1849055947

THE DYSPRAXIC LEARNER
of related interest
Understanding Dyspraxia
A Guide for Parents and Teachers
Maureen Boon
ISBN 978 1 84905 069 2
eISBN 978 0 85700 259 4
Can I tell you about Dyspraxia?

A guide for friends, family and professionals
Maureen Boon
Illustrated by Imogen Hallam
ISBN 978 1 84905 447 8
eISBN 978 0 85700 824 4
Can’t Play Won’t Play

Simply Sizzling Ideas to get the
Ball Rolling for Children with Dyspraxia
Sharon Drew and Elizabeth Atter
ISBN 978 1 84310 601 2
eISBN 978 1 84642 758 9
Beating Dyspraxia with a Hop, Skip and a Jump

A Simple Exercise Program to Improve Motor Skills
at Home and School, Revised Edition
Geoff Platt
ISBN 978 1 84905 560 4
eISBN 978 0 85700 948 7
THE
DYSPRAXIC
LEARNER
STRATEGIES
FOR
SUCCESS
ALISON PATRICK
Jessica Kingsley Publishers

London and Philadelphia
First published in 2015
by Jessica Kingsley Publishers
73 Collier Street
London N1 9BE, UK
and
400 Market Street, Suite 400
Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA
www.jkp.com
Copyright © Alison Patrick 2015
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both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Patrick, Alison, 1964-
The dyspraxic learner : strategies for success / Alison Patrick.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-1-84905-594-9 (alk. paper)
1. Children with disabilities--Education. 2. Movement disorders in children. 3.
Apraxia. I. Title.
LC4015.P325 2015
371.9--dc23
2014036670
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 1 84905 594 9

eISBN 978 1 78450 049 8
Printed and bound in Great Britain

To my family
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With thanks to:

Various librarians: Rebecca Evans at UCA, Sharon Swithinbank at
Hampshire Library Service, and Claire Nicholas-Walker at the British
Library, for either obtaining texts and articles or for doing some research
to help me with text sources.
Lucy Alexander and Francis Maunze of the Royal College of
Psychiatrists for their help when I was seeking to use an A.J. Annell text
from the 1940s.
Barbara Houseman, voice coach and acting director, for her very
helpful advice on deep breathing and ‘Cameras out’ techniques.
My student services and library colleagues from UCA, whose
collaboration and support I greatly appreciate.
All the students with SpLDs I have ever taught or worked with.
Rachel Menzies, Sarah Hamlin, Kate Mason and Robert Rorison of
Jessica Kingsley Publishers for their support and advice.
My father and mother, Alec and Anne Ellis, for their advice and
encouragement during the writing process.
Finally, thank you to my long-suffering children, Matthew, William
and Harriet, for their encouragement and support while I was writing
this book. And thank you to my husband, Roger, for his wholehearted
support at a time when he was busy with other projects.
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1. UNDERSTANDING DYSPRAXIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Comorbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Brain dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The power of dyspraxia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Cognitive strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Cognitive weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Famous dyspraxics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2. PHYSICAL DYSPRAXIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Sensory input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Motor output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Vestibular skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Muscles and joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Remedies for muscle and joint issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Strategies for coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Balance: a balancing act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Spatial awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Co-existing physical symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Key professionals for physical dyspraxia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
General strategies for physical dyspraxia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3. LITERACY STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Vestibular impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Visual processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Auditory processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Key auditory and visual strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Key literacy strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Reading strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Writing strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Spelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Grammar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Writing paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Handwriting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4. EFFECTIVE STUDY SKILLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Establishing learning styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Study skills ‘melting pot’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Assistive technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5. THE DYSPRAXIC MIND
6. NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

