Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Durability of steel fiber reinforced concrete with coarse steel slag

aggregates including performance at elevated temperatures
M. Papachristoforou, E.K. Anastasiou ⇑, I. Papayianni
Laboratory of Building Materials, Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

h i g h l i g h t s

 Concrete produced with steel fibers and Electric Arc Furnace slag as coarse aggregate.
 Slag aggregate concrete compared to reference with limestone aggregates.
 Thermal behavior up to 870 °C, flexural and impact toughness, and durability measured.
 Mechanical properties and durability of concrete improved with EAF slag use.
 Reduced risk of spalling for slag aggregate concrete after high temperature exposure.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present study investigates the performance of concrete with Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steel slag as
Received 22 April 2020 coarse aggregate and steel fiber reinforcement. EAF slag was tested for suitability as concrete aggregate
Received in revised form 21 July 2020 regarding chemical properties, granulometry, apparent specific density, water absorption and flakiness
Accepted 13 August 2020
index. Test concrete mixtures were prepared with EAF slag as coarse aggregate with either no reinforce-
ment, or with 30 mm or 60 mm steel fibers at a volume ratio of 0.7%. The test concretes were compared to
reference concretes with natural limestone coarse aggregates to determine potential improvement due to
Keywords:
the use of EAF slag or due to the use of different steel fiber sizes. The testing program consisted of mea-
Steel fiber reinforced concrete
EAF steel slag aggregate
suring fresh concrete properties, as well as mechanical properties and toughness of the hardened con-
Durability crete. The results on fresh concrete showed that water absorption of EAF slag needs to be considered
Elevated temperatures at the design stage, otherwise there is a workability loss in fresh concrete, and that EAF slag use leads
Impact resistance to considerable increase in density. However, the mechanical properties of concrete with EAF slag aggre-
gates were significantly higher compared to the reference concrete. This increase was also recorded
regarding the toughness and impact resistance of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC). Durability mea-
surements regarding drying shrinkage, abrasion resistance and freeze-thaw resistance showed that the
use of EAF slag as coarse aggregate improved the performance of SFRC. Regarding thermal behavior,
the thermal conductivity of the test concretes was measured, while hardened SFRC specimens were sub-
jected to elevated temperatures up to 870 °C. After heating, the microstructure of the concrete was inves-
tigated, and the specimens were tested for compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity. The results
show that although EAF slag aggregates tend to form micro cracks at temperatures higher than 600 °C
and the rate of strength loss is increased, there is a reduced risk of spalling.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction improve the compressive strength of concrete [3,4], but they have
been reported to improve flexural strength and post cracking
Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is a special type of concrete that behavior, increasing the toughness of concrete [5,6]. Fiber rein-
has evolved over the past decades, providing solutions to civil engi- forcement also increases the resistance of concrete to dynamic
neering applications. Although it cannot substitute conventional loading [7] and especially impact resistance [8,9]. Song and Hwang
reinforcement, it can be combined with it in order to improve some [10] reported that the brittle behavior of high-strength concrete
properties of ordinary concrete [1,2]. Typically, fibers do not can be overcome by using steel fiber reinforcement and such prop-
erties have led to the use of fiber reinforcement in Ultra High Per-
formance Concrete [11]. Many researchers have investigated the
⇑ Corresponding author. influence of the type (steel or synthetic), the length and shape

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120569
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569

