2.

35 Spherical Coordinates 61

@2v y 1 @ 2 v y @ 2 v y 1 @v y 2 @vr v y
ðr2 vÞ y ¼ þ 2 þ þ þ 2  ; (2.34.13)
@r 2 r @ y2 @z2 r @r r @ y r2

@ 2 vz 1 @ 2 vz 1 @vz @ 2 vz
ðr2 vÞz ¼ þ þ þ 2 : (2.34.14)
@r 2 r 2 @ y 2 r @r @z

2.35 SPHERICAL COORDINATES

In Figure 2.35-1, we show the spherical coordinates (r, y, f) of a general point P. In this figure, er, ey and
ef are unit vectors in the direction of increasing r, y and f, respectively.

z
z
ez
er er
N N
eφ er⬘
P θ
P θ
θ

r
eθ
0 y 0 r⬘
eθ E
φ
E

x
(a) (b)

FIGURE 2.35-1

The position vector for the point P can be written as

r ¼ rer ; (2.35.1)

where r is the magnitude of the vector r. Thus,

dr ¼ drer þ rder : (2.35.2)

To evaluate der we note from Figure 2.35-1(b) that

er ¼ cos yez þ siny er0 ; e y ¼ cosy er0  sin y ez ; (2.35.3)

where er0 is the unit vector in the OE (i.e., r0) direction (r0 is in the xy plane). Thus,

der ¼ siny d y ez þ cos y dez þ cos yd y er0 þ sin yder0 ¼ siny ez þ cos y er0 d y þ siny der0 ;

that is,
der ¼ d y e y þ siny der0 : (2.35.4)

Now, just as in polar coordinates, due to df,

der0 ¼ dfef ; (2.35.5)
62 CHAPTER 2 Tensors

therefore,
der ¼ d y e y þ sin y dfef : (2.35.6)

Now, from the second equation of (2.35.3), we have,

de y ¼ siny d y er0 þ cosy der0  cos y d y ez ¼  sin yer0 þ cosy ez d y þ cos y der0 :

Using Eq. (2.35.3) and Eq. (2.35.5), the preceding equation becomes
de y ¼ er d y þ cos y dfef : (2.35.7)

From Figure 2.35-1(a) and similar to the polar coordinate, we have

def ¼ df er0 : (2.35.8)

With er0 ¼ cos y e y þ sin y er (see Figure 2.35-1(b)), the preceding equation becomes
def ¼ siny dfer  cos y dfe y : (2.35.9)

Summarizing the preceding, we have

der ¼ d y e y þ siny dfef ; de y ¼ er d y þ cos y dfef ; def ¼ siny dfer  cos y dfe y ; (2.35.10)

and from Eq. (2.35.2), we have

dr ¼ drer þ rd y e y þ r siny dfef : (2.35.11)

We can now obtain the components of rf, rv, div v, curl v, div T, r f, and r v for spherical 2 2

coordinates.
(i) Components of rf:
Let f(r,y,f) be a scalar field. By the definition of rf, we have
h i

df ¼ rf  dr ¼ ðrf Þr er þ ðrf Þ y e y þ ðrf Þf ef Þ  drer þ rd y e y þ r siny dfef ; (2.35.12)

that is,
df ¼ ðrf Þr dr þ ðrf Þ y rd y þ ðrf Þf r siny df: (2.35.13)

From calculus, the total derivative of df is

@f @f @f
df ¼ dr þ dy þ df: (2.35.14)
@r @y @f

Comparing Eq. (2.35.14) and Eq. (2.35.13), we have

@f 1 @f 1 @f
ðrf Þr ¼ ; ðrf Þ y ¼ ; ðrf Þf ¼ : (2.35.15)
@r r @y r siny @f

(ii) Components of rv:

Let the vector field be represented by
vðr; y ; fÞ ¼ vr ðr; y ; fÞer þ v y ðr; y; fÞe y þ vf ðr; y ; fÞef : (2.35.16)
 2.35 Spherical Coordinates 63

Letting T ¼ rv, we have

dv ¼ Tdr ¼ T drer þ rd y e y þ r sin ydfef ¼ drTer þ rd yTe y þ r siny dfTef : (2.35.17)

