Grammar Unit 5

UNIT 5: GRAMMAR
UNIT STRUCTURE

5.1 Learning Objectives

5.2 Introduction
5.3 Parts of speech
5.4 Phrases and clauses
5.4.1 Phrases
5.4.2 Clauses
5.5 Kinds of Sentences
5.5.1 Sentences in terms of form
5.5.2 Sentences in terms of function
5.6 Subject-verb agreement
5.7 Verbs
5.8 Connectors
5.9 Non-finites
5.10 Voice
5.11 Narration
5.12 Let us Sum up
5.13 Further Reading
5.14 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.15 Model Questions.

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit you will be able to

understand the needs for teaching grammar
develop strategies for the teaching of English Grammar
specify basic rules of the use of grammatical concepts
recognize correct sentences from incorrect ones.

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5.2 INTRODUCTION

At different stages of our schooling, we always had to study a course

on English grammar. What is more, the English readers used in the first
few years of schooling are basically structure oriented which is another
way of saying that these books deal with grammar in use. There has indeed
been a lot of grammar around us in our early years of schooling. Let us
ponder for a while over the question : What is grammar? Let us try some
definitions -
(1) Grammar is the way words are put together to make correct sentences.
(Penny Ur)
(2) Grammar is a set of rules that define how words (or parts of words)
are combined or changed to form acceptable units of meaning within
a language. (Penny Ur)
(3) Grammar is a description of the structure of a language and the way
is which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to
produce sentences in language. (Jack Richards et al)
(4) Grammar is a systematic description of a language as found in a
sample of speech or writing (eg. is a corpus of material, or as elicited
from native speakers) (David Crystal)
In these definitions, it becomes obvious that grammar is concerned
with rules of use (refer definitions 1 & 2) and usage (refer definitions 3 & 4).
Grammar provides these rules that would enable a speaker or writer to
organize different grammatical elements (words, phrases and clauses
including punctuation) of the language into meaningful sentences. It also
provides the skill to understand that * This is book is not grammatical; we
have to say This is a book.
Note : before a When we say * This is book is not correct, we mean that this is not
*
sentence indicates grammatical. On the other hand, This is a book is a grammatical sentence.
that the sentence is A knowledge of grammar has given us the skill to distinguish between
not acceptable grammatical and ungrammatical sentence forms. We can re-phrase this
sentence by using the words acceptable and unacceptable in place of
grammatical and ungrammatical considering that

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grammar provides an accepted model of the language.

the ‘‘corpus’’ referred to in the 4th definition, is drawn from the description
of the structure of the language as used by 1st language users or
native speakers of the language.
Considering the need for an accepted model of the language, a learner
of English as L2 has to learn the grammar of English to make his/her English
intelligible and acceptable to others. A phrase, a clause or a sentence
becomes acceptable when it is grammatical. You learn from a grammar
book whether a sentence or a part of a sentence is grammatically acceptable
or not. That is the greatest value of a good grammar book. It helps an L2
learner in improving mastery of the language.
When we say the word *eated is not grammatically acceptable as a
past tense form of eat, we mean that it is a grammatical mistake. A word or
a phrase or even a sentence may be gramatically wrong when it does not
conform to the accepted standard. Our aim of teaching grammar to our
pupils is to acquaint to the accepted grammatical form. What is important
for us is that we need to devise strategies to make grammar teaching in the
classroom interesting. Here are a few points for you to ponder upon.
(1) New structures or language items are to be presented with adequate
attention to both form and meaning. This presentation should include
both oral and written practice.
(2) Forms become meaningful and comprehensible to learners when they
are contextualized. Providing a language item in a context makes the
item meaningful and interesting to the learner. The context may often
be presented through a situation.
(3) The teaching of grammar should be integrated with that of the textbook.
(4) The teaching of grammar should be inductive and not deductive.
Inductive teaching involves presenting examples or samples of
language first followed by the rules operating in these samples which
is the other way round in deductive teaching.
(5) The teaching of grammar should be seen as means to an end and not
as an end in itself.
This unit looks at the various elements of gramar in a pedagogical
framework.
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5.3 PARTS OF SPEECH

