Summary of

Applied Linguistics
(S5)
 Content
Lesson One: Applied Linguistics
(1). History & Definition………………………………..……………………………………………………4

(2). Definitions of Applied Linguistics……………….………………………………………………………5

(3). Defining Characteristics of Applied Linguistics………………………………………………...……….6

(4). The Relationships between AL and other language-related fields………………………………………6

(5). Applied Linguistics or Linguistics Applied? ............................................................................................7

(6). Why Study Applied Linguistic?.................................................................................................................7

(7). First Language Acquisition………………………………………………………………………………8

(8). Stages of Language Acquisition…………………………………………………………………………8

(9). Theories of Language Acquisition……………………………………………………………………...10

(10). Behaviorism…………………………………………………………………………………………...11

(11). Innateness or Mentalism………………………………………………………………………………13

(12). Evidence to Support the Innateness Theory…………………………………………………………...15

(13). Limitations of Chomsky’s Theory…………………………………………………………………….17

(14). Cognitivism…………………………………………………………………………………………....17

(15). Limitations of the Cognitive Theory…………………………………………………………………..18

(16). Cognitivism and Foreign Language Teaching………………………………………………………...19

Lesson Two: Krashen’s Model

(1). Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………..20

(2). The Five Hypotheses……………………………………………………………………………………20

(3). The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis………………………………………………………………….20

(4). Implications of the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis in Language Teaching…………………………21

(5). Criticism of the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis……………………………………………………..22

(6). The Monitor Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………………..22

(7). Implications of the Monitor Hypothesis to in the Classroom…………………………………………..23

(8). Criticism of the Monitor Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………...23

(9). The Natural Order Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………….24

(10). Implications of the Natural Order Hypothesis in the Classroom……………………………………..24

(11). Criticism of the Natural Order Hypothesis……………………………………………………………24

(12). The Input Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………………….25

(13). The Input Hypothesis in the Classroom……………………………………………………………….26

(14). Implications of Teaching in the Input Hypothesis…………………………………………………….26

(15). Comprehensible Input V.S. Vygotsky’s ZPD: (Social Constructivism)?..............................................27

(16). Strengths and Weaknesses of the Input Hypothesis…………………………………………………...28

(17). The Affective Filter Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………….28

(18). Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………….31

Lesson Three: Methods of Language Teaching

(1). Grammar-Translation Approach……………………………………………..…………………………32

(2). Direct Approach………………………………………………………………………………………...33

(3). Reading Approach………………………………………………………………………………………34

(4). Audiolingual Method…………………………………………………………………………………...34

(5). Communicative Language Teaching (CLL)……………………………………………………………37

(6). Suggestupedia…………………………………………………………………………………………..39

(7). The Silent Way………………………………………………………………………………………….39

(8). Total Physical Response (TPR)………………………………………………………………………...40

(9). The Natural Approach………………………………………………………………………………......42

(10). Communicative Language Teaching………………………………………………………………….42

Lesson Four: Contrastive Analysis

(1). Contrastive Analysis-(Hypothesis)……………………………………………………………………..43

(2). Contrastive Analysis-(Purpose)………………………………………………………………………...43

(3). Contrastive Linguistics (CL)……………………………………………………………………………44

(4). Contrastive Linguistics in Linguistics…………………………………………………………………..44

(5). Theoretical Contrastive Linguistics…………………………………………………………………….44

(6). Applied Contrastive Linguistics………………………………………………………………………...45

(7). Contrastive Linguistics-(Terms)………………………………………………………………………..45

(8). Contrastive Linguistics (CL) and First Language Teaching (FLT)…………………………………….45