(straight, waved or hook end) and the volume fraction of fibers to investigated by the authors [39], however the present article inves-
the properties of the concrete [12–16]. Most of the literature tigates the durability and explores further the thermal behavior of
agrees that steel fibers improve concrete toughness more than EAF slag aggregate concrete. Alternative aggregates are always a
polypropylene fibers, waved or hook end fibers are preferable cause of concern in the design process and sufficient durability
because of the bonding achieved and a reasonable fiber volume needs to be established for use, especially in the case of concrete
fraction is between 0% and 2%. with embedded steel. In this direction, steel-fiber reinforced con-
Regarding the durability of FRC, it seems that steel fibers can crete with EAF slag aggregate was tested for drying shrinkage
improve the concrete microstructure [17], as well as freeze–thaw and freeze–thaw resistance, properties related to the type of aggre-
resistance [18,19], compared to ordinary concrete. Sumathi & Sar- gates used. Furthermore, the response of the proposed concrete to
avana [20] have reported improved resistance of SFRC against sul- impact, as well as its post-cracking behavior were also investigated
phuric & hydrochloric acid, while Ruano et al. [21] found that fibers to identify possible contribution from EAF slag use. Finally, the arti-
help preventing debonding of the jacketing in repaired reinforced cle aims to explore the response of EAF slag aggregate steel fiber
concrete beams, while they also help recover the initial strength. reinforced concrete to elevated temperatures, which is not fully
Overall, it can be said that the mechanical and durability properties understood yet. Steel fibers of either 30 mm or 60 mm length were
of SFRC are either similar or improved when compared to ordinary used for reasons of comparison, while the concrete with EAF slag
concrete [22]. An aspect of concrete durability that requires further aggregates was compared against concrete with conventional
investigation is that of resistance to fire or elevated temperatures. crushed limestone aggregates. Initially, EAF slag properties,
Since, in some cases, FRC finds use due to its resistance to impact, it mechanical properties and toughness of the test concrete were
could also be subjected to other extreme conditions such as blast measured. Regarding thermal behavior, the mechanical properties
or fire. Research on the properties of FRC has shown that steel and microstructure after exposure to elevated temperatures,
fibers perform better than synthetic fibers at elevated tempera- reaching 870 °C, were investigated, as well as thermal conductiv-
tures [23], while the addition of steel fibers in concrete under tem- ity. The outcome of the research could be useful for the optimiza-
peratures no higher than 600 °C can effectively inhibit SFRC tion of EAF slag aggregate concrete design.
specimens from crushing into fragments when subjected to
dynamic compressive loadings [24]). Although compressive
2. Experimental program
strength, elastic modulus, and toughness of SFRC still decrease
after exposure to elevated temperatures, results are better com-
2.1. Materials
pared to concrete without fibers. Researchers [24,25] suggest that
the amount of steel fibers used is not critical, suggesting 1% volume
The aggregates used in this study where either EAF slag or nat-
ratio, while the type of fiber used is more important. Park et al. [26]
ural limestone aggregates from the area of Macedonia, Greece. It
suggest a combination of synthetic and steel fibers in order to
was decided to use only coarse EAF slag, since fine slag had
improve performance at elevated temperatures.
increased coarseness and water absorption. Coarse EAF slag was
Another way of improving the fire resistance of concrete is to
available in fractions of 4 to 8 mm and 8 to 16 mm, so natural lime-
consider the use of alternative aggregates [27]. Electric Arc Furnace
stone was used in the same fractions for reasons of comparison.
(EAF) slag is a by-product of the steel making industry, formed
The fine aggregate in all the test mixtures was crushed limestone.
after the melting of scrap with the addition of lime, and produced
A blended pozzolanic Portland cement type CEM IV 32.5 accord-
at large volumes worldwide [28,29]. EAF slag is suggested as an
ing to EN 197–1 was used for all the test mixtures, with its typical
alternative concrete aggregate due to its strength, toughness and
constituents being cement clinker, fly ash, natural pozzolan and
abrasion resistance, which results in concrete with improved
ground limestone. The steel fibers used where hook end type,
mechanical properties [30–32], while Faleschini et al. [33] reported
either 30 mm long with L/D ratio: 40, or 60 mm long with L/D
an improvement in chloride penetration resistance in concrete
ratio: 60 (Fig. 1). A polycarboxylic ether-based superplasticizer
with EAF slag aggregates. Disadvantages of EAF slag include high
was used to adjust workability of the fresh concrete.
density and water demand, which may render fresh concrete less
workable [34]. Arribas et al. [35] suggest that EAF slag aggregate
improves the microstructure of concrete by forming an improved 2.2. Tests on aggregates
interfacial transition zone with the cement paste, which accounts
for strength increase. Since EAF slag typically contains some Two aggregate gradation mixtures were used; a reference
amounts of free CaO and MgO, there are reasonable concerns over aggregate mix only with limestone aggregates, and a test aggregate
possible delayed expansion in concrete. Relevant studies [36,37] gradation mix with fine natural limestone and coarse EAF slag
have shown that through good technical understanding of the aggregates. Both gradation curves were designed to be suitable
properties, screening and weathering of EAF slag can be used to for concrete and similar for comparison purposes (Fig. 2).
avoid possible expansion, and long-term durability of the concrete In order to characterize EAF slag for use in concrete some of its
produced can be established. Netinger et al. [38] have studied the physical and chemical properties were determined and compared
effect of using EAF slag aggregates in concrete with polypropylene to natural aggregates. The density and water absorption of the
fibers subjected to elevated temperatures. The results showed that aggregates were measured according to EN 1097–6 and the flaki-
although EAF slag aggregate concrete performed in a similar way ness index according to EN 933–3. The chemical constituents of
compared to reference concrete up to 600 °C, at higher tempera- the aggregates were determined using Atomic Absorption Spec-
tures the reference concrete with dolomitic aggregates performed troscopy, while the specific surface and porosity of the aggregates
better. Since polypropylene fibers are known to improve spalling were measured with the BET method using a Quantachrome Nova
of concrete at elevated temperatures but reduce residual mechan-
ical properties [23,38], the durability of EAF slag aggregate con-
crete with steel fiber reinforcement needs further investigation.
The present research aims at improving understanding of EAF
slag use in concrete, regarding its use in steel fiber-reinforced con-
crete. The use of EAF slag aggregates in Steel Fiber Reinforced Con-
crete and its effect on mechanical properties have been previously Fig. 1. Types of steel fibers used.
 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569 3

Fig. 2. Aggregate gradation curves.

