty for Childhood,
Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan.
E-mail:merfatfayez@gmail.com
Saeed M. PhD., Associate Professor, The Excellence Research Center of Science
Alshamrani and Mathematics Education & College of Education, King Saud
University, Saudi Arabia.
E-mail: sshamrani@ksu.edu.sa
Nasser Mansour PhD., Associate Professor, Tanta University, Egypt & University
of Exeter,UK &The Excellence Research Center of Science and
Mathematics Education & College of Education, King Saud
University, Saudi Arabia.
Graduate School of Education, St. Luke’s Campus Heavitree Road,
Exeter, EX1 2LU, UK.
E-mail: n.mansour@ex.ac.uk or n.mansour@hotmail.co.uk
Website:http://socialsciences.exeter.ac.uk/education/staff/index.
php?web_id=nasser_mansour
104
PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’
MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT
CLASSIFICATION OF
PLANTS AND CHANGES IN
THEIR MISCONCEPTIONS
DURING PRE-SERVICE
EDUCATION
Abstract. This study reported herein

Selami Yangin,
aimed to reveal prospective teachers’ mis-
Sabri Sidekli, conceptions about classification of plants
Yasin Gokbulut and the effect of pre-service education
program on their correct conceptions of
this biological issue. Prospective teachers
majoring in Elementary School Classroom
Teacher Education constituted the target
population of this study during the fall
semester of the 2012-2013 academic
Introduction years from Turkey. In order to reveal the
difference between the misconceptions
Students often have difficulty learning classification of living of prospective teachers who are at the
worlds and one reason is due to misconceptions. In broad terms, beginning and at the end of their univer-
misconceptions correspond to the concepts that have peculiar sity education, the research was conducted
interpretations and meanings in students’ articulations that are as a cross-sectional study (78 first and
not scientifically accurate. In the literature, misconceptions are 84 fourth class). The results showed that
also referred to as alternative conceptions (Arnaudin & Mintzes, the prospective teachers in both groups
1985), naive beliefs (Caramazza, McCloskey & Green, 1981), pre- have misconceptions and considerable
conceptions (Hashweh, 1988; Ga1legos, Jerezano & Flores, 1994), confusion over the concepts of without-
alternative frameworks (Driver, 1981), erroneous ideas (Fisher, 1985; seed plants, seedy plants, vascular plants,
Sanders, 1993), multiple private versions of science (McClelland, non-vascular plants, gymnosperm plants,
1984), personal models of reality (Champagne, Gunstone & Klop- angiosperm plants, fruit and vegetable.
fer, 1983), spontaneous reasoning (Viennot, 1979), spontaneous In addition, the pre-service education
knowledge (Pines & West, 1986), common sense concepts (Haloun did not seem to have an important effect
& Hestenes, 1985), underlying sources of error (Fisher & Lipson, on correction of prospective teachers’
1986) and children science (Gilbert, Osborne & Fensham, 1982). misconceptions about classification of
Although the term misconception is dominant in the literature, plants. In this context, prospective teachers
some researchers (e.g., Abimbola, 1988; Gilbert & Swift, 1985; are graduated with misconceptions about
Wandersee, Mintzes & Novak, 1994) now prefer the term alterna- classification of plants.
tive conception or misunderstandings. The characteristics of mis-
Key words: biology, classification of
conceptions are summarized by Adeniyi (1985) and Fisher (1985).
plants, misconceptions, prospective teach-
They tend to be pervasive (shared by many different individuals),
ers.
stable, well embedded in individual’s cognitive ecology, often
resistant to be changed at least by traditional teaching methods
Selami Yangin
and remain intact throughout the university years and into adult Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Rize, Turkey
life. Several reasons for lack of understanding were listed including Sabri Sidekli
lack of reasoning ability, lack of links between concepts, technical Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Mugla, Turkey
words without explanations, expository teaching and too much Yasin Gokbulut
dependence on textbooks, rote learning and poor lesson planning Gaziosmanpasa University, Tokat, Turkey
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PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS ISSN 1648–3898
(P. 105-117)
(Johnson & Lawson, 1998). Inadequacy of a teacher in content knowledge is a major cause of student
misconceptions in biology (Cakir & Crawford, 2001; Tekkaya, et al. 2001). There are important roles and
responsibilities of teachers.
Misconceptions tend to be very resistant to instruction because learning entails replacing or radi-
cally reorganizing student knowledge. Hence, conceptual change has to occur for learning to happen.
This puts teachers in the very challenging position of needing to bring about significant conceptual
change in student knowledge. Generally, ordinary forms of instruction, such as lectures, labs, simple
discovery learning, or simply reading texts, are not very successful at overcoming student misconcep-
tions. For all these reasons, misconceptions can be hard nuts for teachers to crack. However, several
instructional strategies have been found to be successful at achieving conceptual change and helping
students leave their misconceptions behind and learn correct ideas or theories. Therefore, in order to
avoid misconceptions, most current and reliable scientific information should be sought.
Biology education should provide pupils with knowledge and skills that help them to understand
everyday life in nature. The importance of biology education currently increases either due to the strong
impact of modern technologies on everyday life of all people (Lappan, 2000) or due to the increase of
environmental problems that negatively influence people lives. Biology course is one of the courses
that students experience difficulty with. To date, several studies have investigated students’ misconcep-
tions of biological concepts in different countries: Evolution (Garner, 2003; Yates, 2011), natural selec-
tion (Richard, 2004; Weeks, 2013), biological membranes (Ecarma, 2010), cell (Marek, 1986; Dreyfus &
Jungwirth, 1988), living things (Arnold & Simpson, 1979), photosynthesis (Bell, 1985; Haslam & Treagust,
1987; Waheed & Lucas, 1992; Amir & Tamir, 1994), respiration (Sanders, 1993), genetic (Kargbo, Hobbs
& Erickson, 1980; Clough & Wood-Robinson, 1985; Fisher, 1985; Stewart & Dale, 1989; Stewart, Hafner &
Dale, 1990; Cavello & Schafer, 1994; Pashley, 1994; Lewis, Leach & Wood-Robinson, 2000), ecology (Grif-
fiths & Grant, 1985; Munson, 1994), phylogenetic systematics (Bei, 2011), classification (Trowbridge &
Mintzes, 1985; Braund, 1998; Meir et al., 2007; Doug, 2011), the circulatory system (Yip, 1999), vertabrate
and invertabrate (Braund, 1998), mammals (Bell & Barker, 1982; Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1985; Kubiatko
& Prokop, 2007), plants (Bell, 1981) and energy (Boyes & Stanisstreet, 1991). There also has been an in-
terest in determining students’ misconceptions concerning various biological concepts (Tekkaya, Sen
& Ozden, 1999; Capa, 2000; Tekkaya, Capa & Yılmaz, 2000; Tekkaya, Ozkan & Ascı, 2001; Ozkan, 2001;
Sungur, Tekkaya & Geban, 2001; Gallop, 2002; Bahar, 2003; Ozay & Oztas, 2003; Firat, 2008). These studies
revealed that regardless of the age and the level of schooling misconceptions are also prevalent among
high school and university students.
There are few studies conducted with prospective teachers (Adeniyi, 1985; Griffiths & Grant, 1985;
Stewart & Dale, 1989; Boyes & Stanisstreet, 1991; Tekkaya, Sen & Ozden, 1999). Researching into el-
ementary prospective teachers’ misconceptions about classification of plants, Yangın (2013) found that
almost all of the participants in their study confused fungi with plants and related some gymnosperm
plants with angiosperm plants. Misconceptions can be gained by pupils’ own experiences in life, even
before they started school or through media, films, parents, and people around them, school books, and
poor teaching in the classroom or from teachers who are less competent in subject matter knowledge
(Yip, 1999; Tekkaya, Sen & Ozden, 1999; Köse, Ayas & Usak, 2006). If science education aims to educate
students who are knowledgeable about biological concepts such as livings world, plants, animals,
microorganisms, and take responsibility for the management and policymaking decisions about the
problems facing the planet (Brown, 1992; Bybee, 1993), then it is essential to reveal their misconceptions
about these issues and to plan curriculum and instruction that builds on or challenging their existing
perceptions (Driver, Leach & Millar, 1996).
Presently many studies in science education area deal with the misconceptions related to science
subjects taught in schools in the world. Students seem to have difficulties to learn conceptions in science
courses including biology subject (Treagust, 1988; Bloom, 1990; Kinchin, 2000). There would be several
reasons that students can hold misconceptions and the beginning of holding misconceptions could
go to the first school years (Bell, 1981; Pines & West, 1986). Misconceptions held by students were not
easily changed throughout of the school years and also, stall meaningful learning of new concepts and
make connections with other concepts as well as achievement of students in science courses (Strike &
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(P. 105-117)
Posner, 1982). Studies showed that elementary and secondary school students have problems in the
classification and diversity of living organisms (Kellert, 1985). For example, Trowbridge and Minszes (1985
and 1988) found that students have difficulties on the understanding of diversity of animals. There are
several reasons students have misconceptions related to science courses. To solve this problem, there
are some ways, one of which is concept maps helping students to make connections with sub-concepts
related to the main concept and to find relations with the concepts (Kinchin, David & Adam, 2000).
Although, the concepts of classification are frequently addressed in the printed books and documen-
tary programs and students are taught these issues in their schools and at related education lessons,
there are still some alternative learnings, misconceptions and confusions about the issues as identified
by many research studies (Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1985; Braund, 1998; Meir et. al., 2007, Doug, 2011).
Most of these studies researching into misconceptions of students about classification and systematic
related issues have been conducted with students at elementary and secondary schools. A common
finding of the studies was that students’ perceptions about these concepts did not coincide with the
expert scientific knowledge. The main misconception reported in these studies is that students relate
some without-seed plants with the seedy plants, the vascular plants with the non-vascular plants and
gymnosperm plants directly with the angiosperm plants.
Thousands of plants cover our earth. Classification is a system of grouping things based upon
shared characteristics such as structure or appearance. Classification can be useful for describing rela-
tionships or identifying objects. Plants are divided into vascular and non-vascular groups. The vascular
plants (pines, ferns, corn, oak, etc.) have tubes called the xylem and phloem to carry water and food
throughout the plant. In contrast, the non-vascular plants (mosses and liverworts) lack these tubes and
transfer food and water from cell to cell. The vascular plants are further divided into three major groups:
angiosperms, gymnosperms, and ferns. The angiosperms have seedproducing fruits and flowers, the
gymnosperms have the seed making parts in cones (ie. pine trees), and ferns are the third major type of
vascular plant and they have no flowers, fruits, or seeds. Angiosperms are flowering plants like flowers
and deciduous trees. Gymnosperms include primitive non-flowering plants such as conifers, ferns and
horsetails. The ferns produce spores that grow into new plants. Also when looking at the concept of fruits
and vegetables, fruit is a term given to the meat structure that occured as a result of the development
of the carpel in flowering plants. Accordingly, if the flowers, fruits and seeds of the plants are eaten,
that is fruit. In contrast, if the root, stem and leaf portions of the plants are eaten, that is vegetable. For
example, tomato is a fruit eaten fleshy structure that grew as a result of the development of flowers.
However, the vine plant is a vegetable because its leaves are eaten. In addition, the same plants can be
fruit as well as vegetables. It should be used “fruit and vegetable” terms according to eaten portions.
When the leaves of the vine plants are eaten, they are vegetable. But, when the grapes growing from
the same plant are eaten, they are fruit.
In order for students to build a bridge between misconceptions and accurate science conceptions
they need to experience a situation that would bring about conceptual change. However, according
to constructivism learning theories, science learning requires determining students’ existing cognitive
understandings and building new understanding through modifying or restructuring (Glynn & Duit,
1995; Mintzes, Wandersee & Novak, 1998). Thus, revealing learners’ existing knowledge will pave the way
to plan curriculum and instruction that challenges and further develops their cognitive understandings.
At this point teacher education has an important role in terms of educating future teachers. If prospec-
tive teachers have any misconceptions about such important biological concepts they may spread this
confusion and misconceptions to their future students. Thus, it is important to reveal and correct any
misconceptions prospective teachers may have before they start their teaching post. Hence, the study
reported herein aimed to reveal prospective teachers’ misconceptions about classification of plants.
The research questions of the study are:
1. What are the prospective teachers’ misconceptions about classification of plants?
2. Is there any difference between the misconceptions of prospective teachers who are at the
beginning (first class) and at the end (fourth class) of their pre-service (university) educa-
tion?
In context, this study is important for several reasons. First is that as indicated above most of the
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studies investigating conceptions about other biological concepts, and the concepts related to it are
with elementary and secondary school students and there are few studies conducted with prospective
teachers at universities. This study investigated the misconceptions of elementary school prospective
teachers about classification of plants. Second, most of the studies in the literature employed closed-
ended response surveys to collect data while the present study used open-ended questionnaire to
receive qualitative data which provided deeper insights into the prospective teachers’ accounts of
aspects of the concept of plant systematic. Finally, this study is also important as it is a developmental
study researching into the misconceptions of prospective teachers at the beginning (first class) and at
end (fourth class) of their pre-service education.
The research aimed to find out about prospective teachers’ misconceptions of classification of plants
as well as to reveal if pre-service education had any impact on their conceptions. In order to reveal the
difference between the misconceptions of prospective teachers who are at the beginning (first class)
of their university education and at the end (fourth class) of their pre-service education, the research
was conducted as a cross-sectional study. Cross-sectional studies involve studying groups of students in
different age groups at the same point in time (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). According to deVaus
(2001), a cross-sectional design is ideal for descriptive statistics. Data is collected in a single time period
in a cross-sectional design, rather than longitudinally. The cross-sectional design was most appropriate
for the study because it did not require follow up or repeat data collection.
Sample
The sample of this study consists of 162 prospective teachers having education in Department
of Elementary School Classroom Teaching in Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University Faculty of Education in
fall semester of 2012-2013 academic year. This study was conducted with prospective teachers at the
beginning (class 1/ 78 prospective teachers) and at the end (class 4 / 84 prospective teachers) of their
pre-service education (see Table 1). We conducted with two third of the prospective teachers in each
classroom. Participation was voluntary. Therefore, no sample selection was needed since this study was
conducted directly on the population. Prospective teachers who agreed to participate in the research
were given the questionnaire. They completed the questions individually. The identity of the participants
remained anonymous.
Table 1. Distribution of prospective teachers participating in research.
Class Sex N %
Female 34 43,24
Class 1
Male 44 56,76
Female 39 46,15
Class 4
Male 45 53,85
Female 73 44,74
General Structure
Male 89 55,26
Total 162 100,0
Research Tool
In order to reveal prospective teachers’ misconceptions about classification of plants, an open-