The term ‘parts of speech’ also known as ‘word class’, refers to the
different types of words in a language which are used to form sentences.
These words are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions,
conjuctions, interjections and determinners. The parts of speech are
characterized by their (i) meaning, (ii) form and (iii) function
1. Nouns
refer to people, places, animals, things, abstractions eg. John, person,
cow, house, beauty
can be inflected in two simple ways : for number eg house-houses
and for possessive eg, John — John’s
can function as
Subject - Students work hard
Direct object - He kicked the ball
Indirect object - I gave John a book
Object of a preposition - I gave a book to John
Complement - She is a teacher
Object complement - We made John the leader.
Apposition to a noun - Her sister, Rina is a teacher.
2. Pronouns
Refer to words which may replace a noun or a noun phrase eg he,
she, it
Most pronoun refer to nouns that appear earlier, Their antecedents
eg, Rina said that she, ..., John said that he .....
Generally pronouns perform the same function in sentences as nouns
do; they are most often subjects of verbs, direct and indirect objects
of prepositions. Some of them can also function as appositives and
predicate nouns.
3. Verbs
Verbs are words that refer to a state or an action in a sentence structure
eg. play, be.
Verbs are inflected for :

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– person : I play / he plays

– number : He reads / they read
– aspect : He is reading
– tense : play / played
Functionally verbs can be
Transitive, having a direct object : He kicked the ball
Intransitive, having no direct object : Dogs bark
Linking, ie links a subject with a complement : She is a teacher
4. Adjectives
Adjectives refer to words that describe the things, quality, action, or
state which a noun refer to eg a blue sky.
Most descriptive adjectives can be inflected or supplemented in order
to express degree or to make comparison : I am taller than John.
Adjectives can be attributive to a noun eg. a tall boy; they can be
predictive in a sentences structure : The boy is tall.
5. Adverbs
Adverbs refer to words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb.
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the descriptive adjectives eg
roughly, happily. But some have no -ly endings eg ahead. slow, fast
and can be inflected in order to express degree : slow-slower-slowest.
Whereas adjectives can modify only nouns and pronouns, adverbs
can modify verbs, adjectives other adverbs and whole sentences or
independent clauses. Functionally, they also express such things as
affirmation and negation.
6. Prepositions
Prepositions refer to words used with nouns, pronouns, and gerunds.
Prepositions are structure words, they never exchange their forms.
Functionally, a preposition links its object to some other words in the
sentence; the prepositional phrase then functions as an adverbial : He
is in the room Occasionally, a prepositional phrase can function as a
noun : After class is a good time for a cup of tea.
7. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are joining words like and, but, or
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Conjunctions are structure words, they never change their forms.

Functionally, conjunctions join words, phrases. Subordinate clauses
and independent clauses. besides joining sentences with co-ordinating
or subordinating conjunctions. eg
– words : pen and paper.
– phrases : an old man and his three grandsons
8. Interjection
An interjection is a word (alas, well) or a group of words (good heavens,
my goodness) interjected or thrown into a sentence in order to express
emotion
They are formulaic expressions and do not change their forms.
They have no grammatical function ie. they do not play any part in the
syntax,. They are simply thrust into sentences and are either set off
with commas or with exclamation marks.
9. Determiners
Determiners are words that belong to the category of articles,
possessives, demonstratives, quantifiers and a few wh-words called
wh-determiners.
Determiners are structure words, they never change their forms.
Functionally, they are used with nouns and limit the meaning of the
noun.
Some techniques for teaching words
Having introduced you to the word classess in English words to
your pupils. Let us discuss some techniques.
1. Your English reader contains lots of words supported by pictures
of words. In page 69-70 of Marigold BK 1 you will find these words
with pictures : beehive, clothes, kite, crows, pencil leaves,
ant, apples, pineapples etc. Say each word clearly and write
it on the blackboard.
2. Get the pupils to say the word. Chorus work is good but if it
disturbs the class next to your class, individual practice should
be OK.

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3. Translate the word into the pupils own language. This may be
done if the word is familiar or no visual clue is provided. You may
ask pupils to give the meaning of the word also.
4. When you come to words like apples, crows etc. introduce the
notion of singluar words crow, apple and show how s, es etc.
are added to form plural words.
5. Give examples of sentences to show how words are used. You
may ask pupils to frame parallel sentences orally and you may
write them up on the blackboard eg.
The flower is red
The ______ is _______
Pupils provide the words in the gap orally.
6. Engage pupils in a group project work to make charts, folders
and flash-cards. show them models of these items. Tell them
that they can make charts by using the blank pages of old
calendars. The idea is to engage them in developing low-cost
teaching aids.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 1: Fill in the blanks.
(a) We learn grammar because grammar helps
us to _______ the sentence structures already
learnt.
(b) Grammar helps us to distinguish between sentences that
are _______ and those that aren’t so.
(c) It is important for learners to acquire the language skills
_______ learning the grammar of the language
(d) _______ teaching of grammar involves presenting the units
of language prior to the rules.
(e) Nouns can be inflected at the level of ______ and possessives.
(f) Pronouns are most often subjects of ______
(g) Functionally, verbs can be transitive, intransitive and ______
verbs.
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(h) Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by ______.

