Le Viet Tien, Ph.

D
EPSD, SEE, HUST

CONTENTS

1. Introductions
2. How to Improve Power Factor
3. kVAr Compensation Allocation
4. Capacitor applications

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 1. Introduction
1.1. Power factor concepts

• In AC system, the power delivered by utility includes

– Active Power (kW, also called Actual Power or Real Power).
It is the power that actually powers the equipment and
performs useful work.
– Reactive Power (kVAr). It is the power that magnetic
equipment (transformer, motor…) needs to produce the
magnetizing flux.

• Power Triangle and Power Factor

Q (VAr)
P P
cos  = = 1
S P + Q2
2
θ
The higher PF takes, the closer P P (W)
reaches to S

1. Introduction
1.2. Reactive Power Demands

• Transformer (20%-25%): Due to winding and

magnetizing reactances.
• Electric lines (5%): Due to line self and mutual
inductances.
• Induction machines (60%-65%): Induction motors,
Induction generator (e.g. Wind mill)
• Other loads (High intensity discharge lighting)

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 1. Introduction
1.3. Benefits due to PF improvement

• Release of distribution apparatus capacity:

P = I per  Vr  cos 
• System losses reduction (lines, transformer):
P2
P = 2 R
Vr cos2 
• System voltage improvement and revenue increase
P( R + X tan )
V = PLighting ~ V 2
Vr
• Power cost reduction: Reduce demand PF charges
• Postponement in capital expenditure

2. How to Improve PF
2.1. Improve the original PF

• Using non-inductive loads: Incandescent lamps,

Resistance heaters…
• Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors
• Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated
voltage
• Replacing standard motors as they burn out with
energy-efficient motors
• Replacing induction motors with synchronous motors
• Replacing lightly loaded transformers with smaller
capacity ones.

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 2. How to Improve PF
2.2. By kVAr compensation

• Q compensation for power factor correction

P P
PS Load
Q’= Q - Qc
Qc Qc
S
VAr
S’
θ Q’
Qc = Q − Q ' = P(tan  − tan ' )
θ'
θ: Uncompensated (original) PF angle P
θ': Compensated PF angle

2. How to Improve PF
2.2. By kVAr compensation

• Q compensation by capacitors:
+ Low investment, typical for low voltage application, more
expensive for medium voltage application.
+ Easy installation and operation, free-maintenance.
+ Low losses (typically 0.07-0.15W/kVAr)
+ Building blocks of standard kVAr units for desired capacity.
+ Switched-type capacitor banks for PF remaining.
– KVAr output proportional to the square of terminal voltage.
– Vulnerable to switching surges and flammable dielectric.
– Inrush current when energized and residual voltage after
disconnecting the capacitor from network.
 Preferable for small amount of kVAr compensation.

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 2. How to Improve PF
2.2. By kVAr compensation

• Q compensation by synchronous condenser:

+ Possible to generate and consume reactive power.
Dynamically adjustable kVAr compensation for system
requirement.
+ kVAr output does not depend on network voltage.
+ Low starting current inrush and low torque requirement
– High investment
– Maintenance required due to having moving parts.
 Applicable for large amount of kVAr compensation.

3. KVAr Compensation Allocation

3.1. Location considerations

• The closer to the load the compensator is located,

– the more benefit compensator application can derive
(reduce power losses, voltage drop, better load
performance,
apparatus capacity
release)
– More difficulty for
control and
management.

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 3. KVAr Compensation Allocation
3.2. Economic justification

• Benefits from kVAr compensation installation

 $ = $ G + $T + $S + $ F + $ ACE + $ BCE

Demand Energy Revenue

Compared reduction reduction increase
$G , $T , $S , $ F : Annual benefits from released system capacity
(generation, transmission, substation, feeder).

• Costs for kVAr compensation installation

AEICC = QC  ICC  iC
AEICC: Annual equivalent of total cost of installed kVAr compensation
QC: Required amount of kVAr compensation installed (kVAr)
ICC: Cost of installed kVAr compensation ($/kVAr)
iC: Annual fixed charge rate applicable to kVAr compensators.

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3. KVAr Compensation Allocation

3.3. Method of approximation

• Loss reduction consideration

C = AEICC + $ ACE  Min

(QL − QC ) 2
$ ACE = ACE  cE =  R  ( LsF  8760)  cE
Vr2
ACE: System annual energy loss (kWh)
cE: Unit cost of energy ($/kWh)
Q L: Original load reactive power (kVAr)
QC : Amount of kVAr compensation (kVAr)
R: System resistance ()
LsF: Loss factor

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 3. KVAr Compensation Allocation
3.3. Method of approximation

• KVAr compensation allocation between substation

upstream and downstream buses
• Assumptions: S
– Impacts of Qc on LsF is neglected. Q
– Total kVAr compensation is
constant. QCH QCL
QC = QCH + QCL = const S Q - QC Q - QCL
Q
• Annual cost: RL RT
QCH QCL
Z = Z1 + Z 2  Min

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Z1 = K .(QCH . ICCH + QCL . ICCL )

 (Q − QCL )2 (Q − QC )2  R   ( LsF  T )  c
Z2 =  2
 RT + L E
 V V2 
K: Constant, K = Ke + Ko (Chapter 4)
ICCH, ICCL: Cost of installed kVAr compensation at substation
upstream and downstream buses ($/kVAr)
RL: Line resistance; RT: Transformer winding resistance
LsF: Loss factor; T=8760h/yr; cE: Unit cost of energy ($/kWh)
Q: Original load reactive power (kVAr); V: System rated voltage (kV)

