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MODULE 2
POWER SUPPLY

Lesson 1 Power Supply Types and

Parts

Lesson 2 Rectifier Circuit

Lesson 3 Filter Circuit

Lesson 4 Voltage Regulator

Circuit

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MODULE II
ELECTRONIC PRODUCTS ASSEMBLY AND SERVICING

 INTRODUCTION

This module focuses on how a power supply operates. It explains

the functions of the different blocks of power supply. It also discusses
and shows the difference on the principle of operation of the various
types of rectifier circuits.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. understand the block diagram of power supply

2. recognize the functions of the different parts of power supply
3. make a PCB design of a regulated power supply

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited
from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your
instructor. Discuss with your instructor in case you encounter difficulty.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

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Lesson 1

 Power Supply
Types and Parts

Power supply is an electrical device used to change the electrical

current from a source into accurate voltage, frequency and current to
supply the load. It is sometimes called electrical power converters.

Power is the backbone of any electronic system and the power supply
is what feeds the system. Choosing the right supply can be the critical
difference between a device working at optimum levels and one that may
deliver inconsistent results.

Types of Power Supply

The power supply circuits are classified into different types based on the
power they utilize in providing for circuits or devices.

1. SMPS – Switch Mode Power Supply

An SMPS power supply or computer

power supply is a type of power supply that
includes a switching regulator for converting
electrical-power powerfully. Similar to other
power supplies, it transmits the power from a
DC source or AC source to DC loads, such as a
PC (personal computer), while changing the
characteristics of current and voltage.

2. UPS - Uninterruptible Power Supply

A UPS is an electrical device that permits a

PC to keep working for some time as the main
power supply is lost. This device is also given
protection from power flow. It includes a battery to
store the energy when the device detects a power
loss from the main source.

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3. AC Power Supply

Typically, an AC power supply

acquires the voltage from the mains supply
and the voltage can be step-up or step-
down by using a transformer to the
required voltage and some filtering may
take place. The different types of AC
power supplies are designed to offer an
almost stable current and output voltage
may change based on the load’s
impedance.

4. DC Power Supply

A DC power supply is one that

provides a consistent DC voltage to its load.
Based on its plan, a DC power supply might
be controlled from a DC supply or from an
AC supply like the power mains.

5. RPS – Regulated Power Supply

An RPS is a fixed circuit used to change unregulated ac into stable dc.

Here, a rectifier is used to convert ac into dc. The sort of stabilization can
be controlled to ensure that the output remains in certain restrictions
beneath various load conditions.

6. Programmable Power Supply

This type of power supply permits remote control for its operation via
analog input otherwise digital interfaces like GPIB or RS232.The controlled
properties of this supply include current, voltage and frequency. These type
of supplies are used in a wide range of applications like fabrication of
semiconductors, X-ray generators, monitoring of crystal growth and
automated apparatus testing.

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Parts of Power Supply

Virtually every piece of electronic equipment, e.g., computers and

their peripherals, calculators, TV and hi-fi equipment, and instruments, is
powered from a DC power source, be it a battery or a DC power supply.
Most of this equipment requires not only DC voltage but voltage that is also
well filtered and regulated. An ideal power supply would be characterized
by supplying a smooth and constant output voltage

Power supply electronic circuits can be split into a number of sections

or building blocks. Each is important to the operation of the power supply as
a whole, but each section of the power supply electronics is required to
perform its function satisfactorily for the successful operation of the whole
unit.

Below is the block diagram of a regulated power supply.

The main parts of a power supply are the following:

a. Transformer – The transformer serves two primary purposes; a) to

step-up or step-down the input line voltage, and b) to couple this
voltage to the rectifier section.

A basic power supply the input power transformer has its primary
winding connected to the mains (line) supply. A secondary
winding, electro-magnetically coupled but electrically isolated
from the primary is used to obtain an AC voltage of suitable
amplitude, and after further processing by the PSU, to drive the
electronics circuit it is to supply.

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The transformer stage must be able to supply the current needed. If

too small a transformer is used, it is likely that the power supply's ability to
maintain full output voltage at full output current will be impaired. With
too small a transformer, the losses will increase dramatically as full load is
placed on the transformer.

b. Rectifier – This section converts the ac signal to pulsating dc

voltage. There are several forms of rectifiers used but all are
made up of diodes. Pulsating dc voltage is not desirable to use so
the signal must be transferred to the next section which is the
filter section.

c. Filter – It is used to smooth out the pulsations/ripples of the

rectified voltage to a level of dc voltage. It converts the pulsating
dc voltage to filtered dc voltage. The most common filter is a
large capacitor.

