Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 151 (2021) 111520
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
From single to multi-energy and hybrid grids: Historic growth and

future vision
J. Ramsebner a, *, R. Haas a, H. Auer a, A. Ajanovic a, W. Gawlik b, C. Maier b, S. Nemec-Begluk b,
T. Nacht c, M. Puchegger d
a
TU Wien, Energy Economics Group, Gusshausstrasse 25-29/370-3, 1040, Vienna, Austria
b
TU Wien, Institute of Energy Systems and Electrical Drives, Gusshausstrasse 25-29/370-1, 1040, Vienna, Austria
c
4ward Energy Research GmbH, Reininghausstraße 13A, 8020, Graz, Austria
d
Forschung Burgenland GmbH, Campus 1, 7000, Eisenstadt, Austria
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Interactions between different energy carriers (electricity, heat and gas) are considered beneficial for using
Hybrid grids renewable energy and reducing carbon emissions in the energy system. Nevertheless, the establishment of such
Multi-energy grids hybrid grids or systems, also called multi-, integrated or smart energy systems, remains relatively unexplored.
Smart energy systems
The concept is characterised by great complexity, questioning the common isolated view of energy grids. This
Renewable energy
Integrated energy systems
paper analyses the changing requirements from historically grown, isolated energy grids towards renewable
Energy grids history hybrid energy systems and the associated potential and challenges.
Future energy systems A hybrid grid offers alternative use options, which make energy production and consumption more flexible. No
peer-reviewed research provides quantitative analysis on the expected utilisation of the electricity, gas and
thermal grid in a hybrid grids scenario. However, the traditional grids will compete among each other and
increasingly with distributed power generation and consumption by prosumers. In addition, a reversal and
reduction of the gas grid and possible new structures of a hydrogen network have to be considered. To achieve
the desired savings in energy demand and carbon emissions while maintaining the security of supply and eco
nomic feasibility in hybrid energy systems, appropriate technologies, infrastructure financing, integrated system
planning based on the relevant data and supportive market frameworks are required.
striving for carbon neutrality. However, several studies show that this
1. Introduction will cause frequent situations in which electricity generation exceeds
demand. The awareness of the fact that interactions between the
The ambitious targets concerning the decarbonisation of electricity different energy carriers (e.g. heating/cooling, electricity and gas) may
recently defined by the European Commission lead to a steep increase in be beneficial for further integration of renewable energy, a decrease in
the capacities of variable renewable energy (VRE) sources (wind and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, and an increase in energy efficiency
solar power) in Europe. Between 1997 and 2018, the share of power through additional flexibility options, is growing [2]. Mancarella [3]
generation from ‘new’ renewables, excluding hydro power, grew from defined such an approach as a multi-energy system (MES). Still, similar
less than 1 % to about 22 %. Initially, this was mainly triggered by wind methods may also be found in the literature as smart, integrated or
power, while during the last few years, the installed capacity of photo hybrid energy systems with the same objectives. MESs align the opera
voltaics (PV) has increased significantly. According to the European tion of electricity, heating, cooling, transport fuels, etc., on all possible
climate and energy framework, one of the targets for 2030 is to achieve levels of aggregation, aiming at an increase in renewable energy shares.
at least a 32 % renewable energy source (RES) share in total energy In our research, we will always refer to this concept as hybrid grid or
consumption [1]. This target is valid across all sectors (i.e. heat, elec system. The main goal of hybrid grids is to improve system efficiency
tricity and transport), leading to an increase in electricity generation and reduce carbon emissions by providing sufficient flexibility to adapt
from RESs, as stated in the National Renewable Energy Action Plans loads to the volatility and generation behaviour of RESs. Connolly et al.
(NREAPs). Similar goals and approaches are defined all over the world, [4] highlight the challenge of flexibility in future energy systems.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ramsebner@eeg.tuwien.ac.at (J. Ramsebner).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111520
Received 27 August 2020; Received in revised form 2 July 2021; Accepted 19 July 2021
Available online 2 August 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
J. Ramsebner et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 151 (2021) 111520
Abbreviations km kilometre
kWh kilowatt hour
a anno kV kilovolt
AC alternating current LNG liquefied natural gas
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations m3 cubic metre
ASG Asia Super Grid MES multi-energy system
C(C)HP combined (cooling) heat and power MECM multiple energy carrier micro-grid
DC direct current MW megawatt
DSM demand-side management NREAP National Renewable Energy Action Plan
DH district heating P2X power-to-X
EJ exajoule P2G power-to-gas
ENTSO-E European Network of Transmission System Operators for P2H power-to-heat
Electricity P2L power-to-liquid
EV electric vehicle PJ petajoule
GW gigawatt PV photovoltaics
CO2 carbon dioxide RES renewable energy source
HVAC heating, ventilation and air conditioning SC sector coupling
ICT information and communication technologies S(M)ES smart (multi-)energy system
IoT internet of things TWh terawatt hour
IES integrated energy system VRE variable renewable energy
IH individual heat
Whereas currently, the flexibility provided in the energy system is pri grids towards state of the art in Section 2.1, covering the gas, electricity
marily based on energy stored in fossil fuels, future renewable systems and thermal grid. Section 2.2 continues with a literature review on
need to generate affordable energy while utilizing sustainable resources. hybrid grid concepts to integrate these energy grids as a new way of
This situation can only be solved by detecting new forms of flexibility thinking before applications and enablers of hybrid energy systems are
that support the efficient use of RESs within a smart energy system (SES) described in Section 2.3. Finally, Section 3 discusses a vision of future
[4]. hybrid energy grids, the role of sector coupling within this approach,
A major target of hybrid energy systems is to enhance the technical and remaining challenges for a successful implementation of the
and economic system efficiency from an energetic and economic point of concept.
view. An example would be the transformation of excess electricity into
heat and injection into a district heating (DH) grid. Additionally, cooling 2. The path towards modern hybrid energy systems
is gaining importance and research on the efficient use of thermal grids
for heating and cooling purposes is growing. Nevertheless, such solu Energy grids historically have grown separately as the gas, electricity
tions require appropriate incentives within market structures to achieve and thermal grid. They have been subject to vast development from the
an attractive business case. Currently, these scenarios can only be first detection of gas in China, the first electric power plants in the mid-
imagined from an energy planning perspective or realisation within the nineteenth century in Europe and the first heating applications already
regulatory framework of natural monopolies for the sake of security of in ancient Rome. Rising energy demand due to growing populations and
supply. They are not realistic to be implemented within the existing economic growth, and associated greenhouse gas emissions require
market environment. The transformation of electricity into hydrogen more efficient and sustainable use of natural resources—a global goal for
(H2) or methane (CH4) in hybrid energy systems is promising for feed-in climate change mitigation. The increasing share of RESs and their nat
to the natural gas grid. Gas is also considered a more favourable large- ural intermittency impose new challenges on global energy systems.
