Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Synergies between power and hydrogen carriers using fuel-cell hybrid

electrical vehicle and power-to-gas storage as new coupling points
Huizhong Chen a, Jun Song b, *, Jingfeng Zhao a
a
College of Economics and Management Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, Shaanxi, China
b
School of Civil Engineering, Shandong Jiaotong University, Jinan 250357, Shandong, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current focus on the variable renewable energy source integration and emission pollution concerns high­
Hydrogen-based vehicle lights the need for the reliable and efficient development of technology for the storage, generation, and distri­
Fuel-cell bution of renewable energy sources. The power-to-hydrogen and power-to-gas concepts significantly increase the
Power-to-gas conversion
share of variable renewable power in the power system. Using such technologies, hydrogen produced from the
Renewable energy
Electrolyzer
wind and solar energies can be stored, and once needed, it can be converted back into power or methane via the
Profit fuel-cell or the power-to-gas conversion, respectively. Besides these concepts, the most important aspect of the
Integrated energy system modern integrated energy system in the future is sector coupling, where several segments like energy and
transportation operate together seamlessly to offer better services. Therefore, this paper works on the optimal
operation of the integrated power and hydrogen networks, considering power-to-gas and fuel-cell electric ve­
hicles as coupling points to maximize daily profit under the probabilistic model. Power-to-gas generates the
hydrogen from solar and wind energies to provide a stable fuel station for fuel-cell electric vehicles, saved in
tanks, and then once needed is converted back to power and methane and contributes to more economic benefits.
The probabilistic approach based on the Monte-Carlo simulation is used to model wind and solar fluctuations.
Key results show that coupling power-to-gas and fuel-cell electric vehicles increase daily profit by up to 25.32%,
while wind and solar curtailment power has decreased by up to 36.4%.

cars based on the H2 fuel, fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) can be

1. Introduction developed to support the reliable and flexible operation of the integrated
energy systems with the high penetration of RES. If FCEVs are linked
1.1. Motivation and background with the hydrogen production source, they can be performed continu­
ously regardless of the energy level. A growing interest in the utilization
With growing interest in integrating variable renewable energy of FCEVS for power systems, and transport fleet, make synergies and
sources (RES), like wind and solar energy, energy storage solutions have interdependency between hydrogen and electricity networks [4].
become the basic need in the power system. Among the various types of Aside from FCEVs, the power-to-gas (P2G) concept could be an
energy storage systems, battery-based electric vehicles (EVs), with their innovation that uses electrical energy to deliver a gas fuel. When uti­
unique capabilities such as mobility and linkage to the transportation lizing excess power from wind or solar, the concept is called renewable-
system, have a special role in the long-term prospects of energy storage gas. Most P2G technologies utilize electrolysis to deliver H2 [5]. H2 can
development [1]. Furthermore, EVs based on the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) be utilized specifically or encourage steps that may change hydrogen
capability play an impressive role in energy sharing on the demand side into methane. Due to several network constraints, sometimes RES
[2]. In addition to electricity, other forms of energy carriers that are cannot be fed into the system. In these periods, RES can be served by
more suitable for transportation and distributed energy sectors are ur­ electrolyzer in the power-to-gas (P2G) storage for H2 or natural gas
gently needed. According to the IRENA report, the transportation sector production, respectively. Converting the surplus variable RES into H2
will be an enormous consumer of RES by 2050 [3]. Hydrogen (H2) is one and natural gas can significantly enhance the economics of CH4 and H2
of the biggest candidates because it can be delivered from RES. In other besides improving the stability of the power system. Consequently, the
words, H2 can be the complementary carrier of RES. Thereby, hybrid RES power curtailment is reduced.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: m13611822593@163.com (H. Chen), songjun198298@163.com (J. Song), zhaojingfeng@nwu.edu.cn (J. Zhao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114670
Received 28 April 2021; Accepted 18 August 2021
Available online 30 August 2021
0196-8904/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Chen et al. Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

Nomenclature GSmax Maximum gas capacity of P2G tank

Pw,r Rated wind power
Index Spv Surface of PV panel
s Scenario (NS) T st Standard temperature (25 0C)
t Time period (NT)
Variables
Constants πs Probability of scenario
λhyd Hydrogen price Psell
t,s Power sold
Pch,min
H2 Minimum charging value of HSS buy
Pt,s Power purchased
Pch,max
H2 Maximum charging value of HSS Pind
H2 ,t,s Hydrogen sold to hydrogen-based industry
FC
C Operation cost of fuel-cell PFC
t,s Power produced by fuel-cell
CP2G Operation cost of P2G Pw,sp
t,s Wind power spillage
Cbat Operation cost of battery during discharging Pch Value of hydrogen charged in tank
H2 ,t,s
Cw,sp Wind power spillage cost
PFCH2 ,t,s Hydrogen consumed by fuel-cell
Cpv,sp Solar energy spillage cost
λet Electricity market price
LH2 The lower heating value of hydrogen g
λt Gas market price
ηFC Efficiency of fuel-cell
Gsell Gas purchased
ηHSS
ch Efficiency of HSS during charging t,s