(9). Contrastive Analysis-(Eclipse)…………………………………………………………………………46

(10). Interlanguage…………………………………………………………………………………………..46

(11). Transfer………………………………………………………………………………………………..46

Lesson Five: Error Analysis

(1). Error Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….47

(2). Interlanguage………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...49
Lesson One: Applied Linguistics
(1). History and Definitions:-
. AL (short for Applied Linguistics) is an Anglo-American
Coinage.
. Founded first at the university of Edinburgh school of AL in
1956.
. In 1957, the center of AL became in Washington D.C.
. The British Association of AL (B.A.A.L.) was formally
established in 1967.
. The aims of AL: “The advancement of education by fostering and
promoting, by any lawful charitable means, the study of language
use, language acquisition, language teaching, and the fostering of
inter-disciplinary collaboration in this study.” (B.A.A.L.) (1994).
. In the 1960’s and the 1970’s, AL was mainly about language
teaching.
. AL covers two main points:
- The study of second and foreign language learning and
teaching.
- The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical
problems.
. AL uses language-related research in a variety of fields (E.G.
language acquisition, language teaching, literacy, gender studies,
language policy, speech therapy, discourse analysis, censorship,
workplace communication, media studies, lexicography,
translation, forensic linguistics.)
(2). Definitions of Applied Linguistics:-
. “AL is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of
language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of
the efficiency of some practical tasks in which language is a
central component.” (Corder, 1974, p.24).
. “A branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the
application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to the
elucidation of language problems which have risen in other areas
of experience.” (Crystal, 1985).
. “A multi-disciplinary approach to the solution of language-related
problems.” (Strevens, 1982).
. “AL is using what we know about (a) language, (b) how it is
learned, and (c) how it is used in order to achieve some purpose or
solve some problem in the real world.” (Schmit & Celcemulcia,
2002, p.1).
. “The focus of Applied Linguistics is trying to solve language-
based problems that people encounter in the real world, whether
they be leraners, teachers, supervisors, academics, lawyers, service
providers, those who need social service, test takers, policy
developers, dictionary makers, translators, or a whole range of
business clients.” (Grabe, 2002, p.9).
(3). Defining Characteristics of Applied Linguistics:-
. AL is autonomous, multidisciplinary, and problem solving.
. Practical concerns have an important role in shaping the questions
that AL answers.
. Language-related problems concern learners, teachers, academics,
lawyers, test takers, service providers, etc.…
. Problems related to language can be said to also be related to
(Language learning, Language teaching, and Literacy).
(4). The Relationship Between Applied Linguistics and
Other Language-Related Disciplines:-
. AL occupies an intermediary, mediating position between
language-related disciplines (linguistics, psycholinguistics, and
sociolinguistics) and professional practice.
. It uses theories/principles from language-related disciplines to
understand language-related issues and problems. The choice of
which disciplines are involved in AL matters depends on the
circumstances.
. Linguistics and Applied Linguistics:
- Linguistics is primarily concerned with language in itself,
and in finding ways to analyze language and building
theories that describe language.
- AL is concerned with the role of language in people’s lives
and problems associated with language use in people’s lives.
(5). Applied Linguistics or Linguistics Applied:-
. Widdowson (2002, p.5) represents the question in terms of
Linguistics Applied and Applied Linguistics: “The difference
between these models of intervention is that in the case of
linguistics applied, the assumption is that the problem can be
reformulated by the direct and unilateral application of concepts
and terms deriving from linguistic inquiry itself. That is to say,
language problems are amenable to linguistic solutions. However,
in the case of Applied Linguistics, intervention is crucially a matter
of mediation. AL has to relate and reconcile different
representations of reality, including that of linguistics without
excluding others.”
(6). Why Study Applied Linguistics:-
. The understanding of how the learners learn will determine the
approach method, procedure, classroom techniques and the
philosophy of education. As was stated by Vivian Cook, “Well, I
look at how people acquire language and how we can teach them
better.”
. It seeks to apply all the related fields to foreign language
education. It is process-oriented in the sense that it is interested not
only in the product, but also in the process of teaching.
. The emphasis in AL is on language users and the way in which
they use language, contrary to theoretical linguistics, which studies
language in the abstract, not referring to any particular context.
(7). First Language Acquisition:-
. It is the process by which children become speakers of their
native language or languages.
. An interesting feature First Language Acquisition is that children
seem to rely more on semantics than syntax when speaking.
. First Language Acquisition (FLA) is an area of Psycholinguistics
which focusses on how children acquire their mother language.
. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is an area of AL and studies
the process by which people develop proficiency in a second or
foreign language, these processes are investigated with the
expectation that this information may be of use to language
teaching. Theories on SLA stem from different trends and
backgrounds.
(8). Stages of Language Acquisition:-
1. Paralinguistic Development: They include the first years of
a child’s life. Children do not usually begin to produce
words until they are a year old. The main reason for studying
the paralinguistic period, a part of the theory of children’s
language acquisition, is to try to establish which links, if
any, there are between the paralinguistic period and the
period of linguistic development.

2. The Cooing Stage: By three months old, the child will have
started producing cooing sounds, composed of velar
consonants and high vowels.

3. The Babbling Stage: By six months old, sounds composed

of repeated syllables (baba, mama, dada…) will have usually
appeared by then.
 During the babbling stage, from around nine to twelve
months, intonation patterns and some imitation of other’s
speech are present, and the infant’s sound production at this
stage is often referred to as “sound play”. Some people talk
to babies and children in a particular way known as
motherese, baby talk, caretaker talk, or caregiver talk.

4. The One-word Stage: During this period, between twelve

and sixteen months, children begin to comprehend words
and produce one-word utterances, although the gap between
comprehension and production is usually great at that time.
The children’s utterances don’t show ant structural
properties, and their meanings appear to be primarily
functional.

5. The Holophrastic Stage: At around 16-18 months, single

word utterances seem to begin to reflect semantic categories
such as subject, action, object. Although the non-linguistic
context often helps, it is difficult to assign adult meanings to
the child’s utterances. What seems obvious is that the child
is doing more than just naming object, action, etc. at this
stage.