scale energy storage option than electricity. However, the technically The climate goals implemented by the EU and the national goals for
possible share of hydrogen feed-in varies locally and may bear the risk of greenhouse gas reduction demand a transformation from fossil to
accidents. Therefore, even a separate hydrogen infrastructure could renewable fuels in the electricity, transport, industry, residential and
exist in the future, specifically designed to promote green hydrogen. trade/services sectors. Currently, about two-thirds of the final energy
Theoretically, H2 could also be re-electrified during low availability of consumption is covered by fossil energy carriers in the transport, heat
RESs or used as fuel or product component in industry or transport. ing/cooling and electricity systems ([5,6]). The roadmap towards more
These various options of interaction between existing and new infra RESs might also change the role of these systems in the future. In 2015,
structure and technologies add essential flexibility to future renewable 28 % of the global energy consumption were grid-related, including DH,
energy systems and require further research on a technical, strategic and electricity, and natural gas consumption (see Fig. 1). 72 % was
economic level. non-grid-related or individual energy consumption, representing the
This paper analyses the changing requirements from historically consumption of transport fuel, individual heat pumps, oil and biogas
grown, isolated energy grids towards renewable hybrid energy systems heating, etc. ([7,8]). Half of the grid-related part was distributed
and the associated potential and challenges. The challenges related to through the electricity network, 41 % through the gas network, and 9 %
integrating growing shares of renewable energy sources are detected, through DH or thermal networks (see Fig. 2). Especially the fossil
and the capability to address them using hybrid grids is evaluated. This fuel-based, individual energy sources in heating and transport imply a
work investigates the historical development and state of the art of en vast potential for decarbonisation. They will be replaced by electricity in
ergy grids, current ideas on how to provide flexibility in a system of various new applications and increased renewable DH. Fig. 3 shows that
increasing shares of large-scale VRE sources, the combined production the DH share of global heat consumption accounted for 58 % and
of different energy carriers, such as heat and electricity, and the inte grid-related heating, including individual gas, for 84 % [9]. The
gration of grids by transformation technologies. The paper on hand remaining 16 % consisted of other individual heating technologies. In
starts with a review on the historical development of individual energy 2015, 94 % of the transport sector were powered by fossil fuels, and its
2
Fig. 1. Distribution between global grid-dependent and individual energy

consumption 2015 (Source [7,8]).
Fig. 4. Distribution between global renewable and fossil fuels and grid-
dependent electricity in transport 2015 (Source [9]).
symbol. The Chinese were the first to recognise natural gas while drilling
for brine around 500 BC [10]. The first mention of an actual ‘gas grid’ in
China can be dated back more than 150 years. Not until the
mid-nineteenth century did the western world discover how to obtain
and excavate natural gas [11]. London was leading Europe around 1812
by setting up the National Light and Heat Company among the first gas
enterprises in the western world [12]. The first US gas pipeline was
established in 1883, followed by projects, such as the 200-km natural
gas pipeline from central Indiana to the city of Chicago in 1891 ([11,
13]). Many thousand kilometres were constructed worldwide during the
post-war pipeline construction boom until the 1960s. Nevertheless,
natural gas had still not been used for electricity generation for a long
Fig. 2. Distribution between global grid-dependent final energy consumption
time [14].
2015 (Source [7,8]).
During the twentieth century, petroleum oil and natural gas repre
sented the primary fuels after the golden age of coal (see Fig. 5). The
step-wise substitution of oil and coal led to greater diversity in energy
supply sources from 1960 onwards. Today, natural gas is regarded as a
more environmentally friendly or ‘greener’ alternative to coal due to its
clean-burning characteristics and its suitability for heating and power
generation ([13,15]). The US and China are the two major natural gas
utilities, accounting for more than half of the global gas generation,
followed by the Middle East and Russia [16]. Although gas pipelines still
are the common means of transporting natural gas, considering the In
ternational Gas Union’s report from 2019, LNG had a share in global gas
consumption of 10.7 % in 2017, with Qatar leading in export far ahead
of Australia, Malaysia, Nigeria and Indonesia. The amount of global LNG
increased by 9.8 %–316.5 million tonnes by 2018 [17].
The global gas supply was and still is thriving, with global natural gas
production hitting an all-time high of 3.867 billion m3 in 2018,
including natural gas produced for gas-to-liquid transformation [18].
Today, the European gas network spans from Russia to Spain, supplying
Fig. 3. Distribution between global district heating (DH) and individual heat
ing (IH) 2015 (Source [9]).
almost all Western European countries. Approximately 87 % of the Eu
ropean gas consumption is distributed via the gas grid, of which Russia
makes up about 40 % and Norway 27 % [18]. About 12 % of European
grid-related share of electricity will increase from 3 % in 2015 to a
gas consumption is covered by liquefied natural gas (LNG). Despite the
substantial amount in 2050 (see Fig. 4).
fundamental role of gas in the electricity, industry and heating and
Supplying more processes with the appropriate form of RESs is a
cooling sector, the strong dependency on few supplying countries and
great challenge due to the historically grown infrastructure and market
the rising awareness of climate change have led to controversial dis
environment. A change in this field requires investments to support the
cussions about gas supply. Global pipeline lengths are difficult to obtain
rise of new technologies and new ways of thinking. This section de
as not all countries disclose statistics on their natural gas networks.
scribes the path from historical to modern energy systems and the
According to the CIA World Factbook, the USA owns the most extensive
changing requirements in a renewable energy future.
natural gas pipeline system with a total length of roughly 1.6 million km,
followed by Russia with 160,000 km and China with 100,000 km. A
2.1. Energy grids: from history to the state of the art distance of about 27,000 km is declared for long-distance transmission
and distribution. Nevertheless, the lower pressure systems, for which no
2.1.1. Gas grid international database could be identified, substantially increase these
When natural gas first rose from the ground unintendedly and numbers, as can be seen in the case of Germany, where the total gas
ignited, it was referred to as an ‘eternal flame’ and considered a religious
3
Fig. 5. Global primary energy market shares (Sources [11,18,19]).
network length reaches 0.5 million km ([20,21]). 2.1.2. Electricity grid

The favourable storage characteristics of gas also represent a chance In August 1891, a three-phase alternating current (AC) was trans
for the large-scale integration of VRE in the form of wind and solar PV mitted for the first time across a distance of 175 km from the hydro
electricity. The seasonal availability of solar electricity leads to sub power plant in Lauffen (Germany) to Frankfurt (Germany) [30]. Before
stantial energy supply peaks in summer and shortages in winter. that day, essential milestones paved the way towards the first electric
Transformation possibilities from electricity into renewable gas enable generators. Elkington & Co. In Birmingham most likely assembled the
seasonal storage and integrate the electricity and gas sectors—an first electrical power plant in the mid-nineteenth century powered by a
important requirement in renewable energy systems (see Section 3.2). steam engine [31]. For transmission across long distances, direct current
The number and volume of globally existing underground gas storages (DC) promoted by business-focused Thomas Edison was less efficient,
are displayed in Fig. 6. The largest storage capacities can be found in the even though easier to implement, than AC, a technology preferred by
USA, where the total design capacity reaches 133 billion m3 in Nikola Tesla in the 1880s [32]. Eventually, AC was selected for most
approximately 400 active underground storages [22]. transmission cases, while DC mostly remained for short-term electricity
As a renewable alternative, biomethane is on the rise in Europe, with transmission [32]. Due to colonisation, the electrification of major cities
plants increasing from 497 in 2016 to 540 in 2017 [26]. The European of a British colony of India took place as early as 1879 [33]. Similar
Biomethane Roadmap suggests that by 2037, a substantial amount of developments have occurred in Africa within the French and British
Europe’s gas supply will stem from biomethane plants. Multiple steps colonies [34]. The British engineer J.D. Bishop lit the first electric arc
need to be taken from a technical perspective to transform biogas into lamp in China, Shanghai, in 1879, and the first power plant was soon to
biomethane for injection into the gas network. Purification and CO2 be installed [35].
segregation are the most important ones [27]. In a presentation by After World War II, with the recovery of society and the economy in
Scholwin [28], costs are calculated between 1.5 and 3 c/kWh for the Europe, between 1945 and 1965, every ten years, electricity consump
entire upgrading process. Another scenario analysis of biomethane tion doubled [36]. In the second half of the 20th century, the first
upgrading arrives at costs of 46 €/MWh under the most favourable blackouts and a reliability crisis occurred. Additionally, the global fuel
conditions, calling for substantial subsidies for the renewable gas to be crisis and the nuclear crisis in the 1970s led to a shift of investments
competitive with other energy sources [29]. towards more efficient natural gas power plants, small electricity utili
ties and renewables [36]. With the establishment of the People’s Re
public of China (1949), the country’s installed electricity capacity
Fig. 6. Underground gas storage in the USA, Europe, China and Russia in 2018 (Sources [22–25]).