200 Series apparatus. The BET method as a measure of specific sur- measure of SFRC workability, and the results show that all test
face is based on physical adsorption of gas molecules at tempera- mixtures had comparable Vebe time; 2  7 s. Furthermore, the
tures near their boiling point. The morphology and surface use of EAF slag aggregate results in marginally heavyweight con-
characteristics of the slag and limestone aggregate particles were crete, with unit weight higher than 2600 kg/m3.
investigated with Scanning Electron Microscopy, using a JEOL From the six test mixtures, 150 mm cubic specimens,
JSM-840Α Scanning Microscope. 100  450  450 mm3 slabs, 150  150  550 mm3 and
100  100  10003 mm prismatic specimens were cast and com-
pacted in a vibrating table. Then the specimens were cured in a cli-
2.3. Concrete mix design matic chamber of 20 °C temperature and 95% RH until testing.

For the test concrete mixtures, a common concrete mix with

370 kg/m3 cement and w/c = 0.50 was used as reference. The steel 2.4. Mechanical properties of the test concretes
fiber volume ratio was selected to be 0.7%, based on literature and
previous experience and two more reference mixtures were pre- Table 2 shows an overview of the tests carried out. The unit
pared, one with short (30 mm long) and one with long (60 mm) weight and the ultrasonic pulse velocity, using a Proceq Pundit
fibers. Then the three reference mixtures were repeated with EAF Lab ultrasonic equipment, was determined in 150 mm cubic spec-
slag as coarse aggregates (Table 1). Superplasticizer was adjusted imens, in order to identify presence of voids and general com-
in all fresh concrete mixtures, in order to achieve equal workabil- paction problems in the test mixtures. Steel fibers and EAF slag
ity. Fresh concrete workability was assessed by slump and Vebe aggregates generally increase the unit weight of concrete, however,
time, according to EN 12350–2:2000 and EN 12350–3:2000, if inadequate compaction is achieved, ultrasonic pulse velocity
respectively. would decrease due to increased voids in the matrix. Compressive
The use of EAF slag aggregate required higher amount of super- strength was measured at 7, 28 and 90 days, in order to determine
plasticizer in order to achieve adequate workability, but also the rate of strength development. Three cubic specimens were
reduced slump compared to the reference concrete, which is tested for each mix and for each test age. In order to assess the
expected due to the microstructure and surface characteristics of influence of steel fiber type and EAF slag on fracture toughness,
slag, as explained in Section 3.1. Slump also reduced due to the the flexural strength by means of the limit of proportionality and
use of steel fibers, which is expected and lead to the measurement residual flexural strength of fiber reinforced SCC was measured,
of Vebe time instead. Vebe time is considered a more suitable according to EN 14651:2005. For this test, the load-Crack Mouth

Table 1
Test concrete mix proportioning.

Mix designation L(0) LF(30) LF(60) S(0) SF(30) SF(60)

Cement type CEM IV 32.5N 370 370 370 370 370 370
Water 185 185 185 185 185 185
Crushed limestone 0–4 mm 813 813 813 829 829 829
Crushed limestone 4–8 mm 452 452 452 – – –
Crushed limestone 8–16 mm 542 542 542 – – –
EAF slag 4–8 mm – – – 635 635 635
EAF slag 8–16 mm – – – 612 612 612
Steel fibers 30 mm – 55 – – 55 –
Steel fibers 60 mm – – 55 – – 55
Superplasticizer 1.85 1.85 1.85 2.96 2.96 2.96
Total 2364 2418 2418 2634 2689 2689
Fresh concrete properties
Slump (mm) 120 50 90 30 0 0
Vebe time (s) 2 3 3 4 6 7
4 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569

Table 2
Overview of experimental program.