The mind games dyspraxia plays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Memory deficit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Memory strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Visual memory strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Auditory memory strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Mixed memory strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Sleeplessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Strategies for sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Obsessive thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Strategies for dealing with repetitive thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7. THE DYSPRAXIC MIND
8. EMOTIONAL CONSEQUENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Emotional volatility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Low self-esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Strategies for tackling low self-esteem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Anxious thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Strategies for coping with anxious thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Stress: strategies for calm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Social difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Social skills strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9. PREPARING FOR WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Workplace difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Workplace strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Strategies for the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Employer strategies for the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Employee strategies for the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Proactive employers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Interview techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Presentation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Learning to drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Finally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
APPENDIX: DYSPRAXIA AT A GLANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
INTRODUCTION
Of all the key specific learning differences (SpLD) (autism, Asperger

syndrome, dyslexia and dyspraxia), dyspraxia possesses the most
interesting ‘melting pot’ mix of physical and mental characteristics. The
Dyspraxic Learner is written for secondary school, college or university
teachers who want to know more about dyspraxia, how it affects their
students and the support strategies that can be used to create a successful
learning environment for learners with dyspraxia. This book also aims
to be of value to learners with dyspraxia themselves (or their friends and
relatives), who are seeking an understanding of dyspraxia and supportive
strategies. The dyspraxic mind and physical dyspraxia are looked at in
depth, partly to foster greater understanding of dyspraxia but also to offer
strategies for physical and psychological support.
Dyslexia is the predominant SpLD, with the strongest research base
and the broadest media coverage. Dyspraxic (and dyslexic) students often
do not know very much about the strengths their SpLD brings, or about
alleviating strategies for the weaknesses. Statistically, at any time, teachers
probably have at least one learner with dyspraxic tendencies in their
classroom. Currently, due to the complex nature of dyspraxia, professionals
can often be aware of some aspects of this SpLD, while remaining oblivious
to other factors. Unfortunately, dyspraxia is too often associated with its
most negative connotation, clumsiness. Ultimately, I believe that informed
teachers can empower their dyspraxic students and that an increased
understanding of dyspraxia can enhance a student’s development potential.
This book aims to look at all manifestations of dyspraxia, all of which
will impact in different ways on a student’s life:
• Motor coordination
ºº pen grip
ºº handwriting
ºº poor PE skills, e.g. catching, throwing, running.
11
12 THE DYSPRAXIC LEARNER
• Muscle tone/joints
ºº handwriting
ºº poor PE skills
ºº lethargy.
• Posture
ºº slouching at desk
ºº concentration affected.
• Balance
ºº poor PE skills.
• Spatial awareness
ºº accident prone.
• Visual and auditory processing
ºº reading and writing difficulties.
• Planning and organisation
ºº classroom and study skills.
• Attention deficits
ºº inattentiveness in the classroom
ºº daydreaming
ºº inconsistent performance.
• Memory deficits
ºº difficulties absorbing and processing information learned
ºº inconsistent performance.
• Sleeplessness
ºº fatigue.
All of the above can have emotional consequences for the learner with
dyspraxia, and can affect life generally through:
• low self-esteem
• difficulties with social interaction
• stress and anxiety.
The variety of ways in which dyspraxia can manifest in the classroom
shows the potential for educational disruption for the dyspraxic, in
INTRODUCTION 13
secondary and tertiary education. Although the difficulties of dyspraxia