6. The Two-Word Stage: Normally lasting from 18-20

months until the child is 2 years old. Many children’s
speech, which lacks grammatical inflection and function
words, consists of strings like “cat drink milk”. This kind of
language is known as “Telegraphic Speech” (Brown &
Fraser, 1963). Even if the children are presented with full
sentences to imitate, they tend to repeat the sentences in
telegraphic form.
 During this period, the child’s vocabulary grows rapidly,
since children normally begin to acquire grammatical
morphemes at the age of around 2 years. The order of
acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English is usually:
1) –ing appears first.
2) Then the plural –s.
3) Then the possessive –s.
4) And then the irregular past tense forms before the
regular past tense forms.
(9). Theories of Language Acquisition:-
1. Behaviorism: The central idea is that children imitate adults.
Their correct utterances are reinforced when they get what
they want or are praised. The individual who came with this
theory is Skinner.
2. Innateness: The central idea is that a child’s brain contains
special, language-learning mechanisms at birth. The
individual who came with this theory is Chomsky.
3. Cognitivism: The central idea is that language is just one
aspect of a child’s overall intellectual development. The
individuals who came with this theory are Piaget &
Vygotsky.
4. Interactionalist: The central idea is that this theory
emphasizes on the interaction between children and their
caregivers. The individual who came with this theory is
Bruner.
5. Acculturation: The central idea is that language learning
depends on the psychological and social distance that
learners perceive between them and the target language
speakers. The individuals who came with this theory are
Schumann & Norton.
 (10). Behaviorism:-
. The behaviorist psychologists (Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner)
developed their theories while carrying on experiments on animals.
. For example, they observed that rats or birds could be taught to
perform various tasks by encouraging habit-forming. Researchers
rewarded desirable behavior.
. This was known as “Positive Reinforcement”. Undesirable
behavior was simply punished or not rewarded, that is, “Negative
Reinforcement”.
. Learning is based on (a). Conditioning (A process of developing
connections between a stimulus and a response), and (b). Habit
formation (As the behavior is reinforced, habits are formed).
. Importance of Environment: Learning is the result of
environmental rather than genetic factors. That is, the child is born
as a clean slate, and the environment writes its message on this
clean slate.
. while there are some truths in Skinner’s explanation, there are
some objections to it.
. Limitations of Behaviorism:
1) Language is based on a set of structures or rules, which could
not be worked out by simply imitating individual utterances.
2) The mistakes made by children reveal that they are not
simply imitating, but actively working out and applying
rules.
3) The vast majority of children go through the same stages of
language acquisition. There seems to be a defined sequence
of steps that we refer to as developmental miles.
 4) Children are often unable to repeat what adults say,
especially if the adult’s utterance contains a structure that the
child has not yet started to use.
5) Few children receive much grammatical correction, since
parents are more interested in politeness and truthfulness.
. Behaviorism and Foreign Language Teaching:
1) It had a powerful influence on second and foreign language
teaching between the 1940’s and 1970’s.
2) It influenced the development of the “Audiolingual
Method”.
3) Instruction is to elicit the desired response from the learner
who is presented with a target stimulus, and students, as
passive receivers of information, memorize dialogues and
sentence patterns by heart.
. Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement:
1) Learners are taught the language in small, sequential steps
(structures and then sentence patterns).
2) A small part of the language is presented as a stimulus, to
which the learner responds by repeating or substituting.
This is followed by reinforcement from the teacher.
3) By repeating, the learner develops habits. Learning a
language is seen as acquiring mechanical habits, and
errors are frowned upon because they lead to the
development of bad habits.
4) The role of the teacher is to develop in the learners good
language habits.
(11). Innateness (or mentalism):-
. Noam Chomsky published a criticism of the behaviorist theory in
1057.
. In addition to some of the arguments already mentioned above, he
particularly focused on the impoverished language input that
children receive. Adults don’t typically speak in grammatically
complete sentences.
. In addition, what the child hears is only a small sample language.
. Chomsky concluded that children must have an in-born faculty
for language acquisition.
. According to this theory, the process of language acquisition is
“biologically determined”; that is, the human species has
developed a brain whose neural circuits contain linguistic
information at birth.
. The child’s predisposition to learn language is triggered by
hearing speech, and the child’s brain is able to interpret what
she/he hears according to the underlying principles or structures it
already has.
. This natural faculty has become known as the “Language
Acquisition Device” (L.A.D.) (or Black Box). Later on, Chomsky
referred to this as the innate knowledge of the principles of
Universal Grammar (U.G.).
. Children’s brains are not blank slates to be filled in by imitating
the language they hear from the environment. Children are born
with an innate capacity for language learning which allows them to
discover for themselves the rules underlying the language.
. Chomsky isn’t suggesting that an English child is born knowing
anything about English, of course. He suggests that all human
languages share common principles (for example, they all have
words for things and actions-nouns and verbs.) and it is the child’s
task to establish how the specific language she/he hears expresses
these underlying principles.
. Chomsky’s ground-breaking theory remains at the center of the
debate about language acquisition.
. However, it has been modified over time, both by Chomsky and
others.
. Chomsky’s original position was that LADs contained specific
knowledge about language.
. Dan Isaak Slobin proposed that it may be more like a mechanism
for working out the rules of language. He states, “it seems to me
that the child is born not with a set of linguistic categories, but with
some sort of process mechanism-a set of procedures and inference
rules, if you will-that the child uses to process linguistic data.
These mechanisms are such that, applying them to input data, the
child ends up with something which is a member of the class of
human languages. The linguistic universals, then, are the result of
innate, cognitive competence rather than the content of such
competence.” (cited in Russel, 2002).
(12). Evidence to Support The Innateness Theory:-
. Work in several areas of language study has provided support for
the idea of an innate language faculty. Three types of evidence are
offered here:
1) Human anatomy.
2) Creole varieties of English.
3) The languages used by the deaf.
1. Human Anatomy:
. Slobin has pointed out that human anatomy is peculiarly adapted
to the production of speech. Unlike our nearest relatives, the great
apes, we have evolved a vocal tract which allows the precise
articulation of a wide repertoire of vocal sounds. Neuro science has
also identified areas of the brain with distinctly linguistics
functions, most notably are Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area.