Test Number of specimens tested Measurable parameters

per concrete mix
Mechanical properties
Compressive strength 3 for each testing age Compressive strength development at 7, 28 and 90 days
3-point bending strength 3 Bending strength at first crack and Ultimate bending strength, CMOD at first crack
Residual bending strength after first crack* 3 Limit of proportionality, fR,1, fR,2, fR,3 and fR,4
Durability
Impact resistance 2 Energy absorbed up to first crack and up to failure
Porosity 2 Open porosity
Water absorption 2 Water absorption
Volume stability 2 Drying shrinkage
Abrasion resistance 2 Abrasion depth
Resistance to freezing-thawing cycles 2 Loss of material
Concrete performance at elevated temperatures
Conduction of heat** 4 Thermal conductivity k
Exposure to 400, 500, 600 and 800 °C 2 for each temperature Residual compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity
Scanning Electron Microscopy 1 Assessment of concrete microstructure after heating
DTA–TG thermogravimetric thermal analysis** 1 Assessment of calcium carbonate decomposition after heating
*
Only for concrete mixtures with fibers.
**
Only for unreinforced concrete mixtures.

Opening Displacement (CMOD) curve was obtained by testing produced the load-CMOD curve, used to determine the limit of pro-
notched prismatic 150  150  5003 mm beams in flexure. Central portionality, FL, which is the maximum load for CMOD  0.05 mm,
deflection measurement obtained by a displacement transducer and residual flexural tensile strengths fR,1, fR,2, fR,3, fR,4 obtained for
the corresponding load values at CMOD = 0.5 mm, 1.5 mm, 2.5 mm
and 3.5 mm, respectively. These values were used to describe the
post cracking behavior of SFRC.

2.5. Durability testing

Due to the use of alternative aggregates, the durability of the

proposed SFRC needed to be assessed. Impact strength, porosity,
and water absorption measurements, along with volume stability,
abrasion resistance and freeze–thaw resistance testing were
selected for assessing the durability of EAF slag aggregate concrete
in comparison to the reference concretes. Impact strength testing
was performed in 150  150  550 mm3 beams for the SFRC mix-
tures. The beams were simply supported at a 450 mm span and a
7.95 kg steel ball dropped at the middle of the span from a height
of 250 mm (Fig. 3). The number of drops required for the first crack
was recorded, as well as the number of drops required for the crack
to reach the upper surface of the specimen, designated as failure
Fig. 3. Impact strength testing scheme. (Fig. 4). The evolution of the crack at the lower surface of the

Fig. 4. First crack (left) and final crack (right) during impact strength testing.
 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569 5

specimen was recorded by measuring CMOD with a displacement out steel fibers, was measured using a QuickLine-10 Thermal Con-
transducer. ductivity Meter according to ASTM Ε1530-97.
The energy absorbed by the specimen for each impact U was Cubic specimens after 28 days of curing in the climatic chamber
calculated from the mass of the ball and the speed of impact. For and then stored in environmental conditions until 90 days were
the present experimental data, the impact energy for a single exposed to elevated temperatures of 400, 500, 600 and 800 °C in
impact is equal to 19.497 J. This value multiplied by the number electric furnaces. Before heating the test specimens their ultrasonic
of impacts produced the energy absorbed by the specimen until pulse velocity was measured, while compressive strength tests
failure. were carried out on other specimens of the same age and curing
The porosity and water absorption of the concrete specimens regime. The heating up to 400, 500 and 600 °C was performed in
was measured in 100 mm sawn cubic specimens under vacuum a laboratory furnace, using the heating curve of Fig. 5a, after pre-
according to RILEM CPC 11.3 [40]. For the measurement of volume heating the specimens in an oven for 24 h at 100 °C. Due to the lim-
stability, drying shrinkage was measured and the requirements of itations of the laboratory furnace, the heating up to 800 °C was
ASTM C157-03 and C341-03 were followed. 100  100  performed in an industrial furnace, using the heating curve of
1000 mm3 specimens, after demoulding, were placed in a chamber Fig. 5b, again after preheating the specimens in an oven for 24 h
with 20 °C and 60% RH and their length change was recorded for at 100 °C. Specimens from the mixtures LF(60) and SF(60) were
56 days. The abrasion resistance test was carried out in heated further up to 870 °C, in order to investigate the effect CaCO3
100  450  4503 mm slabs according to ASTM C779-12. The spec- decomposition which occurs above 840 °C.
imens were subjected to 20 min of abrasion and then the average The heating stopped after reaching the target temperature and
gauge depth was recorded. Regarding freeze–thaw testing, the the specimens were allowed to cool down slowly in the furnace for
requirements of EN 12390–9:2006 were followed. Sawn 24 h. After heating the residual properties of the specimens regard-
50  100  1003 mm specimens were subjected to 24-hour cycles ing compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity were deter-
of freezing to 18 °C and thawing to 20 °C in a 3% NaCl solution. mined. Furthermore, Scanning Electron Microscopy was performed
The loss of material in kg per m2 exposed was measured after 24 in order to assess the microstructure of the concrete after heating,
cycles, which was selected as suitable amount of cycles for the pur- as well as DTA–TG thermogravimetric thermal analysis (TA Instru-
poses of the present report. ments SDT 2960) in order to assess the effect of calcium carbonate
decomposition to the concrete.
2.6. Concrete performance at elevated temperatures
3. Results and discussion
Firstly, thermal conductivity was measured to determine the
effect of using coarse EAF slag aggregates in the thermal behavior 3.1. Comparison of aggregate properties
of ordinary concrete. Thermal conductivity k of the test mixtures
with limestone aggregates and with EAF slag aggregates, but with- The chemical composition of limestone and EAF slag aggregates
is shown in Table 3. EAF slag consists mostly of ferrous, siliceous
and calcium oxides, while its MgO content is relatively low. Since
EAF slag is an industrial by-product, other slags may have different
values in the main oxides.
The physical properties of the aggregates tested are shown in
Table 4. The results confirm that EAF slag shows high density, clas-
sifying as a heavyweight aggregate, due to its ferrous oxide con-
tent. The increased water absorption, specific area, and open