ηHSS Efficiency of HSS during discharging EHSS

t,s Capacity of HSS
dis
ηbat Efficiency of battery in charging mode Pbat,ch
t,s Power charged in battery
ch
ηbat
dis Efficiency of battery in discharging mode Pbat,dis
t,s Power discharged by battery
ηP2G Efficiency of P2G Ebat
t,s Capacity of battery
ηpv Efficiency of PV panel GSt,s Gas capacity of P2G
PFC,max Maximum power produced by fuel-cell PP2G
t,s Power consumed by P2G
EHSS,min Minimum capacity of HSS GP2G Gas produced by P2G after methanation
t,s
EHSS,max Maximum capacity of HSS PP2G Hydrogen produced by P2G after electrolysis
H2 ,t,s
Pbat,ch,min Minimum power charged in battery Pwt,s Wind power output
Pbat,ch,max Maximum power charged in battery
Ppv
t,s PV power output
Pbat,dis,min Minimum power discharged in battery r
Tt,s Air temperature
Pbat,dis,max Maximum power discharged in battery
Ppv,sp
t,s PV power spillage
Ebat,min Minimum capacity of battery
uFC
t,s Binary variable for fuel-cell operation
Ebat,max Maximum capacity of battery
PP2G,max Maximum power consumed by P2G uHSS,ch
t,s Binary variable for HSS
GP2G,max Maximum gas produced by P2G ubat,ch
t,s ,ubat,dis
t,s Binary variables for charging and discharging of battery
GSmin Minimum gas capacity of P2G tank

1.2. Literature review that the integration of FCEVs is economically and environmentally
feasible, besides providing more flexibility for both networks. The
Due to several advantages of the P2G and P2H concepts, many re­ design of a smart charging station for the hybrid EVs served by solar
searchers have focused on developing interconnected electricity and energy, and fuel-cell technology was developed by [12]. The proposed
hydrogen networks. In [6], technology and the required system for the design shows that the charging station is 100 percent zero-emission. In
operation of high-volume FCEV from the economic and environmental [13], the optimal operation of the reconfigurable microgrid coupled
points of view were studied. The performance of the FCEV system in this with hydrogen storage under the novel two-stage information gap de­
paper has been validated by comparison with the EVs in the real network cision theory was developed. In [14], the coordinated predictive optimal
in Japan. A comprehensive study on the comparison between FCEV and energy management of the coupled hydrogen and power networks with
fuel-cell hybrid EVs was represented by [7]. This paper finds that FCEVs plug-in FCEVs was studied. Also, the energy management of the inte­
are more preferable to EVs for long-distance. Other results of this work grated energy system in the presence of FCEVs based on the velocity
show that the proposed FCEV consumes 4.07 kW and 1.125 kg of elec­ prediction method was developed by [15]. In [16], hydrogen balancing
tricity and H2, respectively, per 100 km. A two-year analysis of the and FCEVs performance in the zero-emission integrated power and
FCEVs performance in the real-word was developed in [8]. In this paper, transport systems were analyzed. This paper shows that hydrogen tanks
the performance of FCEVs in terms of operation cost, efficiency, and are a suitable choice for the long-term.
safety travel is compared to gas and gasoline vehicles. The zero-emission Researchers have also studied the applications of P2G technology. In
smart city operation for the integrated energy and transportation net­ [17], a risk-based operation of coupled natural gas and power system
works in the presence of FCEVs and RES was developed by [9]. The considering several coupling points such as P2G was investigated. In
techno-economic and environmental analysis of the H2–powered vehi­ [18], the eco-emission, techno, and policy assessment of the P2G tech­
cles in the real-word (Denmark) was studied by [10]. The key results of nology in the industrial multi-energy system was studied. The benefits of
this paper show that the development of FCEVs in the future would P2G in the further integration of RES was analyzed, and the proposed
provide a greener transport sector. In [11], the energy management and optimization problem was modeled based on mixed-integer linear pro­
optimal design of the integrated power and hydrogen networks with gramming (MILP). The integrated transportation sector and power
mobility systems in Amsterdam was investigated. This paper indicated network in Italy considering P2G and P2H concepts was investigated by