ended questionnaire was developed. The use of questionnaire was found to be useful as it added scope
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and breadth to the study by allowing for gathering information from more prospective teachers. Using
only individual interviews to collect data from the same number of prospective teachers would make
completing the research unrealistic. In addition, open-ended nature of the questions provided deeper
understanding of prospective teachers’ accounts of aspects of the concept of classification of plants. The
questionnaire consisted of 8 open-ended questions on the meaning and types regarding to the clas-
sification of plants, and the relationship between the without-seed plants, the seedy plants, the vascular
plants, the non-vascular plants, gymnosperm plants, the angiosperm plants, fruits and vegetables. The
questions were designed to give prospective teachers the opportunity to provide extended answers
related to the biological concepts in classification of plants.
Data Analysis
The open ended questionnaire provided qualitative data in this research. The content analysis was
conducted in an inductive manner in order to identify concepts and patterns in the written responses.
Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique (Patton, 2002). In this study, summative
content analysis was used. In a summative approach to qualitative content analysis, data analysis begins
with searches for occurrences of the identified words or sentences by hand or by computer. According to
Morgan (1993), word or sentence frequency counts for each identified term are calculated, with source
or speaker also identified (cited. Hisieh & Shannon, 2005). Throughout the paper, each prospective
teacher is identified as PT (prospective teacher) followed by two numbers; one is for the order of the
prospective teacher and the other is to indicate at which year group the prospective teacher was. For
example, PT8-1 means that the order of the prospective teacher is 8 and that the prospective teacher
was at Class 1.
Results of Research
The concept of classification of plants is defined as activity of separation plants into groups ac-
cording to their biological similarities and differences. In this study, the responses of the prospective
teachers were analyzed by adhering to this definition. The analysis of the prospective teachers’ accounts
in the open-ended questionnaire showed that 38 (45.2%) of the Class 4 and only 12 (15.4%) of the Class
1 prospective teachers could provide a definition close to the expert definition given above. Neverthe-
less, their answers were either too general or not completely correct.
One of the Class 4 prospective teachers’ response below exemplifies this; “Pine is a plant without
seeds” (PT 35-4). A Class 1 prospective teacher said; “Plants without seeds are plants with or without a
big trunk, hard, spiny, living in various habitats, not having a colourful flower thus not having seeds” (PT
10-1). The accounts of the other prospective teachers from both groups contained various unempiri-
cal conceptions. Besides, their responses were not consistent, a prospective teacher whose response
to one question coincided with the scientific view could provide an explanation that is not scientific
as a response to another question. This may mean that the prospective teacher did not have a good
conception of the subject matter (classification of plants). The unempirical conceptions held by the
prospective teachers that participated in this study are categorized into eleven groups and they are
presented in Table 2 according to the class groups. The accounts of the prospective teachers in both
groups involved misconceptions and considerable confusion over the morphological, structural and
other biological relationships between the concepts of without-seed plants, seedy plants, vascular plants,
non-vascular plants, gymnosperm plants and angiosperm plants, fruits and vegetables. Considerable
number of prospective teachers from both groups tended to mix some without-seedy plants with today’s
popular concept of seedy plants. The belief that pine is a plant without seeds was a more widespread
misconception among prospective teachers. As much as 56 (71.8%) of the Class 1 and 53 (63.1%) of
Class 4 prospective teachers actually wrote that pine defined as a plant without seeds because of its
great size, woody structure, not having flowers made up of colourful petals and sepals, being in a spiny
structure and a fern-like morphology and its habitat. In fact, it was clear from the overall analysis of their
responses as a whole that they were of the impression that the pine was a seedy plant. One of the Class
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1 prospective teacher indicated; “Plants with seeds are plants with a big or a small trunk, circular or oval
plump leaves, living in various habitats and having colourful flowers thus seeds” (PT 56-1). Similarly, a
Class 4 prospective teacher said; “Mushrooms are plants without seeds and have not significant roots,
stems and flowers” (PT 72-4). Such assumption, that ‘the mushrooms’ structures are similar to plants
without seeds is a false assumption. Also, many of the prospective teachers in Class 1 and Class 4 who
included mushrooms into the plant kingdom discussed this kingdom in the plants without seeds. This
is not surprising since fungi were classified as plants without seeds, because of their cell walls, until
the early 1960’s. In 1950, Robert H. Whittaker became the first biologist who proposed adding the fifth
kingdom, Kingdom Fungi, based on fungi’s unique method of obtaining food (cited. Encarta, 2007).
Another unempirical conception that was revealed in terms of the relationship between the seedy-
plants and without-seed plants. More than half of the prospective teachers in both groups indicated
plants without seeds such as lycopodium clavatum and lungwort in the class of plants with seeds. A
typical response to the question of “Can you describe to me the difference between seedy and seedless
plants’ properties?” was “use of reproductive structures like seed, chin, flower and fruit…. If we continue
to classify seedy plants through using seed, chin, flower and fruit, we will classify these plants more
easily.” (PT 22-4).
Table 2. Prospective teachers’ misconceptions about classification of plants.
Class 1 (n=78) Class 4 (n=84)

Conceptions
N % N %
Pine is a plant without seed. 56 71.8 53 63.1
Plants with seeds are plants with a big or a small trunk, circular
or oval plump leaves, living in various habitats and having 52 66.6 46 54.8
colourful flowers thus seeds.
Mushrooms are plants without seeds. 62 79.5 60 71.4
Tomato, pepper, eggplant, cucumber and pumpkin are
74 94.9 75 89.3
vegetables.
Vegetables can be seedless plant, not because their seeds. 47 60.3 42 50.0
Plants without seeds such as algae, lungwort, lycopodium
clavatum and fern were non-vascular. 54 69.2 58 69.04
Pine, fir tree, spruce, wheat, corn and peanut are plants without
62 79.5 64 76.2
seed.
Plants such as wheat, apricot, horsebean and pea are gymno-
58 74.4 61 72.6
sperms.
Peanut is an angiosperm plant. 72 92.3 59 70.2
Corn is a dicotyledon plant. 63 80.8 66 78.6
Apple and apricot are monocotyledons. 64 82.1 68 80.9
Clearly, the prospective teachers’ ideas that plants in our environment contribute to classification
not because they contained different conception from learning, but because they are confronted with
different ideas and circles, as well as concrete examples of lessons learned in school are not consistent
with their environment. This life style was also evident in prospective teachers’ comments related to their
cognitive structures of increasing misconceptions about important biological concepts. More than 89%
of each group of prospective teachers indicated that tomato, pepper, eggplant, cucumber and pumpkin
are vegetables. One of the Class 1 prospective teachers indicated; “raw eaten foods are fruit, but most
of the vegetables grow in the soil.” (PT 62-1). It was also evident in both Class 1 and Class 4 prospective
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teachers’ conceptions that they confused fruit concept with the vegetable concept. Over 85% of Class
1 prospective teachers and 75% Class 4 prospective teachers indicated that the prospective teachers
have not distinction between the concepts of fruits and vegetables. Below account is the representative
of most of these prospective teachers; “Vegetables can be a seedless plant, not because their seeds. In
addition, the foods we use in our everyday lives and cooking are also vegetable.” (PT 31-4). Vegetable
and fruit concepts were the least mentioned and also mostly misunderstood concepts by both Class 1
and Class 4 prospective teachers. None of the Class 1 and only 3% of the Class 4 prospective teachers
used the term “generative (reproductive) and vegetative (vital) organs” in their definitions of the fruit
and vegetable. In addition, the questionnaire asked; “Do you think there is a relationship (similarities
and differences) between the fruit and vegetable? If yes, please explain. Do you think that vegetables
are seedless plants?”. More than half of the prospective teachers did not respond to this question and
sub-questions. Sixty-seven (85.9%) of the Class 1 prospective teachers wrote that there was no biologi-
cal similarity between the two concepts.
The responses of those who answered the question indicated that none of them really knew what
fruit and vegetable was. The main assumption behind their accounts about the fruit and vegetable
concepts were that it was completely an their environmental experiences rather than a naturally oc-
curring school or out of school learning process. None of the prospective teachers’ accounts showed an
indication of the awareness about the real meaning of the fruit and vegetable concepts. The responses
of the prospective teachers regarding the fruit and vegetable fall into two groups. First group consisted
of 14 (17.9%) of the Class 1 prospective teachers and 9 (10.7%) of the Class 4 prospective teachers who
believed that the vegetables are plants without-seeds. The second group, mostly Class 1 prospective
teachers believed that the tomato, pepper and eggplant was a vegetable. One said; “Everyone around
me says that tomatoes, peppers and eggplants are vegetables.” (PT 26-1). As it is clear from the above
accounts of the prospective teachers, there were two common misconceptions in the prospective teach-
ers’ accounts in this group. One is that they defined vegetables as plants without-seeds. The second is
that they were under the impression that everyone around their being considered tomatoes, peppers
and eggplants as vegetables.
Conversely, some of the prospective teachers stated that plants without seeds such as algae, lung-
wort, lycopodium clavatum and fern were non-vascular. Also, samples that should have been included
in plants with seeds but addressed by prospective teachers as a part of plants without seeds, such as
pine, fir tree, spruce, wheat, corn and peanut were shown in the class of non-vascular plants without
seeds. 61 (78.2%) of the Class 1 prospective teachers and 58 (69.04%) of the Class 4 prospective teachers
provided responses that are not related to the concept of vascular or non-vascular. One of the Class 1
prospective teachers’ comment below exemplifies this; “non-vascular plants without seeds are plants
that do not have thin-long lines when examined with a microscope or with naked eye, without any
reproductive organs differentiation such as flowers, fruit, and seeds, and sometimes without leaves” (PT
14-1). In addition, 54 (69.2%) of the Class 1 prospective teachers said that algae, lungwort, lycopodium
clavatum and fern were non-vascular. One said; “In my opinion, there is no non-vascular plant. However,
nowadays the level of the climatic factor is more different than before. Ferns and mosses disappeared
due to the evolutionary process.” (PT 28-1). Samples such as pine, fir tree, spruce, wheat and corn, which
should have been included in plants with seeds but included in plants without seeds by prospective
teachers were shown in the class of vascular plants without seeds. On the whole, the findings showed
that both groups of prospective teachers at Class 1 and Class 4 had unempirical conceptions about
vascular and non-vascular plants without seeds.
Prospective teachers offered misconceptions about the class of angiosperms, which is included
in the phylum of plants with seeds. 72 (92.3%) of Class 1 prospective teachers and 59 (70.2%) of Class
4 prospective teachers considered peanut as an angiosperm. On the other hand, it was observed that
there were some Class 1 and Class 4 prospective teachers who considered samples such as wheat,
apricot, horsebean and pea as partly gymnosperms. Prospective teachers also offered alternative con-
ceptions about the classification of monocotyledons in the class of angiosperms. In addition, most of
Class 1 and Class 4 prospective teachers were seen to consider corn as dicotyledon even though it is
monocotyledon. Prospective teachers offered various definitions about dicotyledons, which are in the
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(P. 105-117)
class of angiosperms as well. In this step, they considered corn as a dicotyledon. In addition, it was found
that most of prospective teachers thought samples such as apple and apricot as monocotyledons even
though they are dicotyledons.
Discussion
This study aimed to reveal prospective teachers’ misconceptions about classification of plants and
the effect of classroom teacher education program on their awareness of this biological issue. In order
to reveal the difference between the misconceptions of prospective teachers who are at the beginning
and at the end of their university education, the research was conducted as a cross-sectional study.
The level of knowledge and the correct conception of Class 4 prospective teachers seems higher
than those of Class 1 prospective teachers. This may mean that teacher education program made a
difference; but, obviously, not sufficient as the prospective teachers who will soon graduate still have
important unempirical accounts. This finding is important as the subject of the study are teachers of
the next generation. The classification of plants is a part of elementary school science and technology
lesson curriculum and the prospective teachers are expected to teach it when they start their teaching
post. If they do not know what vascular and non-vascular plants without seeds is how can one expect
them to teach it to their learners. Likewise, if their misconceptions are not revealed or corrected they
may convey them to their students. Thus the results of this reserach present important implications for
teacher education courses at both pre-service and in-service levels.
Misconceptions are stable and resistant barriers to acquiring scientific perspectives. Because of
the fact that these misconceptions are strong predictors of pupils’ achievement in science discipline,
the research that identifies these misconceptions at the university level can help teachers be aware of
their pupils’ prior knowledge. The results of this study showed that prospective teachers’ conceptions
about the classification plants seems to be limited.
Prospective teachers were more likely to consider a fungus to be a plant if it possessed specific
characteristics or parts. As for mistaking the members of the fungus kingdom, especially mushrooms, for
plants, this was a very common misconception in this study. This finding is consistent with the scientific
study of Barman et al. (2003).
The accounts of the prospective teachers in both groups involved misconceptions and consider-
able confusion over the concepts of without-seed plants, seedy plants, vascular plants, non-vascular
plants, gymnosperm and angiosperm plants, fruits and vegetables. The belief that pine is a plant without
seeds was a more widespread misconception among prospective teachers. They believed that pine, fir
tree, spruce, wheat, corn and peanut are plants without seed. Prospective teachers defined pine as a
plant without seeds because of its great size, woody structure, not having flowers made up of colourful
petals and sepals, being in a spiny structure and a fern-like morphology and its habitat. This statement
is completely false. This may mean that the prospective teacher did not have a good conception of the
subject matter. This finding is based on the prospective teachers to learn by memorizing the information
written in the books. This is not meaningful and an accurate learning process. Students memorize a lot
of information like that. However, they do not know what it meant. The beliefs about nature of science
can support alternative learning, because students depend on the knowledge described by the teacher,
books and other documents. Students can see this information in the real and constant. This also leads
students to alternative learning or misconceptions. The majority of prospective teachers indicated that
tomato, pepper, eggplant, cucumber and pumpkin are vegetables. In this research, Class 1 and Class 4
prospective teachers have not distinction between the concepts of fruits and vegetables. The responses
of those who answered the question indicated that none of them really knew what fruit and vegetable
was. The responses of the prospective teachers regarding the fruit and vegetable fall into two groups.
First group; prospective teachers who believed that the vegetables are plants without-seeds. The sec-
ond group; prospective teachers who believed that the tomato, pepper and eggplant was a vegetable.
According to the researchers, there are two important sources of misconceptions of students; 1) daily
life and 2) formal learning events (Strauss, 1981; Osborne & Cosgrove, 1983; Soyibo, 1993; Hanif, 1995;
Rickinson, 2001; Shephardson et al., 2009). According to Rickinson (2001), television is the main source
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of information for students on environmental issues through nature programs, documentaries and
movies. The language used in everyday life affect students’ concept of biology learning. Everyone in
society recognizes tomato, pepper and cucumber as vegetables. Family and social environment, and
even the teacher uses the same language. This causes students to recognize these plants as a vegetable.
Since knowledge of one concept is built on that of another, misconceptions in one area can impact the
learning of other concepts.
Thus, the prospective teachers’ erroneous idea about plants is the main cause of television programs,
daily life or the media, as well as instruction in schools which integrates the concepts of seedy plant
and seedless plant. However, several studies showed that students might gain misconceptions about
biology concepts from their teachers (Tekkaya, et al 2004; Schoon & Boone, 1998; Yip, 1999).
Former studies also reported similar misconceptions that learners had in relation to the classifica-
tion of living things (Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1985; Braund, 1998; Tekkaya, Capa & Yılmaz, 2000; Türkmen,
Cardak & Dikmenli, 2002; Türkmen, Dikmenli & Cardak, 2003; Meir et al., 2007; Yakısan, Selvi & Yürük, 2007;
Doug, 2011). However, an important point that should be born in mind here is that the subjects of most
of these studies were pupils in schools while the subjects of the study reported herein were prospective
teachers who will soon be teaching pupils these concepts. Thus, they should have known the meaning
of classification of plants and other related concepts. This finding presents important implications for
pre-service education. Obviously, there is an urgent need to review the contents of instruction and
textbooks in schools and in the pre-service classroom teacher education courses in terms of the teach-
ing of the concept of classification of living things and related biological issues. As insufficient formal
instruction and textbooks can be sources of misconceptions, those who are responsible for designing
curriculum and instruction as well as teaching should take care of the research results and design the
content and methods of teaching accordingly.
Conclusions
According to the results of the study, the prospective teachers in both groups did not show an
accurate conception about classification of plants and its relationship with the concepts of seedless
plants, seedy plants, vascular and non-vascular plants, gymnosperms, angiosperms, monocotyl and
dicotyl plants, fruit and vegetables. They had various misconceptions and concerns, but they were more
evident in the Class 4 prospective teachers’ conceptions than those of Class 1 prospective teachers.
On the whole, comparing the two groups based on their misconceptions, it can be said that Class
4 prospective teachers had more knowledge and less misconceptions than Class 1 prospective teach-
ers. This result is expected as prospective teachers take the modules of “The Special Issues In Biology”,
in which the topic of classification of plants is covered in their fourth year of pre-service education
program. However, this research showed that pre-service teachers’ pre-conceptions might not correct
a lot biological concepts about classification of plants. And, teachers may not be aware of student’s
misconceptions. All of the prospective teachers in this study with different levels of academic achieve-
ment had almost the same types of misconceptions. Even the most successful prospective teacher in
this study had many misconceptions before university education. However, although Class 4 prospective
teachers had taken these modules, most of them still do not know what classification of plants really is.
At this point, one can say that pre-service education contributed to the prospective teachers’ concep-
tions about classification of plants but, obviously, not sufficiently. Hence, the content and instructional
methods of these modules should be reconsidered and prospective teachers’ misconceptions should
be corrected before they start their teaching post so that they do not transfer those misconceptions to
their students and grow as environmentally conscious teachers.
However, there are limitations as to the validity of this study in determining the correct interpre-
tation of the prospective teachers’ misconceptions. First, this study followed only with a total of 162
prospective teachers. In this context, a similar study can be conducted in different education levels
and in different subject areas in the future. Further studies can be conducted with large samples from
different universities. Also, 162 prospective teachers represent a very small part of all the prospective
teachers in the world, so they cannot represent the full range of prospective teachers’ misconceptions.
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Thus, larger scale studies, examining prospective teachers’ misconceptions regarding classification of
living worlds and other units, are necessary. However, cross-sectional studies can be weak because they
only provide a glimpse of the data at one point in time. As a result, they are not strong at the explana-
tory and causal analysis levels (deVaus, 2001). Extraneous variables were not investigated in this study.
Further research examining extraneous variables would be beneficial. For this purpose, longitudinal
studies can be carried out.
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Assistant Professor, Department of Elementary Science Teaching,

Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Education Faculty, Cayeli - Rize, Turkey.
Tel.: +90 0 464 5328454 / 2354.
Selami Yangın Fax: +90 0 464 5328612.
E-mail: selami.yangin@erdogan.edu.tr
Website: http://www.rize.edu.tr/akademisyen/akademisyen.asp?id=288
Assoc. Professor, Department of Elementary Classroom Teacher Training,
Sabri Sidekli Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Faculty of Education, Mugla - Turkey.
E-mail: ssidekli@mu.edu.tr
Website: http://www.mu.edu.tr/personel/-AA00000729
Assistant Professor, Department of Elementary Classroom Teacher
Yasin Training,
Gokbulut Gaziosmanpasa University, Faculty of Education, Tokat - Turkey.
E-mail: yasin.gokbulut@gop.edu.tr
Website: http://uis.gop.edu.tr/CV/CV.asp?ID=656
117
PUPILS’ EARLY
EXPLORATIONS OF
THERMOIMAGING TO
INTERPRET HEAT AND
TEMPERATURE
Abstract. In thermodynamics teach- Konrad Schönborn,

ing, pupils have been found to confuse Jesper Haglund,
temperature and heat, and to conceive Charles Xie
touch as an infallible thermometer. This
study explored the potential of combin-
ing the sense of touch with infrared (IR)
thermal imaging on pupils’ understanding
of heat and temperature. Eight 7th-grade Introduction
pupils (12-13 years old) worked in pairs
The present study explores the potential of combining the
across three laboratory exercises (real-time
sense of touch with real-time thermoimaging in a guided discovery
IR imaging, static IR images, or thermom-
predict-observe-explain (POE) (White & Gunstone, 1992) exercise
eters) to predict, observe and explain (POE)
with eight 12- to 13-year-old 7th-graders, prior to exposure to any
the temperatures of different objects. An formal teaching of thermal science. Recent work indicates that
anomaly between perceived ‘coldness’ thermoimaging by use of infrared (IR) cameras could enhance
and measured temperature was induced and support pupils’ inquiry and reasoning about heat transfer
among the pupils, but they did not man- and related thermal concepts (Xie, 2011; Xie & Hazzard, 2011). We
age to resolve this cognitive conflict. hypothesise that when augmented with pupils’ touching of objects
The pupils observed the objects getting of different temperatures, the combined visuotactile experience
warmer and increasing in temperature, could provide a perceptual platform for building meaningful
but did not explain the experiments as conceptions of thermal phenomena by rendering the concepts
actively ‘visible’. Furthermore, apart from the representational
involving a heat flow from their bodies to
form of temperature along a colour scale, IR cameras provide real-
the objects. Successful explanation might
time visual data, thereby eliminating the traditional steps of first
require a combination of thermal imaging
recording and then plotting data. In particular, pupils were asked
and the explicit introduction of a simple to account for the fact that metal feels colder than wood at room
heat-flow model. temperature. The study is the first part of a broader research pro-
Key words: cognitive conflict, heat, gramme exploring the use of modern visualization technologies
multisensory experience, predict-observe- in learning thermal concepts in school physics education.
explain (POE), temperature, thermal
imaging. Predict-Observe-Explain as an Approach to
Guided Discovery Learning
Konrad Schönborn, Jesper Haglund