By the definition of components of a tensor T in spherical coordinates, we have

Ter ¼ Trr er þ T y r e y þ Tfr ef ;
Te y ¼ Tr y er þ T yy e y þ Tf y ef ; (2.35.18)
Tef ¼ Trf er þ T y f e y þ Tff ef :

Substituting these into Eq. (2.35.17), we get

dv ¼ Trr dr þ Tr y rd y þ Trf r siny df er þ T yy rd y þ T

y r dr þ T y f r sin y df e y
(2.35.19)
þ Tfr dr þ Tf y rd y þ Tff r siny df ef :

We also have, from Eq. (2.35.16),

dv ¼ dvr er þ vr der þ dv y e y þ v y de y þ dvf ef þ vf def : (2.35.20)

Using the expression for the total derivatives:

@vr @vr @vr
dvr ¼ dr þ dy þ df;
@r @y @f
@v y @v y @v y
dv y ¼ dr þ dy þ df; (2.35.21)
@r @y @f
@vf @vf @vf
dvf ¼ dr þ dy þ df;
@r @y @f

Eq. (2.35.10) and Eq. (2.35.20) become

8 0 1 0 1 9
<@v @v @v =
r r r
dv ¼ dr þ @  v y Ad y þ @  vf siny Adf er
: @r @y @f ;
8 0 1 0 1 9
<@v @v y A @v y =
dr þ @vr þ dy þ @  vf cos y Adf e y
y
þ (2.35.22)
: @r @y @f ;
8 0 1 9
<@v @vf @vf =
dy þ @ þ vr sin y þ v y cos y Adf ef :
f
þ dr þ
: @r @y @f ;

Now, comparing Eq. (2.35.22) with Eq. (2.35.19), we have

8 0 1 0 1 9

<@vr @v r @v r
=
Trr dr þ Tr y rd y þ Trf r siny df ¼ dr þ @  v y Ad y þ @  vf siny Adf ;
: @r @y @f ;
8 0 1 0 1 9

<@v y @v y A @v y =
T y r dr þ T yy rd y þ T y f r siny df ¼ dr þ @vr þ dy þ @  vf cos y Adf ; (2.35.23)
: @r @y @f ;
8 0 1 9

<@vf @vf @vf =
Tfr dr þ Tf y rd y þ Tff r sin y df ¼ dr þ dy þ @ þ vr sin y þ v y cos y Adf :
: @r @y @f ;
64 CHAPTER 2 Tensors

These equations must be valid for arbitrary values of dr, dy and df, therefore,
0 1 0 1
@vr @v r @v r
Trr ¼ ; Tr y r ¼ @  v y A; Trf r sin y ¼ @  vf siny A;
@r @y @f
0 1 0 1
@v y @v @v
; T yy r ¼ @vr þ A; T y f r siny ¼ @  vf cosy A;
y y
Tyr ¼ (2.35.24)
@r @y @f
0 1
@vf @vf @v
; Tff r siny ¼ @ þ vr siny þ v y cos y A:
f
Tfr ¼ ; Tf y r ¼
@r @y @f

In matrix form, we have

2 3
@vr 1 @vr v y 1 @vr vf
6 @r   7
6 r @y r r siny @f r 7
6 7
6 @v y
6 1 @v y vr 1 @v y vf cot y 7
7
½rv ¼ 6 @r þ  7: (2.35.25)
6 r @y r r siny @f r 7
6 7
6 @vf
4 1 @vf 1 @vf vr v y cot y 7
5
þ þ
@r r @y r siny @f r r

(iii) div v:
Using Eq. (2.35.25), we obtain
@vr 1 @v y 1 @vf 2vr v y cot y
div v ¼ trðrvÞ ¼ þ þ þ þ
@r r @ y r siny @f r r
(2.35.26)
1 @ ðr 2 v r Þ 1 @ ðv y siny Þ 1 @vf
¼ þ þ :
r2 @r r sin y @y r siny @f

(iv) Components of curl v:

The vector curl v ¼ twice the dual vector of (rv)A, therefore
8 9 8
9
<v coty 1 @v 1 @v = < 1 @v 1 @ rvf =
f f y r
curl v ¼ þ  er þ  e
: r r @ y r siny @f ; :r siny @f r @r ; y
8 9 (2.35.27)
<1 @ ðrv Þ 1 @v =
y r
þ  ef :
: r @r r @y;

(v) Components of div T:

Using the definition of div T given in Eq. (2.33.27) and take a ¼ er, we have

ðdiv TÞr ¼ divðTT er Þ  trððrer ÞTT Þ: (2.35.28)

To evaluate the first term on the right-hand side, we note that

TT er ¼ Trr er þ Tr y e y þ Trf ef ; (2.35.29)
 2.35 Spherical Coordinates 65

so that by using Eq. (2.35.26) for the divergence of a vector in spherical coordinates, we obtain,

1 @ ðr2 Trr Þ 1 @ðTr y siny Þ 1 @Trf

divðTT er Þ ¼ þ þ : (2.35.30)
r 2 @r r siny @y r sin y @f

To evaluate the second term in Eq. (2.35.28), we first used Eq. (2.35.25) to evaluate rer, then calcu-
late ðrer ÞTT :
2 3 2 3
0 0 0 0 0 0
½rer  ¼ 4 0 1=r 0 5; ½ðrer ÞT  ¼ 4 Tr y =r
T
T yy =r Tf y =r 5 (2.35.31)
0 0 1=r Trf =r T y f =r Tff =r

thus,
T yy Tff
trððrer ÞTT Þ ¼ þ : (2.35.32)
r r

Substituting Eq. (2.35.32) and Eq. (2.35.30) into Eq. (2.35.28), we obtain,

1 @ ðr 2 Trr Þ 1 @ ðTr y siny Þ 1 @Trf T yy þ Tff

ðdiv TÞr ¼ þ þ  : (2.35.33)
r 2 @r r siny @y r sin y @f r

In a similar manner, we can obtain (see Prob. 2.75)

1 @ ðr 3 T y r Þ 1 @ðT yy sin y Þ 1 @T y f Tr y  T y r  Tff cot y

ðdiv TÞ y ¼ þ þ þ (2.35.34)
r3 @r r siny @y r siny @f r
3

1 @ r Tfr 1 @ðTf y siny Þ 1 @Tff Trf  Tfr þ T y f cot y

ðdiv TÞf ¼ 3 þ þ þ : (2.35.35)
r @r r siny @y r sin y @f r

(vi) Laplacian of f:
From

1 @ðr 2 vr Þ 1 @v y siny 1 @vf

div v ¼ þ þ ;
r 2 @r r siny @ y r sin y @f
(2.35.36)
@f 1 @f 1 @f
rf ¼ er þ ey þ ef ;
@r r @y r sin y @f

we have
0 1 0 1 0 1
1 @ @f 1 @ 1 @f 1 @ 1 @f
r2 f ¼ divðrf Þ ¼ 2 @r 2 Aþ @ siny A þ @ A
r @r @r r sin y @ y r @ y r siny @f r sin y @f
0 1 0 1 (2.35.37)
@ 2 f 2 @f 1 @ @ 2 f A cot y @f 1 @ @ 2
f A:
¼ 2þ þ þ 2 þ
@r r @r r 2 @ y 2 r @ y r 2 sin2 y @f2
66 CHAPTER 2 Tensors

(vii) Laplacian of a vector function v:

It can be obtained (see Prob. 2.75)
  2   
1 @ 2 r 2 vr 2 @r2 vr 1 @ v y siny @ 2 vf 1 @v y siny @vf
rðdiv vÞ ¼  þ þ  þ er
r 2 @r 2 r 3 @r r siny @r@ y @r@f r 2 sin y @y @f
  2    
1 @ 2 r 2 vr 1 @ v y siny @ 2 v y sin y 1 cosy @v y siny 1 @ 1 @vf
þ 3 þ 2 þ  þ ey
r @ y @r r siny @ y2 @ y2 r 2 sin2 y @y r 2 @ y sin y @f
 