. Stroke victims provide valuable data: depending on the site of the
brain damage, they might suffer a range of language dysfunctions,
ranging from problems with finding words to the inability to
interpret syntax.
. Experiments aimed at teaching chimpanzees how to communicate
using plastic symbols or manual gestures have proved
controversial. It seems likely that our ape cousins, while being able
to learn individual “words”, have little to no grammatical
competence. Pinker (1994) offers good account on this research.
2. Creole Varieties of English:
. The formation of creole varieties of English appears to be the
result of LAD at work.
. The linguist, Derek Bickerton, have studied the formation of
Dutch-based creole in Surinam. Escaped slaves, living together but
originally from different language groups, were forced to
communicate in their very limited Dutch. The result was the
restricted form of language known as a pidgin.
. The adult speakers were past the critical age at which they could
learn a new language fluently-they have learned Dutch as a foreign
language and under unfavorable conditions. Remarkably, the
children of those slaves turned the pidgin into a full language,
known as a creole by linguists.
. They were presumably unaware of the process, but the outcome
was a language variety which follows its own consistent rules and
has a full range of expression. Creoles based on English are also
found in the Caribbean and elsewhere.
3. The Sign Language Used by the Deaf:
. Studies of the sign language used by the deaf have shown that, far
from being crude gestures replacing spoken words, these are
complex, fully grammatical languages in their own rights.
. A sign language may exist in several dialects. Children learning
to sign as their first language pass through similar stages to hearing
children learning spoken languages. Deprived of speech, the urge
to communicate is realized through a manual system which fulfils
the same function.
. There is even a sign creole, again developed by children, in
Nicaragua.
(13). Limitations of Chomsky’s Theory:-
. Chomsky’s work on language was theoretical.
. He was interested in grammar and much of his work consists of
complex explanations of grammatical rules.
. He didn’t study real children. The study relies on children being
exposed to language but takes no account of the interaction
between children and their caretakers. Nor does it recognizes the
reason why a child might want to speak; that is, the functions of
language.
. Subsequent theories have placed greater emphasis on the ways in
which real children develop language to fulfil their needs and
interact with their environment, including other people.
(14). Cognitivism:-
. Cognitive psychology, in contrast to behaviorism, is interested in
the way that the human mind thinks. It is involved in the cognitive
processes that are involved in learning and how the learner is
involved in the process of learning.
. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based
learning. The learner is seen as an active participant in the learning
process, using various kinds of mental strategies in order to sort
out the system of the language being learnt.
. Learning happens as a result of brain processes where knowledge
is transferred from short-term to long-term memory.
. In order for this to happen, new information must be linked to old
information, and information and concepts must be logically
organized. New ideas or concepts are based on the learner’s past
and current knowledge.
. The Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget, known as a cognitive
constructivist, placed the acquisition of language within a child’s
mental cognitive development. He argued that a child must
understand a concept before he/she can acquire that particular
language form which expresses that concept.
. A good example of this is seriation. There will be a pint in a
child’s intellectual development when she/he can compare objects
in relation to size. Piaget has suggested that a child who hasn’t yet
reached this stage would not be able to learn and use comparative
adjectives like “bigger” or “smaller”.
. “Object Permanence” is another phenomena often cited in
relation to the cognitive theory. During the first year of their lives,
children seem unaware about the existence of objects that they
cannot see. By the time they are the age of 18 months, they have
realized that objects exist independently of their perception.
. The cognitive theory draws attention to the large increase in
children’s vocabulary around this age, suggesting a link between
object permanence and learning labels for objects.
(15). Limitations of the Cognitive Theory:-
. During the first years to 18 months, connections of the types
explained above are possible to track, but, as a child continues to
develop, so it becomes harder to find clear links between language
intellect.
. Some studies have focused on children who learned to speak
fluently despite abnormal mental development.
. Syntax in particular doesn’t seem to rely on general intellectual
growth.
(16). Cognitivism and Foreign Language Teaching:-
. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs
hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure
to do so.
. The cognitive structure (i.e. schema, mental model)provides
meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual
to go beyond the information given.
. The instructor should try and encourage students to discover
principles by themselves. They should engage in active dialogue
(i.e. Socratic learning).
. The task of the instructor is to translate the information to be
learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s current state of
understanding. The curricular should be organized in a spiral
manner so that the student continually builds on what they have
learned.
Lesson Two: Krashen’s Model.
(1). Introduction
. Linguist and educator, Stephen Krashen, proposed the Monitor
Model-his theory of second language acquisition-in “principals
and practices in second language acquisition” (1982). Influences
by the theory of first language acquisition proposed by Noam
Chomsky, the monitor model posits five hypotheses about
language acquisition and learning.
(2). The Five Hypotheses of The Monitor Model:-
1) The acquisition-learning hypothesis.
2) The monitor hypothesis.
3) The natural order hypothesis.
4) The input hypothesis.
5) The affective filter hypothesis.
(3). The Acquisition-Learning Hypotheses:-
. According to Krashen, there are two ways of developing
language ability: Acquisition & Learning.
• Acquisition: It involves the subconscious acceptance of
knowledge, where information is stored in the brain through
the use of communication; this is the process used for
developing native languages. Acquisition occurs passively
and unconsciously through an implicit, informal, and natural
way.
• Learning: On the other hand, learning occurs actively or
consciously through explicate or formal learning and
instruction, resulting in explicit knowledge about language.
. Krashen states that this is often the product of formal language
instruction.
. Difference between acquisition and learning:
• Acquisition:
1) Implicit/subconscious.
2) Informal situations.
3) Uses grammatical “feel”.
4) Stable order of acquisition.
• Learning:
1) Explicit/conscious.
2) Formal situations.
3) Uses grammatical rules.
4) Simple to complex order of learning.
(4). Implications to language teaching:-
. The most important pedagogical implication of the first
hypothesis of Krashen’s Model is that explicit teaching and
learning is unnecessary, indeed inadequate, for second language
acquisition.
. Furthermore, the acquisition-learning hypothesis states that both
children and adults acquire language via access to innate language
acquisition devices (LAD) regardless of age and that learning
cannot become acquisition.
