EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER Study of solid earth, the rocks of which it is composed

© angelica garcia and the processes by which they change.

EARTH SCIENCE Physical

all the sciences that collectively seek to understand  Examines the materials composing earth and the
Earth and its neighbors in space processes that operate beneath and upon its surface.

ASTRONOMY Historical

the study of the universe  Aim to understand the origin of Earth and
development of the planet through its 4.5billion-year
very useful in probing the origins of our own history
environment
OCEANOGRAPHY
METEOROLOGY- study of the atmosphere and
the processes that produce weather and climate the study of the composition and movements of
seawater, coastal processes, seafloor topography and
GEOLOGY marine life
Study of the earth THE UNIVERSE
Theories on the Creation of the Universe distances than those located closer together. Thus, in
BIBLICAL CREATION an expanding universe (as with the raisins) more space
is created between two objects that are farther apart
came from the bible than between two objects that are closer together.
States that the entire cosmos was created in 6 days by  Fate of the Universe
a Supreme Being.
Scenario 1: the outward flight of the galaxies will slow
BIG BANG THEORY (1920) and eventually stop
Alexander Friedman and George Lamaitre Scenario 2: the universe will continue to expand
Universe started with a huge explosion 13.7 Billion Steady State Theory (1948)
years ago.
Bendi, Gold, and Hoyle
Explains what happened at the very beginning
“The Universe has no beginning and end.”
“The Universe started with a cataclysm that created
space and time and all the matter and energy that has Density of matter is constant over time
ever existed in the universe” The universe remained the same all throughout time
Caused by random fluctuation in an empty void. Then Proposed that the universe is unchanging in time and
there was a great explosion and expansion.  uniform in space
Evidences: Inflation Theory
The red shift of galaxies supports the big bang and the Alan Guth, Andrei Linde, Paul Steinhart, and Andy
expanding universe theories. Albrecht
Scientists discovered a type of energy called cosmic Extension of the Big Bang Theory
background radiation (CMB). Scientists think that this
radiation was produced during the big bang. Proposed a period of exponential expansion of the
universe.
Abundance of light elements: helium, hydrogen, and
lithium beryllium confirms occurrence of the big bang It could appear flat even though it has been curved at
nucleosynthesis. the start
Red Shift aka  Doppler Offers solution to unresolved problems of the big bang
Shift theory.
FLATNESS

Red shift, or a Doppler shift toward the red end of the  Big bang states there should be curvature
spectrum, occurs because the light wavesare  Things will appear flat even though it is curved
“stretched,” which shows that Earth and the source
MONOPOLE
are moving away from each other.
 Big bang predicts production of magnetic poles
 Monopoles dropped exponentially to undetectable
 Hubble’s Law
level during rapid expansion c. HORIZON
Hubble’s law is a law that states that the galaxies are
 Big bang states that space in opposite direction are
retreating from the Milky Way at a speed that is
so far apart they could never have contact with each
proportional to their distance.
other
Analogy for an expanding universe: as the dough rises,
raisins (galaxies) originally farthest apart travel greater
 Exponential expansion in early universe presupposes He explained the orbits of the planets are the primary
that the distant regions were much closer to each whirlpool motion and the satellites the
other prior to inflation secondary whirlpool motion.
STRING THEORY Buffon’s Collision Theory
Suggests that subatomic particles do not exist. Instead, Planets were formed by the collision of the sun with a
tiny piece of vibrating string is too small to be giant comet.
observed in today’s instrument replaced the
subatomic particles Resulting debris condensed and formed into planets
that rotate in the same direction as they revolved
Before the Big Bang around the sun.
Form the combination of Einstein’s theory of relativity Failed to explain the strange positioning of planets
and Quantum Mechanics around the Sun.
Strings may be open or closed (measures roughly Kant-Laplace Nebular Theory
around 1.6 x 10-35 mm) - Replaced by a
fundamental block that can either be closed or open. Suggested that a great cloud of gas and dust, called
nebula, began to collapse because of gravitational pull.
The vibration may represent the different particle
types. (Electron and Photon) As the cloud contracted, it spun more rapidly. Spinning
cloud flattens into a pancake-shaped object with a
M-THEORY bulge at the center. As the nebula collapses further,
Unification of Strings local regions contracted on their own due to gravity.
Universe is a result of the contact of two hyper- Major Flaw: Assumed that the total angular
dimensional branes. momentum of the system was in the sun, which is not
Considers 11 space-time dimensions: the case. Only 0.5% of the angular momentum was
contained in the Sun’s spin. The rest was in the
We are familiar with the x, y, z and time planetary orbit
The other 7 space-time dimensions are so tiny and Hydrogen and other gases swirled around and
curled up that they are undetectable. condensed into our sun and its planets.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM Most widely accepted theory that explains the
Notable Personalities formation and evolution of solar system.
Eratosthenes – used the sun to measure the size of the It suggests that the Solar System formed from
Earth nebulous material. The theory was developed by
Immanuel Kant and published in his Universal Natural
Claudius Ptolemy – Set up a model of the solar system
History and Theory of the Heaven. Originally applied to
in which the sun, the stars, and others revolve around
our own Solar System, this process of planetary
the Earth; Geocentric – “Earth Centered”
system formation is now thought to be at work
Nicolaus Copernicus – proposed a model of the solar throughout the universe.
system that involved the earth revolving around the
Jean Jeffrey and James Hopwoods’ Tidal Theory
sun; Heliocentric – “Sun Centered”
Proposed that the planets were formed from the
Johannes Kepler – determined that the planets
substance that was torn out of the sun.
travelled around the sun not in circles but in ellipses.
As a speeding massive star passed near the sun, it
Galileo Galilei – creation of optical telescope;
pulled off material due to gravitational attraction.
discovered the 4 moons of Jupiter as well as the ring of
These torn-off materials condensed to form the
Saturn
planets.
Edward Haley – proposed the appearance of comets;
Solar-Nebular Theory
comets that appeared in 1456, 1531, 1607, and
Describes the formation of our solar system from
1682 were all the same and would return in 1758
condensation of interstellar gas and dust cloud. Due to
Astronomy gravity, it began to condense the solar nebula, with
Theories on the formation of the Solar System the center becoming a protostar. As the cloud
continued to shrink, rotational speed increased and
Descartes’ Vortex Theory became a rapidly rotating disk. The contraction
The space was entirely filled with matter in various converted gravitational energy into heat energy and
states, whirling about the sun. caused the center to glow. When the temperature is
sufficient enough, a nuclear reaction began at the core
Theory of colliding particles which hypothesized the
of the protostar and became the SUN.
collisions supplies the force that pushed the
The remaining gas and dust cloud form diskshaped
planets towards the Sun.
bodies (due to rotation) called SOLAR
NEBULAE. Formation of the planets involved:
 Terrestrial Planets (Earth-like planets or Inner Planets)
Accretiondistance of grain-sized particles to form cm-
sized particles which later grew to several km in Mercury, Venus, Earth, MarsComposed mostly of
Formation of more massive objects from coalescing dense, rocky, and metallic materials -
planetisimals  PROTOPLANETS  PLANETS Formed within the frost line where rocks and metals
Condensation Theory condense, and hydrogen compounds remain as gas.
The solar system formed a large spinning cloud of gas Jovian Planets (Jupiter-like planets or Outer Planets)
and dust, called the solar nebula. Composed mostly of Hydrogen and Helium
Once gravity pulled it to a diameter of less than 100au, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
the solar nebula had become a wide rotating disc
These planets are formed outside the frost line where
Fission Theory light elements condense into ice.
One day, our sun burst open, and planets, and moons Classification of Planets by Position Relative to the Sun
shot out at high speeds and went to their respective
places, then stopped, and started orbiting the sun, as Inner Planets
the moons began orbiting the planets. - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
Capture Theory
Planets and moons were flying around, and some were Outer Planets- Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
captured by our sun and began circling.
Classification of Planets by Position Relative to the
Accretion Theory Earth
A pile of space dust and rock chunks pushed together Inferior Planets
into our planet, and another pile pushed itself into our
moon. Then the moon got close enough and began - Mercury, Venus
circling the earth. Superior Planets
Planetary Collision Theory - Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Our world collided with a small planet, and the Neptune
explosion threw off rocks which became the moon and What is a Dwarf Planet?
then it began orbiting us.  Celestial body that has the following
Stellar Collision Theory characteristics:
Our planets, moons, and stars spun off from the Is in orbit around the sun
collision between stars Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome
Gas Cloud Theory rigid body forces
Gas clouds were captured by our sun but instead of Has not cleared the neighborhood around it
being drawn to it, they began whirling and pushing Is not a satellite
themselves into the planets and moons.
 Haumea, Pluto, Makemake, Eris
Our Solar System
Kepler-452B
An asteroid belt composed of small rocky bodies and
comets.  Earth’s Cousin or Earth 2.0
What is a Solar System?  An exoplanet orbiting the sun-like star
Kepler-452 about 1,400 light years from earth in the
 The sun, its planets, and all the objects constellation
moving around them collectively
Cygnus
 Entirely dependent on the Sun and the
only one which is self-luminous Has a probable mass 5X of Earth and surface gravity
twice of Earth
 Rest of the planets reflect the light
received from the sun Takes 385 Earth days to orbit its star
Sun Has an equilibrium temperature of 265 K
 Star of the Solar System  Its host star Kepler-452 (G-type) is about the same
Nearest star to the Earth mass of the Earth’s sun and has a surface temperature
of 5757 K (Earth’s sun = 5778 K)
 Scientific name is “Sol”  Light
from the Sun takes approximately 8 Planets
 Heaviest among the Solar System
minutes to reach the Earth.
 Ball of hot, burning gases  Come from Greek which means wandering star
Classification of Planets by Composition
 Mars (The Red Planet)
 Heavenly bodies which revolve around the sun in Named after Roman god of war
elliptical orbits Red Planet: Iron oxide is prevalent on its surface that
gives the planet its reddish appearance
 Between inner and outer planets, there is a ring of Home to Olympus Mons
small bodies, which are made or rock and metal, these Jupiter (The Giant Planet)
are called asteroids. They also keep moving around the
Sun. This ring is also called Asteroid Belt. - Named after Largest planetruler of Roman
gods in the Solar System
Mercury (Swift Planet)
Has a great red spot, it is a rotating storm inside the
Named after Messenger of the Roman gods planet
Closest planet to the Sun Saturn (The Jewel Planet; Ringed Planet)
The Inner Planet Sixth planet from the sun
Large variations in day (400ºC) and night (-180ºC) time Second largest planet
temperatures
Named after roman god, Saturn
Smallest and its orbit is not the most fully circular
Classified as gas giant planet
Does not have any satellite
Uranus (Ice Giant)
No water or atmosphere
Named after Roman god of the sky
Can be seen with naked eyes
A planet on its side
Orbits the sun once in every 88 Earth days
Only planet which rotates on its axis from east to west
No seasons on its surface
Neptune (Big Blue Planet)
Venus (The Veiled Planet; Morning Star and Evening
Star) Most distant gas planet
Named after Roman god of the sea
Surrounded by thick cloud: The Veiled Planet
Brightest and Hottest Planet Most windy planet
Properties of the Solar System
Named after Roman goddess of love and beauty
Orbits the sun once in every 225 Earth Days  The orbits of all planets are almost in the same
plane. - Solar system is flat.
Reaches its maximum brightness shortly before
sunrise or shortly after sunset so it’s also known as the  The planetary orbits are nearly
circular.
Morning Star or Evening Star
Also “sister” or “twin” planet to Earth because of its  The orbits of the planets are nearly in
the same plane as the rotation of the sun.
similar size and mass to Earth
Earth (The Blue Planet)  The calculated distances (Bode’s law) and the
observed distances of the planets from the sun are
Orbits the sun once in every 365 Earth Days almost the same (except of Neptune & Pluto)
Rotates about its own axis, thus creating a day and  The satellite systems of Jupiter and Saturn are nearly
night. It takes 24 hours to do that. identical in their arrangements with the solar system.
Revolves around sun due to its tilt; seasons are  The satellites and planets contain
created almost all the rotational motion of the solar system.
Due to gravity, the layer of gases remain attached to it  The solar system contains asteroids
(which is known as atmosphere), it prevents too much and comets.
heat or UV rays from the sun
Asteroids
Moon is the only satellite of Earth
 A celestial body bigger than 10m
 Moon (Earth’s Only Satellite) orbiting the Sun, mainly between Mars and Jupiter.
Diameter of only 1/4th of Earth Comets
Looks bigger to us as it is closer to us  A smaller celestial body mainly composed of
Has no atmosphere ice and dust. If a comet approaches the Sun it can
generate a tail of gas and/or dust.
127ºC in day and -173ºC in night
Meteoroids
Only celestial body other than Earth on which humans
have set foot. (Neil Armstrong [American  Similar to an Asteroid, but significantly
smaller. Mostly debris of comets, sometimes debris of
Mission Apollo] on July 21, 1969)
asteroids.
Meteors  Pangaea began to break up
 A bright tail of light caused by a meteoroid during its  Extinction of Dinosaurs (Dinosaurs lived on earth for
atmospheric flight, also called a shooting star or falling 150 million years; Humans lived on Earth for 100 – 200
star. thousand years // the debris from the meteor impact
 Types of meteors: caused global climate changes)