1 @ @ðr 2 vr Þ 1 @ 2 ðv y siny Þ 1 @ 2 vf
þ 3 þ 2 2 þ 2 2 ef ; (2.35.38)
r siny @f @r r sin y @f@ y r sin y @ 2 f

and
  2     
1 @ rv y @ 2 vr coty 1 @rv y 1 @vr 1 @ 2 vr 1 @ 2 rvf
curl curl v ¼  þ    er
r 2 @ y@r @ y 2 r r @r r @y r2 sin2 y @f2 r 2 sin y @f@r
  2     2 
1 @ vf siny @ 2 v y 1 @rv y @vr 1 @ rv y 1 @rv y 1 @ 2 vr 1 @vr
þ 2 2       þ ey
r sin y @f@ y @f2 r 2 @r @y r @r2 r2 @r r @r@ y r 2 @ y
80 1 0 19
>
> @v @v @ 2
rv @rv @v @rv >
>
>
> @ 1 r 1
 2
1 r

1 f
þ 2
1 f Aþ @ 1 1 r

f A>>
>
> >
>
< r siny @r@f r siny @f r @r 2 r @r r siny @f
2 @r =
þ 0 1 0 1 ef : (2.35.39)
>
> @ 2 vf @2v y A cos y @@vf siny @v y A > >
>
> 1 1 @ >
>
>
>  vf sin y þ siny  þ 2 2  >
: r2 siny @ y 2 @ y @f r sin y @y @f > ;

Thus, r2 v ¼ rðdiv vÞ  curl curl v leads to:

0 1
1 @ 2 r 2 vr 2 @r 2 vr 1 @ 2 vr coty @vr 1 @ 2 vr 2 @v y siny
B r 2 @r2  þ þ þ 
B r3 @r r2 @ y 2 r 2 @ y r2 sin2 y @f2 r 2 sin y @ y C C
ðr2 vÞr ¼ B
B
C;
C (2.35.40)
@  2 @vf A
r sin y @f
2

0 0 1 8 9 1
1 @ @v 1 @ < 1 @ = 1 @2v y
B @ 2 y A C
B r 2 @r r @r þ r 2 @ y :siny @ y ðv y siny Þ; þ r 2 sin2 y @f2 C
B C
ðr2 vÞ y ¼ B C; (2.35.41)
B 2 @vr 2 coty @vf C
@þ  A
r 2 @ y r2 siny @f
0 0 1 8 9 1
1 @ @v 1 @ < 1 @ = 1 @ 2
v
B @ 2 fA fC
B r 2 @r r @r þ r 2 @ y :siny @ y ðvf siny Þ; þ r 2 sin2 y @f2 C
B C
ðr vÞf ¼ B
2
C: (2.35.42)
B 2 @v 2 coty @v C
@þ r
þ
y A
r 2 sin y @f r 2 siny @f
 Problems for Part D 67

PROBLEMS FOR PART D

2.70 Calculate div u for the following vector field in cylindrical coordinates:
(a) ur ¼ u y ¼ 0; uz ¼ A þ Br 2 .
(b) ur ¼ sin y=r; u y ¼ uz ¼ 0.
(c) ur ¼ r 2 sin y =2; u y ¼ r 2 cos y =2; uz ¼ 0.

2.71 Calculate ru for the following vector field in cylindrical coordinates:

ur ¼ A=r; u y ¼ Br; uz ¼ 0:

2.72 Calculate div u for the following vector field in spherical coordinates:

B
ur ¼ Ar þ ; u y ¼ uf ¼ 0:
r2

2.73 Calculate ru for the following vector field in spherical coordinates:

ur ¼ Ar þ B=r2 ; u y ¼ uf ¼ 0:

2.74 From the definition of the Laplacian of a vector, r2 v ¼ rðdiv vÞ  curl curl v, derive the following
results in cylindrical coordinates:
 
@ 2 vr 1 @ 2 vr @ 2 vr 2 @v y 1 @vr vr
ðr2 vÞr ¼ þ þ 2  2 þ  and
@r 2 r 2 @ y 2 @z r @y r @r r 2

@2v y 1 @ 2 v y @ 2 v y 1 @v y 2 @vr v y
ðr2 vÞ y ¼ þ þ þ þ 2  :
@r 2 r2 @ y 2 @z2 r @r r @ y r2

