Knowing the

Heavens
Our view of the night sky
is shaped by our location
on Earth. In addition, the
changes in appearance of
the night sky is most
effected by the motions of
the Earth itself. Since it is
of fundamental importance
to know where a source is
in the sky at any time, a This is the idea of the celestial sphere - a
coordinate system must be 2-d model of the universe which amounts to
devised which is a giant sphere centered on the Earth. This
independent of these model allows us to locate an object to two
motions. of three spatial dimensions.

Text Reading: Section 1.5, Chapter 2.

 Angular Measures
The sky is modelled as a
sphere which means that
angles are the natural unit of
measure:

•Full circle = 360 degrees (º)

•1º = 60 arcminutes(')

•1' = 60 arcseconds('')

Some typical angles:

•Full Moon - 0.5º

•horizon to zenith - 90º

•pointer stars on big dipper - 5º

•tip of index finger - ~1º

•fist of outstretched hand - 10º

The celestial sphere is an
extension of the Earth’s Celestial Sphere
geographical coordinate
system.
Earth’s equator =>
celestial equator divides
north and south

Latitude=> a measure
north and south from the
equator called the
Declination

Longitude => Right

ascension is the location
along the equator,
measured from the vernal
equinox (defined below).
 Celestial Sphere cont.
Celestial Equator- 360° circle forming the central dividing line for the
sphere with angle measured from west to east. Typically measured in
hour-angles (24 hours = 360 degrees).

North and South Celestial poles - points on the sky directly above the
Earth’s north pole and directly below the Earth’s south pole.

Declination is measured from 0 - 90° in the northern hemisphere as we

go away from the celestial equator and from 0 - -90° as we head south
from the equator.

At any point on the Earth, the right ascension and declination is related to
two measures unique to an observers location: azimuth (angle along the
horizon from due north heading east) and altitude (angle above horizon).
In addition, the zenith is the spot directly overhead (90 degrees from the
horizon)
Any object lies in one specific
constellation, which makes them a
convenient way to know the approximate
positions of stars.

Despite being near each other, many of

these stars are in completely distinct
regions (remember 3-d)
Constellations
Constellations are 88
regions which cover the
entire sky and are
named for the
associated asterism
(grouping of stars
forming a suggestive
pattern - formerly
constellations).
Local The view of the universe from Earth is complicated by three
motions: diurnal (daily) rotation, revolution around the Sun,
View and precession.
The perspective an
observer has depends
upon the observers
geographic location, and
is affected by the
motions mentioned
above.

Stars will rise in the

east and set in the west.

Some stars - called

circumpolar - never set
at a certain location
 Diurnal
Motion

The Earth rotates (spins) around its axis once in 24 hours. This defines
the solar day (time from one noon to the next where noon is the time of
the Suns highest elevation). The solar day is an average over the entire
year, since the time from sunrise to sunrise varies slightly over a year.
This rotation results in the fundamental motion we see for objects in
the sky over a single day - they are seen to move from east to west in
the sky (although it is us who are rotating in the opposite direction).

(Earth's equatorial circumference is 25,000 miles. A person at the

equator has speed 25000 miles/24 hr or ~1000 miles per hour)
The Earth orbits around the Sun at a nearly
constant distance (to within 3%). This orbit
determines the length of a year - 365 ¼ mean
solar days. This constantly changes our view.
Revolution Around the Sun

Yearly, the Sun moves through the

celestial sphere in a circle called
the ecliptic.
This circle is offset from the
celestial equator by 23.5°
 Earth’s Tilt and Seasons
According to conservation of angular momentum - any freely spinning
body tends to maintain its orientation. As a consequence of this and the
offset of the ecliptic from the celestial equator we have the seasons.
When a pole is oriented more towards the Sun it is summer in that
hemisphere (more and longer sunlight), when oriented away from the
Sun it is winter (less and shorter sunlight).
Equinox and Solstice This offset of the
ecliptic from the
celestial equator marks
important dates.

Equinox - A
date/location where the
celestial equator and
ecliptic cross - vernal
and autumnal

Solstice - the points at

which the ecliptic is as
far north (summer) or
south (winter) of the
celestial sphere as
possible.
 Equinox and Solstice cont.
Vernal equinox - the Sun crosses the celestial equator heading
northward, typically Mar 21 (the vernal equinox forms the origin of the
right ascension measure on the celestial sphere - measured eastward
from the equinox). First day of spring.

Summer solstice - the Sun is at its northernmost in the sky and days
are longest in the north - typically June 21. First day of summer.

Autumnal equinox - the Sun is crossing the celestial equator heading

south - typically Sep 22. First day of fall.

Winter solstice - the Sun is at its southernmost point in the sky with
summer in the south - typically Dec 21. First day of winter.
 Over the year, the Sun is
Solar Motion in the seen to make differing
Northern Hemisphere paths in the sky.

The Sun is at it's

northernmost point during
the summer solstice, and
most southerly at the winter
solstice.

At the equinoxes, the Sun

is up for 12 hours, rising
due east and setting due
west.
 Earth’s Precession
While a freely spinning body maintains its orientation, the Earth is not
completely freely spinning.

The Earth is not a perfect sphere, and bulges along the equator.
Gravitational forces from the Sun and Moon act on the bulge to try to
re-orient the Earth, causing the Earth to precess (gradually change
orientation) much like a gyroscope or top.
Precession of the North
Pole The Earth spin axis
maintains the 23.5°
offset from the ecliptic
and traces out a circle in
the sky with a 23.5°
radius over a 26000 year
period.

In addition, the equinox

will shift as well since
the entire ecliptic
changes.
Apparent solar day - the interval between
two meridian transits of the Sun from any
place on Earth (noon to noon). This time
Solar
varies throughout the year because of the Day
Earth’s orientation and variations in the
Earth’s orbital speed.
Mean solar day - the average
transit time which defines the
24 hour day (‘normal’ hour).

In addition, the equinox will

shift as well since the entire
ecliptic changes.
Solar Day
 A more reliable measure for
Sidereal Day astronomical purposes
comes from the sidereal
day. This is defined as the
time between successive
meridian crossings of the
vernal equinox (a distant
point).

The sidereal day is about 4

minutes shorter than the
mean solar day due to the
orbit of the Earth.
There is a direct relationship between rise/set times and the
location in the sky - this is the reason Right Ascension is
measured in time units.