Table 3
Chemical composition of limestone and EAF slag aggregates.

Constituents (%) Limestone EAF slag

Na2O 0.05 0.60
K2O 0.02 0.06
CaO 49.63 31.72
Fig. 5a. Laboratory furnace heating curve. MgO 1.02 1.99
MnO – 6.28
FeO – 36.06
Fe2O3 0.69 –
Al2O3 0.34 6.14
SiO2 2.44 17.14
L.O.I. 45.8 –

Table 4
Physical properties of limestone and EAF slag aggregates.

Property Limestone EAF slag

Apparent specific density (kg/m3) 2650 3330
Bulk specific density (kg/m3) 1415 1562
Water absorption (%) 0.72 2.67
BET specific surface area (m2/g) 1.613 13.930
Open porosity (%) 0.129 4.089
Flakiness index (%) 33 8
Fig. 5b. Industrial furnace heating curve.
6 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569

Fig. 6. SEM images of a coarse limestone aggregate particle.

Fig. 7. SEM images of a coarse EAF slag aggregate particle.

porosity of EAF slag compared to natural aggregates, is attributed achieved with the smaller sized fibers and that the presence of
to its production process. EAF slag is slowly cooled with water 60 mm steel fibers induces voids to the mix.
spraying, producing granules of irregular surface and cavities. Compressive strength tests were conducted at 7, 28 and 90 days
These values are not considered as indications of poor quality, as (Fig. 8) and the results show a marked strength increase when
confirmed by the increased resistance to fragmentation (Los Ange- using EAF slag as coarse aggregates, reaching 52–54 MPa at 28 days
les test) performed by previous researchers [41]. Still, increased and 63–65 MPa at 90 days. This result is in agreement with previ-
absorption needs to be addressed in the concrete design and it is ous research [42–44] and is attributed to the good mechanical
suggested that slag aggregates should be soaked to saturated sur- properties of EAF slag. The rate of strength development of con-
face dry condition in order to avoid water retention in fresh con- crete with EAF slag aggregates is similar to that of ordinary con-
crete. Furthermore, the increased specific area of slag is expected crete with limestone aggregates, regardless of the use of steel
to produce less workable fresh concrete mixtures, but also is fibers. Steel fibers, either 30 mm or 60 mm long, used at a volume
expected to improve the interfacial transition zone between the ratio of 0.7% do not seem to offer any change in compressive
aggregate and the cement paste. The lower flakiness index of slag strength of the concrete.
indicates that it has more rounded particles compared to limestone 3-point bending tests were conducted to determine the tough-
aggregates. This is a desired property in aggregates as it reduces ness of SFRC, as well as bending strength. Fig. 9 shows the Load-
aggregate particle cracking at high strength levels. SEM images Crack Mouth Opening Displacement (CMOD) for the four SFRC
(Figs. 6-7) confirm that EAF slag shows considerably higher surface mixtures investigated. Given that the volume ratio of fibers is con-
hardness and void content compared to natural limestone stant, the post-crack behavior of SFRC improved considerably with
aggregates. the use of 60 mm fibers in comparison to 30 mm fibers. Although
the first crack appears at similar CMOD values for all test mixtures,

3.2. Mechanical properties of concrete with coarse EAF slag aggregates

Table 5
Unit weight measurements of cubic specimens after 28 days of Unit weight and UPV of 28-day cubic specimens (average of six).
curing (Table 5) confirm the weight increase when EAF slag was Unit weight Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
used, which was calculated at about 11%. The ultrasonic pulse (kg/m3) (m/s)
velocity (UPV) values were lower when limestone aggregates were L(0) 2397 5138
substituted with EAF slag, which is an indication of higher number LF(30) 2415 5180
of voids, probably owing to the high porosity of slag. The use of LF(60) 2427 4979
steel fibers increased slightly the unit weight of concrete due to S(0) 2673 4839
SF(30) 2667 5013
their density, but UPV increased for 30 mm fibers and decreased
SF(60) 2705 4865
for 60 mm fibers. This is an indication that better compaction is
 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569 7

Fig. 8. Compressive strength development of test concrete mixtures.

