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t to Ethnomathematics and Education

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na
MARCELO C. BORBA
po
ces
ent

on
"Sa- In this paper I will discuss the notion of ethnomathematics, In the terminology used by Paulo Freire [1981], conscious-
·sa- which can be seen as an epistemological approach to mathe- ness can be "intransitive" or "transitive". A person with
lSe, matics, and will relate ethnomathematics to education This intransitive consciousness doesn't link her /his experiences
>nd discussion will lead to a view of how mathematics should be together; s/he always lives in the present moment and there-
ler- incorporated into school curricula and to suggestions regard- fore cannot make important connections S/he is likely to
ls. ing how mathematics should be pedagogically practised change only superficially, e g. in response to fashions. A per-
rch son with transitive consciousness develops a more reflective
LSS·· 1 A philosophical background to perspective which allows her /him to make connections
'of ethnomathematics between her/his different experiences and therefore to make
;e'' In this section I will summarize a view of human beings on significant changes in response to these experiences Freire
~or which the idea of ethnomathematics is based, a view of how argues that reaching a "critical transitivity" is necessarily
~et­ people relate to other human beings and to the world. I will an active and dialogical (that is, in dialogue with other peo-
: or then focus on two particularly important ideas: "dialogue" ple) process Therefore transitive consciousness and dialogue
his and "problem" Finally I will establish connections between are both fundamental to the processes of personal and educa-
the idea of ethnomathematics and this view of human beings tional growth

1.1 Human beings and their dialogical 1.2 Dialogue

in a relations Dialogue can be seen as a horizontal relationship between
ence This view of humans is based on a phenomenological two or more human beings, in which the "being" of each
:rak- appmach in which a person is seen as a "being-in-the- person opens her/himselfto the other(s) in an authentic way
von world-with-others" [I] S/he is a "be-ing" since her/his Dialogue is an intersubjective relationship in which human
essence is manifested in her/his daily ways of existing in the beings try to know each other and reveal their true selves
:ms. world S/he is "in-the-world", not in the sense of water "in" to each other [Bicudo, 1979] The subjects involved in the
;raCI
a glass, but in the sense of being in a relationship with the dialogue communicate using not only intentional signs (e. g.,
'001- world which expands to fill a space without dimensions This words), but also using unconscious signs such as pauses,
relationship expands further into the world as s/he compre- ways of walking or breathing, gestures, and so on In this
ping hends new meanings about this relationship with the world context, the meaning of words cannot be limited to those
-::on-
S/he is "with others" because s/he always works with some- stored in the dictionary. However just giving something a
nmg thing and/or talks with someone (even if only to her/himself) name shows the importance this thing has in a given culture
In this phenomenological view of human beings, a human According to Alfred Schutz [in Wagner, 1979], words are
~s of is only seen in connection with the world S/he cannot be bounded by past and future elements of someone' s speech;
)88 seen without the world; neither can the world be seen without words also have emotional and irrational values which are
her/him Moreover, the concepts "human" and "world" not explicit Meanings of signs also change from one cul-
In themselves are intrinsically linked since both terms reflect tural [2] group to another, since each group "shapes" the
meanings which have been constructed by humans Each meaning of words to their context Finally, it is important
1 let- human's relation to other humans is based on certain com- to remark that dialogue cannot take place if the realms of
uer- prehensions: understanding existing meanings and making concern of the human beings involved in the dialogue have
Rot- new meanings. Each person is also always in a place in the no intersection In other words, if the problems which involve
world and living in a historical nwment them are completely different, the dialogue cannot occur
fan- In her/his existence, a person experiences events in which The word "problem" has been used just above in a very
s/he is also involved. These experiences can be seen as a different way than in most mathematics education literature
amn
''chain of consciousness'' which is in continuous and indivisi- The next section will focus on the key idea of "problem"
e en ble flux, like a river, where thinking is both changeable and
constantly flowing. However experience is lived in its own 1..3 Problem
1lem time, different from ''official'', chronological time. A reflec- What is a problem? [3] If I ask an adult who is standing in
rrhe
·oup
tion on an experience is no longer in the original flux of front of me, "What is the color of the pants I'm wearing?"
experience, but is in a new part of the ongoing flux, looking is that a problem? In education it is important to distinguish
isse back at an earlier time Thus consciousness is an endless, a problem from a simple question to which the answer is
recurrent pmcess which embodies, in a broad sense, reflect- known without any need for reflection. Another common mis-
ing, knowing, and thinking use of the term problem is when it is associated with simply
e in
vW