a. Fireball  Trilobites

Another term for very bright meteor, generally  Brachiopods are marine animals that upon first
brighter than magnitude -4, which is about the same glance, look like clams
magnitude of the planet Venus in the morning or  Impact Theory: No dinosaurs found after the
evening sky, sometimes even brighter. b. Bolide cretaceous – tertiary - Cenozoic: (Age of Mammals)
A fireball that explodes during its atmospheric flight,  Mammals became dominant
often with visible fragmentation.  Humans evolved
Refers to a fireball approximately as bright as the full  Continents moved to their current positions
moon, and it is generally considered a synonym of a
fireball.  Alps Himalayas formed
Described as a fireball reaching the apparent  Small rodents, early horse, and bats
magnitude of -14 or brighter – more than twice as  Ice cap formed
bright as the full moon.
 Land bridges formed Ice Age
Meteorites
 Early Ancestors to human fossils found
 The part of a meteoroid or asteroid that
Period
survives the passage through our atmosphere and
reaches the Earth’s surface. -- Paleozoic: Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, PermianMesozoic:
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous
 Divides up the history of the earth based on
Cenozoic: Paleogene, Neogene, Quaternary
lifeforms that have existed during specific time since
the creation of the planet. Epoch
 Model of the history of the Earth Paleogene: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene
showing the major events that occurred along the way Neogene: Miocene, Pliocene
 88% of Earth’s History (Precambrian – very Quaternary: Pleistocene, Holocene
little evidence of life); Other 12% (Phanerozoic –
sudden development of life in the oceans, hard parts Principles behind Geologic Time
developed which increased the fossil record)  Proposed by Nicholas Steno (1638 –
Eons 1687), a Danish Physician

Precambrian:Longest units of time Earliest Span of Superposition

time In an undisturbed sedimentary rock, each bed is older
Phanerozoic: Everything since than the one above it and younger than

Era The layer on the bottom was the oldest and the
youngest was on top.the one below it.
Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic -
Precambrian: Horizontality

 Fossils are rare Layers of sediment are generally deposited in a

horizontal position
 Simple organisms with soft bodies
Rocks that are folded or tilted must have been moved
into that position AFTER their formation
Volcanic Activity heat and pressure “erased” the fossil Original Lateral Continuity
evidence
Original deposited layers of rock extend laterally in all
 Stromatolites blue-green algae were common - directions until either thinning out or being cut off by a
Paleozoic: (Age of the Invertebrates) different rock layer.
  James Hutton (1726 – 1797)
 Hard Parts developedMarine animals thrived Scottish Physician
 Pangaea formed “The present is the key to the past”
 Extinction: 90% of marine animals became extinct - Theory of Uniformitarianism
Mesozoic: (Age of the Reptiles)
 Theory of Uniformitarianism
 Dinosaurs developed
Advocated by Charles Lyell  Rarely Preserved (Easily Decayed
What happens today is what happened in the past Parts)

Supports very old age of Earth Internal Organs

Earth is believed to be 4.6 billion years old Skin

 Neocatastrophism Hair

Blends uniformitarianism and catastrophism Feathers

Earth developed and changed at a very slow rate like Types of Fossils
today but had some catastrophic events that caused Mold
some sudden changes. When sediments bury an organism and the sediment
Geologic Dating hardens into rocks.
Absolute The organisms decay slowly inside the rocks leaving a
Determines how many years old something is cavity in the shape of the organism.