Fig. 9. Load-CMOD curves of SFRC test mixtures.

when EAF slag was used the load required was greater, as well as flexural strength according to EN 14651:2005 (Fig. 10). The
the ultimate bending strength value (Table 6). Furthermore, both improved flexural strength of EAF slag aggregate concrete can be
steel fibers and EAF slag aggregates improved post-cracking attributed to good bonding with the cement paste. The irregular
behavior, as measured by the limit of proportionality and residual surface of EAF slag grains, documented in the higher specific area
(Table 4) and the surface properties (Figs. 6 and 7) seems to
Table 6 achieve better adhesion to the cement paste, compared to lime-
Flexural strength test results. stone aggregates, which along with the high hardness of the slag
results in improved flexural properties of the concrete.
First crack Bending strength Ultimate bending
at first crack strength
(mm) (MPa) (MPa) 3.3. Durability of concrete with coarse EAF slag aggregates
LF(30) 0.0096 3.82 4.26
LF(60) 0.0101 4.21 6.60 Table 7 shows the results of the impact strength test. Steel
SF(30) 0.0074 5.81 4.55
fibers are known to improve impact resistance and, in these
SF(60) 0.0097 4.92 10.03
results, increasing the fiber length seems to improve impact
8 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569

Fig. 10. Limit of proportionality and residual flexural strength measurements according to EN 14651:2005.

resistance further. When EAF slag aggregates were used the of the section increased by 10% or more. This improvement is also
amount of energy required to produce the first crack, as well as attributed to the increased hardness of EAF slag aggregates, as well
the amount of energy required for the crack to reach the upper part as their bonding with the cement paste.
The results of the porosity, water absorption and abrasion resis-
tance measurements of the unreinforced concretes are shown in
Table 7 Table 8. The increased porosity and water absorption values of S
Impact strength test results for the SFRC mixtures. (0) reflect the increased porosity and water absorption of EAF slag
First crack Failure aggregates, as measured in Table 4. This increase, however, does
Number of blows Energy Number Energy
not seem to affect the mechanical properties of concrete, as shown
absorbed (J) of blows absorbed (J) in Section 3.2. Abrasion resistance, on the other hand, improved by
LF(30) 8 156.0 59 1150.3
38% with the use EAF slag aggregates. This improvement was
LF(60) 11 214.5 96 1871.7 expected due to the hardness of EAF slag, which seems to suitable
SF(30) 20 389.9 66 1286.8 for abrasion resistant concrete.
SF(60) 25 487.4 338 6590.0 Regarding drying shrinkage, the deformation of the test speci-
mens was measured for 56 days after demoulding and the results
are shown in Fig. 11. Despite the increased porosity, concrete with
EAF slag aggregates showed slightly better volume stability com-
pared to concrete with limestone aggregates. Aggregates play a
Table 8
Porosity, water absorption and abrasion resistance measurements of unreinforced key role in the deformation of concrete [45], which explains the
test concretes. effect of EAF slag on shrinkage. Both types of steel fibers used also
contributed slightly to reduce concrete shrinkage.
Porosity Water absorption Abrasion resistance
(%) (%) (mm) The loss of material recorded after 24 freeze–thaw cycles is
shown in Fig. 12. The freeze–thaw resistance of concrete did not
L(0) 2.84 7.48 2.95
S(0) 3.40 9.16 1.82 alter significantly with the use of either type of steel fibers, how-
ever it did improve considerably with the use of EAF slag. Despite

Fig. 11. Drying shrinkage of the test concretes.

 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569 9

Fig. 12. Freeze-thaw resistance test results.

Fig. 13. Residual strength of concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures.

