SUBJECT : Introduction to electronics

SUBJECT CODE:BESCK104C

MODULE 01

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS

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Introduction of Electronics and Communication Module 1

Important Questions with answers of Module 1

1.What is a regulated power supply? With neat block diagram, explain the working of DC power
supply. Also mention the principal components used in each block.

2.What is a rectifier? What are the different types of rectifiers?

3.With appropriate circuit diagram, explain the working of half-wave rectifier. (both with and
without capacitor filter)

4.With appropriate circuit diagram, explain the working of two diode full-wave rectifier. Draw
the input and output waveforms. (both with and without capacitor filter)

5.With neat circuit diagram and waveforms, explain the working of a full wave bridge rectifier.
(both with and without capacitor filter)

6.With circuit diagram explain the voltage multiplier (i.e., Voltage Doubler, Voltage Tripler).

7.What is voltage regulator? With neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of a voltage
regulator using Zener diode.

8.What is an amplifier? Explain different types of amplifier.

9.Classify different types of amplifier.

10.Describe the terms: Gain, Input resistance, Output resistance, Phase shift, Bandwidth of
amplifier.

11.With a neat block diagram, derive the expression for overall gain of a negative feedback
amplifier.

12.What are multi-stage amplifiers? Write different methods used for interstage coupling.

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1. What is a regulated power supply? With neat block diagram, explain the working of
DC power supply. Also mention the principal components used in each block.
OR
With a neat block diagram, explain the working of a DC power supply. Also
mention the principal components used in each block.
OR
Describe the DC power supply with the help of block diagram.
OR
Draw the block diagram of DC power supply and explain the individual blocks.

Answer: An electronic circuit that produces a stable DC voltage of fixed value across the
load terminals irrespective of changes in the load is known as regulated power supply.
Thus, the primary function of a regulated power supply is to convert an AC power into a
steady DC power. The regulated power supply is sometimes also called as a linear power
supply.
The regulated power supply ensures that the output power at the load terminals should
remain constant even if the input power varies. The regulated power supply receives an
AC power as input and generates a constant DC power as output. A regulated power
supply is basically an embedded circuit consisting of various blocks.

The regulated power supply consists of the following four major parts
1. Step-Down Transformer: The step-down transformer used in the circuit of the
regulated power supply changes the input AC voltage to the desired lower voltage
value. Also, this transformer provides an electrical isolation between two circuits.
The reduced output AC voltage of the step-down transformer is used as the input
to the rectifier circuit.
2. Rectifier Circuit: The rectifier circuit is used to convert the input AC voltage
into a DC voltage. It consists of diodes that perform the rectification process, i.e.

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conversion of the AC voltage into the DC voltage. However, the output of the
rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage. In practice, a full wave rectifier is used for
the rectification due to its technical advantages. This full wave rectifier can be a
center-tapped full-wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier. The full wave rectifier
converts both positive and negative cycles of AC voltage into DC voltage.
3. Filter Circuit: Since the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage which
has very high ripple content. Hence, the raw output of the rectifier is undesirable.
In order to get a pure ripple free direct voltage, a DC filter circuit is used. We
have different types of filter circuits such as capacitor filter choke input filter, π-
filter, and LC filter. Therefore, the filter circuit converts the pulsating direct
voltage into the constant direct voltage having almost zero ripple content.
4. Voltage Regulator: The voltage regulator constitutes the last block of the
regulated power supply. It monitors and corrects the fluctuations in the output
voltage of the power supply. The output voltage may change or fluctuate due to
any change in the input AC voltage or the change in the load or change in any
physical parameters such as temperature of the circuit. Thus, the voltage regulator
takes care of this problem. The voltage regulator maintains the DC voltage
constant at the output terminals.

5. A zener diode operated in zener region, a transistor series regulator, fixed and
variable IC regulators are commonly used in different regulated power supplies as
the voltage regulator.