Know DATES Cast

Uses Radiometric The cavity or mold can be filled with mud.

Radioactive Decay (half-life): occurs when the nuclei of When the mud hardens, it takes on the shape of the
unstable atoms break down, changing the original organism.
atoms into atoms of another element. Petrified
Half-life is the amount of time it takes for half the Permineralized fossil
atoms of a substance to decay into another element. Forms when minerals soak into buried remains
Different substances have different half-life’s The materials replace the remains, changing them to
Ex: Uranium 238 and Carbon 14 (Carbon 14 – date rock
biological remains since Carbon is Carbonized
Forms when organisms or parts like leaves, stems,
incorporated into the cells of living organisms and flowers, fish, are pressed between layers of soft mud
begins to decay when the organism dies; Uranium 238 or clay that hardens, squeezing almost all the decaying
– used to date rocks [larger half-life]) organism away and leaving the carbon imprint on the
 Half-lives of radioisotopes vary depending upon the rock.
isotope Trace
Relative When mud or sand harden into rock where a foot just
Used to determine if one thing is younger or older trail or burrow was left behind
than another EARTH: STRUCTURE AND SUBSYSTEMS
Know ORDER OF EVENTS BUT NOT DATES  Layers of the Earth:
Superposition, Index Fossils, Correlation of Rock layers Inner Core
Comparing of rock units to decipher their age relative Discovered by Inge Lehmann in 1936
to one another Radius of 1250 km
Principle of Horizontal Originality Solid Fe-Ni alloy
Principle of Superposition Magnetic
Principle of Crosscutting Relationships – any feature approximately 6000ºC
(fault or intrusion) that cuts across rocks is younger
than the youngest rock that is cut. 3.6 million atm
Principle of Inclusion – states that objects enclosed in Outer Core
rock must be older than the time of rock formation. Discovered by Richard Dixon Oldham (earth’s core as a
Fossils whole) in 1906. - 2300 km thick
 Remains of Ancient Plants and Lehmann discontinuity - Boundary between the inner
Animals, Evidence of Life and outer core.
 Commonly Preserved (Hard Parts) Liquid Fe and Ni - Magnetic
Bones 4000-5000ºC
Shells Mantle
Hard Parts of Insects average thickness is ~2900 km.
Woody Material 84% of the earth’s volume.
Gutenberg discontinuity - Boundary between the b. Sedimentary Formed by the deposition of the
outer core and the mantle. - Predominantly made of weathered remains of other rock at the Earth’s surface
Silicate rock  Deposition - a process in which sediments
Subdivided into the upper and lower mantle accumulate and added to the land mass
Lower Mantle (Mesosphere)  Lithification - unconsolidated materials solidify into
 Plasticity (easily shaped and modelled) rocks.

 ranging from approx. 650 km to 2900 km below the  Three Types:

surface. Chemical - Formed by precipitation of materials from
 water

 Approx. 2250 km thickRich in silicon and magnesium Biological/organic - form from the accumulation of
plant and animal debris
 Approximately 3000-5000ºC
Clastic - formed from the debris due to mechanical
Upper Mantle weathering of rocks c. Metamorphic
 320-250 km in diameter  Formed through the transformation, either by heat
 Divided into two parts: or pressure, of existing rocks.
Asthenosphere - highly viscous and relatively weak.  The original rock (protolith) can be igneous,
Responsible for plate tectonic movement. Has some sedimentary, and can also be metamorphic.
degree of plasticity.  Two major types:
Lithosphere - outermost shell, which is defined by its Foliated – metamorphic rocks that exhibited layering.
rigidity. It is partly composed of the crust. Solid and It occurs during recrystallization
brittle.
Non-foliated – rocks that has no foliation
Crust
 Geomorphic Processes
Outermost layer of the earth
Natural processes that result in the change and or
Mohorovičić (Moho) discontinuity – Boundary modification of the landforms on the Earth’s surface.
between the mantle and the crust
Two Processes:
Subdivided into two types
A. Exogenic Process
Continental crust
 External Process
 30-50 km thick
 Transform Rocks to sediments through weathering 
 composed of less dense rocks like granite Also called Weathering  Types of Weathering:
Oceanic crust Physical Weathering – Physical, Block disintegration,
 5-10 km thick exfoliation, frost weathering
 primarily composed by dense rocks like, basalt Chemical Weathering – Oxidation, Carbonation,
and diabase  younger than continental crusts Hydration
Subsystems: Biotic Weathering – Plants, Animals, Humans  After
Weathering?
Geosphere/Lithosphere
Mass Wasting – Downslope movement of a mass of
Refers to the solid Earth
rocks, soil, and other sediments;
Composed of naturally-occurring minerals, rocks, and
Commonly caused by water
organic material. Collectively called Regolith
Soil Erosion –The removal of soil at a greater rate than
Made up of Rocks  Rocks
its replacement; More gradual than the mass wasting
Naturally occurring solid cluster of one or more
B. Endogenic Process
minerals
 Internal Process
The three major types of rocks:
 Reshaping the Earth’s landforms  Transform the
a. Igneous
Earth from within the crust
 Formed through the cooling and solidification of lava
 Two types:
and or magma
Volcanism
 Two types:
 Volcano – An eruption of molten rock, called magma
Intrusive - Solidifies within the crust
on the surface of the Earth  Magma from the mantle
Extrusive - Rocks that solidifies at thesurface of the rises through the crust and, ultimately, unto the
Earth surface.
  Lava is the primary material expelled from a volcano, Atmosphere
in addition to rocks, ash, and dust. layer of gases, such as nitrogen and oxygen, that
Tectonic Forces surrounds the planet.
 The Lithosphere can be broken up into smaller parts Came from the greek word “atmos” (vapour) and
called Tectonic plates. These plates are subjected to “sphaira" (sphere).
stress and, eventually, deformation. (Deformation is Four layers:
any change in the shape and size of a rock as a
response to stress.) Troposphere
 Folding Deformation: Occurs when the plates are  The lowest part of the 
subjected to compressional stress on both sides, Boundary layer: lowest part
causing them to fold. Atmosphere; of the troposphere.
 Faulting Deformation: Fracture or displacement of  The layer that we live in  Tropopause:
the plates along a fault plane. Three Types: boundary
Normal  Contains all of the weather between
Reverse troposphere and
Transform  Colder as the distance from stratosphere. sea level
increase (due to  Poles: 7-10 km decreased pressure).
Plate Movement  Equator: 17-18 km
The movement of the plates is the result of convection  Contains 75% of all the air in the atmosphere
currents. (Convection currents are currents that carry
heat from the lower mantle and the core to the Stratosphere
lithosphere.)  Area between the tropopause to about 50 km above
Seafloor Spreading: A process in which tectonic plates sea level.
split apart from each other due to mantle convection;  TIth ceo tnetmainpse mraotustre o fi nthcere
The slow churning of the Earth’s mantle oazsoen we it(hO 3h)e iing htht ed autem toos pthhee
Convergent – towards; forms trenches, mountains, re.absorption of Ultraviolet (UV) light by
and volcanic arcs 
Divergent – away; creates seafloor spreading, oceanic the ozone.
ridges, and continental drifting
 Stratopause: boundary between stratosphere and
Transform – slide past each other; creates earthquakes mesosphere.
 Geologic Hazards  Ozone is inorganic molecule that is essential in
1. Earthquakes – A sudden perceptible shaking of the Earth maintaining life on earth.
due to the sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust or  Ozone hole: located on the poles (particularly the
volcanic eruption. south pole);Created due to the introduction of free
The Philippines is largely susceptible to radical catalysts, such as CFC (Chlorofluorocarbon) in
earthquakes due to its location, which is the atmosphere.
within the pacific ring of fire. (PRoF – Major Mesosphere
area in the pacific ocean where 90% of the
 Area above the stratopause to ~100 km above sea
earthquake occurs.)
level.( ~85 km in higher latitudes)
The Philippines Institute of volcanology and
 Temperature decrease with height due to: decreased
Seismology (PHIVOCS) overlooks the seismic and
solar heating, less greenhouse gases, Coldest part of
volcanic activities in the Philippines.
the earth, Temperature reaching as low as -100ºC 
Landslides – Also known as landslips; A form of mass Mesopause: boundary between mesosphere and
wasting in which a great amount of soil, rocks, and or Thermosphere.
sediments move downslope; Common cause of