Fig. 14. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures.
10 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569

the increased water absorption of slag aggregate concrete, it seems The rate of strength loss for the EAF slag aggregate concrete
that its improved microstructure and interfacial transition zone after heating up to 400 °C was higher compared to the reference
properties (as expressed by its higher compressive and flexural concrete, while the use of steel fibers partly mitigated this effect.
strength) account for the reduced loss of material recorded. The initial bonding of EAF slag with the cement paste, as it can
be seen in Fig. 15, is excellent, accounting for the higher initial
3.4. Thermal behavior of concrete with coarse EAF slag aggregates compressive and flexural strength compared to the reference con-
crete. However, heating up to 400 °C already deteriorated this
Thermal conductivity k was measured equal to 1.76 W/m2K for bonding with the formation of cracks, as shown in Fig. 16. Since
the reference L(0) concrete and equal to 1.45 W/m2K for the con- the slag grains were still intact, it is assumed that the two materi-
crete S(0) where EAF slag was used as coarse aggregate. The 18% als have a different coefficient of thermal expansion, which leads to
reduction in thermal conductivity indicates that slag hinders the the formation of cracks [48]. At temperatures between 400 °C and
diffusion of temperature within the concrete to some extent. 600 °C, the calcium hydroxide decomposition caused a rapid
Regarding the residual properties after heating, Figs. 13 and 14 decrease in the compressive strength of concrete with EAF slag
show the rate of compressive strength and UPV loss, respectively. aggregates, while the concrete with limestone aggregates showed
All test concretes perform more or less the same regarding the a smaller decrease rate. Fig. 17 shows that after heating at 600 °C
UPV values, while the differences in compressive strength are more the cement paste and the slag aggregate still remain without sig-
pronounced. That is because UPV depends largely on void content nificant internal cracks. After heating at 800 °C (Fig. 18) cracks
and the changes in void content due to cracking are relatively small appear within the cement paste, while the cracks of the interfacial
up to 400 °C (Figs. 15 and 16). At temperatures higher than 450 °C transition zone seem to increase. Owing to these changes, the rate
calcium hydroxide decomposes, causing a steep reduction in UPV. of strength loss at temperatures between 600 °C and 800 °C seems
For EAF slag aggregate concrete, the UPV decrease is greater, similar for the concretes with either limestone or slag aggregates.
implying that these concretes contain a higher amount of calcium At temperatures higher than 840 °C, calcium carbonate is
in the form of hydroxide. Furthermore, the transformation of FeO known to decompose to calcium hydroxide. At these temperatures,
and Fe2O3 in slag into Fe3O4 starts at 500 °C and causes some vol- Ca(OH)2 is decomposed into CaO and water. As a result, concrete
ume expansion [46,47]. At temperatures greater than 600 °C the subjected to such temperatures has the risk of spalling due to rehy-
changes in UPV were again small, owing to the rate of crack forma- dration of CaO. A thermogravimetric analysis of a limestone grain
tion and mass decomposition of the concrete. before and after heating to 870 °C showed an increase of Ca(OH)2

Fig. 15. Stereoscopic image (left) and SEM image (right) of concrete S(0) at laboratory temperature. Spectrum 1 shows an area of cement paste and Spectrum 2 an area of EAF
slag grain.

Fig. 16. Stereoscopic image (left) and SEM image (right) of concrete S(0) after heating at 400 °C. Spectrum 1 shows an area of EAF slag grain and Spectrums 2 and 3 an area of
cement paste.
 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569 11

Fig. 17. Stereoscopic image (left) and SEM image (right) of concrete S(0) after heating at 600 °C. Spectrum 1 shows an area of cement paste and Spectrum 2 an area of EAF slag
grain.

Fig. 18. Stereoscopic image (left) and SEM image (right) of concrete S(0) after heating at 800 °C. Spectrum 1 shows an area of cement paste and Spectrum 2 an area of EAF slag
grain.

Fig. 19. Thermogravimetric analysis of a limestone grain at laboratory temperature.

12 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569

Fig. 20. Thermogravimetric analysis of a limestone grain after heating at 870 °C.

Fig. 21. Visual observation of limestone aggregate concrete (left) and EAF slag coarse aggregate concrete (right) after heating at 870 °C.