The filter section contains a network of resistors, capacitors or

inductors that controls the rise and fall time of the varying signal
so that the signal remains at a more constant dc level.

d. Regulator – It is used to control/deliver and maintain a fixed or

constant voltage and current to the load. It maintains the output of
the power supply at a constant level in spite of large changes in
load current or in input line voltage. Depending upon the design of
the equipment, the output of the regulator will maintain a
constant dc voltage within certain limits.

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Lesson 2

 Rectifier Circuit

In electronics, Rectifier circuit is the most used circuit because

almost every electronic appliances operate on DC but the availability of the
DC sources are limited as such as electrical outlets in our home provides AC.
The rectifier is the perfect candidate for this job in industries and at home
to convert AC into DC. Even our cellphone chargers use rectifiers to convert
the AC from our home outlets to DC. Different types of rectifiers are used
for specific applications.

Rectifier is an electronic device that is made of one or more diodes

that converts the alternating current into direct current. It is used for
rectification – the process of conversion of the ac into dc.

Based on the type of rectification circuit does, the rectifiers are

classified into two categories:

a. Half-wave rectifier – only converts half of the AC wave into DC

signal

b. Full-wave rectifier – converts complete AC signal into DC

1. Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit

A half-wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts half of the

AC input signal (positive half signal) into pulsating DC output signal and the
remaining half signal (negative half cycle) is blocked or lost. In half-wave
rectifier circuit, we use only a single diode.

The half wave rectifier circuit can often be used with a transformer if
it is to be used for powering equipment in any way. Normally in this
application the input alternating waveform is provided via a transformer.
This is used to provide the required input voltage.

During the first half cycle (positive half cycle), point A is positive and
point B is negative. The diode D1 is at forward bias causing it to allow the
passage of current and producing a voltage drop across the load.

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During the 2nd half cycle (negative half cycle), point A becomes
negative and point B is positive. D1 becomes reverse biased and no
conduction takes place and no voltage drop across the load.

It is important to check the polarity when replacing diodes. If they

are replaced in the wrong polarity, a reversal in output voltage will cause
damage to circuits connected in the load.

This type of rectifier is cheap but is only suitable for fairly non-
demanding uses. The DC voltage produced by the single diode is less than
with the other systems, limiting the efficiency of the power supply, and the
amount of AC ripple left on the DC supply is generally greater.

2. Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

In half-wave rectifiers, half of the power provided by the source is

not used. To solve this problem, we have to use full-wave rectifiers. The

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minimum full-wave rectifier is composed of two diodes, but it requires a

center-tapped transformer. A bridge rectifier composed of four diodes that
can use a “normal” transformer. The full wave rectifier circuit is one that is
widely used for power supplies and many other areas where a full wave
rectification is required.

Full-wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the full AC

input signal (positive half cycle and negative half cycle) to pulsating DC
output signal. Unlike the half-wave rectifier, the input signal is not wasted
in full-wave rectifier. The efficiency of full-wave rectifier is high as
compared to the half-wave rectifier.

There are two main forms of full wave rectifier circuit that can be
used: a) Center-tapped full wave rectifier or Two Diode Full wave Rectifier,
b) Full-wave Bridge Rectifier. Each type has its own features and is suited
for different applications.

A. Center-tapped full wave rectifier or

Two Diode Full wave Rectifier

The two diode full wave rectifier circuit is not so widely used with
semiconductor diodes as it requires the use of a center-tapped transformer.
A transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into two
halves with a common center tapped connection. Utilizing a center-tap in
the transformer means only half the full voltage across the two halves of the
wind together can be utilized. This transformer is more efficient which
produces two anti-phase outputs, as shown in the figure below.

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During the first half cycle, point A is positive and point B is negative.
The diode D1 will allow passage of current because it establishes a forward
bias. The diode D2 will not allow current flow since it is at reverse bias.

During the 2nd half cycle, the polarities at point A and point B reverse.
Point A becomes negative, and Point B positive. The current path will be
through D2 this time because D2 is at forward bias while D1 is at reverse
bias.

The concept of the full wave rectifier is that it utilizes both halves of the
waveform to provide an output and this greatly improves its efficiency.