landslides: Earthquake, Volcano Eruption, Water
(raining) Least explored (cannot be reached by balloons and
lower than the altitude of space stations)
Tsunamis – An event caused by earthquakes, volcanic
eruption and or other seismic activities that affect  Meteors burn in this layer.
bodies of water, thus, also known as seismic sea wave; Thermosphere
Generated by a large displacement of water; The
Philippines is susceptible to tsunami due to its
location.
 Area above the mesopause to the ~500-1000 km.
--- (Varies due to location, time of day, solar influx,
Other Subsystems: season)
 Temperature increases with height due to: The Structure of the Atmosphere
Absorption of solar radiation
 Thermopause: boundary between thermosphere
and exosphere.
 Satellites orbit in the thermosphere. (Such as the Surrounding the Earth is a gaseous envelope or
space shuttles and the International Space Station.) atmosphere, held in place by the planet’s gravitational
attraction. The Earth’s
 Where the Aurora occur (Charged particles from
space collide with atoms and molecules in the atmosphere is a complex dynamical, physical, and
thermosphere) chemical system. Dyna- mic processes cover a large
Exosphere range of scales from the microscopic-scale dynamics of
evaporation, condensation, cloud formation and
 The regions beyond the thermosphere (above ~500- precipi- tation, to small-scale, localized vertical and
1000km)
horizontal wind motions, to medium-scale cyclones,
 Outermost layer of the atmosphere anticyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes,
 Composed mainly on hydrogen. (Helium, Carbon thunderstorms, fronts, etc., to the large- scale general
dioxide, atomic oxygen, etc. is found on its base) circulation of the atmosphere.
 Molecules are bound by gravity yet rarely interact
with each other. (behave in a
Physical processes in the atmosphere include the
“ballistic trajectory.”) transfer of incoming solar radiation through the
Hydrosphere atmosphere to the surface, the heating of the surface,
the emission of outgoing infrared radiation, the
Combined water found in and on earth
absorption of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases,
Ground water, Lakes, Oceans, Streams, Ice caps, Air the evaporation of water, the condensation of atmos-
~1400 million km3 pheric water vapor into clouds, and precipitation.
Average Salinity of Earth’s ocean is 35 grams of salt Chemical processes include the transformation and
per kilogram of sea water (3.5%) production of atmospheric gases, such as atmospheric
 Hydrometeorological Phenomenons ozone, via chemical reactions involving many dozens
of gases in the atmosphere.
Monsoons – Seasonal changes in atmospheric
circulation and precipitation Two Types:
1. Southwest monsoon (Habagat) – experienced in the While the Earth’s atmosphere extends upward for
Philippines on May to October 2. Northeast monsoon hundreds of kilometers until it merges with interplane-
(Amihan) – experienced in the Philippines on tary space, more than half of the atmosphere’s total
November to February
mass is below an altitude of only about 6 kilometers
Tropical Cyclones – Rapidly rotating storm system (3.75 miles) above the surface (Figure 2-1). The lowest
characterized by a low pressure centre, strong winds, region of the atmosphere, the troposphere, extends
and spiral arrangement of thunderstorms from the surface to an altitude that varies from 10 to
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and 15 kilometers (km) (6.2 to 9.3 miles (mi.)), depending
Astronomical Services (PAG-ASA) monitors the on latitude and season. The top of the troposphere is
called the tropopause. The regions of the atmosphere
above the troposphere are the stratosphere (from
between 10 and 15 to 40 km
(between 6.2-9.3 and 25 mi.)), the mesosphere (40 to
80 km (25 to 50 mi.)), the thermosphere (80 to 500 km
(50 to 310 mi.)) and the exosphere (begins at about
500 km (310 mi.)). The exosphere merges with
interplanetary space. The ionosphere is the region of
atmosphere between 40 and 300 km (25 and 185 mi.).
It is the region of positively-charged atoms and
molecules and negatively-charged electrons.

Figure 2-1. Regions of the atmosphere.

atmospheric occurrences in the Philippine

area The Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere
 direction, cloudiness and precipitation. Climate is the
The Earth’s atmosphere is a complex mixture of gases: state of the atmosphere over long time periods, such
nitrogen (N2) (about 78% by volume), oxygen (O2) as over years, decades, centuries or greater. In gen-
(about 21% by volume) and argon (Ar) (about 0.9% by eral, the weather that impacts the surface of the Earth
volume) with small and varying amounts of water and those that live on the surface takes place in the
vapor (H2O) (0 to 4% by volume) and still smaller troposphere. Weather parameters are measured with
amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), different instruments. Atmospheric temperature is
nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3) and dozens of other measured with a thermometer.
gases at still smaller concentrations. The chemi- cal Atmospheric pressure is a measure of the force
composition of the atmosphere is given in Table exerted by the mass of atmosphere on the surface at a
2-1. The protection afforded by the atmosphere is very given location. The average pressure of the atmo-
important for life on Earth. The atmosphere shields sphere at mean sea level is about 1 kg per square cm,
the Earth’s surface and its myriad forms of life from which is equivalent to about 14.7 pounds per square
biologically damaging high-energy cosmic radiation. In inch or a pressure of 1013.25 millibars (mb), and which
addition, ozone, found mostly in the stratosphere, is also referred to as 1 atmosphere. Atmo- spheric
absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, shielding pressure is measured with a barometer.
the Earth’s surface from this bio- logically damaging
radiation. Solar Radiation, the Greenhouse Effect and the
Temperature of the Earth
Table 2-1. Chemical Composition of the Earth’s
Atmosphere To a large extent, the temperature of the Earth’s
surface is determined by the amount of radiation
Gas Concentration* received from the Sun. Most of the incoming radiation
from the Sun is in the form of visible radiation.
Nitrogen (N2) 78.084%
Oxygen (O2) 20.946%
The atmosphere is mostly transparent to incoming
Argon (Ar) 0.934% solar radiation, i.e., this radiation is not absorbed by
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.037% gases in the atmosphere, with the notable exception
of solar ultraviolet radiation, which is absorbed by
Water Vapor (H2O) 0.01 to 4%†
ozone mostly located in the stratosphere. However,
Neon (Ne) 18.2 ppmv some of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back
Helium (He) 5.0 ppmv to space by clouds (Figure 2-2), by ice and snow at the
poles, and by desert areas. The surface of the Earth is
Methane (CH4) 1.8 ppmv
heated by the absorption of incoming solar radiation
Krypton (Kr) 1.1 ppmv and reaches a mean global temperature of about –18
Hydrogen (H2) 0.5 ppmv °C

Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 0.5 ppmv (0 °F). Once heated to the mean temperature, the
Earth emits radiation in the form of “long-
Xenon (Xe) 0.09 ppmv
wavelength,” or infrared, radiation back to space.
Ozone (O3) 0.0 to 0.07 ppmv† Unlike incoming solar radiation, which is not strongly
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) 0.02 ppmv absorbed by atmospheric gases and passes through
the atmosphere to the surface, outgoing infrared
*Concentration units: % or parts per million by volume radiation is strongly absorbed by several different
(ppmv) (1 ppmv = 0.0001%). atmospheric gases, including carbon dioxide, water
†Highly variable. vapor, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone.
The mean molecular mass of dry air is 28.97 atomic
mass units or Daltons. Immediately after being absorbed by these atmo-
spheric gases, the infrared radiation is quickly re-
emitted or released back to the atmosphere in both
Instruments to Measure Weather
the upward and downward directions. The downward
component of the re-emitted infrared radiation strikes
Weather is the instantaneous or current state of the the surface and causes additional heating, increasing
atmosphere and is measurable in terms of tempera- the mean temperature of the Earth to about 15 °C
ture, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed and
(59 °F). This additional heating is called the “green- corresponding sea level rise of 18 to 59 centimeters
house effect” and the gases that absorb and then re- (cm) (7 to 23 inches (in.)) during the 21st century.
emit infrared gases are called “greenhouse gases.”
Measurements show that atmospheric concentrations
of greenhouse gases — carbon dioxide, methane and Solar Heating and Atmospheric Motion
nitrous oxide — are increasing with time most
probably due to human activities. Atmospheric
Weather is a very complex phenomenon and is con-
concentrations of water vapor will increase as the
trolled by many factors and processes, such as the
temperature of the atmosphere increases. The buildup
heating of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere by in-
coming solar radiation. Incoming solar radiation is
Figure 2-2. Transfer of incoming solar radiation absorbed by the Earth’s surface, which in turn warms
through the atmosphere. the lower atmosphere. Because warmer air is less
dense than cooler air, the heated air will begin to rise

through the atmosphere. The rising air creates a low-

pressure area at the surface. The background, or
ambient, temperature of the atmosphere decreases
with altitude (Table 2-2) as the distance from the Sun-
heated surface increases. The decreased atmo- spheric
temperature with altitude causes water vapor in the
rising air mass to cool to its dew point, which
leads to condensation, the formation of cloud droplets
and clouds and maybe eventually precipitation.
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has led to
national and international concern about global Hence, rising air masses and low-pressure areas at the
warming and its accompanying environmental surface are usually associated with clouds and,
consequences. possibly, stormy conditions (Figure 2-3). Severe
weather phenomena, such as thunderstorms, torna-
does and hurricanes are all associated with rising air
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change motions and accompanying low-pressure surface
(IPCC) released its Fourth Assessment Report in
February 2007 with the following conclusions:
Table 2-2. The Variation of Mean Atmospheric
Temperature and Pressure with Altitude
• Warming of the climate system is unequivocal.

Altitude, Temperature,
• Most of the observed increase in globally °C (F) Pressure, millibars
averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is
very likely due to the observed increase in km (miles) (pounds per inch)
anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations. 0 15.0 (59.0) 1013.25 (14.696)
1 (0.62) 8.5 (47.3) 899 (13.038)
• Hotter temperatures and rises in sea level 2 (1.24) –2.0 (28.4) 795 (11.530)
“would continue for centuries” no matter how much 3 (1.86) –4.5 (23.9) 701 (10.167)
humans control their pollution.
4 (2.48) –11.0 (12.2) 616 (8.934)
5 (3.11) –17.5 (0.5) 540 (7.832)
• The probability that this is caused by natural
climatic processes alone is less than 5%. 6 (3.73) –24.0 (–11.2) 472 (6.846)
7 (4.35) –30.5 (–22.9) 411 (5.961)

• World temperatures could rise from anywhere 8 (4.97) –37.0 (–34.6) 356 (5.163)
between 1.1 and 6.4 °C (1.98 to 11.52 °F) with a
9 (5.59) –43.5 (–46.3) 307 (4.453) (74 miles per hour). A hurricane is a very energetic
10 (6.20) –50.0 (–58.0) 264 (3.829) phenomenon with energy release estimated to be the
equivalent of exploding a 10-megaton nuclear bomb
11 (6.83) –56.5 (–69.7) 226 (3.278) every 20 minutes or about 200 times the worldwide
12 (7.46) –56.5 (–69.7) 193 (2.799) electrical generating capacity per day. Although
hurricanes are large weather systems generating
13 (8.08) –56.5 (–69.7) 165 (2.393)
enormous energy, their movements over the Earth’s
14 (8.70) –56.5 (–69.7) 141 (2.045) surface are controlled by large-scale atmospheric
15 (9.32) –56.5 (–69.7) 120 (1.740) winds. Recently, it has been suggested that both the
numbers and intensity or energy of hurricanes will
increase as a consequence of global warming.

Figure 2-3. Rising air masses and low-pressure areas

Variations in Surface Atmospheric Pressure
are usually associated with clouds and stormy condi-
tions, while descending air and high-pressure areas at
the surface usually mean fair weather conditions. The mean sea level atmospheric pressure is about
1013.25 millibars (mb) or 14.7 pounds per square inch
(psi). A moderate cyclone has a surface pressure
areas. Regions of descending or falling air cause high-
pressure areas at the surface, and, in general, bring
cloud-free and fair weather conditions. Areas of low of about 995 mb. A very strong cyclone has a surface
and high pressure at the surface, caused by rising and pressure of about 975 mb. Hurricane Camille in 1969
falling air parcels, can vary in diameter from a few had a surface pressure of 908 mb. The lowest re-
meters to hundreds of kilometers. corded sea level pressure was 870 mb associated with
a Pacific typhoon on October 12, 1979. A moderate
anticyclone has a surface pressure of about 1030 mb.
Cyclones and Anticyclones
A very strong anticyclone has a surface pressure of
about 1050 mb. The highest recorded sea level pres-
A cyclone is a low-pressure weather system. The air sure was 1084 mb over Agata, Siberia, on December
above a cyclone rises, leading to the formation of 31, 1968. The decrease of atmospheric pressure with
clouds and possibly precipitation. In the northern altitude is shown in Table 2-2.
hemisphere, a counterclockwise rotation develops
around the cyclone center. In the southern
Air Masses and Fronts
hemisphere, a clockwise rotation develops around a
cyclone. The weather is usually stormy within low-
pressure areas. An air mass is a large body of air with nearly uniform
An anticyclone is a high-pressure weather system. The temperature and humidity that moves mostly in the
air above an anticyclone descends. In the northern horizontal direction. In general, air masses derive
hemisphere, a clockwise rotation develops around the temperature and humidity characteristics from the
anticyclone center. In the southern hemisphere, a Figure 2-4. Source regions of air masses.
counterclockwise rotation develops around an anti-
cyclone. In general, the weather is usually clear and
good within high-pressure areas.

A hurricane is a tropical cyclone. Hurricanes are

energized by heat released when moist air rises and
the water vapor in the rising air condenses. Hurri-
canes are born and sustained over large bodies of
warm water and lose their power over land where the
source of their energy, the condensation of water
vapor, is significantly reduced. Hurricanes can pro-
duce extremely strong winds, tornadoes, torrential
rain, high ocean waves and storm surge. A hurricane
has sustained winds of at least 119 km per hour
regions in which they originate, which are called the
air mass source regions (Figure 2-4). Typically, air
masses are classified first according to temperature:
polar (from between 50° and 65° latitude), tropical
(from 20° to 35° latitude) and equatorial (from over
the oceans near the equator). Polar (P) air masses are
cold; tropical (T) air masses are warm. Then, air
masses are classified either moist or dry depending
upon whether the source region is land or water.
Maritime (m) air masses form over the oceans and are
relatively moist; continental (c) air masses form over
land and are relatively dry. A maritime tropical air
mass is designated as mT, while a continental polar air
mass is designated cP. Fronts are the boundaries
between two different interacting air masses. A cold
front occurs when a cooler air mass moves in on a
warmer air mass. A warm front occurs when a warm-
er air mass moves over a cooler air mass. A stationary
front is a front that exhibits little or no movement. Figure 2-6. The Coriolis Effect.