4
developed from 1.85 GW to 50 GW in the 1980s for a population of more Trienwald developed a hot-water heating system with copper pipes in
than a billion ([37,38]). During the past 100 years, electricity generation his greenhouse in Sweden in 1716, followed by Sir Hugh Plat in 1742,
was dominated by fossil fuel-based (mainly coal) power stations which who used steam as a heat source [51]. The first one to realise commercial
hold an 80 % share [35]. Today, globally interconnected electricity DH successfully was Birdsill Holly in 1876–1877 with the Holly Steam
networks are under development to establish an appropriate amount of Combination Company [51]. Supply temperatures of more than 100 ◦ C
flexibility and the optimal system integration of VRE. The USA elec dominated until the 1970s when lower flow temperatures were intro
tricity network is considered the largest machine globally with more duced [52]. The main objective was to achieve fuel savings and improve
than 7300 power plants, nearly 260,000 km of high-voltage and millions comfort by utilizing combined heat and power (CHP) plants and large
of low-voltage electricity lines and distribution transformers supplying thermal power plants [52]. Security of supply moved into focus, owing
145 million customers [39]. China nowadays meets 6300 TWh of elec to the two oil crises. Local resources such as coal, biomass and waste
tricity consumption from 1.3 billion consumers with more than 1700 were used as fuel supply [53]. The IEA Energy Balance provides data on
GW of installed power capacity and accounts for 25 % of global primary the global DH supply of end-consumers across all generations since 1973
energy consumption and more than half of global hard coal consumption [54]. However, the database only includes data from the Eastern bloc
[40]. countries after its collapse in 1990 (see Fig. 7). Although the world’s
With growing electricity demand, a topic of modern times is the volumes of district cooling supply are much smaller than those of DH
establishment of so-called super grids to connect electricity networks supply [8], both applications were established almost in parallel.
across countries or even a whole continent. During the late twentieth Already in 1886, the New York Steam Company used absorption chillers
century, continental Europe initiated a trans-European electricity with steam as a cooling source—alternatively, cold water could be used
network (ENTSO-E) [41]. Europe’s “Long-Term Strategy 2050” claims [8]. In 1990, a dedicated district cooling enterprise chilled brine to cool
that electrification of the economy will lead to an increase in electricity Denver through underground pipelines [49].
consumption by 18 % until 2030 [42]. The electrification of transport, Global annual DH supply accounted for around 12.2 EJ/a in 2017,
residential heating and cooling and industrial processes are considered 52.5 % of which arose in the building sector and 47.5 % in the industrial
the main drivers [42]. In China, the 13th Five-Year Plan, published in sector [54]. Werner [8] estimates that 200 of around 300 PJ of global,
2016, aims to install 2 TW power capacity, representing a 20 % increase annual district cooling supply is consumed in the Middle East. China’s
[40]. The implementation of 2000-km, ultra-high-voltage 1000 kV lines DH system is the largest worldwide, with a network of more than 200,
was required to distribute electricity across the country. In Southeast 000 km. The Chinese government is currently developing more efficient
Asia, ten states established the “Association of Southeast Asian Nations” district energy systems with a higher share of RESs to reduce greenhouse
(ASEAN) network at the beginning of the 21st century [43]. The Asia gas emissions [55]. The northern urban heating floor area may experi
Super Grid (ASG) concept, with infrastructure at a length of 36,000 km, ence a growth of 55 % in the upcoming 15 years, eventually consuming
was presented in September 2011 [44]. 20 billion m2 [55]. In cities, co-generation represented about 49 % of DH
Historically, the electricity market primarily focused on short-term supply with a total of 4092 TWh. Energy consumption in heating and
profits—investment policies ignored the long-term consequences for cooling systems is expected to increase due to the country’s intensive
society [36]. Competition and a fair balance of demand and supply were urbanization—a substantial challenge for the security of energy supply
expected to be achieved by deregulation. In modern times, this para and the environment. China’s new urban development strategy con
digm is more and more challenged by the establishment of distributed siders the expansion of DH also to smaller urban areas, which tradi
energy resources and environmental concerns. At the same time, during tionally used biomass and heat pumps [55]. This network heats
the last decades, revolutionary changes in communication systems have approximately 9 billion m2 of building space—25 % of the US total
offered greater control and monitoring possibilities all over the elec surface area [55]. In Europe in 2017, about 6000 DH networks were in
tricity system. Flexible and effective operation of the electricity network operation, supplying about 11–12 % of the total heat consumption [56].
at lower cost are premises of the so-called smart network, which leads to Within the EU28 countries, in 2018, 2.03 EJ or 4.6 % of final energy
revolutionising the conventional electricity system, as described in consumption were distributed to end-consumers as thermal energy [57].
Section 2.3.2. A smart grid is an electricity network that manages all Lund et al. [52] identified the transformation to a sustainable energy
connected entities intelligently, from generators to end-users and pro system as the primary motivation of modern DH. The challenges include
sumers (producer and consumer) [45]. It aims at the efficient supply of integrating (renewable) low-temperature production units, heat pumps
sustainable, economical and secure electricity. With the ongoing glob and CHP plants into a smart energy system. That requires a change of
alisation and increase in global living standards of developing countries, infrastructure planning from an isolated system view to a more holistic
Safiuddin [46] expects an increase in fossil fuel consumption, specif approach. The fifth-generation DH operates at very low temperatures to
ically in transportation and electricity generation. The efficiency of exploit excess heat and renewable heat sources at low thermal exergy
resource- and equipment use, especially in the electricity system, is a content [58]. The same pipelines can cover the heating and cooling
major challenge, and understanding the smart grid is essential to facil supply for different buildings by reversing the operation of the customer
itate its handling [46]. Furthermore, the application of renewable substations, which will enhance the coupling of thermal, electrical and
electricity in more end-consumption sectors and processes needs to be gas networks in a decentralised SES. Buffa et al. [58] detected forty
promoted to substitute fossil fuels continuously. thermal networks that can supply heating and cooling using decentral
ised heat pumps in Europe: Switzerland (15) and Germany (15), Italy
2.1.3. Thermal grid (5), the Netherlands (2), England (1), Belgium (1) and Norway (1).
We define the thermal network or DH as a system that delivers Significant developments for fifth-generation heating networks are
thermal energy (heating and cooling) via pipelines to multiple buildings advanced control strategies and tariff and price mechanisms that refer to
from an outside source, which often includes excess heat from other the desired integration of energy system infrastructure and cover ther
processes [48]. Historically heating was the main focus, but hybrid en mal and electrical price indicators.
ergy networks also need to cover efficient cooling applications [49]. The
earliest examples of heating networks were Roman hypocausts, a type of 2.2. A review of hybrid energy grids
hot-air underfloor heating, often designed to heat several buildings in an
area and later adapted to locally available fuels, such as coal in Britain Geidl et al. [59] explain that current energy infrastructures evolved
([49,50]). The first simple form of a heating network using a geothermal during the second half of the twentieth century, as described in Section
heat source was implemented already in the middle ages in 1322 in 2.1, and may not be ready for future requirements. The aim for
Chaudes Aigues, southern France, to heat buildings ([49,50]). Sir Martin increasing integration of mainly electricity-based RESs in climate
5
Fig. 7. Global district heating supply from 1973 to 2017 (Source [54]).
mitigation action will finally overload existing transmission systems and [63] explain that micro-grids—locally controlled distributed energy
demand major changes to the current procedure. Some studies hinder systems— can customise energy supply to the local requirements. They
the modelling of an optimal future energy system that includes all types provide relief to the legacy network, which may operate at a higher
of energy conversion, storage and transport, such as focusing on existing power quality and reliability level. The micro-grid resembles one of
system landscapes and the known view of isolated gas, electricity and three pillars of the smart grid, together with improved consumption and
thermal energy grids. To analyze future renewable energy systems, Lund supply interaction through advanced monitoring and control technolo
et al. [60] investigated SESs, Mancarella [61] focused on MESs, and gies and more efficient operation of the superior macro-grid. Holjevac
Wang et al. [62], as well as Marnay and Lai [63], analysed efficient et al. [71] expect a paradigm shift from central generation towards more
electricity and heat supply in micro-grids. Essential aspects of the distributed MESs and small-scale multi-generation systems. They point
transformation into a renewable energy system are the characteristics out that RESs and the demand variability of new end-users, such as
and the efficiency of renewable energy sources. Novak [64] explains that electric heating and electric vehicles (EV), add substantial complexity to
the amount of exergy in an energy carrier is a valuable measure of en demand forecasts. Capuder and Mancarella [72] claim that in future
ergy quality and determines the net energy availability to carry out energy systems, characterised by more variable and more uncertain
work. Renewable energy represents pure exergy at zero operational cost. production and consumption, a multi-energy micro-grid adds essential
The successful integration of multiple energy carriers can support the flexibility on a decentral and central level.