(i) Prepositions are structure words, but nouns and verbs are
______ words.
(j) In the phrase my book, ‘my’ is a _______ determiners.

5.4 PHRASES AND CLAUSES

In this section we shall move from the word to the next term in the
hierarchy phrases and then to the next higher term clauses. Words, phrases,
clauses, sentences are terms arranged in a hierarchical order. You need to
understand the difference between phrases and clauses and how they
function in sentences. Phrases and clauses are groups of words that
function as grammatical units or elements within sentences with the
exception of independent clauses.

5.4.1 Phrases

Traditionally a phrase is described as a group of words that

does not contain a subject-predicate structure but functions as a
grammatical unit in a sentence. Thus, a phrase is a meaningful group
of words that forms part of a sentence (or a clause). Let us look at
the most important phrases in the sentence structure of English.
(1) Noun phrase : We can describe a noun phrase (NP) as a
construction where the ‘Head’ is the Noun. The Head may be
preceded by (Pre determiner) + (determiner) + (adjective
phrase)/(adjective clause). eg
all the boys
all the new boys
(2) Verb Phrase : We can describe a Verb phrase (VP) as a
construction where a full verb is the Head which may be
preceded by auxiliaries. eg.
will be playing
will have played
(3) Adjective phrase : It is a construction in a noun phrase

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consisting of an adective. This adjective may be modified by

an intensifier (adverb) eg.
an old man
a very old man
(4) Adverb phrase : It is a construction having an adverb as a
Head
John carefully searched the room
John very carefully searched the room.
(5) Prepositional phrase : It is a construction consisting of a
preposition followed by a prepositional complement which is
characteristically an NP or a wh-clause or v-ing clause.
in the room
from what he said
by signing the letter
(6) Conjunction phrases : It is a construction which is traditionally
called compound subordinating conjunction eg. in that, in order
that; as soon as (He left the class as soon as the bell rang.)
These conjunction phrases are also called complex
prepositions.

5.4.2 Clauses

Unlike phrases, a clause is a group of words that contain a

subject and a predicate. A clause can be an independent clause or a
subordinate clause
(1) Independent clause : An independent clause refers to a clause
that stands by itself as a sentence. A sentence like John is a
teacher can be called an independent clause.
But an independent clause need not be treated as a sentence
by itself. It can also function as only part of a sentence consisting of
more than one independent clause eg. John is a teacher and his
brother is a doctor. In this sentence the clauses John is a teacher
and his brother is a doctor are independent or co-ordinate clauses
linked by the conjunction ‘but’.
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(2) Sub-ordinate or dependent clause : A subordinate clause

unlike an independent clause cannot stand by itself. Even
though, as a clause, it contains subject and a predicate, it is
by definition, subordinate or dependent on another clause– the
main clause or independent clause for its meaning. It therefore
must be treated as only the subordinate part of a sentence–
the complex sentence.
Subordinate clauses may function in a complex sentence in
three ways. eg
(a) Noun clause : The subordinate clause can be a noun clause
when like a noun, it can function as the subject or object of a
sentence. e.g.
That he can sing is astonishing.
(b) Adjective clause : The subordinate clause can function as
an adjectival clause or a relative clause in a sentence by
modifying a noun or a pronoun. e.g.
I know the person who came here.
(c) Adverbial clause : The subordinate clause can function as
an adverb or adverbial clause in a sentence by modifying the
main verb. eg
He laughed because he was very happy.

5.5 KINDS OF SENTENCES

Perhaps the most obvious fact about sentences is that they have a
form or a structure. We can analyse the form of sentence structures by
identifying the components that make up the sentence. Secondly, they have
a purpose, namely, to communicate ideas or feelings by making use of
conventional ways of communicating things like making statements, asking
questions, making requests or expressing feelings of emotion. Depending
on these two perspectives, the concept of the sentence is discussed from
two points of view.