2. What is a rectifier? What are the different types of rectifiers?

Answer: A rectifier is a device that converts an oscillating two-directional alternating
current (AC) into a single-directional direct current (DC). Rectifiers can take a wide
variety of physical forms, from vacuum tube diodes and crystal radio receivers to modern
silicon-based designs.
There are two main types of rectifiers— uncontrolled and controlled.
1. Controlled rectifiers: These are the types of rectifiers whose voltage can be
changed. To convert an uncontrolled rectifier into a controlled rectifier,
MOSFETs, IGBTs, or SCRs are used. These are more desirable than their
uncontrolled counterparts. Controlled rectifiers are of two types– Half wave and
full wave rectifiers of controlled variety. Half-wave controlled rectifiers are
similar in design to the half-wave uncontrolled rectifiers, but the dioder is
replaced with an SCR.
2. Uncontrolled rectifiers: As the name suggests, the voltage of uncontrolled
rectifiers cannot be controlled. These are further of two types– half wave rectifier
and full wave rectifier. A half-wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that changes
only a half-cycle of the altering current into a direct current. On the other hand, a

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full-wave rectifier changes both the negative and positive half cycles of the
alternating current into direct current. Four diodes are used in a bridge rectifier
that is linked in the form of a Wheatstone bridge.

3. With appropriate circuit diagram, explain the working of half-wave rectifier. (both
with and without capacitor filter)
Answer:
1. Without Capacitor filter: The circuit diagram for a half wave rectifier is shown
below

During the positive half cycle of the input a.c., the p-n junction is forward
biased i.e the forward current flows from p to n and the diode offers a low
resistance path to the current. Thus, we get output across-load i.e. a.c input will be
obtained as d.c output.
During the negative half cycle of the input a.c., the p-n junction is reversed
biased i.e the reverse current flows from n to p, the diode offers a high resistance
path to the current. Thus, we get no output across-load. This principle is shown in
the diagram given below.

2. With Capacitor filter: The circuit diagram for a half wave rectifier is shown
below

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When AC voltage is applied, during the positive half cycle, the diode D is
forward biased and allows electric current through it. As we already know that,
the capacitor provides high resistive path to dc components (low-frequency
signal) and low resistive path to ac components (high-frequency signal). Electric
current always prefers to flow through a low resistance path. So when the electric
current reaches the filter, the dc components experience a high resistance from the
capacitor and ac components experience a low resistance from the capacitor. The
dc components does not like to flow through the capacitor (high resistance path).
So they find an alternative path (low resistance path) and flows to the load resistor
(RL) through that path.
On the other hand, the ac components experience a low resistance from
the capacitor. So the ac components easily passes through the capacitor. Only a
small part of the ac components passes through the load resistor (RL) producing a
small ripple voltage at the output.The passage of ac components through the
capacitor is nothing but charging of the capacitor.In simple words, the ac
components is nothing but an excess current that flows through the capacitor and
charges it. This prevents any sudden change in the voltage at the output.During
the conduction period, the capacitor charges to the maximum value of the supply
voltage. When the voltage between the plates of the capacitor is equal to the
supply voltage, the capacitor is said to be fully charged.
When the capacitor is fully charged, it holds the charge until the input AC
supply to the rectifier reaches the negative half cycle.When the negative half
cycle is reached, the diode D gets reverse biased and stops allowing electric
current through it. During this non-conduction period, the input voltage is less
than that of the capacitor voltage. So the capacitor discharges all the stored
charges through the load resistor RL. This prevents the output load voltage from
falling to zero. The capacitor discharges until the input supply voltage is less than

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the capacitor voltage. When the input supply voltage is greater than the capacitor
voltage, the capacitor again starts charging. When the positive half cycle is
reached again, the diode D is forward biased and allows electric current. This
makes capacitor to charge again.

4. With appropriate circuit diagram, explain the working of two diode full-wave
rectifier. Draw the input and output waveforms. (both with and without capacitor
filter)
Answer:
1. Without capacitor filter: The schematic Full wave rectifier circuit diagram is
shown below,

The full wave rectifier‘s input AC is exceptionally high. The rectifier circuit‘s
step-down transformer transforms high-voltage alternating current to low-voltage
alternating current. The anode of the center-tapped diodes is connected to the
secondary winding of the transformer and the load resistor. The top half of the
secondary winding becomes positive during the positive half cycle of the
alternating current, while the second half of the secondary winding turns negative.