handling of VRE and leverage substantial synergies. However, this new, Moghaddas-Tafreshi et al. [70] described the multiple energy carrier
more holistic approach with its new requirements makes it more chal micro-grid (MECM) as an interconnected grid of various energy carriers
lenging to use a significant part of existing infrastructure. The question to use electricity sources in existing infrastructure through energy
that needs to be answered is, ‘How should energy systems look like in transformation [70]. Ma et al. [73] associate with a micro-energy grid
30–50 years to operate more sustainably and maintain economic, the ability to coordinate various energy carriers, such as natural gas,
ecological and social welfare?’ electricity, cooling, heat, etc. Chicco and Mancarella [74] presented a
Hybrid energy systems are gaining importance and are believed to detailed analysis of different small-scale, local, multi-generation sys
increase renewable energy integration, decrease CO2 emissions, and tems. They described the current challenges concerning distributed en
improve energy efficiency while offering substantial network flexibility ergy generation, applying a unified approach called the ‘distributed
[2]. Even though a broad range of literature on such concepts is avail multi-generation paradigm’. Multi-generation systems are charac
able, there is no clearly defined, consistent terminology. Therefore, we terised by the interaction between co-generation systems, heat pumps
screen existing literature for several terms related to renewable, inte and absorption or electric chillers. These approaches achieve the inte
grated or smart energy systems. Whereas in German literature, the idea gration of renewable sources by generating various forms of energy,
is referred to as ‘Hybridnetze’, directly translated as hybrid grids or including electricity, heating & cooling, hydrogen and other synthetic
systems, the concept is frequently described as integrated-, smart- or fuels. The authors of the described concepts agree that such distributed
multi-energy-systems in English literature. Appelrath et al. [65] defined multi-generation systems may lead to significant advantages, such as
the hybrid grid as a tool to handle the rising storage needs throughout improved energy efficiency, less carbon dioxide emissions, and eco
the current energy transition; see also Ajanovic et al. [66] and Haas et al. nomic growth. Energy security and reliability are enhanced by fulfilling
[67]. The concept is defined as a multi-energy system in which elec demand flexibly and considering energy prices and environmental
tricity and other energy carriers are used, stored, delivered, and even aspects.
transformed into other energy carriers [65]. The authors explain that the Whereas the micro-grid concept is focused on small-scale, distributed
transformation of energy has great potential to provide flexibility and applications, an MES considers such integration of infrastructure on a
stability. A hybrid grid offers alternative use options, which is especially larger, centralised scale. Rahmani and Amjady [75] defined it as a co
favourable for VRE integration during oversupply situations and makes ordinated way of using various energy carrier grids in parallel. They
electricity production and consumption more flexible. A sub-system, suggest using an energy hub to connect the different networks involved
which focuses on coupling electricity to other end-consumption sec and convert these energy carriers according to the demand, as described
tors and promoting VRE integration, is called sector coupling [68], in Section 2.3.3. According to Skarvelis-Kazakos et al. [76], multiple
representing a major part of future integrated and hybrid energy systems energy carrier systems offer the possibility of increasing the efficiency,
([6,69]). Integration among different energy carriers and their infra flexibility and sustainability of traditional energy systems. However,
structure offers excellent potential for regional energy supply. Huang et al. [77] claim that the coupling of various energy carriers is
Distributed generation and distribution systems located close to characterised by high complexity, so these systems have higher re
electricity consumers are defined as micro-grids [70]. Marnay and Lai quirements at the stage of planning and optimisation. Mancarella [3]
6
emphasised the great potential associated with optimizing energy car • Spatial perspective: Representing potential aggregation levels from
rier and infrastructure integration on the operational and planning level. buildings to districts and regions or countries.
The overall idea of integrated or MESs was defined by Mancarella [61] • Multi-service perspective: Focusing on the efficient supply of multi
as optimal interaction of systems and energy carriers on different levels ple services or ‘outputs’ and the combined generation of various
(for instance, within a district, city or region). Several interactions be types of energy by the optimal integration of energy infrastructure.
tween electricity, heat, gas and the transport system were highlighted • Multi-fuel perspective: Integrating different fuels (natural gas,
while the challenges caused by the growing diversity of distributed biomass and RESs) to successfully meet the multi-service demand in
multi-generation of different energy carriers are displayed. an MES for electrical and thermal energy.
Widl et al. [78] propose a methodology to evaluate multi-carrier • Network perspective: An enabler of multi-energy technologies for the
energy networks in a structured way to address the increased minimisation of system cost at maximum environmental
complexity. Raux-Defossez et al. [2] investigated network services performance.
provided by the interactions in MESs and conducted three international
case studies in Germany, UK and the US. The authors mainly address the Connolly et al. [4] saw the innovation in an SES primarily in the
interdependencies between heat and electricity considering CHP, com phase of transformation or conversion, moving from a simple linear
bined heating and cooling systems, and the application of thermal approach—from the primary energy source to conversion and con
storage to balance heat generation and consumption. Ma et al. [79] sumption —towards a higher level of interaction. According to
addressed planning and energy management strategies for MESs. The Raux-Defossez et al. [2] the availability of technologies and interfaces to
authors provide an optimal planning framework and model that is the energy system, an appropriate regulatory framework and market
generally applicable to MESs. To prove the benefits of the optimal design are essential factors for such a system change. Lund et al. [82]
planning model, the authors compare three types of energy systems: one described the potential synergies of SESs (see Table 1). In addition, we
conventional centralised energy system, a typical combined cooling, highlight the sector coupling approaches within the smart energy grid,
heating and power (CCHP) system and an MES designed by the devel which aim at an integration of VRE sources.
oped planning model. All these studies conclude that by enabling the Basing a vision of hybrid energy systems on the known, historically
interaction between sectors, renewables can be integrated more suc built environment, however, implies several challenges for successful
cessfully with higher flexibility resulting in much higher system integration of different energy supply systems [84]:
efficiency.
Lund et al. [60] state that the application of micro-grids, renewable • Complicated technical, economic and market-related in
energy technologies, energy storage and CCHP controlled by informa terdependencies between energy systems that are not understood
tion and communication technologies result in modern SESs. Their work within the so far isolated market frameworks;
aims at creating a scientific basis for the mentioned paradigm shift away • Lack of commercial tools ready to guide the design and operation
from single-system thinking towards an integrated understanding of planning of integrated, interdependent energy supply;
how to design and implement future sustainable energy systems ([80, • Still isolated institutional and market structures for energy sectors;
81]). Lund et al. [82] believe that the combination and coordination of • High operational and management complexity through the integra
smart electricity, thermal and gas networks results in an optimal solu tion of multiple energy carrier systems. Without reliable software
tion for each individual- and the overall energy system. However, the models and analysis tools, the security of supply is at risk.
term SES is also often used synonymously for smart grids or to express a
broader application than only within the electricity system [60]. The Section 3 will discuss these challenges in detail. In the following, we
term has been mentioned from 2009 onwards, with a steep increase
between 2014 and 2016. Lund most probably provides the most Table 1
comprehensive and detailed work on concepts for integrated future Synergies of smart energy systems [67].
energy systems. Yet, this definition of an integrated system does not
Topic Description
entirely avoid considering a single-sector perspective and still regards
Excess heat Excess heat from industry and electricity production can be
the interaction of the smart electricity, gas and thermal networks.
applied in DH.