content from 0.81% to 14.57% wt. (Figs. 19 and 20). This CaCO3 and durability. The density of concrete increased from the use of
decomposition and rehydration into Ca(OH)2 was confirmed after EAF slag and the increase depends on the volume fraction of the
examining the specimens from concretes LF(60) and SF(60) sub- aggregate used, while porosity and water absorption increased
jected to temperatures up to 870 °C. Fig. 21 shows extensive spal- accordingly, which was also recorded by the UPV measurements.
ling of the limestone aggregate concrete and considerably less There was a marked increase in compressive strength with the
spalling of the EAF slag coarse aggregate concrete. use of EAF slag, which was also recorded in various durability mea-
The reduced spalling in EAF slag aggregate concrete during surements. Drying shrinkage was reduced, while abrasion resis-
heating at temperatures higher than 800 °C is very promising, tance and freeze–thaw resistance were increased with the use of
despite the compressive strength decrease due to the formation EAF slag in unreinforced concrete. Performance at elevated tem-
of microcracks. Microcracking could serve as a release valve for peratures, however, showed that unreinforced concrete with EAF
concentrated humidity within the concrete matrix, avoiding explo- slag showed greater strength loss after heating at 800 °C.
sive spalling. A similar approach has been suggested regarding the
use of polypropylene fibers in concrete at elevated temperature, 3.6. Impact of EAF slag aggregate use in steel fiber reinforced concrete
which melt at 170 °C, leaving an escape route for humidity [49].
Furthermore, EAF slag has a melting point of ~ 1300 °C, which The impact of replacing coarse natural aggregates with EAF slag
means that it could serve to maintain some structural integrity in steel fiber reinforced concrete, in general, followed the same
of concrete even at temperatures higher than 800 °C. trend as in unreinforced concrete. The increase in unit weight,
compressive strength, and the decrease in UPV reflecting higher
3.5. Impact of EAF slag aggregate use in unreinforced concrete porosity were comparable for concretes with or without fibers.
The fracture toughness and impact strength measurements, how-
The effect from EAF slag aggregate use in unreinforced concrete ever, showed enhanced performance of concrete combining EAF
can be summarized in terms of physical and mechanical properties, slag aggregates and steel fibers, especially when the 60 mm fibers
 M. Papachristoforou et al. / Construction and Building Materials 262 (2020) 120569 13

were used. For these two properties, the use of 60 mm instead of significantly the residual properties of SFRC after exposure to ele-
30 mm steel fibers seemed to contribute more to the increase. vated temperatures. The use of steel fibers though, did decrease
The use of EAF slag instead of limestone aggregates seemed to con- the rate of strength loss. The rate of compressive strength loss of
tribute more to the improvement regarding drying shrinkage and concrete with EAF slag aggregates was higher, compared to con-
freeze–thaw resistance, but the effect was enhanced when EAF slag crete with limestone aggregates, but the residual strength was also
was combined with steel fibers. Finally, regarding performance at higher due to the initial strength increase (up to 44%). Heating up
elevated temperatures, the combined use of EAF slag and steel to 870 °C showed that, despite the rate of strength loss, coarse EAF
fibers seemed to reduce strength loss after heating at 800 °C and slag aggregates could significantly reduce spalling.
reduced spalling considerably after heating at 870 °C. Based on these results, EAF slag seems to be a good alternative
concrete aggregate. Despite its increased density which provides
extra own weight loads on structures, there seem to be several
4. Conclusions benefits regarding strength, durability, and performance after
exposure to elevated temperatures. Regarding future research,
The present study investigated the suitability of using EAF slag the microstructure of EAF slag could be explored further to explain
as coarse aggregate in either unreinforced concrete or SFRC, its bonding properties and hardness despite increased open porosity.
effect on mechanical properties and durability, as well as its resid- The performance of concrete with EAF slag aggregates at elevated
ual properties after exposure to elevated temperatures. temperatures could also be investigated further, by considering
Regarding the properties of EAF slag as concrete aggregate, it either longer exposure times or higher temperatures.
showed higher density, porosity and water absorption values com-
pared to natural crushed limestone. Higher density occurred due to CRediT authorship contribution statement
its ferrous oxide content and results in increasing the density of the
produced concrete. Higher porosity and water absorption in EAF M. Papachristoforou: Methodology, Validation, Investigation,
slag aggregate cannot be associated with reduced mechanical Writing - original draft. E.K. Anastasiou: Methodology, Validation,
properties, as shown by the concrete strength test results. They Writing - review & editing, Visualization. I. Papayianni: Conceptu-
can be attributed to its cooling method during production which alization, Methodology, Supervision.
resulted in high surface irregularity, as confirmed by SEM images
and specific surface measurements. This needs to be taken account Declaration of Competing Interest
during concrete design as it affects the free water content greatly.
The mechanical strength test results showed that by replacing The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
coarse limestone aggregates with EAF slag, there was an increase cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
in compressive strength by more than 10 MPa. The rate of strength to influence the work reported in this paper.
development remained unchanged and the increase occurred
regardless of the use of steel fibers. Regarding bending strength Acknowledgements
and fracture toughness, there seemed to be a coupled effect with
EAF slag use and steel fibers. While EAF slag use increased flexural The authors would like to thank Stavroula Konopisi and
strength compared to limestone aggregates, when 60 mm steel Eirini-Crysanthi Tsardaka for assisting with the experimental part
fibers were used instead of 30 mm, the increase was higher. The of the paper.
same pattern was observed regrading fracture toughness, as mea-
sured by the load-CMOD curves and the residual flexural strength.
Funding
The increase in compressive and flexural strength properties can
be explained by the good mechanical properties of EAF slag and
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
by its good adhesion to the cement paste due to the surface irreg-
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
ularity mentioned before.
Durability measurements showed that concrete with EAF slag
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