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5.5.1 Sentences In Terms of Form

In terms of form, sentences are usually classified as simple,

compound and complex.
(a) Simple sentences have one subject and one finite verb, and
therefore contain only one clause, an independent clause. The
following are the basic simple sentence structures of English.
(i) Birds fly
S V

(ii) He is in the room

S V A

(iii) He is a teacher
S V C

(iv) She plays badminton

S V O

(v) She put the book on the table

S V O A

(vi) We made him our leader

S V O C

(vii) I gave her a book

S V V O

(b) Compound sentences in effect consist of two or more simple

sentences– that is, independent clauses– linked by co-ordinating
conjunctions e.g.
(i) He wanted to go by bus, but she insisted on going by train.
(ii) You must work hard or you will fail.
(iii) I went to the shop and bought these books.
Each of these sentences contains two independent clauses
or co-ordinate clauses as they are generally called. e.g.
I went to the shop.
I bought these books.
These independent clauses have the status of simple
sentences. They can be put together by using the conjuction and to
form a compound sentence.
(c) Complex sentences contain one independent clause that can
stand by itself as a simple sentence and subordinate clause that
cannot stand by itself as a simple sentence. Even though, as a

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clause; it contains a subject and a predicate, it is by definition

subordinate, dependent on the independent clause for its meaning.
In a complex sentence, a subordinate clause can be a noun
clause. e.g.
That John could stand first, is astonishing.
John knows what he is doing.
A subordinate clause may also be an adverbial clause. e.g.
She wept because she was deeply moved.
I shall not go out if it rains.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 2: After each of the following groups of words
indicate whether it is an independent clause, a
subordinate clause or a phrase. e.g. IC, SC, P
(a) the old man and his five grandsons ________
(b) as it was getting late ________
(c) the train arrived on time ________
(d) after the exam was over __________
(e) according to the latest weather report _______
(f) I was in a hurry ________

5.5.2 Sentences In terms of function

What do we do with sentences? We use sentences for the

following purposes :
1. to make a statement. eg
(a) Affirmative : Binita is a singer.
(b) Negative : Manasi is not a singer.
2. to ask questions, eg.
(a) wh-questions : Where do you live?
(b) yes/no questions : Are you a dancer?
(c) tag questions : He plays cricket, doesn’t he?

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3. to give instructions, make requests etc.

(a) Instruct : Close the door please.
(b) Request : Please come tomorrow.
4. to express strong emotions. etc
(a) Admiration : What a beautiful flower it is !
The first category above is a declarative sentence.
The second category is an interogative sentence.
The third is an imperative sentence and the fourth is an exclamatory
sentence.
There are certain other sentences too that may not have the
well-structured forms as we find in the above four categories. These
are very much functional in charcter. e.g.
1. Newspaper headline : Ten killed in train disaster
2. Block language : No smoking
3. Performative : I name the child Mary
4. Optative : Long live the Party!
While teaching these sentence forms and functions to the
students, it is important first to understand yourself what is involved
in the structures of these sentences.
Some techniques for teaching sentence
When teaching a grammatical concept remember
you can present the concept directly or indiretly
always to put the concept in a context so that the meaning is
clear and pupils know when to use the structure. Ask questions to
check this.
Note the following:
You can present an idea of sentence forms directly to the pupils. In
the early years, you can show them the structure of the simple
sentence by referring to actitvities from the English reader Marigold
relating to sentences eg
1. Birds ________ (picture of birds flying)
2. The duck _______ in the river (picture of a duck swimming)
You can present an idea of sentence forms indirectly by leading the

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pupils to the text and to underline the sentences taken up for

discussion. Pupils are introduce to the form
Example 1 : Underline all the examples of the assertive sentences.
How do you think these sentences are formed?
Engage the class in group activity
Divide the class into groups of four
Each group is to be asked to discuss for example, what they like
about the spring season in Assam.
Example 2 : Language game for practising Structures. Students
are taken out of the classroom to an open space and form a circle of
15/16 .
Take a cricket ball. One pupil throws a cricket ball to some one in the
circle who catches it and introduces himself/herself. ‘‘I am Rina/I
like dancing/etc’’. The game goes on with each pupil in the ring getting
a chance to speak.