The work of Wang [83] called the more holistic and integrated Electricity for Sector coupling: The use of electricity for heating enables
approach of future energy systems – ‘integrated energy systems (IESs)’; heating energy storage as heat, which is more efficient than
however, it appears that this research focuses on a rather regional scope. electricity storage. The potential buffer of heat storage leads
They defined an IES as an approach of different small energy systems on to more flexible CHP production and decoupling from
consumption. This flexible conversion also offers the
a local or regional level, aiming to cover different categories of energy
potential to balance electricity and electricity grid services,
demand by using the energy resources available in the region. The au e.g., regulating electricity markets.
thors point out that this approach represents a hybrid energy system, Heat pumps Sector coupling: Heat pumps can provide heating and
leading to various research directions, especially in design optimisation cooling for district heating/cooling networks.
during the planning stage. Furthermore, current research and literature Biomass conversion Biomass conversion into gas and liquid fuel requires steam,
to gas which may be produced on CHP plants. The resulting low-
concerning energy systems clearly show that the view of single isolated temperature heat is an efficient source for DH and cooling
energy networks or vectors—the gas, electricity and thermal networks.
networks—is outdated and will not fit a future renewable energy system Low-temperature This low-temperature heat for the DH network represents an
[83]. heat efficient input to Biogas production.
Power-to-gas Sector coupling: Transforming electricity into gas, such as
hydrogen, has the same storage advantage as heat and
2.3. Hybrid energy systems: Applications and enablers enables the continued use of existing gas infrastructure in
future renewable energy systems. Nevertheless, as already
In this section, the approach of hybrid energy systems, the design indicated in Section 1, this is currently only considerable
aspects for maximum efficiency in energy supply and the upcoming within an energy planning perspective, given the lack of
appropriate market incentives.
challenges are described. Energy savings Improved space heating efficiency of buildings through
Mancarella [61] characterises an MES from different perspectives of refurbishment enables low-temperature DH. These low
integration: temperatures can also be provided more efficiently by
industrial surplus heat and CHP.
Power-to-fuel Sector coupling: EVs may also provide flexibility.
7
outline several enabling technologies, approaches and proof from temperature, humidity, light and proximity sensors, wireless commu
existing projects for hybrid grids. nication technologies to connect sensor devices for data transportation,
IoT big data computing and analysis for informed decisions, and cloud
2.3.1. Transformation technologies computing for data processing and storage on the internet. With the help
Lund et al. [82] described transformation technologies from power of sensors and communication technologies to collect and distribute
to another energy carrier (power-to-x (P2X)) as a critical flexibility op real-time data, IoT enables fast processing and optimal decision-making
tion in SESs (e.g. for transportation or heating). Lund et al. [82] claim and may also help foresee breakdowns or maintenance needs. IoT,
that the best solution in terms of efficiency is the direct consumption of therefore also provides the required data to successfully transform the
electricity to avoid transformation losses. However, this cannot cover all energy system from a centralised to a distributed, smart and integrated
the transportation requirements because heavier vehicles are often not energy system, deploying local, distributed RESs such as solar energy
suitable to be powered by electric batteries but rather by fuel cells [89]. In this respect, turning distributed energy end-consumers into
powered by hydrogen. The idea of increasingly using electricity from prosumers can be supported by an IoT platform.
VRE sources directly or after conversion in new or known approaches According to Masera et al. [90], smartness in an energy system, city,
within the transport, residential or industry sector is called sector or building can be divided into technical, system and system-of-systems
coupling (SC). This approach represents a substantial subsystem in SESs smartness. Technical smartness refers to the capability of a single
[68]. Satisfying the whole demand for gas and liquid fuel in a renewable component to access data from sensors, processing it for predictions or
energy system cannot be achieved simply by biofuels but requires adjustments and transmitting the information to the respective control
electricity-based fuels (i.e. P2G through electrolysis). units. System smartness includes the autonomous operation of defined
Lund et al. [82] highlighted the importance of P2X technologies not processes according to their functions and behaviours and interaction
only in transportation but also in heating as power-to-heat (P2H) [85]. with other systems to fulfil economic or ecological goals.
DH systems can integrate volatile wind and PV electricity and establish a System-of-systems goals (such as the transport system within a smart
balance within the electricity network. Such flexibility helps to avoid city) refer to integrating several smart systems to achieve an overarching
curtailment of renewable electricity generation and to achieve renew goal.
able shares and efficiency. They suggest a design approach for Energy in domestic homes is used to power lighting, technical de
P2H-based district energy systems. If dynamic emission factors for vices, refrigerating and “heating, ventilation and air conditioning”
electricity from the distribution network are applied, which provide (HVAC). The latter usually represents 50 % of total building energy
information on the local curtailment of wind energy, and the emission consumption [91]. This part of domestic energy consumption offers
intensity of electricity generation, optimal design from a system substantial opportunities for efficiency improvements, which may be
perspective can be achieved [85]. The result is an emission reduction at achieved through IoT devices in smart buildings. For example, lighting
a minimal cost. Therefore, a constant emission factor is no longer an that is controlled by a motion detector will lead to a significant reduc
option for grid-sourced electricity in dynamic urban energy system tion in energy consumption [87]. Buildings have been developing from
models. primitive, simple, automated to intelligent and eventually smart facil
P2H in DH is a solution for the integration of renewable resources ities [92]. While the first automation steps were to use timers and central
through the operation of several heat sources and generation options: controls to manage lights or air conditioning automatically, intelligent
buildings can adjust these parameters to user needs in real-time,
• CHP achieving full automation. Finally, smart buildings also collect and
• Heat from waste-to-energy process data on the use of the building and enable the analysis of certain
• Industrial surplus heat sources parameters at any time. For example, this data can be used for future
• Geothermal heat predictions to react to high numbers of occupants in a public building
• Large-scale solar thermal heat and to manage the staff accordingly [92]. The optimised use of materials
and on-site solar PV systems or geothermal heating systems improves
Lund et al. [86] further described the role of DH in current and future energy efficiency towards zero or plus energy buildings. Furthermore,
renewable energy systems. They performed an advanced analysis of the smart buildings manage plug loads, window shading, human operation
whole national energy system by comparing different residential heating and connected distributed energy generation [93]. Smart buildings
options and evaluating total fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. The could reduce primary energy use intensity by 46 % in the US compared
study showed that DH leads to a substantial reduction in fuel use and, to the current US commercial building stock, which consumes 14.6 kWh
consequently, also in CO2 emissions and cost due to increased efficiency. sq. Ft [94]. Systems integration through ICT could make up almost 50 %
of building energy savings [95]. The results of a project on office lighting
2.3.2. The smart way: advanced communication and information systems and energy consumption optimisation are described in detail in
Transformation technologies enable the flexible use of electricity, Ref. [96].