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Diode D1 is forward-biased during the positive half cycle because it is linked to

the top of the secondary winding. In contrast, diode D2 is reverse-biased since it
is connected to the bottom of the secondary winding. As a result, diode D1 will
conduct as a short circuit, and D2 will not conduct as an open circuit.
Since the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative, and the bottom half
of the circuit becomes positive during the negative half cycle, diode D1 is reverse
biased and diode D2 is forward biased. Hence, DC voltage is achieved in full
wave rectifiers for both positive and negative half cycles.
The output waveform of the full wave rectifier is shown below,

2. With capacitor filter: The main function of full wave rectifier is to convert an
AC into DC. As the name implies, this rectifier rectifies both the half cycles of the
i/p AC signal, but the DC signal acquired at the o/p still have some waves. To
decrease these waves at the o/p this filter is used.
In the full wave rectifier circuit using a capacitor filter, the capacitor C is located
across the RL load resistor. The working of this rectifier is almost the same as a
half wave rectifier. The only dissimilarity is half wave rectifier has just one-half
cycles (positive or negative) whereas in full wave rectifier has two cycles
(positive and negative).

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Once the i/p AC voltage is applied throughout the positive half cycle, then the D1
diode gets forward biased and permits flow of current while the D2 diode gets
reverse biased & blocks the flow of current.

Throughout the above half cycle, the current in the D1 diode gets the filter and
energizes the capacitor. But, the capacitor charging will occur just when the
voltage which is applied is superior to the capacitor voltage. Firstly, the capacitor
will not charge, as no voltage will stay among the capacitor plates. So when the
voltage is switched on, then the capacitor will get charged immediately.

Throughout this transmission time, the capacitor gets charged to the highest value
of the i/p voltage supply. The capacitor includes a highest charge at the quarter
waveform in the positive half cycle. At this end, the voltage supply is equivalent
to the voltage of the capacitor. Once the AC voltage begins falling & turns into
less than the voltage of the capacitor, after that the capacitor begins discharging
gradually.

As the i/p AC voltage supply gets the negative half-cycle, then the D1 diode gets
reverse biased but the D2 diode is forward biased. Throughout the negative half
cycle, the flow of current in the second diode gets the filter to charge the
capacitor. But, the capacitor charging occurs simply while the applied AC voltage
is superior to the voltage of the capacitor.

The capacitor in the circuit is not charged fully, so the charging of this does not
occur instantly. Once the voltage supply becomes superior to the voltage of the
capacitor, the capacitor gets charging. In both the half cycles, the flow of current
will be in the similar direction across the RL load resistor. Thus we acquire either
whole positive half cycle otherwise negative half cycle. In this case, we can get
the total positive half cycle.

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5. With neat circuit diagram and waveforms, explain the working of a full wave bridge
rectifier. (both with and without capacitor filter)
Answer:
1. Without capacitor filter: Another type of circuit that produces the same output
waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge
Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes
connected in a closed loop ―bridge‖ configuration to produce the desired output.
The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special
centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single
secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the
load to the other side as shown below.
The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in ―series pairs‖ with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of
the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are
reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

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The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high. The step-down transformer in the
rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low voltage AC. The anode of the centre
tapped diodes is connected to the transformer‘s secondary winding and connected to the load
resistor. During the positive half cycle of the alternating current, the top half of the secondary
winding becomes positive while the second half of the secondary winding becomes negative.
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During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is connected to the
top of the secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is connected
to the bottom of the secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 will conduct acting
as a short circuit and D2 will not conduct acting as an open circuit

During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is
forward biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and
the bottom half of the circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC
voltage is obtained for both positive and negative half cycle.

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2. With capacitor filter:

This is typically Bridge rectifier configuration which utilizes four arranged in a

bridge-like pattern. diodes are ensured that the current flows in the same direction
through the load during both half (positive and negative) AC cycle resulting in a
more continuous DC output.

Like the half-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter here also capacitor is connected
in parallel to the load (Resistor).

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Case Ⅰ: during the positive half-cycle of the AC input one pair of diodes (D1 &
D2) are conducts that allowing the capacitor to charge to peak value of the
rectified voltage.

Case Ⅱ: during the negative half-cycle the other one diode pair (D3 & D4) are
conducts that allowing the capacitor to discharge into the load.