. According to this theory, the optimal way a language is learned is
through natural communication. As a second language teacher, the
idea is to create a situation where in language can be used to fulfil
authentic purposes. In turn, this will help the student to ‘acquire’
the language instead of just ‘learning’ it.
(5). Criticism of The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis:-
. Determining whether the process involved in language production
was the result of implicit acquisition or explicit learning is
impossible to prove.
. Furthermore, critics consider the argument that “learning cannot
become acquisition” as questionable. What may start as learning
may become acquisition.
. Krashen’s claims are meant to arouse controversy. Both
McLaughlin (1978, 1987) and Gregg (1984) fond it difficult to
accept the idea of a fully operational LAD in adults, since adults,
with regard to language acquisition, are well past the age of
puberty.
(6). The Monitor Hypothesis:-
. The monitor hypothesis complements the Acquisition-Learning
hypothesis by claiming that “learning functions within second
learning acquisition as a monitor”. It edists the language usage
acquired by the acquired system.
. The monitor allows the language user to alter the form of an
utterance, either prior to or after production Vis self-production.
. In other words, the learned system monitors the output of the
acquired system.
. Three conditions are required for the monitor to function:
1) Time.
2) Focus.
3) Knowledge.
. Krashen asserts that they are “necessary but not sufficient”.
Meaning that, despite the convenient of all three conditions, a
language user may still not be able to utilize the monitor.
(7). Implications to the Classroom:-
. As an SL (Second Language) teacher, it will always be a
challenge to strike a balance between encouraging accuracy and
fluency in your students.
. This balance depends on numerous variables, including the
language levels of the students, the context of language use, and
the personal goals of each students.
(8). Criticism of the Monitor Hypothesis:-
. Critics reveal that it is impossible to draw a clear cut distinction
between acquisition and learning, since what may start as learning
may end up as acquisition.
. Consequently, determining that the function of the learned system
is as a monitor only remains likewise impossible to prove.
. In the monitor hypothesis, the learned system is undermined in
favor of the acquired one.
. Had speech been solely generated by the acquired system, L2
learners would’ve ended up throwing words together at random,
without making much sense.
. The monitor could be applied in case of “simple” rules only (e.g.
determining 3rd person singular), but when in comes to “difficult”
rules, such as dealing with complex semantic properties, the
monitor is of little to no use.
. Finally, the requirements of the three conditions for activating the
learned/monitor system make it hard to either implement or test it
in real-life situations in the first place.
(9). The Natural Order Hypothesis:-
. This hypothesis argues that acquisition of grammatical structures
occurs in a predictable sequence.
. According to Krashen, it applies to both L1 &L2 acquisitions,
with slight differences. In other words, the prder of acquisition of a
language as an L1 is different from the order of acquisition of that
same language as an L2.
. For example, the learners of English as an L2 usually acquire the
grammatical structure of yes/no questions before the grammatical
structure of wh-questions.
(10). Implications for the Classroom:-
. Teachers should start by introducing language concepts that are
relatively easy for learners to acquire and then use scaffolding to
introduce more difficult concepts.
(11). Criticism of the Natural Order Hypothesis:-
. Krashen’s tendencies to generalize the results of a study on the
acquisition of limited set of English morphemes to second
language acquisition as a whole is fallible.
. Morpheme studies offer no indication that second language
learners similarly acquire other linguistics features (phonology,
syntax, semantics, pragmatics) in any predictable sequence, let
alone in any sequence at all.
. This hypothesis fails to account for the considerable influence of
the first language on the acquisition of a second language.
Therefore, L2 learners do not necessarily acquire grammatical
structures in a predictable manner.
(12). The Input Hypothesis:-
. The input hypothesis stresses that acquisition of a language
should occur in situations in which learners are exposed to new
structures via natural, comprehensible input, as opposed to
introducing learners to a new structure and attempting to drill it
into memory.
. In other words, an important condition for language acquisition to
occur is that the acquirer understands (via hearing or reading) input
language that contains structure “a bit beyond” her/his current
level of understanding.
. Messages that the child understands=Comprehensible input.
. Krashen uses the formula (I+1), where ‘I’ represents the learner’s
current level, and ‘+1’ represents the next most basic level of input
(the next stage of language acquisition).
. The idea is that learners will gradually acquire the new structures,
provided if they are being presented alongside that have already
been acquired. Rather than pointing out the structure, it is simply
used in a comprehensible manner, and the learner is expected to
gradually acquire it through the exposure alone.
. In other words, if the learner is at stage ‘I’, then acquisition takes
place when she/he is exposed to comprehensible input that belongs
to level ‘+1’.
(13). The Input Hypothesis in A Classroom:-
. Example:
The teacher selects a reading text for upper-intermediate level
learners that is from a lower advanced level course book. Based on
what the teacher knows about the learners, the teacher believes this
will give them ‘comprehensible input’ to help them acquire more
language.
. In the classroom:
Trying to understand language slightly above their level
encourages the learners to use natural learning strategies such as
guessing words from context and inferring meaning. As the
example suggests, the teacher needs to know the level of the
learners very well, in order to select ‘comprehensible input’, and in
a large class of mixed abilities, different learners will need
different texts.
(14). Implications of Teaching in the Input Hypothesis:-
. Krashen suggests that natural communicative input
(communicative language teaching approach & cooperative
language approach (scaffolding)) is the key to designing a syllabus.
. Michael Long takes off in a sense where Krashen left off by
suggesting what has come to be known as the Interactive
Hypothesis; that comprehensive input is the result of modified
interaction.
. Indeed, this hypothesis highlights the importance of using the
target the language in the classroom, since the goal of any
language program is for learners to learn how to communicate
effectively. Giving learners this kind of input helps them acquire
the language naturally, rather than consciously.
(15). Comprehensible Input V.S. Vygotsky’s ZPD
(Social Constructivism):-
. Comprehensible output?
. Developed by Merrill Swain.
. A learner encounters a gap in his/her linguistic knowledge of L2.
By noticing this gap, the learner becomes aware of it and may be
able to modify their output so they learn something new about the
language (noticing hypothesis). (Richard Schmidt, 1990)
. Swain does NOT claim that comprehensible output is reasonable
for most or all language acquisition.
. There are there functions of the output:
1. Noticing Function:
Learners encounter gaps between what they want to say and
what they are able to say, and so they notice what they do not
know or only partially know about the language.