gas and heat in a renewable energy system. Nevertheless, efficient Smart cities are based on the innovative and sustainable use of the
renewable source use can only be guaranteed upon sufficient intercon available infrastructure, considering environmental, social and eco
nection between the energy grids and appropriate management tools fed nomic aspects [90]. Developments in digital technologies have enabled
with the relevant data. So-called information and communication the application of smart, IoT-based solutions to address challenges in a
technology (ICT) and also the internet of things (IoT) support the storage smart city context [97]. All players in a city, such as smart factories,
and processing of vast quantities of data, improve monitoring capabil smart homes, power plants and farms, can be connected and data about
ities, and link a considerable number of technologies, engineers, their energy consumption stored and analysed. Balancing during times
workers, data and procedures [87]. IoT enables virtual control of many of the day between parties that currently require more and others that
fields in today’s life, mainly targeting power system operation, control, demand less energy can achieve minimum system cost and manage the
and consumption in residential homes, offices or industrial processes risk of congestion or a blackout [87]. IoT enables the management and
[88]. In the energy system, there are various potential applications of control of data in smart cities, from communication and data trans
IoT (i.e. in energy supply, transmission and distribution, and con mission to intelligent identification, location tracking, monitoring, and
sumption), which may support energy efficiency, increase the share of emission control [98]. Within smart cities, air pollution and energy
renewable energy and reduce the environmental impacts of the energy losses are mainly caused by the excessive use of fossil-fuel-powered
system. Some components of an IoT platform are the following [87]: vehicles. IoT technologies in transportation, so-called smart trans
sensor devices to collect and transmit data in real-time such as portation, establish a global management system with real-time data
8
processing for traffic management [87]. Applications of smart transport and compressed air. It aims at meeting the energy demand by using the
include congestion control and smart parking systems and enable pas provided input and converting it into a suitable energy carrier in an
sengers to select a transportation mode based on least cost, shortest optimised process. Conversion technologies are, for example, CHP,
distance and fastest route, thus reducing time, energy, and greenhouse transformers, power-electronic devices, compressors, heat exchangers
gas emissions [98]. IoT can also have advantages in several phases of the and other equipment. Industrial plants, large buildings such as airports
industrial value chain and optimise the production process [87]. Fail and shopping malls and isolated systems, e.g. trains and ships, represent
ures may be predicted upfront, consistently screening any changes in existing energy hubs. The energy hub can supply the electricity demand
machine operation instead of only detecting the failures in the final directly from the electricity network or produce it from natural gas.
product. Action can be taken promptly to avoid wasteful production and Energy sources may be transformed flexibly by technologies such as gas
energy use. turbines, gas boilers, electric chillers, P2H via heat pumps and P2G via
A smart city depends on an appropriate smart grid to integrate electrolysis. Electricity, cold and heat are distributed through the power,
renewable energy sources and enable new energy-related value-added cooling and heating hub, and the energy flow at each hub will remain
services [90]. For Zhang et al. [99], smart grids are characterised by balanced at any time. Energy delivery occurs through the electricity, gas
compatibility, flexibility, and efficiency and represent an essential and thermal network.
driver of system integration concerning distributed energy, large-scale Rahmani and Amjady [75] explain that one example of existing en
renewable sources, and demand-side management (DSM) applications. ergy converter applications is CHP, producing electricity and heat by
Europe is the greatest investor in smart grids, followed by America and natural gas consumption. Fig. 8 shows the CCHP architecture, with a gas
China. Farmanbar et al. [100] emphasised the importance of smart grids turbine that feeds into the electricity and the heating hub. The gas could
in solving the problems of future urbanization in smart cities by using also be generated from water electrolysis using renewable electricity in a
energy sources most efficiently. In their interpretation, a smart grid P2G process.
manages the energy supply and demand of all facilities active within the Of course, it has to be kept in mind that every conversion comes with
system, from factories and smart homes towards EVs, all types of power energy loss. With this flexible system, however, the energy hub may
plants and residential and office buildings. The smart grid is commonly control all energy streams economically and ecologically. When it comes
interpreted as an extension of the electricity grid from a traditional to energy transportation in such an interconnected system, substantial
one-way flow—from electricity generation to the consumer—to a challenges arise concerning the infrastructure. In their vision of future
bi-directional flow to integrate distributed energy producers through energy networks, Geidl et al. [59] neglect the existing infrastructure and
ICT [80]. Lund et al. [80] made one step further and defined that the build a potential solution from scratch in the form of an interconnector.
smart energy system (SES) links the three smart energy grids to achieve The ‘Vision of Future Energy Networks’ project presents a concept for
synergies [60]: transporting electrical, chemical and thermal energy in one under
ground device—the interconnector. The main advantage is the possi
• Smart electricity grids: manage the interaction between VRE sources bility of more efficient waste heat recovery by using the gas to store the
and electricity demand sources that can be operated flexibly, such as heat losses generated in the electrical conductor.
heat pumps and EVs.
• Smart thermal grids (DH and cooling): integrate the electricity and 3. The future of hybrid grids
heating systems. Thermal storage offers additional flexibility and
may recover heat losses in the energy system. In this section, the future vision and potential of hybrid grids are
• Smart gas grids: integrate the electricity, heating and transport net discussed. The first sub-section aims to describe future hybrid grids,
works. Gas storage can again add flexibility. followed by an investigation of the role of SC in hybrid energy systems.
Finally, an analysis of critical requirements and challenges to success
Motlagh et al. [87] claim that ICT technology can control and opti fully integrate energy grids is carried out.
mise energy generation, transportation, and distribution and
end-consumption in smart grids the most secure. With the help of smart 3.1. A vision of future hybrid grids
metres, a multi-directional flow of information can be achieved for an
efficient energy supply enabling smart (or dynamic) energy tariffs [101]. Electrification through renewable sources is considered a cost-
Furthermore, IoT can actively manage the voltage in transmission net effective way of decarbonising energy consumption. The electrifica
works to reduce losses or help to avoid “non-technical losses” through tion of currently fossil-fuel-based energy systems will lead to a tighter
smart metres [37]. It is not clear if Motlagh et al. [87] referred to interaction of these systems with the electricity sector [3]. In some
electricity networks only in their description. Nevertheless, Lund et al. end-consumption sectors, such as passenger transport, direct electrifi
[80] pointed out that for the future, the perspective needs to be cation can be a successful strategy. EVs are an economically feasible way
broadened towards the complete energy system and not just the elec to substitute traditional fossil-fuel-based vehicles. They could ideally be
tricity network, following an SES approach. Masera et al. [90] analysed charged flexibly during low overall electricity consumption to prevent
the roles and social impacts of smart grids on smart cities. They highlight additional peak loads, thereby flattening the demand profile [102].
that the implementation of smart cities and smart grids needs to be Electric heat pumps could similarly replace fossil-fuel-powered options
aligned and a cost-benefit analysis carried out in terms of grid man and, supported by the generally higher fuel efficiency of electric solu
agement and also the desired ecological and social effects. tions, achieve the decarbonisation of the heat sector [102]. However, in
several processes, electricity is not a suitable energy carrier and indirect
2.3.3. The energy hub – building future energy infrastructure from scratch electrification via a transformation from electricity into heat, gas or
When it comes to how the energy flow in hybrid systems can be liquid fuels is required.
operated flexibly, the energy hub is an innovative concept [59]. Geidl The direct or indirect electrification of known or new processes re
et al. [59] explained that the industry, residential and commercial sec quires the development of additional cross-sectoral flexibilities to
tors demand energy in different forms, distributed in various networks handle VRE feed-in successfully ([103,104]). In hybrid, renewable en
that have always been considered isolated. The infrastructures need to ergy systems with few other flexible sources (e.g. storage hydropower
be coupled to levy substantial synergies, using converter devices to plants), gas-fired power plants represent the main generation-side flex
transform different energy types. According to Geidl et al. [59], the ibility, which leads to high capacities required for peak performance.
energy hub consumes electricity at the input node and fulfils demand Although electricity generation from natural gas has long been prac
with the required form of energy, such as electricity, heating, cooling tised, the transformation of renewable electricity into green gas, such as
9
Fig. 8. Architecture of combined cooling, heat and power (adapted from Ref. [73]).
hydrogen or methane, represents a chemical process that is still to be Modern energy systems need to meet a broad set of requirements and
improved. Electricity based gas offers great technical potential for future provide resilience, reliability, security, affordability, flexibility and
long-term energy storage [106]. It may be stored as hydrogen, delivered sustainability [107]. While historically, as described in section 2.1, en
to the end consumer, used in fuel cell electric vehicles (EVs), or ergy sectors and grids are considered single-input, single-output sys
re-electrified in a combined cycle gas turbine [105]. Such a trans tems, a hybrid energy system can flexibly handle multiple inputs (MI)
formation provides valuable flexibility but always comes at substantial and supply energy services as multiple outputs (MO) [107]. This MI-MO
losses and should be implemented with care [106]. This interconnection system optimises electricity, heat and chemicals according to market
of energy carriers increases complexity, thus imposing new challenges prices. It uses an ICT network as hybrid system demand control (see
for future coordination and business models. Maroufmashat and Fowler Fig. 9) to generate environmental and economic benefits [107].