Comparison of full and half wave rectifier circuits

A further advantage when used in a power supply is that the resulting

output is much easier to smooth. When using a smoothing capacitor, the

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time between the peaks is much greater for a half wave rectifier than for a
full wave rectifier. Below is the smoothed waveform from diode rectifier
circuit.

It can be seen from the figure above, that the fundamental frequency
within the rectified waveform is twice that of the source waveform - there
are twice as many peaks in the rectified waveform. This can often be heard
when there is a small amount of background hum on an audio circuit.

Full wave rectifier advantages

a. Although the full wave rectifier circuit requires more diodes than a
half wave rectifier circuit, it has advantages in terms of utilizing both
halves of the AC waveform to provide the output.
b. The major advantage of a full-wave rectifier is the delivery of twice
as many peaks to the load.
c. Full wave develops an output cycle frequency of 120Hz, as compared
to the 60Hz frequency of the half-wave rectifier.
d. Easier to provide smoothing as a result of ripple frequency

Full wave rectifier disadvantages

a. Because a center tapped transformer is used, the voltage delivered to

the load will only be ½ of the secondary voltage.
b. More complicated than half wave rectifier.
c. The twice frequency hum on an audio circuit may be more audible.

B. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as

the full wave rectifier circuit is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This

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type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes

connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired
output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require
a special center tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost.

Often four diode bridges can be bought as

single items, making construction of the overall
circuit much simpler. The image to the right shows a
typical single phase bridge rectifier with one corner
cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the
terminal nearest to the corner is the positive or +Ve
output terminal or lead with the opposite (diagonal)
lead being the negative or -Ve output lead. The
other two connecting leads are for the input
alternating voltage from a transformer secondary
winding.

During the first half cycle, D1 and D3 is at forward bias; D2 and D4 at

reverse bias. The current path is through D1 then to the load, the current
flows to D3 and then returns to the positive part of the transformer.

During the next half-cycle, the polarities at points A and B reverse.

Point A is negative and Point B is positive. Now, D2 and D4 are at forward
bias; and D3 and D1 at reverse bias. The important point here is that,
during the both halves of the input cycle, current flows through the load.

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Advantage over Center-tapped full wave rectifier

It has a higher output voltage. This results because the bridge

rectifier uses the whole secondary, rather than splitting the voltage in half
as the full-wave rectifier does.

Lesson 3

 Filter Circuit

A filter is used in power supplies to eliminate the AC fluctuation

present in the rectification process of a Power Supply. It is used to smooth
out the pulsations to a constant level of dc voltage. This filter may be a
capacitor.

We need to filter pulsating dc because amplifiers, oscillators

and other load circuits require a smooth steady flow. The ideal waveform
into which the pulsating dc should be converted is like the voltage from the

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battery. To accomplish this task, capacitors and inductors are used to

smooth out the pulsating dc look like smooth dc voltage at the output. This
is called filtering.

Half-wave Capacitive Filter

During the input cycle, the capacitor charges to the peak applied
voltage.

Here, the waveform has reached its peak and then begins to head
toward negative current flow in the circuit (A). The energy that has been
stored on the capacitor is discharged through the load. The discharge cycle
is shown by the lines connected between the peaks (B). This discharge
process supplies a steady current to the load. If a steady current flow is
seen at the loop, a steady voltage is developed. Before the capacitor has a
chance to fully discharge, a new input cycle starts. This new cycle begins to
discharge the capacitor (C).

Full-wave Capacitive Filter

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Ripple – it is the variation of voltage which is developed in any filtering

action.

A capacitor-input filter will charge and discharge such that it fills in

the “gaps” between each peak. This reduces variations of voltage. This
voltage variation is called ripple voltage.
The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite
clear. The capacitor can more effectively reduce the ripple when the time
between peaks is shorter.

Factors/conditions of an Effective Capacitive Filter

Note: To be an effective filter, the capacitor must charge quickly,

and then discharge slowly through the load.

a. Time between pulses (frequency of powersupply)

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In half-wave or full-wave circuits, there is a timespan between the peaks

of a waveform.

For the half-wave circuit, the time between pulses is 16.6ms which is
equivalent to 60Hz frequency. In the full-wave circuit, the pulses arrive
twice as often. Therefore, the frequency for this circuit is 8.3 ms or 120 Hz.
Because of this, the half-wave rectifier will have a larger ripple than the
full-wave rectifier since its capacitor has a longer discharge period.

b. Size of the capacitor

The larger filter capacitor, the lower the ripple developed in the
output of the powersupply. Because of the large capacitance needed for
filtering, electrolytic capacitor are used. Thesecapacitors will charge
quickly when the diodes are forward biased, and discharge through the load
slowly.