QCL = Q −
(ICCL − ICCH )  K V 2
dZ 2  RT  ( LsF  T )  cE
=0 
dQCL QCH = QC − QCL

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 3. KVAr Compensation Allocation
3.3. Method of approximation

• KVAr compensation allocation in radial networks

1
• Assumptions: Q1
– Impacts of Qc on LsF is neglected. r1 QC1
– Total kVAr compensation is 0 r2 2
constant. Q2
n .. QC2
QC =  QCk = const rn .
n
k =1 Qn
• Annual cost: QCn

n
Z =   K  ICC  QCk +
(Qk − QCk )
2
   

rk ( LsF T ) c E   Min
k =1  V2 

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Z 2.(Qk − QCk )
= K . ICC −  rk  ( LsF  T )  cE = 0
QCk V2
K . ICC .V 2
 (Qk − QCk ).rk =
2.( LsF .T ).cE
K . ICC .V 2 
Let’s =  Qk − QCk = k =1,n
(1)
2.( LsF .T ).cE rk
n n

 (Q − QCk ) =   
1
or k   = (Q − QC )Req (2)
k =1 k =1 rk

Replace (2) in (1) we get

−1
 n 1
QCk = Qk −
(Q − QC )  R where Req =   
rk
eq k =1,n  k =1 rk 

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 Ex. 1. Four radial feeders are allocated with a compensation amount
of 1200kVAr. Feeder’s parameters
r1 = 0.1; Q1 = 400 kVAr Determine individual
r2 = 0.05 ; Q2 = 400 kVAr feeder’s Qc1, Qc2, Qc3, Qc4
r3 = 0.06 ; Q3 = 500 kVAr
r4 = 0.2 ; Q4 = 200 kVAr

Solution : Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 = 1500 kVAr

−1
 4 1
Req =    = 0.0149
 k =1 rk 
(Q − QC ). Req
QC1 = Q1 −
r1

= 400 −
(1500 − 1200)  0.0194 = 303kVAr
0.1
Similarly, QC2 = 406kVAr ; QC3 = 338kVAr ; QC4 = 153kVAr

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3. KVAr Compensation Allocation

3.3. Method of approximation

• KVAr compensation allocation in feeder lateral taps

Q(n-1)n: System kVAr demand n-1 n
from node n.
QC(n-1)n: kVAr compensation Q(n-1)n rn
amount to allocate at QC(n-1)n
feeder lateral taps from
node n.
Qn QCn

QCn = Qn −
(Q ( n −1) n − QC ( n −1) n ).Reqn
rn
Reqn: System equivalent resistance from node n.

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 Ex. 2. A feeders with three lateral taps are allocated with a compensation
amount of 250kVAr. Lateral tap’s parameters are as follows
r3 = 0.025 ; Q3 = 50 kVAr Determine individual
r2 = 0.012 ; Q2 = 250 kVAr tap’s Qc1, Qc2, Qc3
r12 = 0.004 ; Q12 = Q2 + Q3=300 kVAr
r1 = 0.008 ; Q1 = 100 kVAr
Q12; Qb12
Solution : Q = Q1 + Q12 = 350 kVAr 1 2 Q3
Req 2 = r2 // r3 = 0.008 Q; QC r12 r3
Req1 = r1 //( Req 2 + r12 ) = 0.0048 r1 r2 QC3

(Q − QC ). Req1
QC1 = Q1 −
r1 Q1 Q
QC1 2 QC2
(350 − 250)  0.0048
= 100 − = 40kVAr
0.008
QC12 = QC − QC1 = 250 − 40 = 210kVAr QC 3 = QC12 − QC 2 = 37kVAr
(Q12 − QC12 ). Req 2 (250 − 210)  0.008
QC 2 = Q2 − = 200 − = 173kVAr
r2 0.012

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4. Capacitor for kVAr

Compensation
• Applicable standard: IEEE Std. 18-2002
• Capacitor ratings: 50-500kVAr
1 QC Vr: Capacitor voltage ratings
C= 
2f Vr2 QC: Unit reactive power ratings

• Connection:
– Medium voltage : There single-phase
capacitors are delta connected.
– Low voltage: A three-phase capacitor
bank.

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 4. Capacitor for kVAr
Compensation
• Released capacity

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4. Capacitor for kVAr

Compensation
• Voltage support
– Fixed capacitor may
cause excessive leading
PF and resultant
voltage rise.
– Switched capacitor
applied.

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 4. Capacitor for kVAr
Compensation
• Reducing line loss:
– “2/3 rule”: 2/3L, 2/3QL
– 1/2-kVAr rule

Uniform load 2/3 rule for Placement of kvar banks using the
placing one capacitor 1/2-kvar method

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4. Capacitor for kVAr

Compensation
• Reducing line loss:
Application of different capacitor sizes

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 4. Capacitor for kVAr
Compensation
• Load control:
– Switched type capacitor
– Controlling principles
+ Time clock
+ Temperature
+ Voltage
+ Reactive power
+ Current

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Reference

• T. A. Short, Electric power distribution equipment

and systems, CRC Press, 2006.
• Turan Gonen, Electric power distribution system
engineering, McGraw Hill, Inc. , 1986.
• www.openelectrical.org

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