2.75 From the definition of the Laplacian of a vector, r2 v ¼ rðdiv vÞ  curl curl v, derive the following
result in spherical coordinates:
 
1 @ 2 r2 vr 2 @r 2 vr 1 @ 2 vr cot y @vr 1 @ 2 vr 2 @v y sin y 2 @vf
ðr2 vÞr ¼  þ þ þ   :
r 2 @r 2 r 3 @r r2 @ y 2 r 2 @ y r 2 sin2 y @f2 r 2 sin y @ y r 2 siny @f

2.76 From the equation ðdiv TÞ  a ¼ divðTT aÞ  trðTT raÞ [see Eq. (2.29.3)], verify that in polar coordinates
the y-component of the vector ðdiv TÞ is:

@T y r 1 @T yy Tr y þ T y r
ðdiv TÞ y ¼ þ þ :
@r r @y r
68 CHAPTER 2 Tensors

2.77 Calculate div T for the following tensor field in cylindrical coordinates:

B B
Trr ¼ A þ ; T yy ¼ A  ; Tzz ¼ constant; Tr y ¼ T y r ¼ Trz ¼ Tzr ¼ T y z ¼ Tz y ¼ 0:
r2 r2

2.78 Calculate div T for the following tensor field in cylindrical coordinates:
0 1 0 1
Az 3Br 2 z Az Az 3Bz3
Ar 3Brz 2
Trr ¼ 3  5 ; T yy ¼ 3; Tzz ¼ @ 3 þ 5 A; Trz ¼ Tzr ¼ @ 3 þ 5 A;
R R R R R R R
Tr y ¼ T y r ¼ T y z ¼ Tz y ¼ 0; R 2 ¼ r 2 þ z2 :

2.79 Calculate div T for the following tensor field in spherical coordinates:

2B B
Trr ¼ A  ; T yy ¼ Tff ¼ A þ ; Tr y ¼ T y r ¼ T y f ¼ Tf y ¼ Trf ¼ Tfr ¼ 0:
r3 r3

2.80 From the equation ðdiv TÞ  a ¼ divðTT aÞ  trðTT raÞ [see Eq. (2.29.3)], verify that in spherical coordi-
nates the y-component of the vector (div T) is:

1 @ ðr 3 T y r Þ 1 @ ðT yy sin y Þ 1 @T y f Tr y  T y r  Tff cot y

ðdiv TÞ y ¼ þ þ þ :
r3 @r r siny @y r siny @f r
 CHAPTER

Kinematics of a Continuum
3
The branch of mechanics in which materials are treated as continuous is known as continuum mechanics.
Thus, in this theory, one speaks of an infinitesimal volume of material, the totality of which forms a body.
One also speaks of a particle in a continuum, meaning, in fact, an infinitesimal volume of material. This chap-
ter is concerned with the kinematics of such particles.

3.1 DESCRIPTION OF MOTIONS OF A CONTINUUM

In particle kinematics, the path line of a particle is described by a vector function of time t,
r ¼ rðtÞ; (3.1.1)

where rðtÞ ¼ x1 ðtÞe1 þ x2 ðtÞe2 þ x3 ðtÞe3 is the position vector. In component form, the previous equation reads:
x1 ¼ x1 ðtÞ; x2 ¼ x2 ðtÞ; x3 ¼ x3 ðtÞ: (3.1.2)

If there are N particles, there are N path lines, each of which is described by one of the equations:
rn ¼ rn ðtÞ; n ¼ 1; 2; 3 . . . N: (3.1.3)

That is, for the particle number 1, the path line is given by r1 ðtÞ, for the particle number 2, it is given
by r2 ðtÞ, etc.
For a continuum, there are infinitely many particles. Therefore, it is not possible to identify particles by
assigning each of them a number in the same way as in the kinematics of particles. However, it is possible
to identify them by the position they occupy at some reference time to .