General Circulation of the Atmosphere

Due to the curvature of the Earth (the Earth’s spheri-

city), the Sun’s rays are spread over a larger and larger
area the further the latitude from the equator.
Therefore the sunlight is less concentrated than at
latitudes nearer the equator and less solar heating
takes place. This is why the Earth’s equatorial regions
are hot and the polar regions are cold. The atmo-
sphere and ocean redistribute the excess solar energy causes it to descend to the surface, creating high-
from the equatorial regions to the polar regions via pressure areas at the surface. The descending air sets
their circulation (Figure 2-5). Hence, the solar-heated up surface wind patterns that flow away from these
air at the equator rises and then moves poleward at high-pressure systems towards the poles and the
high altitudes in both hemispheres. This causes a equator in both hemispheres. As air flows from regions
surface low-pressure area at the equator. The low- of high pressure to regions of low pressure,
pressure area between 5° N and 5° S is called the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITC). At about 30° N it is deflected to the right (in the northern
and 30° S of the equator, some of the high-altitude, hemisphere) and to the left (in the southern
poleward-moving heated air begins to cool, which hemisphere) by the Earth’s rotation. This is known as
the Coriolis Effect (Figure 2-6). Thus, in the northern
hemisphere, the surface air flowing equatorward is
Figure 2-5. The general circulation of the atmosphere. turned toward the southwest. These winds are called
the northeast trade winds because they blow from the
northeast (toward the southwest). In the southern
hemisphere, the surface air flowing equatorward is
turned toward the northwest. These winds are called
the southeast trade winds because they blow from the
southeast (toward the northeast). In both the
northern and southern hemispheres, the poleward
surface flow gets directed by the Coriolis effect,
resulting in westerly or prevail- ing westerly winds.
The general flow of the atmo- sphere begins to get
more complicated poleward of 30° in both
hemispheres due to the presence of fronts and the
high-altitude jet stream. In the northern hemi- sphere,
the flow of the prevailing westerlies is further
disturbed by the presence of land masses. Weather,
particularly poleward of 30°, is also impacted by
dissimilar and interacting large air masses forming
fronts and surface cyclones and anticyclones.
The Water Cycle and Clouds

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a global-

coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. El Niño and The water cycle (Figure 2-8) was already briefly
La Niña are major temperature fluctu- ations in the mentioned in relation to the condensation of water
surface waters of the tropical eastern vapor and the formation of cloud droplets and
eventually precipitation in rising air masses.
Pacific Ocean. Their effect on climate in the south- ern
hemisphere is significant. In the Pacific Ocean, during The three main elements of the water cycle are
major warming events, El Niño warming extends over evaporation, condensation and precipitation.
much of the tropical Pacific. The specific mechanisms Evaporation is the process of transforming liquid water
responsible for the El Niño ocean warming are not in the oceans and in the soil to water vapor, an
known. invisible, odorless gas that enters the atmosphere.
Condensation is the process of changing gaseous
water vapor back to liquid water and in the process
Jet streams are high-speed bands of winds in the forming cloud droplets. As the water vapor rises in the
upper troposphere that flow west to east over both atmosphere, atmospheric temperature decreases with
the northern and southern hemispheres (Figure 2-7). altitude and condensation begins, resulting in the
The winds in the jet stream are variable and may reach formation of tiny cloud droplets. The tiny cloud
500 kilometers per hour (310 miles per hour). In droplets begin to collide and coalesce with neigh-
winter, the average speed is 160 kilometers per hour boring cloud droplets, growing in size and weight
(100 miles per hour); in summer, the average speed is
80 kilometers per hour (50 miles per hour). The
location of the jet stream may move equator- ward and eventually forming precipitation, which “falls” out
and poleward from week to week. This move- ment of of the atmosphere as liquid water droplets (rain) or
the location of the jet stream “steers” fronts at the solid water particles (snow and hail).
surface and hence, greatly impacts local weather over
the Earth. When the jet stream dips down to the
Other processes in the water cycle are freezing,
southeast U.S., colder than normal temperatures often
melting and sublimation, which all involve changing
cover the eastern half of the country, while warmer
the state of water. Sublimation is the change of phase
than normal temperatures often prevail in the western
from a solid to a gas without the intermediate step of
half of the country.
forming liquid. In the case of water, sublimation is the
change from snow or ice to gaseous water vapor,
without the intermediate step of forming liquid water.

Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) are very small

particles (typically about 1/100th the size of a cloud
droplet) upon which cloud droplets coalesce. To make
a transition from the gaseous state of water vapor to
the liquid water droplet, a nongaseous surface is
required. In the atmosphere, tiny solid or liquid CCN
particles provide this surface.

Figure 2-7. The jet stream over North America. Clouds are visible masses of condensed droplets or
frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere above
the surface. Clouds are divided into two main
categories: convective or cumulus clouds (in Latin,
cumulus means piled up) and layered or stratus clouds
(in Latin, stratus means layer). Cumulus and stratus
clouds are divided into four more groups that distin-
guish the altitude location of the cloud. The family of
low clouds (found up to 2 km (6,500 ft)) includes
stratus, nimbostratus, cumulus, and stratocumulus.
Figure 2-8. The water cycle. Cumulus clouds (Figure 2-9) are dense, white and
puffy, resembling cotton balls. Cumulus clouds are Relative humidity is the percentage of water vapor in
found either as single clouds or closely packed clouds. the atmosphere compared with the maximum amount
While cumulus clouds resemble puffy white cotton of water vapor that the atmosphere could contain at
balls and are associated with good weather, stratus that temperature. The dew point of a given parcel of
clouds (Figure 2-10) are dark gray, low, uniformly air is the temperature to which the parcel must be
stratified or layered covering the entire sky and are cooled, at constant pressure, for the water vapor
usually associated with rain. Middle clouds are found component to condense. Humidity is measured with a
between 2 and 5 km (6,500 and 16,500 ft). Middle psychrometer.
clouds are denoted by the prefix “alto” and include
altostratus and altocumulus. High clouds are found Wind speed is measured with a 4-cup anemometer
above 5 km (16,500 ft) in the cold region of the and wind direction is measured with a weather vane.
troposphere and are denoted by the prefix “cirro” or Winds are named after the direction from which they
cirrus. At this altitude, water freezes so the clouds are flow. For example, the northeast trade winds flow in a
almost always composed of ice crystals. These clouds southward direction from the northeast. The amount
are wispy and often transparent. High clouds include of cloud cover is estimated either visually or photo-
cirrus, cirrostratus and cirrocumulus. Aircraft contrails graphically. The amount of precipitation is measured
form in this altitude range. Vertical clouds have strong with a rain gauge.
upward currents and form over a wide altitude range
and include cumulonimbus, which are very large,
towering dark clouds usually associated with heavy
precipitation and thunderstorm activity.

Figure 2-9. Cumulus clouds.

What are the Earth's layers?

by Matt Williams, Universe Today

There is more to the Earth than what we can see on

the surface. In fact, if you were able to hold the Earth
in your hand and slice it in half, you'd see that it has
Figure 2-10. Stratus clouds.
multiple layers. But of course, the interior of our world
continues to hold some mysteries for us. Even as we
intrepidly explore other worlds and deploy satellites
into orbit, the inner recesses of our planet remains off
limit from us.

However, advances in seismology have allowed us to

learn a great deal about the Earth and the many layers
that make it up. Each layer has its own properties,
composition, and characteristics that affects many of
the key processes of our planet. They are, in order
from the exterior to the interior – the crust, the
Humidity is a general term that refers to the water mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. Let's take a
vapor content of the air. Absolute humidity is the look at them and see what they have going on.
actual amount of water vapor per volume of air.
Like all terrestrial planets, the Earth's interior is By the 6th century BCE, Greek philosophers began to
differentiated. This means that its internal structure speculate that the Earth was in fact round, and by the
consists of layers, arranged like the skin of an onion. 3rd century BCE, the idea of a spherical Earth began to
Peel back one, and you find another, distinguished become articulated as a scientific matter. During the
from the last by its chemical and geological properties, same period, the development of a geological view of
as well as vast differences in temperature and the Earth also began to emerge, with philosophers
pressure. understanding that it consisted of minerals, metals,
and that it was subject to a very slow process of
change.
Our modern, scientific understanding of the Earth's
interior structure is based on inferences made with
the help of seismic monitoring. In essence, this However, it was not until the 16th and 17th centuries
involves measuring sound waves generated by that a scientific understanding of planet Earth and its
earthquakes, and examining how passing through the structure truly began to advance. In 1692, Edmond
different layers of the Earth causes them to slow Halley (discoverer of Halley's Comet) proposed what is
down. The changes in seismic velocity cause refraction now known as the "Hollow-Earth" theory. In a paper
which is calculated (in accordance with Snell's Law) to submitted to Philosophical Transactions of Royal
determine differences in density. Society of London, he put forth the idea of Earth
consisting of a hollow shell about 800 km thick (~500
miles).
These are used, along with measurements of the
gravitational and magnetic fields of the Earth and
experiments with crystalline solids at pressures and Between this and an inner sphere, he reasoned there
temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep was an air gap of the same distance. To avoid collision,
interior, to determine what Earth's layers looks like. In he claimed that the inner sphere was held in place by
addition, it is understood that the differences in the force of gravity. The model included two inner
temperature and pressure are due to leftover heat concentric shells around an innermost core,
from the planet's initial formation, the decay of corresponding to the diameters of the planets
radioactive elements, and the freezing of the inner Mercury, Venus, and Mars respectively.
core due to intense pressure.