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H. Chen et al. Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

[19]. In [20], the optimal scheduling of the multi-carrier energy hub was synergies with FCEVs that haven’t been investigated. Table 1 compares
studied with highlighting the effects of the P2G in mitigating the RES the novelties and key factors of the proposed model with literature to
curtailment and operation cost. Another study on the Italian energy show the main differences of this paper.
system was developed based on the techno-economic assessment of the Hence, to fully address the mentioned weaknesses, a novel synergy
power and mobility networks considering the P2G and fuel-cell tech­ between hydrogen and power networks in the presence of the RES, P2G
nologies under the high penetration of RES [21]. The risk-constrained concept, and FCEVs is proposed. The integrated power and hydrogen
operation of the integrated heat, gas, and power networks in the pres­ networks with coupling points are controlled and optimized by the main
ence of the hydrogen storage and P2G was evaluated in [22]. The life- operator under a coordinated strategy. The P2G and FCEV are coupled to
cycle and environmental analysis of the hydrogen-based vehicle for maximize the variable RES’s integration, besides contributing to more
medium and large trucks was represented by [23]. Results show that air economic benefits. The coupling P2G and FCEV uses the RES power
emissions can be reduced by up to 45% if the hydrogen engine is used in directly or converts into H2 and CH4 to achieve more revenue from
trucks. The renewable and natural gas-based energy system in the selling H2 and CH4. To address the mentioned gaps, this paper focuses on
presence of the P2G and fuel-cell technologies was studied by [24]. In the following contributions:
this paper, the energy storage solution based on the batteries and P2G is
introduced for reliable RES integration in the energy system. Hybrid • Synergies between power, gas, and hydrogen networks using P2G
energy storage systems with a combination of batteries and super- and FCEV coupling points to provide the required H2 and CH4 and
capacitors are also investigated to ensure an efficient and durable so­ electricity, besides participating in the multi-energy markets.
lution for the storage systems commonly integrated with RES generation • Coupling the P2G and FCEV to utilize the production of H2 in the
units such as solar energy [25]. Using this approach, the battery over­ electrolysis reaction as the stable fuel for the FCEV. The produced H2
sizing is avoided as the transient current components are supplied by the P2G from the surplus RES power can be consumed by the
through the super-capacitors, which ensures maximum charge avail­ FCEV or saved in the hydrogen tanks. Once needed, H2 can be con­
ability with an integrated on-the-fly charging algorithm, and the average verted back into power via the fuel-cell.
current component is provided by the battery. The integrated solar • Providing the backup electricity, and balancing such synergy be­
farms and P2G storage for the geographical island application for energy tween several energy carriers, according to FCEV’s driving
self-sufficiency was developed by [26]. This work reveals that hydrogen situations.
storage is a suitable choice in comparison with batteries for long-term • Modeling the fluctuation behaviors of the wind and solar energies in
energy-saving. In [27], a comprehensive study on the effects of large- the optimal operation of the coupled power-hydrogen-natural gas
scale P2G technology on the hybrid gas, power, and hydrogen net­ networks using the scenario-based stochastic framework. In this way,
works was developed. The proposed P2G conversion provides more the effects of the variable RES on the optimal coupled P2G and FCEV
flexibility from the power to the natural gas grid. Besides, the partici­ operation are examined.
pating in the electricity market can be achieved by the hybrid energy
system with FCEV and P2G technologies. The MILP information gap 1.4. Paper organization
decision making-based self-scheduling for participating in the power
market is investigated for the hybrid energy system [28]. The remainder of this work is organized as follows: In section 2, the
infrastructure of synergies between the multi-carrier system with P2G
1.3. Research gaps and contributions and FCEV are analyzed. The operation of FCEVs and P2G in the coupled
power and hydrogen networks is also examined in this section. The
The unique features of H2, FCEVs, and the P2G technology have been mathematical modeling for the optimal energy management of the in­
highlighted by a wide range of studies. While the design and control tegrated energy system is represented in section 3. Section 4 provides
strategy of the hydrogen-based vehicle and P2G technology has been the numerical results and key conclusions from the simulation results.
studied separately, the synergies between hydrogen and power networks Finally, section 5 concludes the paper.
through the coordinated operation of FCEVs and P2G have been ignored.
For example, Refs in the first paragraph of the introduction focused on 2. Methods: How fuel-cell electric vehicle works via the
FCEVs’ performance, design, and operation without developing any integrated power and hydrogen infrastructures?
stable H2 source for the hydrogen-based vehicle. Also, in the second
paragraph of the introduction, refs focused on the P2G concept for Hydrogen is becoming an alternative power source for distributed
improving the energy system’s flexibility by mitigating the integration energy networks. BMW is persuaded that hydrogen can make an
of variable RES. While most of these works elaborate on the P2G ap­ imperative commitment to feasible versatility nearby battery-based EVs
plications for coupling power and natural gas networks, the higher in the future [29]. FCEVS are also captured as common EVs because the
efficient performance of the P2G technology (H2 production from the electrical engine is powered by fuel-cell technology, converting H2 into
electrolysis reaction) provides for hydrogen-industry application electricity [30]. In fact, FCEVs provide their own required power on