5.6 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

You have looked at some techniques of teaching sentence forms in

the earlier section 5.5. This section in an extension of the sentence form.
While explaining the rules operating in the placement of words in a sentence-
string, you may point out that subject-verb agreement is a basic rule of
sentence formation. You may highlight these points :
1. In the third person there is sometimes agreement between the subject
and the first (or only) word of a finite verb phrase.
(a) I play chess
She plays badminton.
(b) I am watching the television
We are watching the television
An uncountable noun takes singular verb
(c) The water is warm.
2. With a present-tense verb there is agreement.
(d) The car is washed every day.
The cars are washed every day.
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A modal auxiliary always has the same form.

(e) The student might be absent.
The students might be absent.
3. With a past-tense verb there is agreement only with be.
(f) The window was broken
The windows were broken.
4. It is usually easy to decide if a subject is singular or plural.
John and Mary are husband and wife.
Both Adity and her sister were here.
The headmaster and the secretary were present.
But when the two nouns in the subject express something that we
see a single thing, then we use a singular verb.
The headmaster and secretary was present
Bread and butter is good food.
5. When two phrases are linked by or, the verb usually agrees with the
nearest.
Either Rina or her brothers are to be contacted.
6. A phrase of measurement takes a singular verb
Fifty thousand rupees is a lot of money.
Ten miles is too far to walk.
7. A phrase with as well as or with does not make the subject plural.
John as well as his brother was contacted
John and his brother were contacted.
(plural)
8. A Phrase or clause as subject takes a singular verb
Reading books is my hobby.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 3: Correct the following sentences :
(a) Her car was involved in a big accident
(b) According to me, we should spend more money on education.
(c) I promised to meet her a week after
(d) I’ll phone you again in five miniutes.
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(e) Not many people manage to satisfy their ambitions.

(f) I bought a blue colour shirt and a pair of socks.
(g) I was curious what she would look like
(h) I know the French language.

5.7 TENSES

When you teach the tenses of English to your pupils, you are actually
teaching the relationship between the form of the verb and the time of the
action or state it describes. There are two ways of looking at an action,
event or condition with respect to time, and verbs commonly indicate both.
First, there is the matter of when : does the action occur in the past,
the present or the future? A verb shows when through its tense.
Past tense : I saw her yesterday
Present tense : I see her today
Future tense : I will see her tomorrow
Here we have used adverbs (yesterday, today and tomorrow) to emphasize
the time of the action of ‘seeing her’. Without these adverbs we know
I saw is past
I see is present
I shall/will see is future
Secondly, there is the matter of the character or nature of an action–
whether it is completed and if completed, what the nature of the completion is.
Many teachers feel very comfortable by making use of conjugation
tables to teach the tense forms of English. Experts like Penny Ur feel that it
is more important for learners to see the relationship of a verb form (eg, the
simple present or the present continous form) in a situation or a context.
For example, in order to practice forms of the simple present tense, a
traditional conjugation table will merely give pupils a knowledge of these
forms with the verb. Here is a table with the verb ‘take’:

Present Singular Plural

1st I take We take
2nd You take You take
3rd He takes They take

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Instead of this table activity. teachers can engage pupils with some
meaningful activity as follows :
Choose someone you know very well and write down his/her name.
Now compose true statements about the person according to the
following model :
He/she likes ice cream or
He/she doesn’t like ice cream
Remember, in teaching the tenses of English, the learners should
know the uses of these forms. Some of the uses are given here for your
reference.
1. Simple present tenses
We normally use the simple present tense for a present state : a feeling,
opinion or relation
I play football
She knows the answer
This book belongs to me
But this tense also has several other common uses notably. Better to
indicate a general truth or belief eg:
The sun rises in the east
to describe a customary or habitual action or condition
I go to bed at eleven o’clock
to describe events in literary or other works eg.
Blake uses the tiger as a symbol of ferocity.
to describe future time
He arrives tomorrow.
2. Simple past
We normally use the simple past tense to describe a single or repeated
action or condition that began and ended in the past.
I bought this book yesterday.
I was out for work by ten.
I visited Kathmandu last summer.
3. Simple future
We normally use the simple future verb phrase to indicate future time
by using shall/will before the simple present form of the verb
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He will come tomorrow