[105] also regard the P2G technology as an essential tool for the inte Antoni et al. [106] defined three essential technical steps to suc
gration of VRE sources towards the transition to a carbon-free energy cessfully integrate renewable energy in urban areas. First, DSM through
system and summarise the value of P2G as follows: load shifting can be realised by offering user incentives. Second, the
connection of various generation and consumption profiles through
• Hydrogen and methane provide the highest energy storage density of appropriate distribution infrastructure is essential. So-called energy
currently available technologies. clusters could be defined for a better match of generation and con
• P2G achieves a renewable share in end-consumption petroleum fuels sumption. Additionally, spreading the work between urban and rural
without the need to change vehicle technology or refuelling regions leads to a successful energy transition because both have their
infrastructure. specific potential. Finally, the reversible chemical storage of electrical
• It enables long-term, seasonal storage. energy offers flexibility to renewable energy systems.
• By integrating biogas generation that provides CO2 from sequestra For Connolly et al. [108], the main challenge lies in finding alter
tion, renewable methane, a direct substitute for natural gas, can be natives to the flexibility currently provided by fossil fuel energy and
produced. simultaneously offering affordable RESs. They regard SESs as a solution
• P2G promotes technology development for decarbonisation in the to apply new, renewable forms of flexibility (see Section 2.3.2). Lund
industry sector, boosting economic growth. et al. [80] described the successful example of the Skagen CHP plant
located in the northern part of Denmark. The CHP plant is equipped with
Fig. 9. Integration of the electricity and thermal energy flows in a hybrid energy system (adapted from Ref. [107]).
10
an incineration boiler and an electric boiler and uses industrial surplus sources in more end-consumption sectors [68]. The use of electricity in
heat to switch between electricity generation and consumption flexibly. other systems may occur either through direct electrification or indi
It plays an active role in grid stabilisation and regulating power tasks rectly through the transformation of electricity into another, more
and allows substantial wind inputs in the electricity and heat supply. suitable type of fuel—heat (P2H), gas (P2G) or liquid (P2L)—for an
Raux-Defossez et al. [2] tell the success story of Stanford University’s application in the residential, transport and industry sector. As the main
renewable electricity-powered heat recovery system with part of renewable energy in the future will stem from large-scale VRE
low-temperature, hot-water distribution. Earlier, Stanford’s heating, from wind and PV, these one-way flows of electricity to any demand
cooling and electricity supply was powered by a 50 MW natural gas-fired purpose with its various technologies represent an important part of
co-generation plant. The new energy system immediately reduced hybrid grids. The German BDEW [112] issued a report describing SC as
campus emissions by 68 % and water use by 18 %. It integrates the an economic and energetic link between electricity, transport, hea
electricity and thermal networks, whereas energy input and output are ting/cooling sectors, industrial systems and infrastructures. It aims at
optimised and managed across these two energy carriers. Moreover, reducing CO2 emissions and making energy demand more flexible in all
thermal storage and DSM enable electricity load shifting from on-peak to these sectors, pursuing cost-effectiveness, sustainability and a very high
off-peak periods and aid in integrating local VRE generation. level of supply security. Fig. 10 shows an example of Austria for hydro
Nevertheless, as Haas 2021 [109] documented, the financing of the and VRE power generation. Electricity generation surplus mainly occurs
grid infrastructure and innovative technologies is an issue, and the in summer at high solar radiation, whereas electricity shortage is an
economic feasibility is a critical aspect of the further development of issue in winter due to less water and sun availability. Storage (pumped
hybrid grids. Currently, the efficiency of, e.g. P2G plants is at 75 % with hydro and compressed air) is required to decarbonise the electricity and
an investment cost of about 6000 €/kW for a flexible electrolyser the whole energy system. However, such capacities are spatially limited,
including grid connection. This cost is expected to decrease to 500 €/kW and alternative long-term seasonal flexibility methods (such as chemical
throughout the next ten years [106]. Assuming a lifetime of 20 years and storage in the form of renewable gas) will be inevitable.
an efficiency of 80 %, 2000 full-load hours per year would lead to a cost Apart from the required seasonal balancing, the VRE surplus can be
of hydrogen production of 40–50 €/MWh. The price for natural gas used in other end-consumption sectors: for example, transport, resi
currently accounts for 35 €/MWh [106]. An important requirement for dential or industry ([113,114]). The P2X processes ideally are operated
the future implementation and maturity of electrolyser technology is its during periods of excess electricity generation when electricity prices
classification as an energy transformer or producer instead of an are low ([115,116]). Wind electricity may also be used in flexible CHP
end-user, freeing its operation from end-consumer taxes and tariffs. In plants equipped with heat pumps. Hybrid energy grids may provide the
the future, hybrid grids can play a key role in using existing infra required integration of energy grids to promote such SC. A critical re
structure for such new applications [106]. view of the sector coupling concept has been conducted by Ramsebner
Section 2.3.3 described the vision of an energy hub with infrastruc et al. [68]. The changing requirements for energy systems and grids
ture ignoring the historically built characteristics of existing energy towards CO2 neutrality impose several challenges associated with
grids. However, the cost associated with stranded investments favours technical and economic aspects, market frameworks, regulation and
existing infrastructure adjustment to the new requirements instead of system planning.
building everything from scratch. Additionally, the economic frame
work for the energy system needs a completely new orientation to treat 3.3. Critical challenges for hybrid energy grids
all three energy carriers equally. We suggest integrating energy carriers
as virtual energy hubs by an integrated planning approach to overcome The interconnectivity of energy supply sources and demand is, at the
the gap between an infrastructure vision and the economic framework. same time, the value and challenge of hybrid energy systems [107]. A
Gas compressor stations, for example, could be operated by natural or successful implementation requires increased cross-sectoral research
green gas from pipelines or directly by electricity [110]. One example is and implementation. Linking the relevant energy grids and systems in
a project in Neusiedl – AT, which shows that the economic feasibility of energy planning often lacks appropriate interfaces, leading to subopti
such an approach can be achieved when using and adjusting existing mal decisions. A hybrid energy system depends on a successful linkage of
technologies and infrastructure [111]. The pilot facility connects wind formerly separated infrastructure (see Section 2.3.3), ICT and
power plants with the local DH network to create an energy hub. The data-based action and prediction (see Section 2.3.2).
system consists of two air-to-water heat pumps, three thermal storages, Another critical challenge for hybrid grids in future energy systems is
two water-to-water heat pumps and a biomass power plant, a gas burner, developing appropriate market frameworks for renewable energy inte
and a flue gas condenser as a backup system. After covering the DH gration to become economically feasible. As described in Section 2.3.1,
demand, there is still excess electricity available, which can be trans transformation technologies, such as P2G, are necessary but struggling
formed into hydrogen to operate public buses. This type of modelling concerning their economic feasibility. Currently, several desired trans
and the flexibilisation of the energy system will form the basis to adjust formation technologies and related investments cannot be realised
existing infrastructure and meet the changing requirements. through the common market framework. The main reasons are the high
It becomes clear from the described visions of future hybrid energy capital cost and a limited amount of full-load hours achieved by
systems that the integration of VRE sources plays a key role and de responding to excess electricity generation of the VRE sources paired
termines the degree to which former fossil fuel-based processes and with the potentially low transformation efficiency. Pilot plants for the
systems may be decarbonised. Potential solutions in this field are often initiation of such technologies currently need to be set up within the
connected to the sector coupling concept, which couples the power regulatory framework of natural monopolies, such as grid operators, to
sector to other end-consumption sectors transport, industry, residential follow decarbonisation goals and guarantee the security of supply. One
and trade/services. central goal to achieve economic feasibility in renewable energy grids is
to maintain the existing natural gas infrastructure and the successful
3.2. The role of sector coupling in hybrid grids feed-in of renewable gas by minor technical adjustments. However,
considering the long-term goal of using green gas, with the technical
SC has often been mentioned in the context of the German energy challenges and risks related to natural gas blending, a separate hydrogen
transition and has been gaining attention elsewhere in Europe [102]. infrastructure appears reasonable in specific cases despite the cost,
The increasing amount of VRE requires new solutions for long-term, reducing the long-term prospects of natural gas pipelines.