For the Learning of Mathematics 10, 1 (February 1990)

FLM Publishing Association. Montreal. Quebec, Canada 39
"not knowing". If I ask someone how many universities groups, children of a certain age bracket, professional classes
there are in the U. S A , is it a problem for that person if s/he and so on." [D'Ambrosio, 1985, p 45] Even the mathematic'
does not know the answer? This is probably not a problem produced by professional mathematicians can be seen as ::
for her /him because s/he isn't likely to care about the ques- form of ethnomathematics because it was produced by ar
tion Whether or not the answer is already known, whether identifiable cultural group and because it is not the onl)
or not the answer can be easily obtained, if s/he doesn't care mathematics that has been produced
about the answer, it is not a problem for her /him In this This view of professional mathematics is consistent witt
approach, what is of interest to someone is important to the George Joseph's statement that, because of the Eurocentric
idea of "problem" If an obstacle occurs in the course of bias of most academicians, there is a "misrepresentation o;
someone's own existence and if s/he does not know how to the history and cultures of societies outside the European tra·
overcome the obstacle, then s/he has a problem dition'' However, Joseph's statement that ''mathematics car
A problem can be authentic or it can be imposed An be looked at as an international language, with a particulaJ
imposed obstacle or puzzle would be a pseudo-problem, a kind of logical structure'' is not consistent with an ethno-
situation which occurs frequently in mathematics teaching mathematical view of professional mathematics. [Joseph
Students are usually asked to solve problems which are not 1987, p 14] While Joseph recognizes that each mathematic'
problems for them personally; they only attempt to solve these has a particular kind of logical structure, he says that mathe·
pseudo-problems in order to get a good grade, matics is international. In doing so, Joseph is assuming tha·
Although the discussion so far may have implied that the mathematics is independent of culture, rather than bein!
definition of problem I have been developing is too sub- an historical construction which is socially and culturall)
jective, Demerval Saviani [1985] is very clear when he bounded since the way it is organized and the way it i~
argues that: expressed represent the codes and understandings of pro·
fessional mathematicians who are themselves culturally
A problem, as any other aspect of human experience,
bounded Therefore ''academic mathematics'' is not universa
has a subjective side and an objective one, closely con-
(in the sense of being independent of culture) any more thar
nected by a dialectical unity . The concept of
"Quipu mathematics" is, or "carpenter mathematics", OJ
problem implies a consciousness of a situation of neces-
sity (subjective aspect) and a situation that puzzles his "Shantytown mathematics", [5] and so on, nor is it inter·
national in the way Esperanto was intended to become alan-
consciousness (objective aspect) [Saviani, 1985, p. 21,
guage common to all people Although academic mathematic'
author's translation]
may be international in that it is currently in use in manJ
The objective and subjective aspects of the definition of parts of the world, it is not international in that only a smal
problem are both culturally bounded since what is interest- percentage of the population of the world is likely to use aca·
ing for someone, the aspect of subjectivity, depends partially demic mathematics
on the cultural traditions of that person Obstacles (the However mathematics can be considered universal in thf
objective aspect) are also culturally bounded, because what way that Alan Bishop uses the term. Based on his analysi'
is an obstacle in a given culture might not be one in another of different cultures, Bishop argues that activities sud
culture as counting, locating, measuring, designing, playing anc
A problem then can be seen as a situation which involves explaining " are both universal, in that they appear tc
an impasse in the flow of life and which is important to that be carried out by every cultural group ever studied, and alsc
person's existence When a problem results in a mathemati- necessary and sufficient for the development of mathemati·
cal treatment, it can lead to the generation of mathematics cal knowledge" [Bishop, 1988, p 182] Bishop also believe'
by the person(s) who was (were) puzzled by this situation that " . mathematics has a cultural history, but also tha
from different cultural histories have come what can only be
2 Ethnomathematics [4] described as different mathematics". [1988, p 180]
In the last section it was seen that a person is a cognizant Even though Bishop does not use the terminology ethno
being who functions within the language and interpretative mathematics, his view comes towards the approach develope<
codes of her or his socio-cultural group. A language is a code in this paper in arguing that every culture does mathematics
understandable only to people who have participated in com- although the mathematics is expressed in ways unique to tha
mon past experiences Each language expresses a way of culture. Thus "ethnomathematics can be seen as a field o
knowing developed by a group of human beings knowledge intrinsically linked to a cultural group and to it:
One way of knowing is mathematics. Mathematical interest, being in this way tightly linked to its reality [6] anc
knowledge expressed in the language code of a given socio- being expressed by a language, usually different from the
cultural group .is called "ethnomathematics". In this con- ones used by mathematics seen as science. This language i~
text, ''ethno'' and ''mathematics'' should be taken in a broad umbilically connected to its culture, to its ethnos " [Borba
sense "Ethno" should be understood as referring to cul- 1987, p 38]
tural groups, and not to the anachronistic concept of race;
"mathemati~cs" should be seen as a set of activities such as 2.1 Efficiency of ethnomathematics
ciphering, measuring, classifying, ordering, inferring and The ethnomathematics developed by different groups an
modelling. As defined by Ubiratan D'Ambrosio [1985]: likely to be more efficient at solving problems related to thei
"ethnomathematics is the mathematics practiced among iden- cultures than academic mathematics is (unless, perhaps, the
tifiable cultural groups, such as national-tribal societies, labor problem is in a school context) because the ethnomathematic:

40
 developed by a given cultural group is linked to the obsta- that mathematics is not a single, unique expression and can-
~s.
cles which have emerged in this group. An obstacle and the not be seen as a "straight line". A forest might be a better
ics
;a need to overcome it draws people's attention to a situation image of the whole set of ethnomathematics, in which each
which can be described as a problem, as discussed in this tree would be considered as a different expression of ethno-
an
Ily paper When the solution of this problem involves a mathe-- mathematics, socio-culturally produced
matical treatment, the solution contributes to the develop- Dialogue, which should be seen as a horizontal rather than
ith ment of ethnomathematics in this culture Over time, this vertical or hierarchical relationship, doesn't mean that the
ric ethnomathematics is probably going to be more efficient than role played by the teacher is the same as the one played by
of the models stored in textbooks and written in codes not always the students An equal relationship doesn't mean a uniform
m- accessible to a given cultural group, because it is connected one. The teacher is different from the student because, among
an to the culture where the problem was generated Hence other reasons, s/he has an explicit intention of educating.
lar ethnomathematics should not be misunderstood as ''vulgar'' S/he has worked and studied towards various goals as an
tO-
or "second class" mathematics, but as different cultural educator, one of which may be developing a democratic
•h, expressions of mathematical ideas educational relationship between teacher and students which
tCS
can facilitate the students' development of a critical cons-
te- 3 Ethnomathematics, education and ciousness. In order to foster this development, such a teacher
mt ideology believes s/he has to share power with the students in the
ng The notion of ethnomathematics has clear implications fOr educational process
lly education. If different people produce different kinds of
is mathematics, then it is not possible to think about education 3.,1 Ethnomathematics and education:
o- as being a uniform process to be developed in the same way are they really compatible?
Ily for different groups Instead mathematics education should The accepted mathematics in this educational proposal ranges
;a] be thought of as a process in which the starting point would from ones developed by students to the one accepted/deve-
an be the ethnomathematics of a given group and the goal would loped/intended by the teacher In the classroom dialogue,
or be for the student to develop a multi-cultural approach to the teacher can learn from the ethnornathematics "spoken"
~r­
mathematics by the students, just as the students are learning from the
.n- For educators to develop an educational approach based academic ethnomathematics of the teacher. This dialogical
on ethnomathematics, it is important to consider the concept process has no dichotomy between education and research,
ICS
ny of problem discussed above Problems could be found and between teacher and researcher The one who educates is also
all developed which were based in ethnomathematics, thus the one who researches the ethnomathematics developed by
:a- avoiding the use of pseudo-problems Students should students Therefore research influences educational praxis,
actively participate in the design of their pedagogical pro- and vice-versa
he gram, as proposed by Freire: ''The content of an education The ethnomathematics of a cultural group is part of the
:;is for critical consciousness must be developed by searching group's life; the mathematics is generated by the culture in
ch with the students for experiences which give meaning to their an "umbilical" way. Ethnomathematics is developed by the
nd lives." [Freire, 1970, p 28] Therefore problems to be solved cultural group's interest in its problematic situations, which
to would be chosen by both students and teachers in a dialogi- then further develop the group's interest in its ethnomathema-
so cal relationship which fosters a critical consciousness (as dis- tics This interest in ethnomathematics is natural because it
ti- cussed in Section I. I) Knowledge can be seen as a product was generated by the membeiE of the cultural group in
es of this dialogical relationship. Each partner is going to be response to their own situations However this awakened
tat learning from the other in a dialectical way interest in ethnomathematics does not automatically transfer
be Mechanical views of dialogical educational processes to an interest in learning/developing any other ethnomathe-
should be avoided; one should not expect eleven-year-old matics, such as academic mathematics. Students may not
Q-
boys or girls to develop a sophisticated comprehension of have much interest in investigating deeply the concepts which
ed the contradictions of the political-economic system. Chil- underlie their ethnomathematics . If the teacher forces students
:s,
dren do develop a consciousness of relationships in their to work on problems, even problems based on the underly-
tat world out of their reflections on the ways they play: on the ing ideas of the students' own ethnomathematics, they will
of rules of a game, on the friendships among the partners of be pseudo-problems, just as so often happens in regular
its this game, and even on the mathematical relationships of schools with academic mathematics
ld this gallle This argument could lead us to a belief that there is no
ile A pedagogy with students as partners with the teachers way out of the dilemma of the use of pseudo-problems in
is doesn't mean that the educational process is value-free The the classroom However the previously discussed idea of
incorporation of socio-cultiual aspects in mathematics edu- dialogue offers a potential solution, since dialogue in its
a,
cation and the dialogical way of doing it each have a role authentic form implies a mutual speaking and hearing. Hope-
to play A dialogue where the teacher speaks through her/his fully the people involved in a dialogue can find convergent
ethnomathematics (usually developed in college) and students points and intersections in their realms of meaning. The
re speak with theirs, is not neutral. Such a dialogue can allow teacher/researcher has a particular ability and responsibility
students to strengthen their socio-cultural roots, since their to help the students find the intersections between their realms
~ir
(ethno) knowledge is legitimized (recognized as valuable) in of meaning and the teacher's.
1e
the educational process This pedagogy can also emphasize
cs