I shall visit Delhi next month.
Present perfect
We use the present tense to indicate an action or condition that began
in the past and that continous to the present.
The teacher has just entered the classroom.
His illness has lasted for two months.
Even if what you are referring to occured entirely in the past, you can
use the present perfect tense if you don’t specity just when it occured and if
you feel it as somehow related to the present.
Past perfect
We use the past perfect tense to indicate an action completed in the
past before a specific past time.
The train had arrived before I reached the station.
Future perfect
We use the future perfect to indicate an action or condition that will be
completed before a specific future time.
By this time tomorrow we will have arrived at New York.
Present continuous
We use this tense for an action or condition that began at some past
time and that is continuing now, in the present.
I am doing my homework.
Like the simple present tense, the present continuous tense can also
indicate future
The cricket team is arriving tomorrow.
Past continuous
We use this tense to refer to an action that was in progress during
some past time, especially if the person wants to emphasize the action or
its continuing nature or interrupted during which time something else
happened.
He was working in the garden when I visited him.
Future continuous
We use this tense for a continuing action in the future or for an action
that will be occuring at some specific time in the future :
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They will be arriving late in the evening.

Present perfect cotinuous
We use this tense to emphasize the cotinuing nature of a single or
repeated action that began in the past and that has continued at least up to
the present.
I have been working here for three years.
Past perfect continuous
We use this tense to emphasize the cotinuing nature of a single or
repeated past action that was completed before some other past action
occured or that was interrupted by a second past action.
We had been expecting the news.
She had been working here before she left for Jorhat.
Future Perfect continuous
This tense is seldom used except when you want to emphasize the
cotinuing nature of a future action before a specific time in the future or
before a second future action.
If she continues her dancing in a few years time she will have been an
except.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Q 4: (i) Prepare a chart for teaching drilling the
present continuous tense to pupils of class IV.
(ii) Prepare a guided writing task for practising the use of the simple
present tense to pupils of class V/VI
(iii) Prepare an exercise for testing the pupils knowledge of tenses
for pupils of class VII-VIII.
Note : While writing the tasks or drills give the directions very
specifically.

5.8 CONNECTORS

Connectors refer to the word class conjunction. While introducing this

word class you may mention to the students the following three types of
connectors or conjuctions.
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(a) Co-ordinating : and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so. These conjunctions join
words, phrses or clauses–within a sentence.
An old man and his two grandsons live in this house.
Tired but determined, she walked on.
I will not do it nor will she.
(b) Co-relative conjunctions : These conjunctions correlate two parallel
parts of a sentence performing the function of connectors eg.
either.....or, whether .... or, neither .... nor, both.... and, not... but, not
only... but also eg.
Either John or David is coming.
He accepted neither the first nor the second proposal
(c) Sub-ordinating conjunction. These conjunctions introduce a
subordinate clause and link it to the main clause.
He didn’t come to school because he was ill.
These conjunctions include : when, whenever, where, wherever, why,
while etc.

5.9 NON-FINITES

In order to explain the term ‘non-finites’ to your pupils, a good beginning

shoud be the term ‘finite verb’. How would you explain the term finite verb?
Remember, it is a form of a verb which is marked to show that it is related to
a subject in person and.or number. and when it shows tense.
A non-finite verb form is not marked according to differences in the
person or number of the subject and has no tense. The infinite and the
perticiples are non-finite forms of verb in English. Look at this example.
The boy wants to go
sub finite verb non-finite verb
Let us began with the infiniteves.
1. The infinitives
(a) We use the base form of the verb to create infinitives. We can use
the base form after to.
I want to go home

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When the infinitive is preceded by ‘to’, we call it to infinitive.

We can use an infinitive after these verbs :
afford agree aim arrange
begin decide deserve expect
fail hope intend learn
manage need after plan
pretend promise refuse seem
start threaten want
(b) We use the base form without to as well in which case we call it
bare infinitive.
The teacher made us read aloud in class.
(c) We use the infinitive to talk about arrangements
We aim to arrive around 11 o’clock.
(d) We can also talk about intentions and decisions followed by the
infinitive
I decided to see her.
2. The Participles : (Present, past & passive)
(a) Because of their similarity in forms, the present participle looks
like a gerund. Hence, it becomes necessary to get the gerund out of
the way before concentrating on the participles.
We add – ing to the base form of the verb to make both a present
participle form and a gerund. They may look alike in form, but in use
they differ. Note the following diffence
We use gerund like nouns, which can be subjects or objects.
Studying makes me sleepy (subject)
I have finished the cleaning (object)
We use prsent participles as verbs with different forms of be and
in reduced versions of relative clauses
We were talking about you.
The man talking to the lady is her husband.
(b) A past participle or a passive participle is a form that is made up of
the base form + ed/en or its other realizations in irregular verbs eg
covered, broken, left etc.
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The poet feels as if he has stepped into a