Halley's construct was a method of accounting for the

History of Study: values of the relative density of Earth and the Moon
that had been given by Sir Isaac Newton, in his
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) –
Since ancient times, human beings have sought to which were later shown to be inaccurate. However, his
understand the formation and composition of the work was instrumental to the development of
Earth. The earliest known cases were unscientific in geography and theories about the interior of the Earth
nature – taking the form of creation myths or religious during the 17th and 18th centuries.
fables involving the gods. However, between classical
antiquity and the medieval period, several theories
emerged about the origin of the Earth and its proper Another important factor was the debate during the
makeup. 17th and 18th centuries about the authenticity of the
Bible and the Deluge myth. This propelled scientists
and theologians to debate the true age of the Earth,
and compelled the search for evidence that the Great
Flood had in fact happened. Combined with fossil
evidence, which was found within the layers of the
Most of the ancient theories about Earth tended
Earth, a systematic basis for identifying and dating the
towards the "Flat-Earth" view of our planet's physical
Earth's strata began to emerge.
form. This was the view in Mesopotamian culture,
where the world was portrayed as a flat disk afloat in
an ocean. To the Mayans, the world was flat, and at it The development of modern mining techniques and
corners, four jaguars (known as bacabs) held up the growing attention to the importance of minerals and
sky. The ancient Persians speculated that the Earth their natural distribution also helped to spur the
was a seven-layered ziggurat (or cosmic mountain), development of modern geology. In 1774, German
while the Chinese viewed it as a four-side cube. geologist Abraham Gottlob Werner published Von den
äusserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien (On the
External Characters of Minerals) which presented a
detailed system for identifying specific minerals based Darwin's discovery of giant fossils during the voyage
on external characteristics. helped to establish his reputation as a geologist, and
his theorizing about the causes of their extinction led
to his theory of evolution by natural selection,
In 1741, the National Museum of Natural History in published in On the Origin of Species in 1859.
France created the first teaching position designated
specifically for geology. This was an important step in
further promoting knowledge of geology as a science During the 19th century, the governments of several
and in recognizing the value of widely disseminating countries including Canada, Australia, Great Britain
such knowledge. And by 1751, with the publication of and the United States funded geological surveying that
the Encyclopédie by Denis Diderot, the term "geology" would produce geological maps of vast areas of the
became an accepted term. countries. By this time, the scientific consensus
established the age of the Earth in terms of millions of
years, and the increase in funding and the
By the 1770s, chemistry was starting to play a pivotal development of improved methods and technology
role in the theoretical foundation of geology, and helped geology to move farther away from dogmatic
theories began to emerge about how the Earth's layers notions of the Earth's age and structure.
were formed. One popular idea had it that liquid
inundation, like the Biblical Deluge, was responsible
for creating all the geological strata. Those who By the early 20th century, the development of
accepted this theory became known popularly as the radiometric dating (which is used to determine the age
Diluvianists or Neptunists. of minerals and rocks), provided the necessary the
data to begin getting a sense of the Earth's true age.
By the turn of the century, geologists now believed the
Another thesis slowly gained currency from the 1780s Earth to be 2 billion years old, which opened doors for
forward, which stated that instead of water, strata had theories of continental movement during this vast
been formed through heat (or fire). Those who amount of time.
followed this theory during the early 19th century
referred to this view as Plutonism, which held that the
Earth formed gradually through the solidification of In 1912, Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of
molten masses at a slow rate. These theories together Continental Drift, which suggested that the continents
led to the conclusion that the Earth was immeasurably were joined together at a certain time in the past and
older than suggested by the Bible. formed a single landmass known as Pangaea. In
accordance with this theory, the shapes of continents
and matching coastline geology between some
In the early 19th century, the mining industry and continents indicated they were once attached
Industrial Revolution stimulated the rapid together.
development of the concept of the stratigraphic
column – that rock formations were arranged
according to their order of formation in time. Research into the ocean floor also led directly to the
Concurrently, geologists and natural scientists began theory of Plate Tectonics, which provided the
to understand that the age of fossils could be mechanism for Continental Drift. Geophysical evidence
determined geologically (i.e. that the deeper the layer suggested lateral motion of continents and that
they were found in was from the surface, the older oceanic crust is younger than continental crust. This
they were). geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of
paleomagnetism, the record of the orientation of the
Earth's magnetic field recorded in magnetic minerals.
Computer simulation of the Earth’s field in a period of
normal polarity between reversals. Credit:
science.nasa.gov Model of a flat Earth, with the continents modeled in a
During the imperial period of the 19th century, disk-shape and Antarctica as an ice wall. Credit:
European scientists also had the opportunity to Wikipedia Commons
conduct research in distant lands. One such individual Then there was the development of seismology, the
was Charles Darwin, who had been recruited by study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic
Captain FitzRoy of the HMS Beagle to study the coastal waves through the Earth or through other planet-like
land of South America and give geological advice. bodies, in the early 20th century. By measuring the
time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves,
scientists were able to gradually infer how the Earth
was layered and what lay deeper at its core.
 surface, the nickel-iron alloys and silicates are cool
For example, in 1910, Harry Fielding Ried put forward enough to be solid. In the upper mantle, the silicates
the "elastic rebound theory", based on his studies of are generally solid but localized regions of melt exist,
the 1906 San Fransisco earthquake. This theory, which leading to limited viscosity.
stated that earthquakes occur when accumulated
energy is released along a fault line, was the first In contrast, the lower mantle is under tremendous
scientific explanation for why earthquakes happen, pressure and therefore has a lower viscosity than the
and remains the foundation for modern tectonic upper mantle. The metallic nickel–iron outer core is
studies. liquid because of the high temperature. However, the
intense pressure, which increases towards the inner
Then in 1926, English scientist Harold Jeffreys claimed core, dramatically changes the melting point of the
that below the crust, the core of the Earth is liquid, nickel–iron, making it solid.
based on his study of earthquake waves. And then in
1937, Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann went a step The Earth’s Tectonic Plates. Credit: msnucleus.org
further and determined that within the earth's liquid
outer core, there is a solid inner core. The differentiation between these layers is due to
processes that took place during the early stages of
Earth's formation (ca. 4.5 billion years ago). At this
By the latter half of the 20th century, scientists time, melting would have caused denser substances to
developed a comprehensive theory of the Earth's sink toward the center while less-dense materials
structure and dynamics had formed. As the century would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus
played out, perspectives shifted to a more integrative believed to largely be composed of iron, along with
approach, where geology and Earth sciences began to nickel and some lighter elements, whereas less dense
include the study of the Earth's internal structure, elements migrated to the surface along with silicate
atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere into one. rock.