seasonal storage. The decarbonisation goals for the energy system can Estimating primary energy use is essential to conclude on the future
only be achieved through an increased application of these renewable role of the energy infrastructure and carriers. Electricity as a primary
11
Fig. 10. Monthly generation in a 100% variable renewable energy scenario for Austria.
energy source will be at the heart of future energy systems due to its Globally, IEA estimates a 50 % increase in world energy consumption
large-scale renewable energy provision and the transformation options by 2050, led by solid growth in Asia and mainly driven by the non-OECD
within a hybrid energy system (see other renewables including wind, PV countries. The industry is the largest energy-consuming sector on a
and biofuels in Fig. 11). Therefore, uncertainty on the long-term pros global level, offering the potential for decarbonisation through hybrid
pects of the gas and heat grid arises. Due to the complexity and many energy systems. Electricity and natural gas consumption increase the
uncertainties related to the chosen policies and technology cost, how most while at the same time renewables are expected to be the leading
ever, there is hardly any quantitative study available that provides source of primary energy consumption by 2050, leaving liquid fuels and
robust scenarios on the electricity consumption increase in integrated, natural gas behind. Hence, the global picture is quite similar to the
multi-energy grids according to European or global goals. One of the European goals regarding the increased importance of electricity and
very few studies investigating the electricity consumption development renewable energy generation. These energy efficiency goals will also
until 2050 is provided by Ram et al. [117]. The report assumes that limit the consumption increase for the energy grids. An effect even
electricity generation in Europe, after the transition into 100 % renew amplified by the growing share of so-called prosumers representing
able energy, will exceed 4–5 times that of 2015 due to the high elec decentral generation, which do not rely on the distribution grid infra
trification rates. However, as stated in the European green deal, structure. These two trends could mean substantial competition to the
European goals communicate at maximum a doubling of electricity traditional electricity, gas and thermal grids and reduce their utilisation
consumption until 2050, even with substantial electrification goals. The in the long term. An increasing on-site generation without grid inte
energy efficiency directive aims at a decrease in overall energy con gration, however, also requires storage applications. From an economic
sumption of 41 % by 2050 based on the peaks in 2005 and 2006, driven system point of view, the vast development of such island solutions is
mainly by the residential sector with improved insulation and building inefficient due to a lack of economies of scale and central management
standards ([42,118]). for the socio-economic welfare. An uncontrolled feed-in of distributed
Fig. 11. Prediction of global primary energy consumption (Sources [11,18,19]).
12
PV peaks at noon may also cause challenges for the distribution grid and European H2 infrastructure is currently underway to enable the distri
substantial cost. bution of large-scale renewable gas generation from dedicated wind
Fig. 12 compares the expected global final energy consumption in the parks across the continent [122]. The distribution of electricity, gas and
transport, electricity, industry and buildings sector in 2050 with 2015. heat generated from multiple sources for multiple needs, enabled by
This image allows for conclusions on the grid dependency of the sectors conversion and storage technologies, together with the required ICT,
and the development of the energy carriers used. Again, a doubling of create the basis for future hybrid energy systems.
demand in the electricity sector is estimated [119]. Many research questions on how hybrid systems can be managed
At first glance, it is striking that electricity from renewables is successfully remain to be answered. There is still extensive research
increasing in all four sectors, while the use of gas is decreasing, most required in interface technologies to integrate new consumers, such as
significantly in the buildings sector. In the heating system, gas is EVs, heat pumps in historically grown, isolated energy grids and sys
substituted by heat pumps, and the energy efficiency of buildings im tems, as described in Section 2.1. Concerning the prospects of a hybrid
proves. Additionally, district heating based on renewables will come system integration of various types of electric mobility, see Ajanovic
into place, and the overall share of district heating increases towards et al. [47]. Another concern is that the future energy grid planning for
2050. Consequently, it could be claimed that the utilisation of the gas gas and electricity on the national and international levels is still not
infrastructure is decreasing [3]. At the same time, the electricity grid based on integrated system modelling. It needs to be clarified which
will gain in importance, triggered by large-scale wind and PV feed-in, energy grids can or shall be connected. The gas and electricity grid
causing pressure on distribution grid capacities. However, the limita usually represent overarching, central infrastructure, while district
tions of the electricity system will promote a transformation into heating and cooling are rather local systems. Flexibility needs to be
renewable gas for storage and distribution. defined as a service and integrated into the market framework. Re
Antoni et al. [106] explained that a transition towards renewable sponsibilities and goals must be clear in an integrated system to enable
energy systems requires substantial investment in infrastructure to interoperability between the grids, technologies, markets and regula
provide sufficient renewable energy storage and electricity distribution tions [65]. But how can these complex interconnections be managed
grid capacity. The gas infrastructure will still be necessary for the successfully? The connections of the system-of-systems, including the
short-term stabilisation of the electricity system and is considered to integration of E-Mobility, heat pumps, smart buildings, etc., as
provide flexible distribution and long-term energy storage of green gas, mentioned in Section 2.3.2, are a great challenge in hybrid grids [123].
as discussed earlier in Section 3.2. However, the technical requirements Finally, the growing amount of data gathered in smart cities and
of a hydrogen feed-in to the natural gas grid vary regionally and may still smart grids through ICT application may also change demand behaviour
require further research to avoid the substantial risk of accidents. The in hybrid systems by growing control and awareness. Pfeiffer et al. [124]
natural gas grid can absorb hydrogen at a limited share only, whereas analysed the acceptable amount of intervention into home energy de
the technology for methane production, which is less developed, could mand by the management system that optimises system support,
directly substitute natural gas. The gas grid can distribute different types self-consumption and self-sufficiency through onsite power generation
of renewable gases to decarbonise the energy system [120]. A require and additional comfort functions, such as temperature, humidity, air
ment, however, is the appropriate certification of green gas and carbon quality and illumination. They find that the users accept DSM of about
pricing of fossil gases. 1.8 MW in the sample area, revealing higher supply-side profits.
Gasunie and TenneT emphasise, with a focus on the German and Nevertheless, cooperative load behaviour must be rewarded on the
Dutch energy infrastructure, the importance of the electricity and the electricity market for successful implementation [124].
gas grid, specifically their coordination and integrated planning and
operation in the future [121]. International energy demand in 2050 4. Conclusions
provided by the Netherlands consists of 26 % electricity, 23 % methane,
24 % hydrogen, 12 % liquid fuels and 15 % others. Germany expects to This review outlined the potential and challenges of forming hybrid
supply 28 % electricity and 29 % methane, only 8 % hydrogen and 10 % energy systems from historically grown, individual energy grids.
liquid fuels. This study agrees that, despite vast electricity storage ca Renewable energy systems need sufficient flexibility to guarantee the
pacities, only the gas grid will provide seasonal storage for the large security of supply and efficient operation. The integration of large-scale
amounts of wind and PV power. Additionally, with the H2 backbone, a VRE sources requires hybrid energy systems, in which multiple input
Fig. 12. Global final energy consumption in 2015 compared to 2050 in transport, electricity, industry and buildings (Source [119]).
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

From single to multi-energy and hybrid grids: Historic growth and

Fig. 1. Distribution between global grid-dependent and individual energy

Fig. 5. Global primary energy market shares (Sources [11,18,19]).

network length reaches 0.5 million km ([20,21]). 2.1.2. Electricity grid

Fig. 11. Prediction of global primary energy consumption (Sources [11,18,19]).

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