deserted banquet hall, (past participle)
There was a letter left on the table (past participle)
I had the desk cleared away (passive participle)
I saw the desk being cleared away. (passive participle)
[If you look up a list of regular and irregular verbs given in any standard
grammar book for students, you will note that the verbs are given in three
columns : present tense, past tense and past participle.]
Note how the participles function in a sentence/phrase.
(a) In the phrase ‘a deserted banquet hall’, the past participle ‘deserted’
qualifies the noun ‘banquet hall’. It tells us what kind of banquet hall.
Deserted banquet hall.
(b) We can put a subject or an object
The rain having stopped
The girls sat around the table eating ice cream
(c) Sometimes we put an adverb before a participle.
We want a formally trained driver.
(d) We can put a participle after a verb to talk about some activities.
We went swimming
I go jogging in the morning.

Some techniques for teaching participles and their uses.

Write up a few verb on the blackboard eg
stun, care, drive, dry, grow, change.
Ask pupils to write the present participle and past participle of each
of these words and to frame a sentence using each as a single
word adjective modifying a noun or pronoun.
eg. stun - stunning - stunned
1. She looked stunning.
2. It was a stunning bow
3. The stunned fighter admitted defeat

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5.10 VOICE

While introducing the grammatical concept ‘voice’ to your students,

you may point out that there are two voice forms : active voice and passive
voice. Show them that the active voice is a direct statement that makes use
of the S + V + O / S + V + O + A / S + V + O + C / S + V + O + O pattern. The
passive voice reverses the normal S + V + O pattern by making use of the
rules of passivization.
You may introduce the difference as follows :
1. We use an active verb to say what the subject does :
The principal presided over the meeting.
We use passive verb to say what happens to the subject.
The meeting was presided over by the principal.
Explain to the pupils that we make the passive form with the auxiliary
be + past participle. The form of be changes person and tense while the
past participle always remains the same.
(a) Simple present : A camel is called the ship of the desert
(b) Present continuous : The house is being painted.
(c) Simple past : Our school was established in 1995.
(d) Past continuous : The house was being painted
(e) Present perfect : The house has been painted
(f) Past perfect : The work had been done
(g) Simple future : The work will be completed.
We form negatives and questions in the same way as in active
sentences.
The house isn’t being painted yet.
The house hasn’t been painted.
Note : You may tell the pupils that the passive form has its own distinctive
uses especially in formal writings to sound impersonal.
Dhemaji district has been affected by floods.
Hundreds of people have been evacuated.
You may also tell your pupils that we can use the passive to talk about
process.

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Shoes are made of leather.

Butter is made from milk.

5.11 NARRATION

1. Tell your pupils that we can report what someone said in two ways :
(a) We can use the exact words used by a speaker to report what
the person had said, eg.
Nasiruddin said, ‘It is not my aim.’
Here we are reporting the exact words used by Nasiruddin.
These words are given in direct speech or direct narration
(b) We can use a past reporting verb and change the tense of the
reporting clause according to some rules. eg
Nasiruddin said that it was not his aim.
Here we are reporting without using Nasiruddin’s exact words.
This is an example of indirect speech or indirect narration
2. Draw the attention of your pupils to some of the basic rules that operate
in changing a reporting clause to indirect speech.
1. Present – past
am/is/are was/were; take took
am/is/are taking was/were taking.
2. present perfect – past perfect
have taken had taken
3. simple past – past perfect
took had taken
4. Modals
will would, must had to
can could, should should
would would, could could
3. Show you pupils the corresponding changes taking place in pronouns
and possessives
The secretary said, ‘‘We have a meeting in my room at 3 pm.”
The secretary said that they had a meeting in his room at 3 pm.