6. With circuit diagram explain the voltage multiplier (i.e., Voltage Doubler, Voltage
Tripler).
Answer: Voltage Multiplier Circuits are devices that are designed to generate an output
voltage that is a multiple of the input voltage. They are often used to achieve higher
voltage levels than older circuits that were developed in the past, especially in situations
where efficiency and compact design are very critical. There are four types of voltage
multiplier circuits named as Voltage Doubler and Voltage Triple.

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1. Voltage Doubler: A full wave voltage doubler is a type of electronic circuit

which is made to double the voltage of an alternating current or alternating signal.
It is used as a bridge rectifier which consist of four diodes which are arranged in
such a way that it rectifies both the positive and negative half cycles of the input
signal. This charges the capacitor in both directions in both cycles doubling the
voltage across the load. A full wave voltage doubler has high efficiency compared
to half wave voltage doubler which provides a clean DC output which has less
ripple factor.

a) During the positive half cycle diode D1 and D2 gets forward baised and
hence they conduct which leads to charging of capacitor C1.
b) During the negative half cycle diode D3 and D4 gets forward baised and
hence they conduct which leads to doubling the voltage across the load
(R).
c) Output voltage (Vout) is approx twice the peak input voltage considering
both the half cycles.
2. Voltage Tripler: A voltage tripler is a type of electronic circuit which is made in
such a way that it makes the voltage of an alternating current or alternating signal
three times of input value. It uses a combination of diodes and capacitors to gain
this type of voltage multiplication. This type of circuit also has a series of
charging and discharging cycles through capacitors during different cycle of the
AC signal. By making some proper connections of the components the voltage
tripler produces an output voltage which is approx three times the value of the
input AC voltage. This type of circuit is mainly used in high voltage applications
because a high DC voltage is required.

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a) During the positive cycle diode D1 is forward biased and the diodes D2
and D3 are reverse biased due to which the capacitor C1 gets charged.
b) During the negative cycle diode D2 is forward biased and other diodes are
reversed baised due to this the Capacitor C2 gets charged. As the voltage
across the capacitor C1 and the secondary transformer are additive in
nature this makes the capacitor C2 also charge.
c) During the another positive cycle capacitor C1 keeps its charge and hence
the diode D1 does not conduct and capacitor C3 is not charged then due to
this the conduction path for the positive cycle will be Capacitor C1,
Capacitor C3, Diode D3 and Capacitor C2.
d) Since D3 is forward biased capacitor C3 will charge 2 times which is the
sum of secondary of transformer and voltage across the Capacitor C1.
After taking the voltage across Capacitors C1 and C3 the voltage will be
the sum of its individual capacitors. Therefore, the circuit functions as a
voltage tripler.

7. What is voltage regulator? With neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of a
voltage regulator using Zener diode.
Answer: When provided reverse bias feedback, the Zener diode operates as a voltage
regulator, generating a little leakage current till a constant voltage is achieved. A Zener
diode has a typical current flow from anode to cathode. The Zener diode behaves like a
general-purpose diode with a silicon PN junction whenever loaded in a forward direction.
This forward flow can be reversed if the voltage surpasses a particular limit. The constant
voltage aids the Zener diode‘s voltage regulation.

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Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through
the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The
stabilised output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.
The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of
the DC supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition.
Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the circuit.

With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all the
circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its maximum
power.

Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the
load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation
requirement of the diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of
series resistance so that the zener‘s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-
load or high-impedance condition.

The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always
the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).

There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilisation of the voltage is effective
and the zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its
breakdown region at all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependant upon the
power rating of the device. The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.

One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the diode can sometimes
generate electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise the voltage.
Normally this is not a problem for most applications but the addition of a large value

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decoupling capacitor across the zener‘s output may be required to give additional
smoothing.

Then to summarise a little. A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
condition. As such a simple voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener diode
to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the load in spite of variations in the input
voltage or changes in the load current.

The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting resistor RS connected in series
with the input voltage VS with the zener diode connected in parallel with the load RL in
this reverse biased condition. The stabilised output voltage is always selected to be the
same as the breakdown voltage VZ of the diode.