Discovery- and inquiry-based approaches to science educa-
University of Linköping, Norrköping, tion have been proposed to stimulate learning and motivation in
Sweden curricular development (e.g. Rocard et al., 2007). Such approaches
Charles Xie entail that pupils should be encouraged to discover natural phe-
Concord Consortium, Concord, MA, USA
nomena, rather than merely being told about them, and that sci-
118
ISSN 1648–3898 PUPILS’ EARLY EXPLORATIONS OF THERMOIMAGING TO INTERPRET HEAT AND
TEMPERATURE
(P. 118-132)
ence learning should involve inquiry into pupils’ own questions related to such phenomena. However,
discovery- and inquiry-based education has not been left without criticism. For instance, Mayer (2004)
argues against ‘pure’ discovery learning, where pupils are merely left to investigate scientific phenomena
without guidance, while Kirschner et al. (2006) provide evidence that minimal guidance approaches
simply do not lead to good learning outcomes. In response, Hmelo-Silver et al. (2007) claim that inquiry-
based approaches often encompass extensive guidance and scaffolding, and the ‘guided discovery’
approach developed by Brown and Campione (1994) is a case in point. Accordingly, learners require
scaffolding in the form of carefully designed environments and teaching intervention in combination
with continuous assessment of learning progress.
In a POE exercise (White & Gunstone, 1992), pupils are first asked to predict what will happen with
respect to a particular event, often a physical experiment or demonstration. Next, they are encouraged
to observe and describe in detail what happens as they experience the phenomenon. Finally, they are
stimulated to explain their observations against the background of their predictions, where any particu-
larly interesting discrepancies are followed up. The POE teaching design provides a structure for directing
pupils’ attention to a particular phenomenon, where they are expected to observe and explain rather
than being told what happens, thereby adhering to the ambitions of guided discovery.
Cognitive Conflict and Learning Science
Cognitive conflict as a consequence of a perceived anomaly has been put forward as an important
step in inducing conceptual change, which is defined by Posner et al. (1982) as “fundamental changes”
in a learner’s set of conceptions of a phenomenon, closely related to Piaget’s (1929) notion of “ac-
commodation”. According to Posner et al., “the more students consider the anomaly to be serious, the
more dissatisfied they will be with current concepts, and the more likely they may be ready ultimately
to accommodate new ones” (p. 214). Accordingly, a cognitive conflict is pivotal in adjusting an existing
conceptual ecology. Albeit so, research (e.g. Linn & Eylon, 2011; Smith, diSessa, & Roschelle, 1993) has
recognised the usefulness of pupils’ existing ideas as productive resources for knowledge integration
with scientific ideas. This contrasts with the view of mere replacement of previous “misconceptions”
with correct science concepts, but also places emphasis on careful curricular design. In this spirit, much
research has recently been directed towards exploring how technology-based learning environments
influence students’ integration of pre-existing ideas into a coherent scientific worldview (e.g. Linn &
Eylon, 2011).
Multimodal Processing of Information: Tactile and Visual Perception
Learning can be enhanced by building connections between sensory modalities (Moreno & Mayer,
2007). For example, in comparison with receiving visual information alone, combining auditory and
visual information leads to superior knowledge transfer (known as the modality effect) (Mayer, 2005).
Recent research has referred to a visuohaptic modality effect, which suggests that knowledge integration
might also be promoted by simultaneously coordinating vision and touch (Schönborn, Bivall, & Tibell,
2011). Such an effect could be a means to disambiguate heat and temperature concepts. According to
Ernst and Banks (2002), when exploring an object with one’s hand, both the sense of vision and touch
contribute to an interpretation, with vision usually dominating. Studies investigating different types of
“intermodal conflict” (e.g. Hershberger & Misceo, 1996) have revealed varying dominance, and in some
cases, the visual and tactile senses weigh the perceived intermodal information almost equivalently
(e.g. Lederman & Abbott, 1981). The visual information generated on the screen of a thermal camera
is a graphical supplement to a human’s already existing perception of the world. Here, in augment-
ing tactile interaction with real-time thermal imagery, both processes coexist in a combined real and
computer-visualized space.
Human perception of temperature through touch is by no means an accurate thermometer. Heat
and cold receptors in our skin do not react to temperature, per se, but to changes in skin temperature,
and it is the thermal conductance and heat capacity of different materials that determines our percep-
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PUPILS’ EARLY EXPLORATIONS OF THERMOIMAGING TO INTERPRET HEAT AND ISSN 1648–3898
TEMPERATURE
(P. 118-132)
tion of what material an object may be composed (Jones & Berris, 2002). Given that without any visual
experience of ‘invisible’ phenomena such as ‘heat flow’, learners will naturally rely on tactile perceptions
to comprehend phenomena, inadvertently reinforcing beliefs such as some materials being intrinsically
colder than others. Since human knowledge construction is closely linked to sensorimotor interactions
in the world (e.g. Barsalou, 2008), we also of course rely on somatosensory experiences to learn science
(e.g. metals really do feel colder than plastic at room temperature). Therefore, learners will often con-
struct their understanding of thermal phenomena by depending heavily on what they have felt but
not seen. Nevertheless, even if one could suddenly be able to see such phenomena, one would have
to learn to interpret new visual input in this context; a requirement that in itself would demand novel
visual literacy skills (Schönborn & Anderson, 2006).
Conceptions and Misconceptions of Heat and Temperature
Science education research has identified a broad range of challenges in learning thermal science,
including misconceptions or alternative conceptions of heat and temperature held by students at differ-
ent ages (Sözbilir, 2003; Yeo & Zadnik, 2001) The following three reported conceptions constituted the
target misconceptions of this study, since they can be assumed to be held by many 12- to 13-year-olds,
the age at which physics commences as a formally taught subject in Sweden, and IR cameras might be
expected to help address them:
• The tactile sense is a good thermometer (Clark & Jorde, 2004; Yeo & Zadnik, 2001).
• There is no difference between heat and temperature (Erickson, 1985).
• Some substances are naturally colder than others, e.g. metals are inherently cold (Brook,
Briggs, Bell, & Driver, 1984; Erickson, 1985).
Overall, Erickson (1985) suggests that pupils fail to interpret touching different objects at room tem-
perature in terms of heat transfer, but instead attribute ad hoc inherent properties to the materials, such
as metals feeling cold due to their ability to “attract” cold. Lewis and Linn (1994) even found that adults
experiencing that materials of the same temperature may feel different to the touch often question the ac-
curacy of the deployed thermometers, indicating the strong reliance on the sense of touch in their judgment.
Additional relevant student conceptions of thermal phenomena reported in the literature include:
• Heat is hot, but temperature can be cold or hot (Erickson, 1985).
• Metals often have extreme temperatures, very cold or very hot, also when surrounded by
objects of less extreme temperatures (Clark, 2006; Lewis & Linn, 1994).
• Heat and cold are opposite fluid substances (Brook et al., 1984).
Model-Based Science Education and a Simple Heat-Flow Model
Gilbert (2004) argues that a well thought out use of models and modelling may provide a route to
more authentic science education than what is typically found in our science classrooms. It would be
characterised by the representation of processes in science, showing its element of creativity and pro-
viding insight into the nature of satisfactory explanations of phenomena in the world-as-experienced.
The field of thermal science and its historical development offers many opportunities for model-based
science education. An example is to follow in the footsteps of Joseph Black, as he disambiguated the
notions of ‘temperature’ and ‘heat’ in the 18th century, and introduced ‘latent heat’, in developing a model
for the constant temperature as heat is added to systems undergoing phase change, e.g. ice melting into
water. Another example, and perhaps even more relevant to the current study, would be to introduce a
simple macroscopic model of heat flowing from an object of higher temperature to an object of lower
temperature with which it is in thermal contact, until thermal equilibrium is established. As a reaction
to reported misconceptions of heat and temperature, Erickson (1985, p. 59) has proposed the following
regarding metals feeling cold at room temperature:
If pupils were able to ‘see’ this phenomenon in terms of a transfer of energy from their body
to the object, this sort of situation would likely be less of a problem than it seems to be at
present.
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Accordingly, Arnold and Millar (1996) developed a model-based teaching sequence that focuses
on the interrelationship between ‘temperature’, ‘heat’ and ‘thermal equilibrium’, adopting ‘heat’ as the
main extensive thermal quantity, which is stored in and flows from warm objects. Similarly, Linn and
Eylon (2011) have relied primarily on a macroscopic ‘heat flow’ model in the development of Grade
8 thermal science within their Knowledge Integration framework. Furthermore, Rosebery et al. (2010)
report a teaching intervention on thermal phenomena in Grade 3-4, centred around a poster in class
expressing, “Heat always flows from objects at a higher temperature to objects at a lower temperature”
(p. 333). After a series of inquiry-based exercises, pupils were found to apply the heat-flow model to
their bodies following a school fire-drill performed on a cold day, arguing that they needed their coats
to trap their body heat.
Use of Thermocameras as a Tool for Enhanced Learning
An IR camera detects infrared radiation, which is emitted from all solid and liquid objects, and renders
corresponding temperatures of the objects’ surfaces. Vollmer, et al. (2001) have suggested the application
of infrared technology to visualize thermal phenomena in teaching. Atkins, et al. (2009) studied a science
museum exhibit that involved IR technology. They found that detailed task instructions were inhibiting
for the visitors, who tended to explore the IR camera functions in imaginative ways separately from the
provided instructions. With prices of IR cameras continuously decreasing, their application is becoming
rapidly feasible for educational laboratory exercises. In addition, a recent development has seen FLIR
(2014) debut the first smartphone attachable IR camera. Xie (2011; Xie & Hazzard, 2011) has argued that
IR technology presents powerful learning opportunities for visualizing unobservable thermal processes.
For instance, an IR camera allows learners to see thermal conduction through metal (See Figure 1). In
this way, pupils are no longer restricted to only ‘seeing’ heat flow in their mind’s eye, but can physically
see the phenomenon in real time. However, studies on the use of IR cameras in education are scarce,
and no empirical research has been published on their use in secondary physics teaching.
Figure 1: Sequence of thermographs displaying heat flow in a knife (on left) and a piece of wood
(on right) during and after thumb contact.
(a) At the moment when thumbs are placed in contact with the objects. (b) After one minute of thumb contact. (c) After
two minutes of thumb contact. (d) After thumbs have been removed. Notice the uniform temperature distribution on the
knife compared to the localised ‘heat spot’ on the piece of wood.
Purpose of the Study
The study aims to investigate pupils’ explorations of thermal imaging technology in relation to
ideas of heat and temperature, corresponding to the following research questions:
• What are pupils’ conceptions of heat and temperature prior to physics teaching of thermal
phenomena?
• What is the potential of a POE approach that combines the sense of touch with thermal
imaging in pupils’ interpretation of thermal phenomena?
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TEMPERATURE
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Pupils and Study Context
Learners without prior exposure to any formal teaching of heat participated in the study in order
to explore to what extent novel versus traditional measurement equipment influenced understanding
of thermal concepts. Eight (n = 8) Grade 7 (12- to 13-year-old) participants (four boys and four girls)
who attended a typical municipal secondary school in Sweden participated in the study. The school
prides itself in being technologically innovative and welcomes research initiatives that explore novel
educational approaches. The ethical requirements stipulated by the Swedish authorities for conducting
educational research were strictly adhered to. Pseudonyms are used in the text to render the partici-
pants anonymous.
Data Collection
The data collection sequence was as follows. First, the eight pupils responded to an individual writ-
ten pre-test. Second, the pupils were paired randomly, and each of the four pupil pairs was assigned to
and performed a specified POE exercise. Third, the eight pupils completed an individual written post-
test. Fourth, the pupils were debriefed by receiving a 20-minute lecture on the purpose of the study,
including an explanation of the concepts involved.
Written Pre-/Post-Test
The written pre-/post-test (see Note at end of paper) comprised three open-ended and three closed
multiple-choice items, which all aimed to probe pupils’ understanding related to the target miscon-
ceptions. Items were adapted from international science education literature and published concept
instruments (see Andersson, 2006; Paik, Cho, & Go, 2007; Yeo & Zadnik, 2001) to ensure a high content
and construct validity for exploring pupils’ understanding of heat-related phenomena. The pupils took
approximately 10-15 minutes to complete the pre- and post-test on each occasion.
Practical POE Laboratory Tasks
Three laboratory predict-observe-explain (POE) tasks (White & Gunstone, 1992) were designed,
namely an IR-camera, an IR-static, and a thermometer exercise (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Photographs of the equipment used in the laboratory POE tasks.

(a) A thermocamera is directed at a metal knife and piece of wood showing the corresponding real-time IR display that
is viewed by the user. (b) The temperature of each object during thumb contact is shown being measured with a digital
thermometer.
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In the IR-camera task, the pupils interacted with a FLIR i3 infrared camera that renders real-time
coloured thermal images of objects, and displays the temperature with a precision of 0.15 °C. For the
study, the emissivity coefficient of the IR camera was set to 0.95, close to the emissivity of the knife paint
coat (0.96) and identical to that of wood (0.95), as listed by The Engineering Toolbox (2012), ensuring
adequate temperature readings. The IR-static exercise required the pupils to interpret static coloured
paper-based images generated from the same camera, while interaction with thermometers constituted
the traditional laboratory exercise. For this exercise, an outdoor metal temperature probe connected to
a digital thermometer with a precision of 0.1 °C was used.
To make the POE exercises authentic, the pupils investigated objects that they would encounter in
everyday life: a painted sheet-metal utility knife, a piece of wood, and a woollen beanie. Each respective
POE exercise required the pupils to predict, observe and explain three phenomena: 1) objects at room
temperature; 2) pupils placing their thumbs in contact with objects for two minutes (see Figure 1 for a
grey palette version of the thermal imaging); and 3) objects placed outdoors on an autumn morning.
Of these three components, 1) was intended to induce cognitive conflict, 2) provided the opportunity
to “see” heat transfer, and 3) was used for knowledge transfer across contexts. The actual coloured
thermographs associated with the IR-camera and IR-static laboratory tasks used in the study together
with the laboratory instructions for the IR-camera group are available to the reader as supplementary
material (see Note at end of paper).
For the POE tasks, two pupil pairs carried out the IR-camera exercise, and one pair each conducted
the IR-static and thermometer exercises. Although no time constraint was set, the pupils spent approxi-
mately 20 minutes on each POE exercise. Each pair’s execution of the POE tasks was video-recorded.
Authors KS and JH monitored the POE tasks and intervened with conceptual questions when the need
arose, such as when pupils’ verbal utterances and interaction waned or became unfocused.
Data Analysis
All participants communicated in Swedish. Author JH, of Swedish mother tongue, and bilingual
with English, transcribed the video recordings verbatim and translated the Swedish written and oral
utterances into English. JH and KS analysed the Swedish dialogue of the original transcripts, and col-
laborated in communicating the data in English as presented in the Results of Research. The analysed
data corpus consisted of learners’ written responses to the pre-/post-test, video recordings of the POE
tasks, IR-camera screenshots taken by the pupil-pairs, verbatim transcripts, and field notes penned by
KS and JH.
Analysis of the data proceeded as follows. First, responses to the pre-/post-tests were coded to
determine which target alternative conceptions were exposed by the pupils. Second, the transcripts
were qualitatively analysed by identifying and constructing themes from the data relating to heat and
temperature (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The videotapes were also analysed for any patterns related to the
pupils’ interactions with the equipment, objects and with each other. Third, emergent themes from the
POE data were contrasted with the findings from the pre-/post-test data. All three authors discussed
the nature of the emergent themes, and agreed on representative dialogue excerpts and interpreta-
tions of them.
Results of Research
The findings of the study are presented in three sections. Firstly, the pupils’ exposure and engage-
ment of conceptions of heat and temperature are described from two perspectives: i) the pre-/post-test,
and ii) pupils’ dialogue in the laboratory exercises. Secondly, the pupils’ behavioural interactions with the
equipment, investigated objects and with each other are presented. Thirdly, cognitive conflict scenarios
from pupils’ dialogue are revealed.
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Pupils’ Exposure and Engagement of Heat and Temperature Concepts
Identifying the Pupils’ Conceptions of Heat and Temperature Before and After the Laboratory Tasks
The pupils’ responses to the pre-/post-test were used to probe their conceptual understanding of
heat and temperature, before and after performing the laboratory tasks. The eight pupils individually re-
sponded to three closed items in each of the pre-/post-tests. In total, the pupils answered 4 items correctly
in the pre-test (17 %) and 3 correctly in the post-test (13 %). As a whole, this result suggests that the pupils’
overall conceptual understanding of heat as measured by the closed-response items did not improve from
interacting with the POE laboratory tasks. Collectively, this result also demonstrates the general lack of a
scientific conceptual understanding of heat and temperature among the pupils in this study.
In addition to the closed items, free response questions related to the pupils’ conceptions of thermal
phenomena were employed. One such free response test item asked the pupils to explain what was
meant by the terms ‘heat’ and ‘temperature’ in as much detail as they could. In the pre-test, three of the
pupils gave the following responses:
Pelle: Heat is warm. Temperature is like a “degree” for how warm it is outside or in the body.
Sven: Heat is something that makes things warm, for example if one person is out playing football and
if it is warm outside then you get warm yourself and that is heat. Temperature is something that tells us
how warm or how cold it is.
Lisa: Heat is something that is around all the time everywhere. Temperature is a particular number of
degrees.
Several of the pupils conceptualised temperature as being related to how ‘warm’ or ‘cold’ something
is, often connected to a measure or “degree”. The conceptualisation of heat was more varied. Pelle pro-
vided a brief description of heat as associated to ‘warm’, reminiscent of the findings previously reported
by Erickson (1985) among 12-year-olds. In Sven’s account, heat is perceived as the cause of ‘warmness’
in ‘making things warm’ and also seen as identical to the phenomenon of ‘being warm’. Finally, Lisa
expressed that heat is spatially distributed, possibly a sign of a conceptual commitment to a substance
ontology of heat (Chi, Slotta, & De Leeuw, 1994).
The Pupils’ Thermal-Related Conceptions During the POE Laboratory Tasks
Metals are Colder than Wood. Apart from their emergence in the pre-/post-test, the pupils’ con-
ceptions of temperature were also exposed during the laboratory exercises. For example, the excerpt
below shows the pupil pair of Karin and Anna making predictions related to the temperatures of the
piece of wood and the knife. As they talk, they touch the objects:
Anna: I think… the wood is… ehh, twenty… or nineteen [degrees Celsius]
Karin: [touches the wood] Well, it feels quite, like, smooth…
Anna: [touches the wood] It feels like… average…? Well, it feels like…
Karin: [touches the wood] …a bit colder…?
Anna: [touches the wood] A bit colder. It feels… mild, so to speak! [laughter] /…/ And then, there’s the
metal… [touches the metal]… It feels much colder, I think.
Karin: [touches the metal] Yes.
Anna: [touches the metal] It could be about… five.
Karin: Fifteen…?
Anna: [touches the metal] No, not fifteen! It feels like it’s about five degrees. Five degrees. It feels as if it’s
about, maybe… 10?
The pupils rely heavily on their sense of touch in predicting the temperature of the wooden and
metal objects, relating to the target misconception that our sense of touch is a good thermometer (Clark
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& Jorde, 2004; Yeo & Zadnik, 2001). In this excerpt, Karin and Anna both touch each of the objects and
speak in terms of how cold they feel. While doing so, they appear confident in relating their sensory
experiences to the Celsius scale. The wood feels “smooth”, “mild” or “average”, and their prediction of 20
°C points to a belief that it is somewhere in the region of room temperature. In contrast, the metal feels
colder and considerably lower temperatures are predicted, in resonance with the target misconceptions
of materials’ inherent temperatures (Brook et al., 1984; Erickson, 1985).
Metals Get Much Warmer than Wood. The pupils also discussed how sensitive different objects
are to changes in temperature. This is exemplified by Karin and Anna’s predictions concerning what
will occur when they place their thumbs in contact with the wooden and metal objects in task 2 of the
exercise:
Anna: I guess that… the piece of wood, when we touch it with our thumbs… [points to the wooden and
metal objects] that the piece of metal is going to get much warmer than the piece of wood. /…/
Karin: Actually, I think so, too. This [touches the knife] got very warm [when they touched it briefly].
Anna predicts that the metal would be more sensitive to a temperature change than the piece of
wood. Karin agrees with this idea, and relates it to the pair’s recent experience of touching the knife
and perceiving it to get “very warm”. Subsequently, when the pair performed the experiment with the
IR camera, they confirmed that the metal increased in temperature more than the wood, but not by as
much as they had predicted:
JH: So, what was your… how is this [the observed temperatures of the metal and wood following contact
with thumbs] connected to your predictions…?
Anna: It still was very similar… I thought that it would be much more different.
Karin: Yes.
JH: Difference between…?
Anna: Well, the metal and the wood… /…/ the piece of wood… like a bit warmer… but this [the metal]
would pull away… /…/ But we were wrong. That [the metal] only pulled away by one degree… /…/
JH: It did not pull away as much as you thought it would…? /…/ What is the reason… if you want to
explain… why did the knife get warmer than the piece of wood? /…/
Anna: Well… if you have a wooden spoon and a metal spoon in a pot [example related to item 2 from
pre-test] then, there is, like, material in this [refers to the metal knife] that gets warmer, or something…
when you have this [wooden piece representing the spoon]… the wooden spoon gets warm, right… but
not as warm as… this one [shows knife in reference to metal spoon] gets extremely warm… /…/ Like, for
example, a hair straightener… because it gets really, really warm when you straighten your hair.
Here, Anna conceptualises the “warming up” process of the wooden and metal objects in terms of
“pulling away”, i.e. related to a rate of change of temperature, possibly as an upward spatial movement
on a temperature scale. Secondly, when Anna is probed to explain the observed outcome that the knife
got warmer than the piece of wood, she relates this interpretation to her previous experiences, both
in recalling a pre-test item describing a wooden and a metal spoon submerged in hot soup and to her
everyday experience of the “hotness” of metal hair straighteners. It appears that she conceptualises
metal as a substance that can “get warm easily” but also easily “gets cold”, i.e. being more sensitive to
temperature changes in comparison to wood. This awareness of the sensitivity of metal to temperature
change is also shown when Anna advises Karin not to hold the piece of metal for too long when they
later perform task 3 outdoors, in order not to influence the measurements. The pupils’ explanations
here are consistent with the findings of Clark (2006) and Lewis and Linn (1994), who found that pupils
interpret metals as having extreme temperatures. However, in contrast, the realisation of the participants
in this study that metals are sensitive to temperature change may serve as a constructive anchoring
conception for more advanced thermal concepts, such as thermal conductivity and heat capacity of
different materials.
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Heat as a Substance. In the following exchange, Lisa and Maria, the other pair interacting with
the IR camera, explain why the knife feels cold in task 3.
Lisa: But the knife feels colder than it [really] is.