Table 1
Comparison of the main novelties and components of this study with similar works.
Work Multi-energy system Synergy between hydrogen and Coupling Minimizing RES Vehicle speed Uncertainty
analyzing power point spillage analyzing modelling

FCEV P2G

[7] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ ——————
[8] ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ × ——————
[9] ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ × Stochastic
[11] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × × ×
[16] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × ✓ ——————
[21] ✓ × × ✓ ✓ × Stochastic
[27] ✓ × × ✓ ✓ × ——————
This ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Stochastic
work

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H. Chen et al. Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

board [31]. Also, FCEVs can save the surplus power produced by the 3. Problem formulation
fuel-cell in the battery (See the graphical abstract).
According to the literature, there are three electrolysis types: proton The mathematical modeling of the proposed synergies between
exchange membrane, alkaline, and solid oxide process. H2 production power and hydrogen networks with RES, P2G, and FCEV is represented
via the proton exchange membrane electrolysis is a common method in this section. The objective of the model is to maximize daily profit, as
that can be integrated with several applications, such as FCEVs, heating given in Eq. 5. The objective function (5) contains several terms. The
of the building, and other H2 industry applications [32]. Fig. 1 shows the revenue from the power exchange with the grid is shown in the first
schematic of the fuel-cell via the proton exchange membrane term. In this term, the minus of the power sold and power purchased is
electrolysis. multiplied by the electricity price. The profit from the gas selling is given
Two main reactions occur in the fuel-cell poles when H2 and O2 are in the second term of (5). The third term of (5) shows the revenue from
injected into them. Firstly, the hydrogen is broken into hydrogen ions the H2 selling to the hydrogen-based industry. The operation cost of the
and free electrons according to Eq. 1. Then, the oxygen from the air is fuel-cell based on the value of the power produced is given in the fourth
combined with the hydrogen ions and free electrons, according to Eq. 2. term. The operation cost of the P2G is given in the next term. Also, the
H2 →2H+ +2e− (1) operation cost of the battery of the FCEV during discharging mode is
1
2O2 +2H +2e →H2 O (2)
+ − shown in the sixth term of (5). The two last terms of the objective
Finally, the output of the fuel-cell is obtained based on: function (5) show wind and solar power spillage costs, respectively.
∑
2H2 +O2 →H2 O +electricity (3) Maxprofit = NS s=1 π s
In this work, the FCEVs are coupled with P2G and renewable en­ ⎡ ⎛( ) ⎞⎤
sell buy e sell g ind hyd FC FC P2G P2G
ergies (PV and wind power). Hence, it is assumed that the required H2 ⎢ ∑ NT P
⎜ t,s − P t,s ×λ t +G t,s ×λ t +P H2 ,t,s ×λ − C P t,s − C G t,s ⎟ ⎥
fuel for FCEV comes from the P2G storage. H2 can be saved in the tank or ⎣ t=1 ⎝
w,sp w,sp pv,sp pv,sp
⎠⎦
− Cbat Pbat,dis
t,s − C P t,s − C P t,s
injected into the fuel-cell. Then, the produced electricity by the fuel-cell
according to the driving situations takes two main routes: it directly (5)
flows to the engine or is stored in the battery.
P2G storage is considered as the new coupling point between elec­
tricity, natural gas, and hydrogen networks. P2G storage converts the 3.1. FCEV modeling
surplus power produced from wind and PV or the purchased electricity
from the upstream grid into natural gas. The P2G concept consists of two Several advantages of the hybrid vehicle motivated auto companies
main reactions. First, the H2O is spilled into H2 and O2 in the electro­ to focus on the development of these vehicles. For example, the BMW,
lyzer, consuming surplus power [22]. It should be noted that using the Toyota, and Hyundai industries predicted that the hydrogen-based
micro-gas generator, and the produced H2 can be converted into elec­ vehicle would become the favorite automobile in the world by 2050.
tricity again, which is behind the scope of this paper. Second, some This paper uses the sample Hyundai model named NEXO with a 6.33 kg
volume of the produced H2 is combined with and generates the natural tank capacity, 756 km range, and 0.84 kg per km hydrogen consumption
gas as follows: [33]. Based on these characteristics, the travel of the FCEV is modeled as
4H2 +CO2 →2H2 O +CH4 (4) depicted in Fig. 3. The FCEV is refueled at the beginning of the trip and
Fig. 2 shows the coordinated hydrogen and electricity infrastructures fills the tank (6.3 kg hydrogen). Based on the nominal velocity and
in the presence of P2G storage and FCEV, and RES (PV and wind). The calculations, this volume of hydrogen can support a distance of
system operator purchases the required power from the market. Based approximately 5 h. Along this path, hydrogen consumption has a linear
on the energy prices situations (peak or off-peak energy prices), the behavior. However, the source-which is described next-generates a total
operator adjusts the operation sets’ point of the P2G and FCEV. In this of 35.12 kW of electricity. The mathematical modeling of FCEV is
way, the operator receives several revenues by selling H2 to the described in the following.
hydrogen-based industry, electricity to the power market, and natural The value of the hydrogen consumed by the fuel-cell is calculated as
gas to the gas markets. The main objective of the system operator is to Eq. 6. The upper and lower values limit the power output of the fuel-cell
maximize the daily profit. It should be noted that the system operator as Eq. 7. Constraints (8)-(12) show the set of limitations of the hydrogen
must handle the uncertainties caused by wind and PV power output storage system (HSS) in the FCEV. Also, the set of limitations of the
using the scenario-based stochastic framework. battery include power limits in charging/discharging mode, logical
constraint, and energy capacity constraints are represented by (13)-(18).
It should be noted that the battery can be charged by power from the
fuel-cell or power from the outer signal that comes from the RES or
power purchased. Also, the power discharged by the battery can be used
for the engine or considered as part of the power selling.
PFC
PFC
H2 ,t,s = ηFC ×LH (6)
t,s