This was assisted by the development of space flight, The Earth’s layers (strata) shown to scale. Credit:
which allowed for Earth's atmosphere to be studied in pubs.usgs.gov
detail, as well as photographs taken of Earth from Crust:
space. In 1972, the Landsat Program, a series of
satellite missions jointly managed by NASA and the
U.S. Geological Survey, began supplying satellite The crust is the outermost layer of the planet, the
images that provided geologically detailed maps, and cooled and hardened part of the Earth that ranges in
have been used to predict natural disasters and plate depth from approximately 5-70 km (~3-44 miles). This
shifts. layer makes up only 1% of the entire volume of the
Earth, though it makes up the entire surface (the
continents and the ocean floor).
Layers:

The thinner parts are the oceanic crust, which

The Earth can be divided into one of two ways – underlies the ocean basins at a depth of 5-10 km (~3-6
mechanically or chemically. Mechanically – or miles), while the thicker crust is the continental crust.
rheologically, meaning the study of liquid states – it Whereas the oceanic crust is composed of dense
can be divided into the lithosphere, asthenosphere, material such as iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks
mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. (like basalt), the continental crust is less dense and
But chemically, which is the more popular of the two, composed of sodium potassium aluminum silicate
it can be divided into the crust, the mantle (which can rocks, like granite.
be subdivided into the upper and lower mantle), and
the core – which can also be subdivided into the outer
core, and inner core. The uppermost section of the mantle (see below),
together with the crust, constitutes the lithosphere –
an irregular layer with a maximum thickness of
The inner core is solid, the outer core is liquid, and the perhaps 200 km (120 mi). Many rocks now making up
mantle is solid/plastic. This is due to the relative Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (1×108)
melting points of the different layers (nickel–iron core, years ago. However, the oldest known mineral grains
silicate crust and mantle) and the increase in are 4.4 billion (4.4×109) years old, indicating that Earth
temperature and pressure as depth increases. At the has had a solid crust for at least that long.
 The lower mantle lies between 660-2,891 km (410-
Upper Mantle: 1,796 miles) in depth. Temperatures in this region of
the planet can reach over 4,000 °C (7,230 °F) at the
boundary with the core, vastly exceeding the melting
The mantle, which makes up about 84% of Earth's points of mantle rocks. However, due to the enormous
volume, is predominantly solid, but behaves as a very pressure exerted on the mantle, viscosity and melting
viscous fluid in geological time. The upper mantle, are very limited compared to the upper mantle. Very
which starts at the "Mohorovicic Discontinuity" (aka. little is known about the lower mantle apart from that
the "Moho" – the base of the crust) extends from a it appears to be relatively seismically homogeneous.
depth of 7 to 35 km (4.3 to 21.7 mi) downwards to a
depth of 410 km (250 mi). The uppermost mantle and
the overlying crust form the lithosphere, which is The internal structure of Earth. Credit: Wikipedia
relatively rigid at the top but becomes noticeably more Commons/Kelvinsong
plastic beneath. Outer Core:

Compared to other strata, much is known about the The outer core, which has been confirmed to be liquid
upper mantle, thanks to seismic studies and direct (based on seismic investigations), is 2300 km thick,
investigations using mineralogical and geological extending to a radius of ~3,400 km. In this region, the
surveys. Movement in the mantle (i.e. convection) is density is estimated to be much higher than the
expressed at the surface through the motions of mantle or crust, ranging between 9,900 and 12,200
tectonic plates. Driven by heat from deeper in the kg/m3. The outer core is believed to be composed of
interior, this process is responsible for Continental 80% iron, along with nickel and some other lighter
Drift, earthquakes, the formation of mountain chains, elements.
and a number of other geological processes.

Denser elements, like lead and uranium, are either too

The mantle is also chemically distinct from the crust, in rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter
addition to being different in terms of rock types and elements and thus remain in the crust. The outer core
seismic characteristics. This is due in large part to the is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid
fact that the crust is made up of solidified products even though it has a composition similar to that of the
derived from the mantle, where the mantle material is inner core. The temperature of the outer core ranges
partially melted and viscous. This causes incompatible from 4,300 K (4,030 °C; 7,280 °F) in the outer regions
elements to separate from the mantle, with less dense to 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F) closest to the inner
material floating upward and solidifying at the surface. core.

Illustration of Edmond Halley’s model of a Hallow Because of its high temperature, the outer core exists
Earth, one that was made up of concentric spheres. in a low viscosity fluid-state that undergoes turbulent
Credit: Wikipedia Commons/Rick Manning convection and rotates faster than the rest of the
The crystallized melt products near the surface, upon planet. This causes eddy currents to form in the fluid
which we live, are typically known to have a lower core, which in turn creates a dynamo effect that is
magnesium to iron ratio and a higher proportion of believed to influence Earth's magnetic field. The
silicon and aluminum. These changes in mineralogy average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is
may influence mantle convection, as they result in estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), which is 50 times
density changes and as they may absorb or release the strength of the magnetic field measured on Earth's
latent heat as well. surface.

In the upper mantle, temperatures range between 500 Inner Core:

to 900 °C (932 to 1,652 °F). Between the upper and
lower mantle, there is also what is known as the The growing importance of mining in the 17th and
transition zone, which ranges in depth from 410-660 18th centuries, particularly for precious metals, led to
km (250-410 miles). further developments in geology and Earth sciences.
Credit: minerals.usgs.gov
Lower Mantle: Like the outer core, the inner core is composed
primarily of iron and nickel and has a radius of ~1,220
km. Density in the core ranges between 12,600-13,000
kg/m3, which suggests that there must also be a great that the Earth's inner core, and the processes that
deal of heavy elements there as well – such as gold, drive it, are far more complex than previously thought!
platinum, palladium, silver and tungsten.

Yes indeed, the Earth is a strange and mysteries place,

The temperature of the inner core is estimated to be titanic in scale as well as the amount of heat and
about 5,700 K (~5,400 °C; 9,800 °F). The only reason energy that went into making it many billions of years
why iron and other heavy metals can be solid at such ago. And like all bodies in our universe, the Earth is not
high temperatures is because their melting a finished product, but a dynamic entity that is subject
temperatures dramatically increase at the pressures to constant change. And what we know about our
present there, which ranges from about 330 to 360 world is still subject to theory and guesswork, given
gigapascals. that we can't examine its interior up close.

Because the inner core is not rigidly connected to the As the Earth's tectonic plates continue to drift and
Earth's solid mantle, the possibility that it rotates collide, its interior continues to undergo convection,
slightly faster or slower than the rest of Earth has long and its core continues to grow, who knows what it will
been considered. By observing changes in seismic look like eons from now? After all, the Earth was here
waves as they passed through the core over the long before we were, and will likely continue to be
course of many decades, scientists estimate that the long after we are gone.
inner core rotates at a rate of one degree faster than
the surface. More recent geophysical estimates place
the rate of rotation between 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per There are three kinds of rock: igneous, sedimentary,
year relative to the surface. and metamorphic.
Igneous rocks form when molten rock (magma or lava)
cools and solidifies. Sedimentary rocks originate when
Recent discoveries also suggest that the solid inner particles settle out of water or air, or by precipitation
core itself is composed of layers, separated by a of minerals from water. They accumulate in layers.
transition zone about 250 to 400 km thick. This new Metamorphic rocks result when existing rocks are
view of the inner core, which contains an inner-inner changed by heat, pressure, or reactive fluids, such as
core, posits that the innermost layer of the core hot, mineral-laden water. Most rocks are made of
measures 1,180 km (733 miles) in diameter, making it minerals containing silicon and oxygen, the most
less than half the size of the inner core. It has been abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.
further speculated that while the core is composed of
iron, it may be in a different crystalline structure that
the rest of the inner core.

What's more, recent studies have led geologists to

conjecture that the dynamics of deep interior is driving
the Earth's inner core to expand at the rate of about 1
millimeter a year. This occurs mostly because the inner
core cannot dissolve the same amount of light
elements as the outer core.

Artist’s illustration of Earth’s core, inner core, and

inner-inner core. Credit: Huff Post Science
The freezing of liquid iron into crystalline form at the
inner core boundary produces residual liquid that
contains more light elements than the overlying liquid.
This in turn is believed to cause the liquid elements to
become buoyant, helping to drive convection in the
outer core.

This growth is therefore likely to play an important

role in the generation of Earth's magnetic field by
dynamo action in the liquid outer core. It also means