If the filter capacitor is too large, it may cause damage due to the
large amounts of current required to charge the capacitor. Such large
amount of current could cause the transformer or the rectifiers to over
heat, resulting in failure of these components.

c. Size of the load

If the load resistance decreases, the discharge time of the filter
capacitor is reduced.
Lesson 4

 Voltage Regulator
Circuit

Voltage Regulators

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These are integrated circuits designed to regulate the voltage at their

input to a constant, fixed voltage at their output, irrespective of changes in
load current or input voltage. It is a system designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage level.

Electronic designs are usually made up of diverse electronic

components that sometimes operate at different voltage levels. As such, to
reliably meet the power requirements of a particular design or that of the
different components within the design, voltage regulators are usually
employed in the power supply unit to regulate the voltage at the main
source to what is needed across different sections of the device

Types of Voltage Regulators

Voltage regulators can be categorized based on different factors like

their applications, voltages at which they operate, power conversion
mechanisms, and many more.

1. Linear Voltage Regulators

Linear voltage regulators use the principles of voltage dividers to

transform the voltage at their input to the desired voltage at their output.
They employ a feedback loop that automatically varies the resistance in the
system to counter the effect of variations in the load impedance and input
voltage, all to ensure the output voltage is kept constant.

In situation where the voltage at the input or the load current at the
output is too high, the regulators could generate heat levels that may lead
to its breakdown. To mitigate this, designers usually employ heat sinks.

Another point is the need for the voltage at the input to be greater
than the voltage at the output by a minimum value called the drop-out
voltage. This voltage value is usually around 2V and is sometimes a major
source of concern for designers working on low power applications due to
power loss. Some popular examples of linear voltage regulators include:
78xx (e.g. L7805 (5V), L7812 (12V) series of voltage regulators.

Advantages of using a Linear Voltage Regulator

a. Simple, easy to design and implement

b. Generates a lower amount of EMI and noise
c. Fast response time to changes in load current or input voltage
conditions
d. Low ripple voltage at the output.

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Dis-advantages of using a Linear Voltage Regulator

a. Low efficiency as a large amount of electrical energy is wasted as

heat
b. Drop-out voltage requirement makes them a bad choice for low
power applications
c. Occupy more space on PCB due to their need for heat sinks.

2. Switching Voltage Regulators

Although they feature a more complex design and require more

components to function, switching voltage regulators are super-efficient
regulators in scenarios where power loss cannot be condoned.

The voltage regulation mechanism in switching voltage regulators

involves rapidly switching an element connected in series with an energy

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storage component (capacitor or inductor) to periodically interrupt the flow

of current and transform the voltage from one value to the other. How this
is done depends on the signal from a feedback mechanism like the one
employed in the linear regulator.

Unlike in linear voltage regulators, the switching element is either in

a fully conducting or switched-off state. It dissipates no power and allows
the regulator to attain a high level of efficiency beyond that of the linear
voltage regulator.

Advantages of using a Switching Voltage Regulator

a. Small size
b. High efficiency
c. Fits low power application
d. They can provide an output voltage that is greater than or less than
the input voltage

Dis-advantages of using a Switching Voltage Regulator

a. Complicated design
b. Expensive
c. Requires more electronic components
d. High output voltage ripple
e. High EMI and noise generation rates

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 MODULE SUMMARY

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In module 2, you have learned about what a power supply is. You
have learned their functions, types, and the function of each part/block.
You have also learned the different types of rectifier and voltage regulator.

There are four lessons in module 2. Lesson 1 consists of two main

parts focused on the types of power supply, as well as the block diagram or
the parts of power supply.

Lesson 2 tackles the types of rectifier circuit. Half-wave rectifier with

one diode; and the two types of full-wave rectifier: Full-wave center-tapped
with two diodes and full-wave bridge rectifier with four diodes.

Lesson 3 deals with how a filter circuit works in a power supply. It

also has two types, the half-wave and the full-wave capacitive filter. It also
discusses the factors or conditions of an effective capacitive filter.

Lesson 4 discusses the types of voltage regulator circuit. It includes

the advantages and disadvantages of linear voltage regulator and switching
voltage regulator.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module 2. now you are ready
to evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering
the summative test. Good Luck!!!

EMTC 124 Electronic Products Assembly and Servicing Module II