0⩽PFC
t,s ⩽P
FC,max
× uFC
t,s (7)

Pch,min
H2 × uHSS,ch
t,s ⩽Pch ch,max
H2 ,t,s ⩽PH2 × uHSS,ch
t,s (8)
PFC
EHSS HSS HSS ch
t+1,s = Et,s +ηch PH2 ,t,s −
H ,t,s
2
ηHSS
− Pind
H2 ,t,s (9)
dis

EHSS,min ⩽EHSS
t,s ⩽E
HSS,max
(10)
EHSS HSS
t=0,s = Et=24,s (11)
HSS,ch
uFC
t,s +ut,s ⩽1 (12)
Pbat,ch,min × ubat,ch
t,s ⩽Pbat,ch
t,s ⩽Pbat,ch,max × ubat,ch
t,s (13)
Pbat,dis,min × ubat,dis
t,s ⩽Pbat,dis
t,s ⩽Pbat,dis,max × ubat,dis
t,s (14)
bat bat,ch Pbat,dis
Ebat bat
t+1,s = Et,s +ηch Pt,s − t,s
ηbat
(15)
dis
bat,min
E ⩽Ebat
t,s ⩽E
bat,max
(16)
bat bat
Fig. 1. Fuel-cell based on proton exchange membrane. Et=0,s = Et=24,s (17)

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H. Chen et al. Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

Fig. 2. Schematic of the sample integrated power, gas, and hydrogen networks with RES, FCEV, and P2G.

Fig. 3. Hydrogen consumed and power produced of sample 756 km range FCEV for 5 h.

ubat,ch
t,s +ubat,dis
t,s ⩽1 (18) 0⩽GP2G
t,s ⩽G
P2G,max
(20)
GSmin ⩽GSt,s ⩽GSmax (21)
GSt,s = GSt− 1,s +ηP2G PP2G P2G P2G
t,s − PH2 ,t,s − Gt,s (22)
3.2. Power-to-gas modeling