JH: So it’s the knife that is a bit strange?
Lisa, Maria: Yes.
JH: …in a way you didn’t think it would…?
Lisa: Mhm.
JH: Yes. Can you explain what that depends on… do you think?
Lisa: Maybe the beanie holds the heat longer, or something… /…/ So it’s maybe still warm… from when
it was, like, inside… or something… maybe…
JH: They have been outside pretty long.
Lisa: Okay, I see…
Maria: The knife takes up the cold better…
Lisa engages the idea of heat being “contained” or “held” in the beanie for a long time, while Maria
expresses that the knife is a good recipient “absorber” of cold. This implies a substance conception of
heat, in parallel with the findings of Erickson (1985), for example. In support of findings from Brook
et al. (1984), this pupil pair reveals conceptions of “heat” and “cold” akin to being two different kinds
of substances that can be held within and transferred between objects. However, in this context, in
contrast to the examples seen above where metal was viewed as sensitive to temperature changes,
in this instance, metal is assumed to have a stable temperature once it has become cold.
In addition, the following excerpt is taken from Kalle and Sven’s work with task 2 in the IR-static
exercise. While analysing the IR-static images, they reflect upon what would have happened to their
thumbs immediately after having been in contact with the objects:
Kalle: The [My] thumb gets colder. And the thing you hold, it gets a bit warmer…
Sven: …where you had the thumb, it gets warmer…
Kalle: Mhm [Yes], it gets a bit warmer, because you push the heat from…
Sven: Yes, and then…
Kalle: …the thumb gets colder…
In this exchange, Kalle uses the word ‘heat’ adequately as a noun in conceptualising heat transfer
from his thumbs to the objects. Kalle and Sven provide a further example of the idea of something
flowing from one object to another, as exemplified in the following exchange when asked by author
KS to explain their observation of their thumb heating the metal:
Kalle: Well, the metal gets… a bit warmer…

Sven: …because the temperature in the hands, it, like…
Kalle: …the temperature in the hands… if you put your thumb [on a metal object] and press on it…
then the thing [object] gets warmer.
KS: Why?
Sven: Er, the temperature in the body, it, like… it ends up on the metal… or, like this… the metal gets
warmer when you touch it…
Sven attempts to construe the process in terms of some kind of substance transfer from the
thumb to the metal, expressed in the sense of temperature in the body ending up on the metal. Lewis
and Linn (1994, p. 668) have reported a similar pupil response to why metal feels cold, in which one
pupil stated: “Body temperature is going to the objects that feel cold”, reflecting a misconception
of temperature as an extensive quantity. However, in Sven’s case, he appears dissatisfied with this
manner of expression, and rephrases himself in a way that he is more confident with, as the metal
getting warmer when it is touched by the thumbs. Speaking of temperature as something that ends
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up somewhere else could come across as strange in everyday language. In general, in the context
of what happened when the participants touched the objects with their thumbs, the most common
ways of expressing the experience was in terms of the objects ‘getting warmer’ or ‘warming up’ and
of the temperatures ‘going up’, and not in terms of some entity flowing from here to there. The ap-
plication of the idea of heat as a substance residing in or flowing out from warm objects was not very
common in the current study. Kalle, in this exchange, and Lisa, in her pre-test response, are two of
the few cases where the pupils got close to expressing the idea of heat as substance-like. The pupils
seemed to struggle to engage any extensive quantity involved in thermal processes, be it energy or
heat, lending support to the need to use heat flow approaches to introductory teaching of thermal
science (Arnold & Millar, 1996; Linn & Eylon, 2011).
Nature of the Pupils’ Interactions with the POE Tasks, Equipment and each other
Overall, all pupils – in particular those who interacted directly with the IR cameras – engaged
with the tasks and equipment in a confident way. The IR camera came across as fascinating, and the
work with the exercises showed clear evidence of a “wow factor” (Chandler, 2009) at play. When it
comes to interpretation of the measurement data, however, the pupils rarely made full use of the
two-dimensional colour display of the IR camera, in terms of still images or dynamically in real time
on the screen. The pupils tended to use the IR camera as a thermometer, rather than focusing on
the displayed infrared imagery. For instance, in task 2 Karin has held her thumbs in contact with the
metal and wooden objects for about a minute, when Anna proceeds to conduct measurements with
the IR camera:
Anna: That… the piece of metal… it’s been like a minute now… it is about 24 degrees… /…/ And the
piece of wood is 23…
JH: So, it looks as if… you said that the knife has become a bit warmer… one degree warmer than the
piece of wood…?
Anna: Mhm. /…/ Okay, maybe it has been two minutes now…
Karin: Yes. Okay. [Removes thumbs]
Anna: The piece of metal is 24 degrees… point 1… and the piece of wood is 22… point 4…
The two of them focus on reading the temperature numerals on the screen of the IR camera
at the locations where the screen cursor was directed. This interaction was not unique to the pairs
interacting with the IR camera, and was in fact similar to the way Lasse and Pelle worked with the
digital thermometers. Consider the following interaction where Lasse touches the wood with his
thumb and Pelle touches the knife in task 2:
Lasse: Mine [the thermometer reading of the piece of wood] rose a bit.
Pelle: Mine [the thermometer reading of the knife] went down. Now it rose by two [tenths of a de-
gree]
Lasse: Mine is 21.8.
Pelle: Mine is 22.9, no, 23.0. /…/ Pelle: Mine rises all the time. It’s 23.3 now. /…/
Lasse: Strange. Yours [the knife] is warmer, but it feels colder.
Here, Lasse and Pelle approached the thermometer readings as a sort of competition between
increasing temperatures. The process of becoming warmer is interpreted in terms of increasing tem-
perature. One possible explanation for the similar measurement approaches of these two groups is
that performing thermometer readings appeared the most obvious observation to make and focus
on, as they were not used to interpreting IR images.
Emergence of Cognitive Conflict Scenarios
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The video data also showed evidence of certain anomalies being exposed during the pupils’
conduction of the tasks, suggesting how cognitive conflict scenarios could be induced and created
upon pupils’ thermal explorations during the POE tasks. The pupils experienced that the metal knife
felt colder than the piece of wood, both at room temperature and outdoors during a chilly autumn
day, but that the two compared objects were shown to have similar temperatures when measured
with an IR camera or a digital thermometer. Below, the associated bewilderment of this anomaly is
expressed by Karin and Anna when they obtained their first measurement of the temperatures of the
knife and piece of wood during task 1:
Anna: [she directs the camera] Okay, the piece of wood is 20… yes, 20 degrees. 19, 20, so we were right.
/…/ And then, there’s the piece of metal… [she directs the camera] we have… it’s 21 degrees! [giggles]
Yes, it is. That’s what it says… /…/ That is strange!
Karin: That’s maybe because we touched it, too. /…/
Anna: But here [IR image on camera] it says that it [the knife] is 22 degrees.
Karin: Wow! This… [touches the piece of wood and the knife]. But now, this [the knife] has got warmer!
Anna: Let’s feel… [touches the knife] But it is still colder [touches the knife and the piece of wood]
Karin: Yes, a bit colder, but…
Anna: I think that this [touches the piece of wood] feels like, well, normal… This [takes the knife] feels
very cold. Yes.
JH: Can you explain… next step here [points to the instruction sheet] ‘explanation’… how does it fit
together…? /…/
Anna: I think that is because… wood, it has, like... this [picks up the knife] is so hard… or, well… [giggles,
puts the knife back onto the table] I really don’t know why!
Karin: Me neither!
In a similar fashion to what was observed by this pair previously during the exercise, Anna and
Karin rely heavily on their sense of touch as a thermometer, and are baffled by the apparent con-
tradiction observed. This excerpt reveals the creation of an anomaly of the conflicting multisensory
input in the form of the tactile perception of the cold metal, but seeing through the IR visual display
that the temperature of the metal is in fact the same as the temperature of the surroundings. As op-
posed to the findings of Lewis and Linn (1994) among adults performing similar laboratory exercises
on the temperature of metal, the participants of the present study never questioned the readings
of the equipment, whether they used the digital thermometer or the IR camera as a way out of their
conundrum. In an attempt to resolve the anomaly, Karin puts forward the tentative explanation that
the knife has actually become warmer due to the fact that they had touched it, but Anna remains
unconvinced of this notion. Clearly, the knife still feels colder.
At the close of the exchange, the pair resigns to not being able to provide an explanation for the
contradictory results; preliminary evidence for the induction of a cognitive conflict. The frustration
of not being able to provide an explanation is captured most succinctly when Anna reflects upon
the observations after having completed task 2 by asserting, “But metal really is just colder!”. All four
pupil pairs experienced the anomaly between perceived ‘coldness’ and temperature readings. For
instance, in Lasse’s final remark in the excerpt in the previous results section, he was able to relate
the readings of the thermometer to the physical sensation of the knife feeling colder than the piece
of wood and realise that it was “strange”. For the IR-camera pairs in particular, a salient affective and
emotional dimension associated with experiencing the anomaly was observed. Overall, the anomaly
was observed in all four pairs in varying ways of expression, but none of the pupils managed to resolve
the issue by developing a convincing explanation.
Discussion
In the following discussion, the research questions are revisited in the light of the results of the
study and against the background of the presented literature.
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What are Pupils’ Conceptions of Heat and Temperature Prior to