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4. Besides, we also change expressions of time and place as shown in

the box below :
direct indirect
here there
this that
today that day
yesterday the previous day
tomorrow the next day
next month the following month
last month the previous month
ago before
come go
You can engage your pupils to a variety of activities and tasks on
reporting. From straightforward isolated sentences to telephonic messages
that would be reported by a person. As an example read the following
telephonic conversation between Raj and Abhi’s mother :
Raj : Hello : Can I speak to Abhi?
Abji’s mother : Hello : This is Abhi’s mother. May I know who’s
speaking?
Raj : Hello aunty. I’m Raj.
Abhi’s mother : Yes Raj. Abhi is not at home. He’s gone for tution
and will be back only at 6 pm.
Raj : Can I leave a message aunty?
Abhi’s mother : Oh, sure.
Raj : Please inform him that he has to stay back after class tomorrow
for the science project. He must bring his part of the work to school
tomorrow.
Abhi’s mother : I’ll inform him. Thanks
Raj : Thanks and bye aunty.
Now imagine Abhi’s mother jotting down the information in the form of
a message. The message will be constructed in the indirect speech for
Abhi. Engage the pupils in a task like this as an example of need-based
reported speech.
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5.12 LET US SUM UP

In this unit an attempt was made to introduce the grammatical

concept from a pedagogical point of view. We looked at the notions of
acceptablity of grammatical forms. An attempt was made to highlight most
of the important grammatical terms and concepts like
the different word classes : nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs,
adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and determiners.
phrases and clauses
sentences in terms of form and function
subject-verb agreement
tenses
connectors
non-finites
voice
narration
The attempt is not to ‘teach’ you these concepts but to show how
strategies can be developed which will help you to teach these concepts at
different stages of schooling.
We would like to subscribe to the view that in our second language
learning situation, the inductive teaching of grammar should find an
appropriate place. We also subscribe to the view that grammatical concepts
must be presented in interesting contexts. Thereby, students will find an
interest in learning these concepts.
Contexts also help us to understand what is known as collocation.
Some words do not go well with some words, others go well. Teaching
vocabulary in contexts for example will enable us to know that this sentence
is not acceptable.
X The photograper made quite a good job.
‘made’ does not collocate with job we have to use ‘did’ here. Similarly,
‘‘I prefer to pay by cash’’ is not acceptable. You can pay by cheque or by

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credit card; but you pay in cash. or you to pay cash. Teaching in contexts
help students to see their collocations.

5.13 FURTHER READING

1) Baruah, T. C. (1999) The English Teacher’s Handbook Sterling, New

Delhi.
2) Dowerah, Sawpon (2010) A Student’s Gramar of English, Student’s
Stores, Guwahati.
3) Ur, Penny (2003) A Course in Language Teaching Cambridge University
Press.
4) Yule, George (2012) Oxford Practice Grammar OUP.

5.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Ans to Q No 1:
(a) consolidate (b) Grammatical (c) before/prior to
(d) inductive (e) number (f) verbs
(g) linking (h) adding-ly (i) content
(j) possessives
Ans to Q No 2:
(a) P (b) SC (c) IC
(d) SC (e) P (f) IC
Ans to Q No 3:
(a) Serious accident. (b) According to + writer etc not ‘me’. we say ‘‘In
my opinion, we should spend more money on education. (c) a week
later. (d) I’ll phone you back... (e) .... achieve their ambitions. (f) the
noun colour is not used with the name of a colour, I bought a blue
shirt... (g) curious is followed by about/as to; curious to see/curious to
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know etc. I was curious to know what she would look like. (h) We use
the word ‘language’ after the name of a language as in The English
language has evolved over many centuries. But when we use the
word speak/learn/know etc + name of a language we don’t use the
word ‘language’. I know French.
Ans to Q No 4: (Guidance only)
1. Take a sheet of chart paper and either draw or cut pictures from
magazines or newspapers of animals, birds, men, women and
children engaged in certain activities and paste them on the sheet.
Instruct the pupils to describe each picture. You’ll get sentences
like ‘‘The baby is laughing’’. “The girl is dancing.” etc.
2. Write out a paragraph on a person’s daily life using a lot of simple
present tense eg.
Mr. Pradip Dutta is the Head Master of our school. He gets up at 5
o’clock every morning. He takes a morning walk for about half an
hour every day...etc.
Now ask you pupils to describe their own daily life.
3. Give a blank filling task with the base form of the verb in brackets
after every blank. The sentences may be a unified paragraph or a
number of isolated sentences.

5.15 MODEL QUESTIONS

Q 1: Your pupils have written the following sentences

(a) I taked my breakfast at 7 O’clock.
(b) I buyed a bicycle yesterday.
Explain how you will teach your pupils the correct forms of taked, buyed.
Q 2: Prepare a drill for the teaching of the definite and indefinite articles.
Q 3: Prepare a plan for teaching the use of simple and complex sentences.

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