The P2G concept provides a stable H2 source for the FCEV. The 3.3. Wind power modeling
surplus power from the wind and PV is injected into the P2G. The power
consumed by the P2G is limited by Eq. 19. In the first reaction (elec­ The power produced by the wind turbine is a function of the wind
trolysis process), H2 is produced for the FCEV’s operation. Then, ac­ speed. The wind velocity is varied at each time, which highlights the
cording to the methanation reaction, CH4 is produced and injected into importance of stochastic programming to model the strong uncertainty
the gas network. The limit on the gas production by the P2G is shown in of this resource. Usually, the probability behavior of the wind speed is
Eq. 20. The capacity limits on the P2G’s tank are represented by (21) and determined based on the Weibull probability distribution function as
(22). given in Eq. 23. Based on the Weibull PDF, the wind speed is modeled for
0⩽PP2G
t,s ⩽P
P2G,max
(19) each hour. More information can be found in [34]. The produced wind

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H. Chen et al. Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

speed is used to determine the hourly wind output by the wind turbine. probable scenarios should be chosen. To this end, the SCENRED in­
Eq. 24 determines the power output of the wind turbine based on the strument is utilized to diminish the scenarios to 10 desired scenarios
wind speed. As represented in the objective function, the wind spillage is [38]. Figs. 4 and 5 show the wind and PV power output for 10 reduced
considered for some situations where the power output of the wind scenarios. The expected value of the scenarios is used to describe the
cannot be integrated [35]. In such times, wind spillage happens. This simulation results. All coding required is carried out in GAMS software
value cannot exceed the wind output as given by Eq. 25. solved by a CPLEX solver with 64 GB RAM, Intel Core i7/ Desktop
⎧ ( )β
⎪
⎪ personal computer.
⎪ ( )β− 1 − V
⎨β V α The energy price curve for electricity and gas markets is shown in
fv (V) = α × α e V⩾0 (23)
⎪
⎪ Fig. 6. It should be noted that the hydrogen price is fixed at 1.708
⎪
⎩
0 otherwise $/kWh. The operation cost for fuel-cell, P2G, and battery are 0.7, 0.3,
⎧ and 0.25 $/kW. Other input data can be found in [39].
⎪ 0 Vt,s < Vcut− in , Vt,s > Vcut− out
⎪
⎪
⎪ ( ) To reveal the effects of synergies between several carriers, hydrogen,
Vt,s − Vcut− in 3
⎨
Pwt,s (V) = Pw,r × gas, and power, the following cases are examined:
Vcut− in ⩽Vt,s ⩽Vrated (24)
⎪
⎪
⎪ Vr − Vcut− in
⎪
⎩
Pw,r Vrated ⩽Vt,s ⩽Vcut− out • Evaluating the integration of gas, power, and hydrogen networks,
considering P2G and battery-based vehicles (not FCEV).
Pw,sp w
t,s ⩽Pt,s (25)
• Studying synergies between hydrogen, power, and gas networks
under the coordinated operation of P2G and FCEV.
3.4. Solar power modeling