Physics Teaching of Thermal Phenomena?
The results support the existing literature that 12- to 13-year-olds often hold two conceptions in
relation to heat that are not entirely in line with the scientific view: that our sense of touch is a good
thermometer; and that metal is inherently cold. Temperature is seen as a measure of how hot (or cold)
objects are.
In addition, the pupils in this study do not conceptualise warming of objects with their thumbs
in terms of heat transfer, and only rarely embrace a substance-like conception of heat in these par-
ticular contexts. From a science education perspective, at first glance, the finding may not come
across as very alarming. Indeed, the conception of heat as a substance has been put forward as a
misconception and an obstacle to grasping the interpretation of heat as a process depending on
molecular motion (Chi et al., 1994; Erickson, 1985). However, the pupils in the current study make
only very limited use of any thermal extensive quantity and the word ‘energy’ is not used at all. They
do not seem to have a suitable word available for what it is that may be transferred from their hands
to colder objects, and therefore have difficulties seeing the phenomenon of heat flow even when
facilitated with an IR camera.
Given the pupils’ seemingly limited preconceptions and resources for interpreting thermal phe-
nomena, the introduction of a simple heat flow model seems to be an appropriate educational step to
take. If they had been explicitly introduced to the idea that heat spontaneously flows from objects of
higher temperature to objects of lower temperature, they might have been able to apply this model to
the transfer of heat from their warm bodies to colder objects. This basic macroscopic model could later
serve as a conceptual foundation for a more advanced understanding of heat in terms of molecular
motion.
What is the Potential of a POE Approach that Combines the Sense of Touch with Thermal Imaging in
Pupils’ Interpretation of thermal phenomena?
The findings of this work demonstrate the induction of a cognitive conflict between pupils’ existing
conceptions of heat and their experience of perceiving the IR-camera output. The pupils in this study
recognised the anomaly in the discrepancy between their sense of touch and the IR-camera and ther-
mometer readings. In contrast to some adult participants in the study by Lewis and Linn (1994), they did
not resort to questioning the accuracy of the equipment. Experiencing anomaly has been put forward
as an important step in adjusting conceptions (Posner et al., 1982), and it has been acknowledged that
people often ignore such anomalies (Dunbar, Fugelsang, & Stein, 2007). In this respect, having manifested
a cognitive conflict among the pupils even with a brief intervention is a promising first step.
The pupils interacting with the IR camera were intrigued by the colourful dynamic images along
the lines of the “wow factor” associated with innovative technology (Chandler, 2009). Even though
they failed to resolve the anomaly, affective impact remains a significant factor towards bringing about
conceptual change (Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993).
Apart from the pupils experiencing the cognitive conflict, in line with Erickson (1985), we had also
hoped that they would be able to resolve the conflict by explaining the processes in terms of a heat
flow from their thumbs to the investigated objects. However, they did not manage to resolve the expe-
rienced cognitive conflicts. From a teaching perspective, it may be seen as a disappointing result with
respect to the potential of the implementation of novel IR technology in revolutionising pedagogical
practice, but it is nevertheless an interesting research finding, with respect to better understanding the
pre-conditions of learning thermal concepts. One possibility is that the task was just too challenging for
the current age group. In fact, Andersson (2008) has reported that only 3 % of Swedish ninth-graders
explained differences in felt coldness in terms of a heat flow from the hands. In contrast, however,
Rosebery, et al. (2010) managed to show the potential in purposeful teaching of a heat-flow model to
considerably younger pupils.
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Conclusions and Implications
This study indicates that combining real-time visual and tactile modalities in the current pedagogical
context provides the opportunity for pupils to experience cognitive conflicts about thermal phenomena.
Actively prompting such conflict can promote cognitive assimilation and accommodation processes to
facilitate pupils’ construction of abstract, yet core scientific concepts. Albeit so, the POE-based approach
was not sufficient for reconciling pupils’ intuitive ideas of thermal phenomena and conflicting tempera-
ture readings. Hence, exploiting IR technology as a vehicle for learning in the studied age group should
be framed within a carefully designed teaching sequence, for instance by introduction of a macroscopic
heat flow model as outlined here (Arnold & Millar, 1996; Linn & Eylon, 2011).
As for application in regular physics teaching, other than acquiring an IR camera, it is worthwhile
investigating to what extent viewing and interpreting video clips might be a cost-effective way of access-
ing IR-imaging technology. In fact, video clips posted on YouTube on the use of IR cameras in practical
laboratory exercises, show differences in thermal conductivity for instance, as manifested when hold-
ing one’s thumbs in contact with metal and foam objects (Xie, 2012). However, physical manipulation
combined with real-time visual feedback from IR cameras holds a promising potential for presenting
thermal phenomena. In addition, disambiguation of heat and temperature might well be one area of
learning for which physical, sensory input plays an important roll (Zacharia & Olympiou, 2011), including
inducing a cognitive conflict between the perceived ‘hotness’ and measured temperature, which goes
beyond what is possible through computer simulations alone (e.g. Clark & Jorde, 2004).
Apart from introducing a heat-flow model, another way of providing more direct guidance and
scaffolding might be to intervene in more detail during pupils’ conduction of the laboratory exercises.
For instance, when the pupils hold their thumbs to the objects of different materials, we could explic-
itly direct attention to the gradually changing colour along the length of the knife and ask: “why is the
colour changing?” or even “what is flowing?” Then again, as recognised by Atkins, et al. (2009), instruc-
tions that are too detailed might stifle any discovery-spirited intentions of providing IR technology to
students or laypeople.
Given our findings, the following points will inform future empirical research:
• Investigating what specific types of guidance and scaffolding (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007)
would be advantageous in supporting pupils’ ‘seeing’ heat flow, and discerning extensive
quantities such as ‘heat’ and ‘energy’ involved in heat conduction.
• Exploiting dynamic real-time multimodal interaction and visualization. If educators have
the desire for pupils to build the conception of heat as something that flows as a first step
towards grasping extensive thermal quantities, the pupils will have to actively ‘see’ it flowing.
Real-time IR imaging may promote multisensory referential connections between haptic
and visual perceptual channels (Moreno and Mayer 2007).
This study was conducted with a limited number of participants and cannot readily be generalised
to other pupils or to other school contexts. In addition, our collection of data was brief and performed
as an event not part of the pupils’ day-to-day science curriculum. Nevertheless, the exploratory research
approach showed how this group of pupils conceptualised a thermal phenomenon, and experienced
a conflict between perceived ‘coldness’ and temperature readings through interaction with IR technol-
ogy.
Note
Permanent web link to the supplementary material referred to is available at:

http://www.ep.liu.se/PublicationData/diva-103668/SupplementaryMaterial-103668.pdf
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the pupils and school teachers involved for kindly allowing us to conduct the
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study. We gratefully acknowledge FLIR Systems AB and Termisk Systemteknik AB for the loan of a FLIR
i3 infrared camera. CX thanks the National Science Foundation for financial support (grant number
0918449), and any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in the materials
associated with this program are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the
National Science Foundation.
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Received: December 06, 2013 Accepted: January 25, 2014
Konrad Ph.D., Senior Lecturer, Linköping University, Department of Science and

Schönborn Technology (ITN), Campus Norrköping, SE-60174 Norrköping, Sweden.
(corresponding E-mail: konrad.schonborn@liu.se
author) Website: http://webstaff.itn.liu.se/~konsc16/
Jesper Haglund Ph.D., Post Doc, Linköping University, Department of Social and Welfare
Studies (ISV), Campus Norrköping, SE-60174 Norrköping, Sweden.
E-mail: jesper.haglund@liu.se
Website: http://www.isv.liu.se/medarbetare-vid-isv/haglund-
jesper?l=en&sc=true
Charles Xie Ph.D., Senior Scientist, The Educational Modeling Laboratory, The
Concord Consortium, Concord, Massachusetts 01742, United States.
E-mail: qxie@concord.org
Website: http://www.concord.org/~qxie/
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COGNITIVE STYLES
COULD BE IMPLICITLY
ASSESSED IN THE
INTERNET ENVIRONMENT:
REFLECTION-IMPULSIVITY
IS MANIFESTED IN
INDIVIDUAL MANNER
OF SEARCHING FOR
INFORMATION
Abstract. The present research aimed to

Maria Ledzińska, determine whether the cognitive style of
Jordi Mongay Batalla, reflection – impulsivity (R-I) diagnosed
Maciej Stolarski in a standard way also manifests itself in
the Internet environment. A special task
was designed that involved searching for
particular information on the Internet.
Science students took part in two studies
(pilot study, n=11, and replication, n=37).
Introduction Data analyses revealed that indicators of
performance in the simple computer task
At the turn of the 20th century, information technology entered allow the differentiation of respondents in
all areas of life, enlivening the discussion about the benefits that it terms of the R-I dimension. The time spent
gives and the threats and dangers that it poses (Kraut, Patterson, on reading the command and thinking of
Landmark, Kiesler, Mukophadhyay & Scherlis, 1998). Nowadays, the a strategy for obtaining the information
discussion revolves around the thesis on the ambivalent, twofold revealed a high correlation with R-I. The
effects of the technological expansion that was formulated many amount of explained R-I variance reached
years ago in the form of the “laws of media” (McLuhan & McLuhan, 82%, indicating that the online searching
1992). The authors have called the beneficial effects “the law of task is a valid indicator of this cognitive
enhancing and retrieving”, and referred to the unfavourable ones style. The practical conclusion is that the
as “the laws of obsolence and reverse”. According to Brown, Brails- Internet environment may be used in
ford, Fisher, Moore and Ashman (2006), this duality of the conse- cognitive styles’ assessment which, in turn,
quences of the presence of technology in education was noticed may lead to creating interactive, cogni-
much earlier. In the 1950s and 60s, while introducing the idea of tive style-friendly hypermedia learning
programmed learning and with it learning-assisting machines, facilities.
the merits and drawbacks of the cooperation of the human with
Key words: cognitive styles, hypermedia,
machines were remarked upon.
Internet, learning facilities, reflection-
Psychologists had large hopes for the widespread use of IT,
impulsivity.
noticing its role also in the diagnostic process, which is imperative
in research work as well as therapeutic work (Giannetti, Klinger,
Maria Ledzińska
Johnson & Williams, 1976). The issue of the applications of technol- University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
ogy remains pertinent and is accentuated today by the widespread Jordi Mongay Batalla
use of computers and mobile devices connected to the Internet. Warsaw University of Technology,
It continues to be used by both students and teachers alike for Warsaw, Poland
different purposes and in different ways. Accepting the type of Maciej Stolarski
University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
actions manifest as criteria, mention can be made of four dominant
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OF SEARCHING FOR INFORMATION
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activities directed towards expression, protection, interruption and collection of information (Megens
& Martin, 2003). The latter belongs to the most frequently initiated and this probably happens for two
reasons. The first is the size of the information resources and the data offered. In 2006, the Internet con-
tained 200, while in 2009 it already held 500, exabytes of information. In the years 2010–2011, 1 zetabyte
(1021 bytes) was approached. The new measure of information will, in the near future, be the yottabyte
– yt =1024 bytes (Mongay Batalla & Ledzińska, 2011). The second reason is that the Internet, through
its information resources, facilitates the satisfaction of important psychological needs, particularly the
need for cognition (Petty & See, 2007) as well as the need to belong (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Pelling
& White, 2009). Thus, as it seems, is the basic justification for its psychological appeal.
When using the information resources of the Internet, problems are encountered that are con-
nected with the vast diversity and anarchic structure of the medium. It is for this reason that the so-
called paradox of accessibility and the difficulties in making choices among the incredibly diverse data
offered is discussed (Woods, Patterson & Roth, 2002). The problem is somewhat lessened, but not solved
by such technical solutions as Rich Site Summary (RSS) readers. The selection process requires applica-
tion of choice criteria, the most important being knowledge and the value system, which are acquired
gradually in the socialisation process. It is worth noting that the discomfort arising from experiencing
information overload is approached not only in the category of putting too much strain on the mind,
but also psychological stress (Ledzińska, 2009; Matthews & Campbell, 2009).
The search for information on the Internet gives rise to an individual’s manner of reaching it, and
this is connected with the method of searching for it so characteristic of humans, which can be more
precisely referred to as searching fields (perception, own memory, external stores of data). This may be
diverse, starting from the very method of defining the target, the type of data sought and its intended
purpose (what am I looking for and why?), right up to random actions brought about by trial and error.
The first can be referred to as more cognitively mature and advanced: the action is clearly guided by
a clearly defined goal and the initiated cognitive activity is deliberate and unhurried and subjected to
personal control in terms of achieving intentions. The gathering of necessary information ends the search,
which is treated as a task to be solved. Another way of navigating through the Internet is characterised
by randomness and a chaotic nature due to there being no clearly defined goal and strategy, haste,
as well as being satisfied with content that is “close to that sought for”. The mentioned ways represent
extreme behaviours among which there also may be intermediate actions. These individual, preferred
ways of searching and processing information are labelled “cognitive styles”, constituting one of the
manifestations of human differences. They have been studied for many decades, firstly in laboratories
and later in natural conditions, and, with the dissemination of modern techniques, also in the Internet
environment (Brown, Brailsford, Fisher, Moore & Ashman, 2006; Chen & Macredie, 2002).
Everyday observation supplies grounds to state that adults – particularly parents and teachers – are
increasingly interested in the content that young people look for and in the way in which they do so. The
latter, i.e., one’s preference for formal characteristics of information seeking, is important and can also
be studied and improved with the use of contemporary technology. This article presents a sample of
theoretical reflections and empirical studies dedicated to this issue. It has been preceded by important
information on the two main methods of psychological characterisation of the mind.
Two Ways of Characterising the Mind – Abilities and Preferences
The importance of studying the specificity of human mind functioning in research on the specific-
ity of using the Internet seems obvious. The mind remains a cognitive instrument registering stimuli,
deciphering them, initiating reactions or deciding on their absence. Representatives of the cognitive
paradigm claim that the mind is a system that processes information, while processing programs deter-
mine the individual differences in the dynamics of transformation and the end results of data processing
(e.g., Cowan, 1988). The increasing popularity of studies on the mind – treated as a system of collecting,
transforming and using information – has not eliminated earlier approaches. Nowadays, we are dealing
with a plurality of different research paradigms, but three of them – the developmental (Sternberg, 1998;
Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1995; Zhang & Sternberg, 2002), individual difference (Matczak, 1990, 1994,
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2000; Nęcka, Orzechowski, & Szymura, 2007; Nosal, 1990; Sternberg, 1990; Strelau, 2002; Zhang, 2001)
and cognitive (Chlewiński, 1999, 2007) – have proved to be particularly popular.
The popularity of psychometric approaches that are directed at measurement, hence their name,
has not declined. Followers of this approach point out that the comprehensive profile of the mind should
take two dimensions into account: a) capacities (abilities), and b) preferences, or in other words likings,
predilections. They correspond – on the diagnostic level – to characterising intelligence and cognitive
styles, sometimes referred to as thinking styles (Matczak, 1982, 2000; Sternberg, 1990, 1998;). Reference
was made to this taxonomy in further analyses, paying attention to the specificity of information process-
ing expressed in a terminology of styles. There are two arguments behind such a decision. The first is
substantive in nature: interest in Internet users, which include laymen, students and active professionals.
It can be assumed that they are in the broadest part of the distribution of results in intelligence tests,
namely, that the results obtained are within normal range. The second reason is methodological. The
advancement of differential psychology – a branch of psychology intensively developing on a global
scale – allows for the diagnosis of different cognitive styles. Instruments with tested psychometric prop-
erties can be applied in group trials and the empirical data obtained in this manner can be expressed
and explained in categories of the specificity of information processing software.
Cognitive Styles – Their Essence and Classification
A cognitive style is a preferred manner of cognitive functioning corresponding to the specific needs
of an individual (Matczak 1982, 2000; Sternberg, 1990; Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). In other words,
it is a method of cognitive involvement that an individual is likely to select among others available to
them, therefore, the one that they spontaneously most frequently use. Attention is paid to its complex
determinants, treating a cognitive style as a consequence of a person’s individuality and of the demands
of the environment. This relatively constant method of organising cognitive activities serves to balance
the individuality – determined by the type of temperament and personal experience profile – with the
objective demands of the environment, i.e., situation or task (Nosal, 1990). The distinguishing feature
of style remains the principle of the composition of elements or organisation of a series of cognitive
operations, creating an intellectual activity or action (Nosal, 2000). Therefore, styles remain one of the
most important manifestations of a person’s individuality and are relatively constant. They can and
should be investigated and respected, while the least adaptive should be corrected.
The cognitive style is manifested particularly when the task situation in which a person finds
themselves in does not contain detailed instructions concerning the manner of performing the task. An
individual then selects a manner that is consistent with their own preferences. When testing cognitive
styles, the answer to the following question is sought: how do people perceive, think, learn and solve
problems? The content aspect, namely, what people perceive, what they think about, or what problems
they solve, remains outside the field of interest.
Cognitive styles are dimensional in nature, with precisely specified peripheries. Their multitude and
diversity of approaches – almost 30 have been recorded – has encouraged attempts to be made to order
so many dimensions and to approach them comprehensively. These are the most commonly mentioned:
1) field dependence – independence; 2) fragmentariness versus comprehensiveness; 3) broad versus
narrow inclusion; 4) conceptual diversity, namely, the scope of equivalence; 5) expression of concepts
and conceptual structures; 6) tolerance for unrealistic experiences; 7) escalation versus smoothing; 8)
scanning; 9) reflection – impulsivity; 10) constricted versus flexible control; 11) internal versus external
locus of control; 12) temporality styles (for a detailed review of these and other cognitive styles’ dimen-
sions see: Kozhevnikov, 2007; Nosal, 1990; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1997).
Attempts were made to order the styles, adopting, among others, the following classification criteria:
relationships between given styles and various information processing levels. The taxonomy created in
this way can be presented in the following manner (Nosal, 2000): Styles
1 and 2 are usually connected with the mental registration of stimuli and picture representations
(organisation of the field of perception);
3, 4 and 5 concern operating with concept categories and expressing general conceptual structures
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(organisation of concept categories);