41
4 Final comments: ethnomathematlcs [3] This view of problem is based on Saviani [1985] and Borba [1987].
[4] A discussion of the reason for using the tenn "etlmomathematics''
In current school situations instead of "oral' "informal ', "non-standard", "cultural', ''·natural'',
Using this same framework, educators such as Borba, or "every-day'' etc , mathematics can be found in Borba [1988a] and
Frankenstein, Gerdes and Skovmose [7] have been develop- Borba [1988b]
ing pedagogical proposals along the lines supported by this [5] I'm referring here to the papers written by Ascher [1986], Schliemann
paper However most of these pedagogies have been applied, [1986], and Borba [l987b], respectively about the Quipu about car-
penters, and about a Shantytown
with encouraging results, in ''non-formal'' schools and in [6] Reality should be understood in this paper as the human dimension of
adult education Thus the question still remains whether this the world; where the natural components of the environment and those
kind of proposal makes sense in current formal school situa- elaborated by humans are present. then reality doesn· tend in empiri-
tions Although there is still a long way to go in developing cal data
[7] For instance, see Borba [1987a l987b], Frankenstein [1983], Gerdes
such a pedagogy for formal classrooms, it can be argued that
[1985] and Skovsmose [1985]
such a framework can be tried in school situations and ini-
tial answers can be developed
The ideas developed in this paper indicate that curricula Bibliography
cannot easily be changed by simply substituting some con-
Apple. M [1979] Ideology and curriculum Boston: Routledge and Kegan
tent for others It is necessary to consider more fundamental Paul
kinds of change. In traditional curricula the use of pseudo- Ascher. M and R Ascher [1986] Ethnomathematics History of Science
problems is unavoidable since students do not participate in XXIV
choosing the themes which are going to be developed by the Bicudo, M.A V [1979] Intersubjetividade e Educa9ao, Revista Didatiw
15 Sao Paulo Brasil
teacher during the school year Bicudo. M A V (org) [1987] Educac.:ao Matematica Sao Paulo: Editora
'' Thematization'' and ''project organization'', to use Moraes
Skovsmose's terminology [1985], are ways which many Bishop. A J [1988] Mathematics Education in its Cultural Context, Educa-
authors have found of both breaking the atomization of tradi- tional Studies in Mathematics. 19
Borba. M C [1987a] Urn Estudo De Etnomatematica: sua incorpora<;:ao na
tional cunicula and building a new view of mathematics. In
elaborapo de uma proposta pedagogica para o "Nucleo-Escola· da Vila
this approach the themes and/or the projects to be developed Nogueira-Sao Quirino Master thesis. UNESP, Rio Claro Sao Paulo,
are decided by both students and teachers. The themes Brasil
are not necessarily ''mathematical'', or ''biological'', or Borba, M C [198'7b] Etnomatematica: a matematica da favela em uma
"artistic"; themes developed jointly with students will prob- proposta pedagogica. In Freire, P , A Nogueira, D Mazza, Na Eswla
que fazemos· uma reflexao interdisu'plilUlr em eduwrao popular Petropo-
ably not closely match the academic disciplines. They are lis R. J., Brasil: Editora Vozes
just researches to be undertaken by the group, where the role Borba M C [1988a] Etnomatematica: Uma Discussao Ieorica sabre esta