8. What is an amplifier? Explain different types of amplifier.

OR
Classify different types of amplifier.
Answer: An amplifier is a two-port electronic device used to amplify the signal or
increase the power of a signal with the help of a power supply. The power is supplied
through the input terminal of the amplifier. The output of the amplifier can be the
increased amplitude, etc.

The gain of the amplifier determines its amplification. It is the major factor that
determines the output of a device. Amplifiers are used in almost every type of electronic
component. The gain is calculated as the ratio of the output parameter (power, current, or
voltage) to the input parameter.
a) Audio Frequency Amplifiers: Audio frequency amplifiers are used to amplify
signals in the range of human hearing that approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Some
Hi-Fi audio amplifiers extend this range up to around 100 kHz ranges while other
audio amplifiers may restrict the high frequency limit to 15 kHz or less.
b) Intermediate Frequency Amplifiers: Intermediate Frequency amplifiers are
tuned amplifiers used in radio devices, TV sets and radar devices. The Main
purpose is to provide the majority of the voltage amplification of a TV or radar
signals, before the audio or video information carried by the signal is separated or
demodulated from the radio signal. Amplifiers operate at a frequency lower than
that of the received radio waves, but higher than the audio or video signals
eventually produced by the system. The frequency at which Intermediate
Frequency.
c) R.F. Amplifiers: Radio Frequency amplifiers are tuned amplifiers in which the
frequency of operation is governed by a tuned circuit equipment. This circuit may
or may not be adjustable depending on the purpose of the amplifier. Its bandwidth

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also depends on use and may be relatively wide or narrow.Amplifier Input

resistance is generally low. Some RF amplifiers have little or no gain at all but are
primarily a buffer between a receiving antenna and later circuitry to prevent any
high level unwanted signals from the receiver circuits reaching the antenna port, it
could be re-transmitted as interference.
d) Ultrasonic Amplifiers: Ultrasonic amplifiers are a type of audio amplifier
handling frequencies from around 20 kHz to up to about 100 kHz ranges. These
are usually designed for specific purposes such as ultrasonic cleaning purpose,
metal fatigue detection technique, ultrasound scanning purpose, remote control
systems, etc. Every type will operate over a fairly narrow band of frequencies
within the ultrasonic range.
e) Wide band Amplifiers: Wide band amplifiers must have a constant gain from
DC to several tens of MHz range. These amplifiers are used in measuring
equipment such as oscilloscopes. There is a need to accurately measure signals
over a wide range of frequency range because of their extremely wide bandwidth
and low gain.

9. Describe the terms: Gain, Input resistance, Output resistance, Phase shift,
Bandwidth of amplifier.
Answer:
a) Gain: The gain of an amplifier is a measure of the "Amplification" of an
amplifier, i.e. how much it increases the amplitude of a signal. More precisely it is
the ratio of the output signal amplitude to the input signal amplitude, and is given
the symbol "A". It can be calculated for voltage (Av), current (Ai) or power (Ap),
When the subscript letter after the A is in lower case this refers to small signal
conditions, and when the subscript is in capitals it refers to DC conditions. The
gain or amplification for the three differnt types of amplifiers can be described
using the
appropriate
formula.