6 and 7 take into consideration connecting the information received with the structures of knowl-
edge held (searching information structures);
8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 concern programming and control of purposeful acts (control and self-regulation,
i.e., metacognition).
Kozhevnikov (2007) endorsed an alternative method of classification of cognitive styles, focusing
on information processing levels. The taxonomy of the author is as follows:
1) The level of creating representations of the surroundings in the form of short-term perceptional
images. The main informational processes of this level constitute capturing, sharing and searching
information fields containing original, relatively unordered data;
2) The level of creating cognitive representations in the form of conceptual categories;
3) The level of informational structures making up an individual experience, i.e. knowledge and
self-knowledge;
4) The level of informational structures determining purposefully directed activity encompassing
programming and control of the course of behaviour, and decision-making concerning the change of
goals or strategies used in fulfilling them.
The novelty of this approach is a result of an attempt to identify metadimensions, i.e., clusters of
cognitive styles understood in a double frame of reference. Referring to Nosal’s (1990) work, Kozhevnikov
(2007, p. 474) proposed four such dimensions:
1) field structuring, which describes “the way individuals selectively encode field data and sift out
relevant from irrelevant information”;
2) field scanning describes “different methods of information scanning, such as systemic (…) versus
random (…) information search, and could also reflect the choice of representation and organization
of information”;
3) conceptual equivalence reflects “the way an individual combines pieces into a whole (e.g., analysis
versus synthesis)”;
4) control allocation refers to the “methods of self-monitoring, and regulation of intellectual func-
tioning (including such styles as reflectivity-impulsivity, rigidity-flexibility of control, and time orienta-
tion)”.
The conceptual formulation of cognitive styles reveals certain weaknesses resulting from a miss-
ing link (essentially a theory) connecting the identified dimensions. There is also no clarity as to the
relationships between the styles and many basic categories of cognitive psychology: the cognitive
schema, representation, encoding.
Cognitive styles are rarely subjected to evaluation on a “better–worse” scale. Some researchers
(e.g., Jamieson, 1992), however, go beyond this convention by accentuating the small functionality of
certain behaviours. They include, among others, the anarchic style of thinking, extreme dependence on
the field or intensified impulsivity. The latter makes an individual obtain results below their real capacity
due to the errors they commit (incorrect reactions). And although reflection – treated as a cognitive
inclination – is essentially intensified with age, this effect does not concern all pupils. Some of them –
distracted additionally with various stimuli – function in an impulsive manner.
Diagnosis of Reflection–Impulsivity (R-I)
Reflection–impulsivity is one of the two most often investigated cognitive styles (besides field
dependence) and, presumably, one of the most important for human functioning (Matczak, 2000; Stern-
berg & Grigorenko, 1997). The dimension is defined operationally by two simultaneously recognised
indicators: speed, and correctness of solutions. Impulsivity is the tendency to give fast responses and
to make many mistakes. Reflection is connected with a predilection to taking a long time to consider
things and committing few mistakes.
Psychological methods for diagnosing cognitive style are numerous and varied, including tests,
questionnaires and non-standardized experimental tasks (e.g., classification, sorting). A method of
characterising styles that also remains available is observation of behaviour, for example in a school
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environment. A person conducting classes often has an opportunity to notice a pupil’s level of concen-
tration, observation of the commands and the manner of responding to questions. Some pupils, prior
to responding, have to give the issue some thought and hesitate in giving an answer before making
sure that it is an accurate reply. Their statements are correct and they rarely make mistakes, but this ac-
curacy is “at the cost” of a time delay in response. This is a typical example of the behaviour of reflective
individuals making themselves appear to be not very talented. In the meantime, this is their preferred
method of cognitive functioning, a feature of their individuality and, therefore, their distinct style: they
tend to operate and function slowly, but precisely. Impulsive individuals behave completely differently:
they respond very quickly without first meticulously analysing the available data, thus, risking – through
their hastiness – committing mistakes.
It seems that the interface remains a sufficient area for recording manifested cognitive styles (includ-
ing reflection–impulsivity). This “borderline area” between a human and machine creates possibilities to
characterise the way various applications are used, including the ever-popular searching for informa-
tion. Since the cognitive style reveals traits of constancy and remains independent from the context,
the precise description of the behaviour of individuals that are solving simple tasks on the Internet
may provide valuable information on their cognitive style. Devising a task consisting of searching for
information in the resources available on the Internet that takes into consideration indicators typical of
a cognitive style which is the subject of the undertaken analyses remains a valid methodological chal-
lenge. Having data obtained in this manner about the specific nature of the exploration it is possible to
make cautious deductions about the preferred style. This, for obvious reasons, will be rather a general
assessment, not a diagnosis in the psychological sense. The result from the standard measurement
supplies information about the type of cognitive control exercised, which is strong in reflective persons
and weak in impulsive persons (Nosal, 2000). In cooperation with a psychologist, a teacher can design
teaching activities (sets of exercises) correcting ineffective control (extreme impulsivity or reflection)
and fulfil them in the ever-so-attractive-for-pupils Internet environment. Correction of an unadaptive
method of cognitive functioning can enter the list of teachers’ duties. Many researchers have suggested
this, highlighting the relationships between cognitive predilections and achievements in various fields
of human activity (Sternberg, 1998; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 1995; Zhang & Sternberg, 2002).
General Background of Research
The area of interest is the analysis of psychological characteristics of the interface in terms of the
possibilities of characterising cognitive preferences, especially the R-I dimension. The investigated
problem adopted the form of the following questions:
- How strong is the relationship between a standard measurement of reflection–impulsivity and
the method of solving tasks consisting of searching for information on the Internet?
- Can the method of browsing the Internet environment constitute a complementary – in relation
to the psychometric means – method of assessing the R-I cognitive style?
In order to solve them, a questionnaire which is used in standard diagnosis was applied, along with
a task that is focused on the Internet environment and which was specially created for this study
Sample of Research
Study 1 – pilot research
Eleven students aged between 20 and 23 years took part in the pilot study. These are highly pro-
ficient users of the Internet and are familiar with web search engines. The sample was so small due to
two selection criteria applied: 1) the participants were all students of the first year of science studies;
and 2) only students with a frequency of Internet use close to average (from half an hour to 4 hours per
day) were included.
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Study 2 – replication
The sample is a group of 37 students aged from 20 to 24 years. All of the students are highly pro-
ficient users of the Internet and are familiar with web search engines.
All the measurements were individual in nature. They were conducted among students of the
University of Warsaw and the Warsaw University of Technology in the period from April until December
2012. Again, the sample size was rather small due to the same selection criteria as in the pilot study.
Instruments
Reflection–impulsivity: a standard measure. Self-report measures remain a popular instrument

for diagnosing cognitive styles (Demars, 2010; Zawadzki, 2006). One of them is the R-I Questionnaire
(Matczak, 1996), serving to diagnose the cognitive style treated as a dimension, the ends of which con-
stitute reflection and impulsivity. Reflection – according to the already signalled approach – is defined
as the tendency to postpone utterances in problem-solving situations in order to consider the accuracy
of various potential solutions. Impulsivity, in contrast to reflection, is the tendency of providing quick
but not very well thought-over responses. The instrument, which is self-report in nature, comprises 75
statements forming three scales: reflection, cautiousness, activeness. The first measures the intensity of
reflection and the two remaining serve as diagnoses of its hypothetical variations (Matczak, 1996).
The reflection scale used in the research contains 25 items. The statements are formulated in the first-
person singular, assessed by respondents as being true of false. Some sample statements included:
“I consider all the pros and cons before making an important decision”
“After completing some work I usually carefully check it to make sure I haven’’ made any mistakes”
“It’s difficult for me to comment on something that I haven’t thought over earlier”
“I prefer the working style that involves the meticulous and precise carrying out of tasks”
The questionnaire has good psychometric properties. The reliability, established by way of internal
consistency measured by Cronbach’s alpha amounted to 0.82. Sufficient accuracy is also supported by
the following relationships:
• Negative relationship (-0.31 in women, -0.36 in men) with non-conformism measured by the
KANH (Creative Behavior Questionnaire) of S. Popek (Krawczyk, 1999),
• Positive relationship (0.28) with a sense of internal locus of control measured by the KBPK
(Locus of Control Inventory) (Krawczyk, 1999),
• Positive relationship (0.45) with the planning–improvisation scale, and negative (-0.29) with
the preference for stimulating environment of the WKP (Multidimentsional Questionnaire
of Preferences) questionnaire measuring preference for work environment and interests
(Matczak, Jaworowska, Ciechanowicz, Zalewska & Stańczak, 2006),
• Negative relationship (-0.24) between reflection and the strength of experience of informa-
tion stress (Ledzińska, 2009).
Assessing R-I in the Internet environment (authors’ own proposal). In the present research a novel ap-
proach based on using search engines in the Internet, is proposed. Tests based on search engines can
be performed in a simpler way as this does not require the tested persons to complete a questionnaire
but to perform a common search on the Internet. Moreover, search engines are very usual nowadays
and the provided tools to test and enhance impulsivity in these engines could introduce a smooth
reflection learning process.
As pointed out above in the text, reflection is related to the manner in which a person searches
for information. Web search engines are one of the most used tools in the world today. The three most
important web search engines are bing® [bing], yahoo!® [yahoo] and, in particular, Google® [google].
The network where the web search engines search for the required information is composed of an un-
countable number of servers containing interlinked hypertext documents (both text and multimedia).
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This network is known as the World Wide Web. It is not over presumptive to say that everyone who has
a contact with the Internet frequently uses a search engine. Therefore, we believe that the possibility
provided by these engines to qualify reflection could prove to be a valuable help for psychologists
and educators in researching reflection in a way that is more convenient than R-I tests. Moreover, this
knowledge could be used to correct the misguided way that some persons search for information.
It was assumed that understanding the search process on the Internet may give important informa-
tion about the learning process of Internet users. There are three main stages during a search process on
the Internet: (1) inputting the search key; (2) analysing information; (3) end of search process. In these
three stages, five variables have been identified that can be measured during the search process. The
objective was to verify whether these variables reflect the level of R-I of the users.
1) reading time (RdT) is the time that the user takes to read a text. Reading documents on the
Internet is conditioned by the large amount of information available (different web pages)
by from the search engine. Users have a tendency to read part of the text in passing with the
unique objective of finding the desired information. It is predicted that reflective persons read
the text more attentively than impulsive ones. Specifically, RdT is the time used for reading
divided by the number of words in the read documents.
2) renewed comparisons (RCs) - this index is related to the manner in which a user analyses the
received information, i.e., if they compare the information with previous information. Reflec-
tive readers would presumably come back to previous parts of the text to order and analyse
the information. Specifically, RCs is the number of times that the user performs one of these
actions: (1) they move the mouse towards the upper part of a document or (2) they come back
to any document that they had read previously.
3) number of pages (NoP) is the number of web pages that the reader opens at the begin-
ning of the search. It was assumed that a reflective person may open only a few web pages
at the beginning of the search and continue to open more pages during the reading process,
if needed; whereas impulsive people open more pages at the beginning. Briefly, NoP is the
number of pages opened after inputting the first search key.
4) number of keys (NoK) is the number of different search keys that the user tries during the
search process. It was expected that reflective persons tend to find the information required
by trying different possibilities.
5) thinking time (ThT) is the time that the subject uses for thinking about the first search key
for the search. It was assumed that reflective people think longer about how to search for the
information, whereas impulsive people quickly input the first possible search key which comes
to mind. ThT is the time from which the user is placed in front of the search web page to the
time when they start writing the search key.
In providing web search engines for our test purposes, great effort was put into implementing a
program that gathers information from the PC on which the user is searching information concerning
the given question. Despite the simple functionalities of the program, the work input in implement-
ing this program was not commonplace due to the great variety and complexity of hardware drivers
involved in the tester program.
The user works in a normal way with a commercial web search page (in our case Google®) and the
implemented program runs in the background in a manner that is undetectable to the user. The program
collects and stores information about the mouse movements across the screen and the movements
of the web page (up/down). The program also contacts the web search server in order to collect the
statistics of the documents, e.g., the number of words. Moreover, a clock controls the different times
taken for each aspect of the research, e.g., the reading time or the time from accessing the web page
until starting to input the first search key.
As part of the implementation process, we built a program for collecting data from the different
hardware of a personal computer (PC). This hardware included the mouse, the keyboard and the screen.
In order to connect our program with the drivers of the hardware, we used different Windows Applica-
tion Programming Interfaces (API) as, for example, GetAsyncKeyState. Moreover, we implemented an
interface for contacting the Custom Search Engine [Goo_CS] created by Google Inc. in order to obtain
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statistics about the pages visited by the user. The program works similarly to the common keystroke
logging engines in its software-based version.
The details concerning the implementation have been omitted and only the source of the statisti-
cal information for the five variables tackled in the present study have been shown. Table 1 shows the
information necessary for each variable and the source of such information.
Table 1. The task: variables and measurement.
Variable Measurements External source How information is provided
Tester program receives information on when the user is screening a