played by teachers is to help the students develop a critical Noqao Proceedings of the If National Brazilian Meeting of Mathematic~
view of the world, a "transitive consciousness" in Freire's Education Maringa, Parana, Brasil: Sociedade Brasileira de Educa<;:ao
Matematica
words [1981]
Borba, M C [1988b] Etnomatematica: o Homem I ambem Conhece o Mundo
In this educational proposal, the ethnomathematics, the de urn ponto de vista matematico. BOL EMA - Boletim de Eduwr;.ao
ethnobiology, ethnochemistry, etc., practiced by different Matematiw, 3, #5, pp 19-34 Rio Claro S P , Brasil: Universidade
groups of students would be the starting point of the peda- Estadual Paulista (UNESP)
gogical process I'his "ethnoknowledge" developed by D'Ambrosio. U [I 984] Culture Cognition, and Science Learning Proceed-
ings of 'Science Education in the Americas Panama: NSI A-OAS
groups of students should be compared with the (ethno) D'Ambrosio. U. [1985] Ethnomathematics and its Place in the Historv and
knowledge developed by the academic disciplines in a way Pedagogy of Mathematics. For the Learning of Mathematio 5. {
that this academic knowledge can be also seen as culturally- D'Ambrosio. U [ 1986] Da Realidade a arao Rejlexoes sabre Educar;.ao
bounded The students and the teachers should discuss the e Matematiw. Campinas. S P. Brasil: Summus and Campinas: Editora
da UNICAMP
efficiency and relevance of different kinds of knowledge Davis, P J and R Hersh [198l]The mathematical experience Boston:
in different contexts With this approach, mystification Birkhauser
about science might be avoided and mathematics might no Frankenstein, M [1983] Critical Mathematics Education: An Application
longer be seen as an oppressive and all-powerful realm of Paulo Freire's Epistemology Journal of Public Education, 165 no 4
Freire, P [1970J Pedagogy of the oppreHed New York: Seabury
of knowledge
Freire, P [1981] Educm;ao como Pratica da Liberdade Rio de Janeiro:
Editora Paz e Terra
Gerdes, P [1985] Conditions and Strategies for Emancipatory Mathemat-
Acknowledgment ics Education in Underdeveloped Countries For the Learning of Mathe-
Although they are not responsible for the content of this paper, I would like matics 5, 1
to thank Marcia Ascher. Maria Bicudo, Ubiratan D ·Ambrosio, David Hen- Gerdes, P. [1981] Sabre o despertar do Pensamento Geometrico. (mimeo)
derson, Anne Kepple, Margaret McCasland, Jan Rizzuti and John Volmink University of Maputo, Mozambique
for comments made on this paper Heidegger, M. Todos Nos . . Ninguem-um enjoque fenomenologico do
wcial Sao Paulo, Brasil: Editora Moraes
Joseph, G G [1987] Foundations of Eurocentrism in Mathematics Rate
Notes and Class, XXVIII
[1] This view·of man is based on Heidegger [1981], Schutz [in Wagner, Martins, J , and M. A V Bicudo [1989] A Pesquisa Qualitativa em Psicolo-
1979] and Borba [ 1987] gia: fundamentos e recursos basicos sao Paulo. Brasil: Editora Moraes
[2] Culture should be understood in this paper as what was added to the & EDUC
world by humans (as the result of human work, of human's creative Pavao, A.M B [1981] 0 Pridpio de Aurodeterminnr;.ao no Servir;.o Social
and recreative struggles) and as meanings which are shared by a cul- Vi sao fenomenologica, 2° ediqao Sao Paulo Brasil: Cortez Editora
tural group