The power output by PV is a function of air temperature and solar

irradiation. These random variables are modeled based on the Normal Case 1. In this case, only the EV is integrated with RES and P2G
distribution function as [36]. After modeling the air temperature and air storage. In this case, the P2G only converts the surplus power from the
irradiation using probability programming, Eq. 26 converts data into the RES into natural gas, and EV is coupled with the system to improve the
hourly PV output. As for the wind spillage, the PV spillage cannot exceed daily profit. Under the coordinated operation strategy of EV, P2G, and
the hourly PV output as represented by Eq. 27. RES, the power dispatch (power sold, power purchased, and total power
( ( ))
spillage) follows Fig. 7. According to this figure, the system operator
Ppv pv pv r
t,s = η S Gt,s 1 − 0.005 Tt,s − T
st
(26)
purchases 90 kW of electricity from the grid at hours 2–3, 5–6, and 24,
Ppv,sp pv
t,s ⩽Pt,s (27) when the electricity price is low. Also, the total wind and PV power
spillage is 131 kW. As can be seen, most power spillages occur in the
3.5. Energy balancing constraint middle of the day. The operator sells more power at peak power price
hours to provide more economic benefits, as can be seen from Fig. 7.
The integrated electricity, hydrogen, and gas infrastructures are
As discussed, in this case, only the battery-based vehicle is consid­
limited to energy balancing constraints. In other words, when the energy
ered. The hourly operation of EV, besides the energy capacity, is shown
balancing between the generation side, demand side, and energy con­
in Fig. 8. As can be seen from Fig. 8, the EV is charged at off-peak hours,
version technologies are established, all energy exchanging between
1–6, 16–19, and 24 (hours with low energy prices). Then, based on the
multiple carriers has occurred. The power balance and hydrogen bal­
coordinated strategy, the operator injects the power through the V2G
ance are established based on the (28) and (29).
buy pv pv,sp w,sp bat,dis
capability at peak hours, 11–14 and 20–22, to achieve more revenue.
Pt,s − Psell w P2G
t,s +Pt,s +Pt,s − Pt,s − Pt,s − Pt,s +Pt,s − Pbat,ch
t,s = 0 (28) The energy capacity of EVs follows the optimal charging and discharging
PP2G ch FC ind
H2 ,t,s − PH2 ,t,s +PH2 ,t,s − PH2 ,t,s = 0 (29) scheme, as can be seen from this figure.
The optimal operation of the P2G, including hourly power,
4. Results and discussion consumed, and gas produced, is shown in Fig. 9. The P2G consumes
electricity at off-peak hours, 1–7, and 24 to convert and save the natural
In this section, the proposed model for synergies between power, gas, gas in tanks. Then, during hours with peak gas prices, 13–18, the
and hydrogen infrastructures is simulated. For this purpose, the simple operator injects the natural gas into the grid and gets revenue. In this
test system in Fig. 2 is examined. The system is equipped with an 80-kW case, hydrogen production is not considered for the P2G conversion in
PV panel, a 100-kW wind turbine, P2G, and FCEV. To model the pro­ the electrolysis reaction, and all electricity consumed is converted to
posed system, it is assumed that the FCEV daily distance is 600 km. The natural gas.
hydrogen tank capacity in the FCEV is 6.33 kg and consumes 0.84 kg H2 The daily profit, in this case, is $ 140.0917. This case reveals that the
per 100 km. The range of the proposed FCEV is 756 km, as described in P2G is a suitable option to reduce the wind and solar energies
Fig. 3. The maximum power produced by the fuel-cell unit is 15 kW,
with 0.6 efficiencies and a lower heating value of H2 10.8. The charging
and discharging efficiency of the HSS are respectively 0.85 and 0.8. Also,
the FCEV is equipped with a 50 kWh battery, with 10 kW maximum
charging and discharging power and 0.85 and 0.8 charging and dis­
charging efficiency.
It should be noted that the velocity of FCEV is constant during
traveling. The maximum power consumed by the P2G is 50 kW. The
maximum gas produced by it is 35 kW, with 0.7 efficiencies in the
electrolyzer reaction.
To demonstrate the wind and PV variety, 1000 scenarios based on
the Monte-Carlo simulation are created by comparing PDF. The wind
power is subjected to the Weibull distribution with characteristics in
[17]. Also, the solar panel behavior is subjected to the Normal distri­
bution with zero mean and 20% standard deviation [37]. At that point,
between 1000 produced scenarios by Monte-Carlo simulation, the most Fig. 4. PV power output in 10 reduced scenarios.

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H. Chen et al. Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

Fig. 9. Optimal operation of P2G in case 1.

Fig. 5. Wind power output in 10 reduced scenarios.

curtailment in the real world. However, the coupling of the P2G and
battery-based vehicle is not a practical option.
Case 2. In this case, the hybrid vehicle, battery, and hydrogen-based
vehicle are coupled with RES and P2G storage. The P2G can produce
H2 and CH4 from the electrolysis and methanation reaction, respec­
tively. Hence, the FCEV is refueled through the hydrogen produced by
the P2G, besides the power charged in the battery. In this way, the
operator can sell hydrogen to the hydrogen-based industry. The optimal
charge/discharge scheme of HSS, besides the hydrogen selling, is shown
in Fig. 10. The P2G refuels the FCEV at hours 1–5, 17–19, and 24. The
hydrogen price is constant during the day. Hence, during hours with
surplus hydrogen, the operator sells the hydrogen at hours 14–17 and
gets revenue. For these periods, the FCEV relies on the battery, which is
shown in Fig. 11. According to Fig. 11, the battery is charged during off-
peak hours. Besides, the battery is discharged at 14–17 and 21–22. For
Fig. 6. Power and gas price curves.
periods 21–22, the batter injects the power to improve the economic
benefits, not the FCEV operation. Also, in Fig. 11, the optimal operation
of the fuel-cell based on the hydrogen injection is shown. According to
the hydrogen discharging at 8–12 and 21–22, the fuel –cell generates
91.15 kW of electricity for battery charging or direct engine operation.
The hourly P2G operation in case 2 is shown in Fig. 12. As can be
seen, the P2G can produce H2 and CH4 simultaneously. It consumes
power during hours 8–12 and 24. The power consumed by the P2G is
more than the corresponding value in case 1. As discussed, the hydrogen
produced from the electrolysis reaction of the P2G is more efficient than
the methanation one. In addition to the gas production at hours 1–5,
13–16, and 24, the P2G produces hydrogen for periods 1–5, 17–19, and
24, in coordination with the FCEV operation. As can be seen from this
figure, the optimal coordinated operation of FCEV and P2G provides
several advantages from gas, power, and hydrogen selling.
Fig. 7. Hourly power dispatch and RES spillage in case 1. The power dispatch for case 2 is shown in Fig. 13. In comparison with
case 1, the power spillage is significantly decreased. In this case, the

Fig. 8. Optimal scheme of the battery-based vehicle.