Reading time Screen driver
given document and measures the time in the application internal clock
RdT
Number of words of Program requests from the Custom Search engine the statistics of the
Google stats.
the doc. number of words of each of the opened pages
Up movements of
Screen driver Program computes the times that the up click is pressed
the page
RCs
Revisit just to read Program computes the times that a page that is marked as “read” is
Screen driver
pages visited
Tester program receives information on the number of mouse clicks

NoP Opened pages Mouse driver when the search results for the first search key are displayed on the
screen
Different search keys Tester program receives information on the number of times that the
NoK Keyboard driver
introduced user pressed the Enter key on the keyboard during the search process
Screen driver The program computes the time between two moments: (1) the screen
ThT Thinking time shows the search page; and (2) the keyboard sends the signal of the
Keyboard driver first letter written
Note. The task was designed by J. Mongay Batalla, PhD.
Procedure
The test runs as follows: at the beginning, everybody completed all the questions of the R-I ques-
tionnaire. After a break of two hours, they started the test on the web search engine. Each person was
seated in front of one computer station where the search web page http://www.google.pl was active.
Participants were asked to search for information on the Internet to answer the following question:
“What is the connection between King Alfonso XIII (Spain) and the Mount of Abarrán and why is this mount
so important in the King’s life?” The topic was unknown to the persons completing the test (no one was
very familiar with the history of Spain).
The measurements necessary for calculating the five variables were automatically taken by the
tester program during the search process. Some pertinent details concerning the tests include that none
of the tested persons underwent any form of speed-reading courses that could distort the results. At
the beginning of the test, it was announced that the time for answering the question was insignificant.
The students voluntarily cooperated in a friendly atmosphere during the whole test. The study meets
ethical standards of the Declaration of Helsinki and University of Warsaw.
Data Analysis
Data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 21. The analyses applied include r-Pearson’s
correlations, and linear regression analysis.
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Results of Research
Study 1
The results obtained from the R-I questionnaire were correlated with the indicators of the manner
of task solving on the Internet and the results obtained have been presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Pearson’s zero-level correlation coefficients between the R-I scores and computer task
scores in the pilot study (n=11).
M SD RdT RCs NoP NoK ThT
R-I 18.09 2.30 0.75** 0.34 -0.09 -0.34 0.63*

Web-searching task scores
RdT 91.36 7.78 -
RCs 1.00 0.78 0.66* -
NoP 2.00 1.00 -0.13 -0.26 -
NoK 0.19 0.40 -0.34 -0.25 0.00 -0.25
ThT 3591.82 169.34 0.75** 0.56+ -0.15 0.04 -
+
p<0.10, *p<0.05, ** p<0.01 (two-tailed)
The correlation analysis revealed two significant indicators of R-I: reading time (RdT), and think-
ing time (ThT). Therefore, it seemed probable that the temporal characteristics of the performed web
search are the most marked predictors of the investigated cognitive style. People scoring high on re-
flection spend more time on reading (or, presumably, reflecting on the read text), and thinking about
the most appropriate search term. However, the strength of these relationships proved unexpectedly
high. Moreover, the sample size was relatively small. Therefore, the result obtained definitely required
verification using a bigger sample.
Study 2
The second study was identical in its design; however, the number of participants was this time
higher, allowing for some more in-depth analyses. First, similarly to Study 1, we calculated correlation
coefficients. The results are provided in Table 3.
Table 3. Pearson’s correlation coefficients between the R-I scores and computer task scores in the
pilot study (n=37).
M SD RdT RCs NoP NoK ThT
R-I 17.40 1.82 0.82*** 0.31+ -0.27 -0.05 0.79***

Web-searching task scores
RdT 65.73 6.18 -
RCs 0.35 0.63 0.11 -
NoP 1.41 0.80 -0.24 -0.26 -
NoK 0.16 0.44 -0.14 0.19 -0.11 -0.25
ThT 2091.89 101.73 0.66*** 0.20 -0.37* 0.09 -
+
p<0.10, *p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001 (two-tailed)
The results of Study 1 were perfectly confirmed in Study 2. The obtained relationships for the two
strongest correlates were even stronger, reaching the level of 0.80, showing that both RdT and ThT coef-
141
(P. 133-145)
ficients could in fact be treated as direct indicators of reflection–impulsivity. Taking into account that the
two variables are intercorrelated at 0.66 level (p <0. 001), we decided to perform a regression analysis,
in order to determine whether one of them explains the incremental variance of R-I over and above
the other. The additional reason for this analysis was to assess the amount of variance in R-I explained
by the searching task coefficients. Conducting analogical analysis for Study 1 was unreasonable due to
the insufficient sample size. The results of the regression analysis are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Predicting R-I scores with the web-searching task indicators.
Predictor B SE B β t p Regression statistics
Explained variable: Reflection-Impulsivity
RdT 0.152 0.031 0.52 4.92 0.000
RCs 0.521 0.229 0.18 2.27 0.030 R = 0.90

R2 = 0.82
NoP 0.100 0.190 0.04 0.53 0.602 adjusted R2= 0.79
F(5, 31) = 27.80,
NoK -0.198 0.334 -0.05 -0.59 0.557 p < 0.001
ThT 0.008 0.002 0.44 4.00 0.000
The analyses revealed that the RdT and ThT indicators (reading and thinking time) are not redun-
dant in predicting R-I. Moreover, additionally, the RCs’ coefficient (i.e., revisits to just read pages) turned
out to be a significant predictor in addition to the former two, despite the fact that it failed to prove
its significance in the zero-level correlational analysis. Thus, it seems possible that we deal with some
kind of suppression effect (MacKinnon, Krull & Lockwood, 2000); however, such analyses are beyond
the remit of the present study. In all, the set of indicators from our web-search task allowed as much as
82% of R-I variance to be explained, which exceeded our expectations.
Discussion
The obtained results show that both the time for reading the documents and the time for thinking
about the search key are linearly related with the R-I test. Regarding the reliability of the results, the
Pearson’s r indices for RdT and ThT are very high, showing almost perfect linear relationship between
these two variables and the R-I test. One of the main reasons for such high values of the Pearson index
is that the group is highly uniform in the sense that all the people completing the tests are of a similar
age, have a similar level of education (i.e., students with scientific and technical profiles), have a similar
knowledge of computers and Internet search engines, etc. Therefore, all the differences in the search
engine test results are related to the differences in reflection of the respondents and not to the differ-
ences between the participants. This can also be observed by the low variance (as compared to mean
values) of the results shown in Table 2. In statistical terms, we can say that the samples are highly ho-
moscedastic, i.e., the variance of the results is almost entirely due to the reflection of the participants
and not to any other factors (such as age, sex, etc.). Note that this point is very important because,
generally, psychological tests are bases on a heterogeneous population where homoscedascity cannot
be assumed and, as a result, the test values are much more approximate and the confidence level is not
as high as in our tests. Because of this, we can suppose that for a more heterogeneous group of people,
the results may not be equally impressive. This could be a line for future research. Nevertheless, nothing
seems to question the relation of the two variables (RdT and ThT) and the reflection of the participants,
which was, after all, the objective of our studies. The results of the present research suggest that data
provided by search engines could be efficiently used to analyse reflection in any sample of Internet
users, students or pupils.
142
(P. 133-145)
Cognitive styles, including R-I, are developed in ontogeny, mainly due to environmental influences,
including familial and school settings. Nowadays, the crucial role of environment related to technological
revolution simply cannot be ignored. H. M. McLuhan emphasised the role of modern technologies in
everyday life, labelling them total, and saying that nothing remained unchanged (McLuhan & Zingrone,
1995). Psychologists emphasise two major changes: haste and intense stimulation, caused by physical
stimuli and information. Also doctors (psychiatrists) notice that life conditions facilitate superficiality
rather than reflection (e.g., Spitzer, 2012). Cognitive style, as has already been mentioned, has a continuous
nature, thus both extreme impulsivity and reflection are maladaptive. The contemporary environment
enhances impulsivity, thus it is possible and desirable to counterbalance these influences by reinforc-
ing reflection. The human-computer interface seems to be a useful setting for both the diagnosis and
correction of cognitive styles.
Conclusions
The results presented in the present article show that speed of decision-making remains the most
important indicator of impulsive behaviour, whereas consideration preceding undertaking action (enter-
ing the search term), is its opposite, constituting a valid indicator of reflection. This reflective delay could
be trained by practising the rule “think before you act”. The postulate is in line with the more general
recommendation of rational usage of the Web: to act purposively. Woods, Patterson and Roth (2002)
claim that online activity should be preceded by the questions: 1) what am I looking for?; 2) how do I
reach the necessary information?; 3) where do I start from?; and 4) which strategy should I choose?
The results obtained encourage further studies to be undertaken with a modified procedure.
Three options seem possible: increasing the size of the group, increasing the diversity of the group
(other fields of study), and developing the procedure admitting the possibility of free narration while
solving a task. The practice of recording the utterances of the participants of a study that were made
out loud – referred to as phenomenography – is recognised in contemporary psychology and used by
representatives of its various fields. It is applied, among others, in studies on the diagnosis of methods of
learning, supplying valuable information to methods of thinking and acting verbalised by respondents
(Marton, 1990; Marton & Booth, 1997).
In the long term, the present findings may contribute to the development of “psychologically
friendly”, self-adaptive hypermedia learning systems (i.e., taking into account individual differences in
cognitive preferences). Such attempts have been made with respect to cognitive styles (e.g., Mampadi,
Chen, Ghinea, & Chen, 2011). This study adds new valuable information on the most reliable indicators
of R-I that could be derived from simple online behaviours, e.g., conducting web searches.
The interface, i.e., the contact area between human and computer, may provide an environment
for the diagnosis and correction of cognitive styles, including the R-I dimension. Psychologists usu-
ally diagnose reflection using standard psychometric tools. Educators and teachers may estimate the
characteristic by assessing the way of solving tasks on the computer screen. This method broadens the
spectrum of available methods for the diagnosis of cognitive functions in humans.
The endorsed method for diagnosing R-I is conducted in natural conditions, and the applied task
is typical for those usually solved using the Web. Among psychologists, the postulate of measurement
in natural conditions is increasingly endorsed (the so-called “ecological validity standpoint”), however,
despite its incontestable value, it cannot completely replace standard diagnosis (Cooper, Camic, Long,
Panter, Rindskopf & Sher, 2012).
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Received: December 08, 2013 Accepted: January 29, 2013
Maria Ledzińska PhD., Professor, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Stawki

Street 5/7, 00-183 Warsaw, Poland.
E-mail: marial@psych.uw.edu.pl
Jordi Mongay Eng. D., Assistant Professor, Institute of Telecommunications, Warsaw
Batalla University of Technology, Nowowiejska Street 15/19, 00-665 Warsaw,
Poland.
E-mail: jordim@tele.pw.edu.pl
Maciej Stolarski Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Faculty of Psychology, University of
Warsaw, Stawki Street 5/7, 00-183 Warsaw, Poland.
E-mail: mstolarski@psych.uw.edu.pl
145
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Vol.13, No.

The International Journal of the Scientific Methodical Center “Scientia Educologica”

Published since 2002 Address:

ISSN 1648–3898 © Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

OWNERSHIP AMONG SCIENCE TEACHERS

A CROSS-CULTURAL STUDY ON FRESHMEN’S KNOWLEDGE OF GENETICS, EVOLUTION,

THE ROLE OF GENERAL INQUIRY KNOWLEDGE IN ENHANCING STUDENTS’

THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE SCRIPTS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF CAMPUS TOURS

UNDERSTANDINGS OF ADVANCED STUDENTS ON NATURE OF SCIENCE AND THEIR

PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS TEACHERS’ USE OF MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS FOR

THE VIRTUAL SCIENCE TEACHER AS A HYBRID SYSTEM: COGNITIVE SCIENCE

CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) PROVISION FOR SCIENCE

PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

PUPILS’ EARLY EXPLORATIONS OF THERMOIMAGING TO INTERPRET HEAT

COGNITIVE STYLES COULD BE IMPLICITLY ASSESSED IN THE INTERNET ENVIRONMENT:

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

OWNERSHIP AMONG SCIENCE TEACHERS

Received: January 12, 2014 Accepted: January 30, 2013

Ryszard M. Janiuk PhD., Professor, Maria Curie Sklodowska University,

C1 N Mean SD Mean Rank χ2 p

1 276 1.63 0.80 470.62

2 212 1.57 0.79 449.25

Total 986 1.69 0.80

1 276 1.95 0.87 484.09

2 212 1.93 0.90 477.99

Total 992 1.99 0.85

1 276 1.45 0.73 387.64

2 212 1.49 0.74 401.92

Total 992 1.80 0.86

1 276 1.43 0.72 441.62

2 212 1.49 0.76 460.72

Total 991 1.57 0.75

1 276 2.10 0.83 412.74

2 212 2.24 0.81 457.42

Total 989 2.35 0.79

1 276 1.43 0.79 478.55

2 212 1.44 0.77 485.40

Total 994 1.48 0.79

C1 N Mean SD Mean Rank χ2 p

1 276 1.24 0.60 427.79

Beside the literature prescribed 2 212 1.32 0.66 455.76

Total 992 1.45 0.74

1 276 1.22 0.60 431.82

2 212 1.31 0.65 464.88

Total 992 1.42 0.74

1 276 2.53 0.70 556.10

2 212 2.42 0.65 502.63

Total 991 2.39 0.69

1 276 1.31 0.64 432.60

2 212 1.55 0.74 522.61

Total 993 1.48 0.72

1 276 1.38 0.66 461.70

Teachers should have the option 2 212 1.84 0.88 596.07

Total 994 1.51 0.77

1 276 1.80 0.87 537.51

2 212 1.86 0.87 556.29

Total 990 1.66 0.83

1 276 2.74 0.62 543.36

Scientific knowledge on human 2 212 2.74 0.54 532.38