b) Input resistance: The word impedance means opposition to AC current flow. At

0 Hz, (that is, DC) impedance (symbol Z) is the same as resistance (R), but at

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frequencies other than 0Hz impedance and resistance are not the same. The input
impedance of an amplifier is the effective impedance between the input terminals.
"Effective" means that the impedance is not necessarily just that of the amplifier
components (resistors, capacitors etc.) actually connected across the input
terminals, but is the impedance experienced as the amount of current able to flow
into the input terminals for a given signal voltage applied at a particular
frequency. Input Impedance is influenced by a number of factors including the
frequency of the applied signal, the gain of the amplifier, any signal feedback
used and even what is connected to the output of the amplifier.
c) Output resistance: The output impedance of an amplifier is not solely dependent
on the actual components connected within the output of an amplifier. It is an
‗apparent‘ impedance and can best be demonstrated as being responsible for a fall
in signal voltage at the output terminals of an amplifier, when a current is drawn
from the output terminals. The more current drawn from the output terminals, the
greater the reduction in output signal voltage. The effect is that of an impedance
or resistance in series with the output terminals
d) Phase shift: Phase shift in an amplifier is the amount (if any) by which the output
signal is delayed or advanced in phase with respect to the input signal expressed
in degrees. If a phase shift of 90 degrees occurs then the peak of the output wave
occurs one quarter of a cycle after the peak of input wave. Such a shift can be
caused by the effect of components such as resistors inductors and capacitors in
the amplifier circuit. The action of the transistor in a single stage amplifier can
cause 180 degrees of phase shift, and therefore the input and output will be in
"anti-phase." Whether a phase shift in an amplifier is important depends on the
purpose of the amplifier.
The design of multi stage amplifiers must take phase shift into consideration, as
the amount of phase shift will vary with frequency it is possible that at some
frequencies the total phase shift may add up to 360 degrees. If the output signal of
such a system is allowed to re-enter the input then positive feedback occurs and
the amplifier will become unstable and is likely to oscillate.

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e) Bandwidth: An important piece of information that can be obtained from a

frequency response curve is the Bandwidth of the amplifier. This refers to the
‗band‘ of frequencies for which the amplifier has a useful gain. Outside this useful
band the gain of the amplifier is considered to be insufficient compared with the
gain at the centre of the bandwidth. Bandwidth specified for voltage amplifiers is
the range of frequencies for which the amplifier‘s gain is greater than 0.707 of the
maximum gain (see Fig. 1.1.1.b). Alternatively, decibels are used to indicate the
gain, the ratio of output to input voltage, (see Fig. 1.1.1.a). The useful bandwidth
in Fig. 1.1.1a would be described as extending to those frequencies at which the
voltage gain is −3dB down compared to the gain at the mid band frequency.
Several ways of describing the bandwidth can be used, firstly it could be said (of
Fig 1.1.1a), that "The bandwidth is from 10Hz to 20kHz." Alternatively it could
be said (of Fig. 1.1.1b) "The bandwidth is 9kHz, centred on 774kHz." or even that
it is "774kHz plus or minus 4.5kHz."

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10. With a neat block diagram, derive the expression for overall gain of a negative
feedback amplifier.
Answer:

11. What are multi-stage amplifiers? Write different methods used for interstage
coupling.

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Answer: In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier is usually

insufficient, though it is a voltage or power amplifier. Hence they are replaced by Multi-
stage transistor amplifiers.
In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage
using a coupling device. These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a
transformer. This process of joining two amplifier stages using a coupling device can be
called as Cascading.

The following figure shows a two-stage amplifier connected in cascade.

The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages.

Where AV = Overall gain, AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage, and AV2 = Voltage gain of
2nd stage.

If there are n number of stages, the product of voltage gains of those n stages will be the
overall gain of that multistage amplifier circuit.

a) Resistance-Capacitance Coupling: This is the mostly used method of coupling,

formed using simple resistor-capacitor combination. The capacitor which allows
AC and blocks DC is the main coupling element used here. The coupling
capacitor passes the AC from the output of one stage to the input of its next stage.
While blocking the DC components from DC bias voltages to effect the next
stage. Let us get into the details of this method of coupling in the coming
chapters.
b) Impedance Coupling: The coupling network that uses inductance and
capacitance as coupling elements can be called as Impedance coupling network.
In this impedance coupling method, the impedance of coupling coil depends on its
inductance and signal frequency which is jwL. This method is not so popular and
is seldom employed.
c) Transformer Coupling: The coupling method that uses a transformer as the
coupling device can be called as Transformer coupling. There is no capacitor used
in this method of coupling because the transformer itself conveys the AC

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component directly to the base of second stage. The secondary winding of the
transformer provides a base return path and hence there is no need of base
resistance. This coupling is popular for its efficiency and its impedance matching
and hence it is mostly used.
d) Direct Coupling: If the previous amplifier stage is connected to the next
amplifier stage directly, it is called as direct coupling. The individual amplifier
stage bias conditions are so designed that the stages can be directly connected
without DC isolation. The direct coupling method is mostly used when the load is
connected in series, with the output terminal of the active circuit element. For
example, head-phones, loud speakers etc.

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