2. Hypothesis-Testing Function:
By uttering something, the learner tests this hypothesis and
receives feedback from an interlocutor. This function enables
the reprocessing of the hypothesis if necessary.

3. Metalinguistic Function:
Comprehensible output has been found to be effective in the
elicitation of modified output in foreign language acquisition.
Production of language for the purpose of communicating in
a meaningful way is hypothesized to help its acquisition.
(16). Strengths & Weakness of the Input Hypothesis:-
. The more comprehensible the input, the more L2 is proficient.
, Teaching methods are dependent on comprehensible input.
. Controversials:
. Since not all learners can be at the same level of linguistic
competence at the same time, we are unable to define the level of
‘I’ in ‘I+1’.
(17). The Affective Filter Hypothesis:-
. There are certain conditions which may hinder acquisition. If a
learner is exposed to language, via comprehensible input, yet yet
CANNOT seem to acquire new structures, it may be due to what
Krashen calls “The Affective Filter”. The Affective filter is
essentially just an abstract way of looking at mental barriers to
learning.
. When there are conditions that prevent acquisition, we consider
the filter raised.
. When conditions are just right, we consider the filter lowered.
. A number of factors come into consideration when looking at the
affective filter. Some of the things that might cause the filter to be
raised might be anxiety, lack of motivation, or emotional/mental
conditions, whereas learners that feel confident, enjoy speaking the
language, and are given the freedom to remain silent, typically
have lower filters, and as a result acquire language more fluently.
. This hypoothetical filter does not impact acquisition directly but
rather prevents input from reaching the language part of the brain
(i.e. the LAD).
. Strengths of Applying the Affective Filter in Teaching:
- In any aspect of education, it is important to create a safe,
welcoming environment in which students can learn. In
language education, this may be especially important, since
in order to take in and produce language, learners need to feel
that it is ok to make mistakes and take risks, which relates
directly to Krashen’s Affinitive Filter hypothesis.
- Input should be interesting and students activities should be
based on meaningful communication rather than on form.
- The perfect variable scale:
1) Motivation: High.
2) Self Confidence: High.
3) Anxiety: Low.
4) Conclusion: Affective Filter=Low.
. Weaknesses of the Affective Filter Hypothesis:
- “Sheltered classroom environment” V.S, “Real world
environment”.
- The stress of everyday life and communication are
Uncontrollable variables.
. Criticism:
1. How particular can it be?
Many feel that Krashen has introduced a theory without
explaining it many variations and functions, thus rendering it
unsatisfactory when empirically tested. In the face of
increasing criticism, Krashen is forced to acknowledge that
“further research may change them or force us to reject one
or more of them” (Krashen, 1982:2). But such constant
chamges, modifications, and changes can frustrate both
researchers and teachers interested in using this model alike.
Had Krashen taken this into account, he may have been able
to propose a more testable, viable, and useable monitor.
2. Too Abstract?
- Due many of the hypotheses Krashen suggested had
gained some popularity due to their intuitive nature,
they have yet to be shown empirically to be accurate or
useful,
- Gregg (1984) voiced some the harshest criticism, using
very strong wording: “We have seen that each of
Krashen’s five hypotheses is marked by serious flaws,
undefined or ill-defined terms, unmotivated constructs,
lack of empirical content and thus of falsifiability, and
lack of explanatory power. (Gregg, 1984, p. 94)
- The attack on krashen’s theory is mainly aimed at the
following aspects:
1) Excessive claims:
His theory of LA is oversimplified and its claims
are overstated.
2) An Absence of Evidence:
McLaughlin, as he puts it, “what Krashen does is
not provide ‘evidence’ in any sense of the term,
but simply argues that certain phenomena can be
 viewed from the perspective of his theory. (1987,
p. 376)
3) Invalid theory:
Some researchers question the validity of
Krashen’s monitor model as a theory. McLaughlin
(1987) measured his model against four criteria
for evaluating a theory, such as definitional
precision, explanatory power, etc. but
dissapontedly came to the conclusion that
“Krashen’s theory fails at every juncture”. This
view is further echoed by Gregg (1984, p. 94),
who asserted that his theory is not a ‘coherent
theory’ and that it would be inappropriate to apply
the word ‘theory’ to it.
(18). Conclusion:-
. Krashen’s model can be viewed positively in that it spurs other
researchers to inspect Krashen’s theory more closely, and, most
importantly, in the process of falicification, more insights and
alternative theories will be proposed, built on Krashen’s “bold, if
rash, insight”. Thus, giving overall SLA (Second Language
Acquistion) researchers a good boost. (Brown, 200, p. 281)
Lesson Three: Methods of Language Teaching
Methods of Language teaching Include:
1) Grammar-Translation Approach.
2) Direct Approach.
3) Reading Approach.
4) Audiolingual Method.
5) Community Language Learning.
6) Suggestopedia.
7) The Silent Way.
8) Total Physical Response.
9) The Natural Way.
10) Communicative Language Teaching.
(1). Grammar-Translation Approach:-
. In this method, classes are taught in the student’s mother tongue,
with little active use of the target language.
. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists.
. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided.
. Grammar instructions provide the rules for putting words
together; the instructions focus on the form and inflection of the
words.
. Little attention is paid to the content of texts.
. Drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the
target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa.
. Little or no attention at all is given to pronunciation.
(2). Direct Approach:-
. This approach was initially developed as a reaction to the
Grammar-Translation Approach, in attempt to integrate more use
of the target language in instruction.
. Lessons begin in a dialogue using a modern conversational style
in the target language.
. Materials are first presented orally with actions or pictures.
. The mother tongue is NEVER used. There is no translation.
. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target
language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative.
. Questions are answered in the target language.
. Grammar is taught inductively-rules are generalized from the
practice and experience with the target language.
. Verbs are used first and are systematically conjuncted much later
after some oral mastery with the target language.
. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and
pleasure.
. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically.
. The culture associated with the target language is also taught
inductively.
. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the
language.
(3). Reading Approach:-
. This approach is for people who do not travel abroad, and for
whom reading is the only useable skill in a foreign language.
. The priority in studying the target language is first, reading
ability, and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the
country where the target language is spoken.
. The grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is
the only one that’s taught.
. Minimal attention is given to pronunciation or gaining
conversational skills in the target language.
. From the start, a great amount of reading is done in L2.
. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly
controlled in difficulty.
. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the
acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important than
grammatical skills.
. Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom
procedure related to the comprehension of the written text.
(4). Audiolingual Method:-
. This method is based on the principles of Behavioral psychology.
. It adopted many of the principles and procedures of the direct
method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills in the
reading approach.
. New material is presented in the form of Dialogue.
. Based on the principles that language learning is habit formation,
the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set
phrases, and over-learning.
. Structures are sequences and taught one at a time. Structural
patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
. Little to no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is
taught inductively.
. Skills are sequenced: 1) listening, 2) speaking, 3) reading, 4)
writing, and developed in order.
. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between
L1 and L2.
. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes, and visual
videos.
. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the
course.
. Great importance is given to precise, native-like pronunciation. .
Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but
discouraged among and by the students.
. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is given to prevent
learner’s errors.
. There is a tendency to focus on the manipulation of the target
language and to disregard content and meaning.
. Hints for Using Audiolingual Drills in L2 Teaching:
1) The teacher needs to be careful to insure that all the
utterances that the students will make are within the practice
pattern.
2) Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possible to insure
automaticity and to establish a system.
3) Ignore all but gross errors in pronunciation when drilling for
grammar practice.
4) Use shortcuts such as hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc.
to cut the response time and keep the pace of the drills at a
maximum.
5) The drilling material should always be meaningful. If the
content words are not known, teach their meaning.
6) Intersperse short periods of drills (about 10 minutes) with
very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.
7) Don’t stand in one place; move around the room, standing
next to as many students as possible to check their
production.
(5). Communicative Language Learning:-
. This approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and
adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat, as well as the personal
and language problems, a person encounters in the learning of
foreign languages.
. The learner is not thought of as a student, but as a client.
. The instructors are not thought of as teachers, but rather as trained
individuals in counseling skills who adapted their roles as language
counselors.
. The language-counseling relationship begins with the client’s
linguistic confusion and conflict.
. The aim of the language counselor’s skill set is first to
communicate empathy for the client’s threatened, inadequate state
and to aid him linguistically.
. Then slowly, the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive
at his own increasingly inadequate language adequacy.
. This process is furthered by the language counselor’s ability to
establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus
becoming an other “language-self” for the client.
. The process involves Five Stages of Adaptation:
• Stage (1): The client is completely dependent on the
language counselor.
1) First, he only expresses to the counselor, and in their mother
tongue, what he wishes to say to the group. Each group
member overhears this exchange, but no other members of
the group are involved in this interaction.
2) The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in
the target language in a warm and accepting tone, in simple
languages, and in phrases of five or six words.
3) The client then turns to the group presents his/her idea in the
target language. They have the counselors aid if thet
mispronounce or hesitate at a word or phrase. This is the
client’s maximum security stage.
• Stage (2):
1) Same as above.
2) The client turns and begins to speak the target language
directly to the group.
3) The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for
help. These small steps are signs of positive confidence and
hope.
• Stage (3):
1) The client speaks directly to the group in the targt language.
This presumes that the group now has acquired the ability to
understand their simple sentences.
2) Same as 3 above, this presumes that the client’s greater
confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the
relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is
given only when a group member desires it.
• Stage (4):
1) The client now is speaking freely and complexly in he target
language. Presumes the group’s understanding.
2) The counselor directly intervenes in the grammatical errors,
mispronunciations, or when aid in complex expressions are
needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.
• Stage (5):
1) Same as stage (4).
2) The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction, but to
add idioms and more elegant constructions.
 3) At this stage, the client can become the counselor for the
group in stages (1), (2), and (3).
(6). Suggestupedia:-
. this method developed out of the belief that human brains could
process great quantities of material given to them, given the right
conditions of learning, like relaxation.
Music was central to this method.
. Soft music lead to an increase in Alpha brain waves and a decree
in blood pressure and pulse rate, resulting in the high intake of
large quantities of information.
. Learners were encouraged to be as “childlike” as possible.
. Apart from soft, comfortable seats in a relaxed environment,
everything else remained the same.
(7). The Silent Way:-
. This method begins by using a set of colored wooden rods and
verbal commands in order to achieve the following:
1) To avoid the use of vernacular.
2) To create simple linguistic situations to remain under the
complete control of the teacher.
3) To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances
of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions
performed.
4) To let the teacher concentrate on what the students are saying
and they are saying it, drawing their attention to the
differences in pronunciation and the flow of words.
5) To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules
are implicitly agreed upon, by giving meaning to the gestures
of the teacher and his mine.
 6) To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice
of the teacher using the target language to a number of voices
using it.
7) To provide the support of perception and action to the
intellectual guess of what the noise mean, thus brining in the
arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed
and automatic in one’s use of the mother tongue.
8) To provide a duration of sponteniuos speech upon which the
teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of
melody to the one heared.
. Materials:
- The materials utilized as the language learning progresses
include:
1) A set of colored wooden rods.
2) A set of word charts containing words of a “functional”
vocabulary, and some additional ones.
3) A pointer for use with the charts in visual dictation.
4) A color-coded phonic chart(s), tapes, or discs.
5) Films, drawings, or pictures.
6) A set of accompanying work sheets, transparencies,
texts, a book of stories.
(8). Total Physical Response (TPR):-
. The Total Physical Response (TPR) method is one that combines
both information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic
sensory system.
. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate
information and skills at a rapid pace.
. The Basic Tenets Are:
1) Understanding the spoken language before developing the
skills of speaking.
2) Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or
communicate information.
3) The student is not forced to speak but is allowed an
individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously
begin to speak whenever they feel comfortable and confident
in understanding and producing utterances.
. Procedure:
- Step 1: the teacher says the command as he himself performs
the action.
- Step 2: the teacher says the command as both he and the
students then perform the action.
- Step 3: the teacher says the command but only the students
perform the action.
- Step 4: the teacher tells one student at a time to do
commands.
- Step 5: the roles of teacher and students are reversed. now,
the students give commands to both the teacher and the
students.
- Step 6: the teacher and students allow for command
expansion and produce new sentences.
(9). The Natural Way:-
. This method emphasizes the development of basic personal
communication skills.
. Delay production until speech emerge (i.e. learners don’t say
anything until they feel ready to do so).
. Learners should be as ready as possible.
. Advocates the use of TPR at beginning levels.
. Comprehensible input is essential for acquisition to take place.
(10). Communicative Language Teaching:-
. This method stresses a ,eans of organizing a language syllabus.