42
S7]. Saviani. D. [1985] Do Semo Comum a Conscienda Filo.sofica. Siio Paulo, Skovsmose, 0 [1985] Mathematical Education versus Critical Education
cs'' Brasil: Cortez Editora Educational Studies in Mathematio, 16
ll"' Schliemann, AD [I986J Escolariza~ao formal versus experiencia pratica Wagner, H.R [1979] Fenomenologia e Rela{oes Sociais· Textos Escolhi-
and na resolu<;:ao de problemas: urn estudo com marceneiros e aprendizes de dos de Alfred Schutz Rio de .Janeiro, Brasil: Zahar Editores
marcenaria. P~icologia· Teoria e Pesqui~a, 3 (3). set/dez Wilder, R [1981] Mathematics as a cultural ~ystem New York: Pergamon
ann Press
::::ar-

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lOSe
)iri-

·des

Nascent quantification -a simple urge to measure and count- appeared in

gan
Western culture in a variety of contexts and situations in the sixteenth and
zce. seventeenth centuries On one level its appearance correlates with impor
tant changes in the political economic, and religious life of those turbulent
'ca,
centuries and to well known historical processes such as the growth of cen
~ora tralized government and the expansion of overseas trade On a deeper level,
quantification can be considered as a peculiar mental activity, one that sa tis·
fies a need for precision and finitude, and its appearance in a period of
J na numerous crises suggests that more than practical needs for rationality and
fila knowledge were being met
1lo,
on the practical level the distinguishing features of political life in the six
•rna teenth and seventeenth centuries were the rise of powerful monarchies the
ala geographical consolidation of nations and the development of new con-
•po-
cepts of public administration which, in the seventeenth century entailed
~sta mercantilism and the government's claimed right to regulate economic
tics activity In theory this created ajustification for evaluating national resources
qao
including the population and the volume of trade, and increasingly such
ndo evaluations were quantitative. in varying degrees of accuracy
,ao In the economic history of the period three separate strands of develop
ade
ment contributed to an elevation of the public consciousness of numbers
:ed- The rise of capitalism and of national economies drew greater numbers of
people into the world of monetary exchange where some elementary calcu
and
lation and bookkeeping were necessary skills. Overseas trading and adven-
,ao turing stimulated a mathematical approach to navigation and introduced
~ora ordinary seamen to the wonders of arithmetic Finally the great price rises of
on:
the sixteenth century and the concomitant population expansion loosed
some men from their roots, setting them adrift in English society and startled
ion other men. like Bodin into quantitative inquiries in an effort to create order
'4
Patricia Cline Cohen
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43