Fig. 10. The optimal operation of HSS, besides the hydrogen sold.

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H. Chen et al. Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

Table 2 compares the major results of two study cases obtained from
the simulations. According to Table 1, the synergies between hydrogen
and power networks in the P2G and FCEV presence as coupling points
(case 2) increase the profit up to 25.3% while resulting in the power
spillage reduction of up to 36.41%.

• Analysis of the velocity of the FCEV on the proposed strategy

In this sub-section, the effects of the velocity of FCEV are examined.

In the previous results, it is assumed that the proposed vehicle is in the
756 km range, with an average velocity of 100 km/h. Consider a vehicle
with speeds of 90 and 120 km/h that operates in tandem with P2G
Fig. 11. Optimal operation of fuel-cell and battery of FCEV in case 2. storage. To this end, the kg value of H2 in the tanks, besides H2 sold and
the power generated by the fuel-cell for these types of FCEVs, are
analyzed, as depicted in Figs. 14 and 15. According to these figures, as
the average velocity of the FCEV increases, the value of the H2 sold is
increased, while the electricity production by the fuel-cell unit is
decreased. Also, the level of the H2 per kg in the tank decreases with less
slope. The main causes of these phenomena are related to the amount of
hydrogen consumed per unit distance. In this situation, the vehicle uses
the battery more compared with a lower average speed. In other words,
the battery is discharged more to serve the required power for the FCEV.
Therefore, the battery plays a key role in the performance of the FCEV at
a higher velocity, and the owner relies on the battery instead of the
hydrogen to provide the required power for the engine. In this situation,
the stored hydrogen is less used, and the power produced by the fuel-cell
is reduced. Hence, the system owner can sell the surplus hydrogen to the
hydrogen-based industry application and contribute to higher economic
benefit. This phenomenon is true for the lower average speed so that the
Fig. 12. Optimal P2G operation in case 2. hydrogen plays a key role in the lower velocity; consequently, the
hydrogen sold is reduced. The total profit for 120 and 90 km/h vehicles
in a coordinated operation with P2G and RES are $187.24 and
$157.602, respectively.

5. Conclusion

Coupling of the power-to-gas (P2G), and fuel-cell electric vehicle

(FCEV) in a multi-energy carrier network based on hydrogen, power,
and gas, provides further flexibility for the systems to save energy in the
form of natural gas and hydrogen, then re-produce the power from the
stored energy. In this paper, the synergies between hydrogen and power
networks with a high penetration of solar and wind power was devel­
oped, considering P2G, and FCEV as two coupling points. The P2G was
developed as a suitable option for mitigating the integration of the
variable RES into the system in the form of CH4 and H2 while providing a
Fig. 13. Optimal power dispatch and RES spillage in case 2. stable hydrogen station for vehicles. The tariff on the gas and electricity
exchange between the integrated system and the corresponding market
total power spillage is 89.29 kW. The main reason for this is the more affected the optimal decisions of the system’s operator to purchase/sell
energy conversion by the P2G. In other words, the P2G consumes more the power and gas. However, the uncertain behavior of energy prices has
electricity for both H2 and CH4 production. Also, in this case, the
operator only purchases 57.99 kW from the power grid.
The daily profit, in this case, is $ 175.571. This case shows that the
P2G conversion is a suitable option as a flexible hydrogen station for the
hydrogen-based vehicle, which can be developed in the real world. Also,
this case shows that the hydrogen production by the P2G is more eco­
nomic than the natural gas production in the methanation reaction. This
key finding can be considered as the match point in the optimal per­
formance of the P2G for real projects worldwide.

Table 2
Comparison between major results from case 1 and case 2.
Profit ($) Power spillage (kW) Power purchased (kW)

Case 1 140.0917 131 91

Fig. 14. Hydrogen capacity, power produced by fuel-cell and hydrogen sold for
Case 2 175.571 89.29 57.99
FCEV with an average velocity of 120 km/h.

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H. Chen et al. Energy Conversion and Management 246 (2021) 114670

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