The emphasis is on breaking the global concept of language into
units of analysis in terms of the communicative situations in which
they are used.
. There is a negation of meaning.
. A variety of language skills are involved.
. Material is presented in context.
. It pays attention to registers and styles in terms of situation and
participants.
. Fluency and accuracy (different competencies).
. Forms and functions.
. Development of autonomous learners.
Lesson Four: Contrastive Analysis
(1). Contrastive Analysis-(Hypothesis):-
. Lado’s and other’s contrastive analyses lead him to formulate
“The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)” (He does not really
give us any data; this is not a “study”, as defined by this class).
. “Those elements that are similar to (a learner’s) native language
will be similar for him (or her) and those elements are different
will be difficult”. (Lado, p.2)
. This is the “strong” version of the CAH (Contrastive Analysis
Hypothesis): Contrastive analysis has predictive power. Through
contrastive analysis, we can predict areas of difficulty (and vice
versa) for our students.
(2). Contrastive Analysis-(Purpose):-
. predicting areas of difficulty will allow teachers to facilitate
second language learning through informed attention to materials,
tests, classroom activities, etc. “To find (and address) the hurdles
that have to be surmounted in the teaching”. (Lado, p. 3)
. Contrastive linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or
more languages,
- With the aim of describing their similarities and differences,
focusing, however, on differences.
- It is predominantly predictable.
. The term “Contrastive Analysis”:
- Was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941.
- Predicts and describes the patterns that will cause difficulty
in learning, and those that won’t, by systematically
comparing the language, and the culture to be learned, with
the native language and the culture of the student.
(3). Contrastive Linguistics (CL):-
. Differences (usually) between two (usually)nlamguages:
- Basis for typological description.
- Mainly practical applications (translation, foreign language
teaching and learning, bilingual lexicography (dictionaries)).
. Why Differences?
- It is assumed that the two languages are similar, except for
the points described as different.
(4). CL in linguistics:-
. The languages being compared can be related.
- Like Polish and English.
. Or can be unrelated.
- Like Polish and Chinese.
. Can be from the same historical period.
- Polish and English from the 20th Century.
. Or can be from different historical periods.
- English and Polish from the 16th and 20th Century.
(5). Theoretical CL:-
. Gives an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities
between two or more languages.
. Provides an adequate model for their comparison.
(6). Applied CL:-
. On the basis of the theoretical framework.
. Provided by Theoretical CA.
. Gives the researcher the information necessary.
. To conduct actual contrastive analysis.
(7). CL: Terms:-
. Contrastive Linguistics (or its methods) is also called:
- Contrastive Studies.
- Contrastive Analysis.
- Interlingual Linguistics.
(8). Contrastive Linguistics (CL) and First Language
(FL) Teaching:-
. Contrastive studies are (were) used as a means of predicting
and/or explaining difficulties of second language learners with a
particular mother tongue.
. In learning a particular target language (English), however, CL
does not explain all problems of foreign language students.
. Advantages:
- Is is suggested that when FL laerners are made of L1:L2
contrasts, this makes it easier for them to learn difficult FL
structures.
- L1 interference accounts for some 30% of error.
(9). Contrastive Analysis-(Eclipse):-
. Contrastive Analysis fell out of favor for 3 reasons:
1) Teachers didn’t know the languages of their students, and
couldn’t do extensive contrastive analysis.
2) The strong version of the CAH did not work. When the CAH
was tested empirically, its predictive value was proved
inadequate.
- Question: what would CAH predict about native
English speakers learning to pronounce French words?
Especially words beginning with /z/?
- Answer: It would be difficult for native English
speakers to pronounce words beginning with /z/.
3) CAH fell victim to a shift in SLA research.
(10). Interlanguage:-
. Interlanguage (IL) was introduced by the American Linguist
Larry Selinker to refer to the linguistic system evidenced when an
adult second language learner attempts to express meaning in the
language being learned.
. IL is viewed as a separate linguistic system, clearly different from
the learner’s ‘native language’ (NL) and the ‘target language’ (TL)
being learned, but linked to both NL and TL by interlingual
identifications in the perception of the learner.
(11). Transfer:-
. Role of the first language.
. Positive transfer, which facilitates learning.
. Negative transfer or Interference that leads to errors.
Lesson Four: Error Analysis & Interlanguage
(1970’s)
(1). Error Analysis (EA):-
. Error Analysis is a branch of applied linguistics. It is concerned
with the compilation, study, and analysis of errors of second
language learners, and it aims at investigating aspects of second
language acquisition.
. According to the linguistics carder, the following are the steps in
any typical EA (Error Analysis) research:
1) Collecting samples of the learner’s language.
2) Identifying the errors.
3) Describing the errors.
4) Explaining the errors.
5) Evaluating/correcting the errors.
. EA (Error Analysis) is the first approach to SLA (Second
Language Acquisition) which includes an internal focus on the
learner’s ability to construct language. It is based on the
description and analysis of actual learner’s errors in L2, rather than
on focusing on idealized linguistic structures attributed to the
native speakers of L1 &L2.
. EA (Error Analysis) replaced CA (Contrastive Analysis) by the
1970’s because of the following developments:
1) Over prediction of errors.
2) Under prediction of errors.
3) A change in linguistics theory: structural
linguistics/underlying structures.
4) Being based on the notion of habit formation:
behaviorism/nativism.
 5) The developing distinction between L2 teaching and L2
learning: learning process.
. Error analysis in behaviorism/nativism:
- Language thus came to be understood as a rule-governed
behavior.
- The child is an active participant and not a passive recipient.
. EA (Error Analysis) approach for the first time:
- Learner’s errors are not a bad habit but a source of insight
into the learning process.
- According to Corder (1967), “Errors are windows into the
language learner’s mind”. (transitional competence)
- The learner’s language is viewed as a target analysis which is
potentially independent of L1 &L2, and the state of the
learner’s knowledge is seen as a transitional competence on
the path of SLA (Second Language Acquisition).
. EA (Error Analysis0 methodology: the procedure for analyzing
the learner’s errors includes the following steps:
1) Collection of a sample of the learner’s language.
2) Identification of errors.
3) Description of errors.
4) Explanation of errors.
5) Evaluation of errors.
. EA (Error Analysis) Critism. EA is mainly criticized for the
following reasons:
1) Ambiguity in classification (Interlingual? Intralingual? L1
influence?).
2) Lack of potential date.
3) Potential for avoidance.
4) Influence of L2 curricula.
(2). Interlanguage (IL):-
. Selinker (1972) introduced this term to refer to the intermediate
states of learner’s language/system as it moves towards the L2.
. This linguistic term has been named in different terms, such as:
1) Transitional competence.
2) Interlanguage.
3) Approximative systems.
. IL Assumptions:
- Learners construct a linguistic system that is different from
both L1 & L2 but based on L2 input (Learner’s Language).
- Learners reconstruct and approximate a certain variety of L2
that rarely becomes identical to the normal/original L2.
. IL Characteristics:
1) Systematic.
2) Dynamic.
3) Variable.
4) Reduced system in both function and form.
. IL Criticism:
- No concrete hints in the literature on how to describe the
changing linguistic system in IL.
- A large body of data is needed to ascertain a linguistic rule in
the learner’s IL.
- This is only achieved through longitudinal studies in order to
follow the development of language.
- The observation of the truly most systematic of a learner’s IL
is not an easy process, since it needs a number of
considerations related to the social status of both the learner
and the researcher (topic, classroom, monitored speech, etc.).