P(t ␱)
P(t)

X
x

FIGURE 3.1-1

Copyright © 2010, Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

70 CHAPTER 3 Kinematics of a Continuum

For example, if a particle of a continuum was at the position (1, 2, 3) at time t ¼ 0, the set of coordinates
(1, 2, 3) can be used to identify this particle. In general, therefore, if a particle of a continuum was at the posi-
tion ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 Þ at the reference time to , the set of coordinates ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 Þ can be used to identity this par-
ticle. Thus, in general, the path lines of every particle in a continuum can be described by a vector equation of
the form
x ¼ xðX; tÞ with X ¼ xðX; to Þ; (3.1.4)

where x ¼ x1 e1 þ x2 e2 þ x3 e3 is the position vector at time t for the particle P (see Figure 3.1-1), which was
at X ¼ X1 e1 þ X2 e2 þ X3 e3 at time to . In component form, Eq. (3.1.4) takes the form:
x1 ¼ x1 ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 ; tÞ; X1 ¼ x1 ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 ; to Þ;
x2 ¼ x2 ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 ; tÞ; X2 ¼ x2 ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 ; to Þ; (3.1.5)
x3 ¼ x3 ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 ; tÞ; X3 ¼ x3 ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 ; to Þ;

or
xi ¼ xi ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 ; tÞ with Xi ¼ xi ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 ; to Þ: (3.1.6)

In Eq. (3.1.5), the triple ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 Þ serves to identify the different particles of the body and is known as
the material coordinates. Eq. (3.1.5) [or Eq. (3.1.6)] is said to define a motion for a continuum; these equa-
tions describe the path line for every particle in the continuum.

Example 3.1.1
Consider the motion

x ¼ X þ ktX2 e1 ; (i)

where x ¼ x1 e1 þ x2 e2 þ x3 e3 is the position vector at time t for a particle P that was at X ¼ X1 e1 þ X2 e2

þ X3 e3 at t ¼ 0: Sketch the configuration at time t for a body which, at t ¼ 0, has the shape of a cube of unit
sides as shown.

x2

kt
C⬘ B B⬘
C

x1
0 A

FIGURE 3.1-2

Solution
From Eq. (i), we have

x1 ¼ X1 þ ktX2 ; x2 ¼ X2 ; x3 ¼ X3 : (ii)
 3.1 Description of Motions of a Continuum 71

At t ¼ 0, the particle O is located at (0, 0, 0). Thus, for this particle, the material coordinates are

X1 ¼ 0; X2 ¼ 0; X3 ¼ 0:

Substituting these values for Xi in Eq. (ii), we get, for all time t,

ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ð0; 0; 0Þ:

In other words, this particle remains at (0, 0, 0) at all times. Similarly, the material coordinates for the particle A are

ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 Þ ¼ ð1; 0; 0Þ;

and the position for A at time t is

ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ð1; 0; 0Þ:

Thus, the particle A also does not move with time. In fact, since the material coordinates for the points on the
material line OA are
ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 Þ ¼ ðX1 ; 0; 0Þ;

for them, the positions at time t are

ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðX1 ; 0; 0Þ:

That is, the whole material line OA is motionless. On the other hand, the material coordinates for the material line CB are

ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 Þ ¼ ðX1 ; 1; 0Þ;

so that according to Eq. (ii)

ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðX1 þ kt ; 1; 0Þ:

In other words, the material line has moved horizontally through a distance of kt (see Figure 3.1-2). The material
coordinates for the material line OC are
ðX1 ; X2 ; X3 Þ ¼ ð0; X2 ; 0Þ;

so that for the particles on this line

ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ ðkt X2 ; X2 ; 0Þ:

The fact that x1 ¼ kt X2 means that the straight material line OC remains a straight line OC’ at time t, as shown in
Figure 3.1-2. The situation for the material line AB is similar. Thus, at time t, the side view of the cube changes from
that of a square to a parallelogram, as shown in Figure 3.1-2.
Since x3 ¼ X3 at all time for all particles, it is clear that all motions are parallel to the plane x3 ¼ 0. The motion
given in this example is known as the simple shearing motion.

Example 3.1.2
Let Y1 ¼ X1 ; Y2 ¼ X2 ; and Y3 ¼ X3 . Express the simple shearing motion given in Example 3.1.1 in terms of
ðY1 ; Y2 ; Y3 Þ.
Solution
Straightforward substitutions give

x1 ¼ Y1 þ ktY2 ; x2 ¼ Y 2 ; x3 ¼ Y 3 :