can, potentially, have a negative impact on educational attainment, some
of these difficulties can be lessened, as long as the strengths which
dyspraxia brings are nurtured in an academic context.
Obviously, by the secondary stage of education, a number of
individual subjects will be studied and some difficulties will be specific to
particular subjects. For example, science and food or design technology
can bring practical considerations for the dyspraxic. This book does not
discuss difficulties that might occur in individual subjects, but focuses on
dyspraxic literacy difficulties, because difficulties with literacy affect most
aspects of learning.
It should be emphasised that this book is researched and written
from a teacher’s perspective, rather than a medical perspective. Because
of the diverse, pervasive nature of dyspraxia, this is a book of contrasting
parts, a mixture of theory and practice. The first chapter focuses on
defining dyspraxia and examining dyspraxic strengths and weaknesses.
Chapter Two focuses on the diverse array of factors affecting physical
dyspraxia, and offers supportive strategies. Chapters Three and Four
are more practical, focusing on dyspraxia in an educational context.
Chapter Three discusses literacy difficulties in the context of dyspraxia,
and includes strategies for reading and writing. Chapter Four contains
study skills strategies to bolster independent learning and to enhance
performance. Chapter Five focuses on the neurological consequences of
dyspraxia for the mind, focusing on memory, sleep and obsessive thoughts.
Chapter Six focuses on the emotional consequences of dyspraxia, with
strategies for coping with emotional volatility, low self-esteem, anxiety
and stress. Strategies for social skills are also detailed. The final chapter
focuses on dyspraxia in the workplace.
There is a caveat to all the strategies and methods listed in this
book. Dyspraxia is on a spectrum, so some learners will be more severely
affected than others and dyspraxic individuals will tend to have a
‘cocktail’ of symptoms rather than the whole gamut of attributes. Each
learner with dyspraxia is unique and effective strategies will vary between
individuals. This has already been evidenced through research undertaken
by dyspraxia expert Professor Amanda Kirby, which demonstrated that
31 children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) all had a
different symptom profile (Kirby 2004, cited in Kirby, Davies and Bryant
2005, p.123). For this reason no individual strategy in this book will
work for all learners, and strategies will need to be tested, tried and
tailored to suit individual needs.
CHAPTER ONE
UNDERSTANDING DYSPRAXIA
Dyspraxia is broad in its manifestation, affecting both the body and the
mind and having comorbidity not only with dyslexia but with other
specific learning differences (SpLD) such as Asperger syndrome and
attention deficit disorder as well.
Definitions
The word ‘dyspraxia’ comes from two Greek words, ‘dys’ and ‘praxis’.
Praxis is the Greek word for action or practice: ‘The ability to interact
successfully with the physical environment; to ideate, plan, organize, and
carry out a sequence of unfamiliar actions; and to do what one needs and
wants to do’ (Stock Kranowitz 2005, p.316). ‘Dys’ is the Greek prefix
‘bad’. When translated literally, dyspraxia means ‘bad practice’.
The modern term dyspraxia seems to have its origins in a neurological
context, where the term ‘apraxia’ represented an acquired disorder, and
‘dys’ was then used to represent a developmental disorder: dyspraxia
(Steinman, Mostofsky and Denckla 2010, p.73). The Dyspraxia Foundation
defines dyspraxia as ‘an impairment or immaturity of the organisation of
movement. It is associated with problems of perception, language and
thought’ (Dyspraxia Foundation 2014a). The Leeds Consensus Statement
gives a good basic diagnostic definition of developmental coordination
disorder which can be used to define the motor aspects of dyspraxia
as well:
The marked impairment has a significant, negative impact on activities
of daily living – such as dressing, feeding, riding a bicycle – and/or on
academic achievement such as through poor handwriting skills. Core
aspects of the disorder include difficulties with gross and/or fine motor
skills, which may be apparent in locomotion, agility, manual dexterity,
15
complex skills (e.g. ball games) and/or balance. (Economic and Social
Research Council 2006, p.3)
There have been numerous definitions for dyspraxia historically but,
nevertheless, dyspraxia remains subject to misinterpretation. Traditionally,
children with dyspraxia have been described as ‘clumsy’ children, not
a term that recognises the singular abilities of the dyspraxic mindset.
Neurologist Dr Sasson S. Gubbay conceived the term ‘Clumsy Child
Syndrome’ in his 1975 book, The Clumsy Child (Sutton Hamilton 2002,
p.1435). Certainly there have been ‘clumsy’ individuals in all societies
throughout history and they existed a long time before the terms
‘dyspraxia’ or ‘developmental coordination disorder’ were coined. Helen
Burns, Jane Eyre’s school friend in the famous Charlotte Brontë novel
of 1847, is reputed to have been the first dyspraxic character in English
literature:
Then learn from me, not to judge by appearances: I am, as Miss Scatcherd
said, slatternly; I seldom put, and never keep, things in order; I am
careless; I forget rules; I read when I should learn my lessons; I have no
method; and sometimes I say, like you, I cannot bear to be subjected to
systematic arrangements. (Brontë 1953 (original v.1847), p.74)
In the 1940s and 1950s, Professor of Psychiatry A.L. Annell described
children who move awkwardly, are ‘poor’ at games, ‘hopeless’ at
gymnastics, write badly and cannot concentrate. They cannot sit still, tie
shoelaces or fasten buttons properly, may bump into objects, break glass,
slide off their chairs, kick their desks and may even read badly. Annell
notes that performance may be worse when the child is anxious or self-
conscious (Annell, cited in the British Medical Journal 1962, p.1665). This
really demonstrates that dyspraxia has been noticed in the classroom for
many years; and the attributes associated with it are not just a modern
phenomenon.
Dyspraxia or Developmental
Coordination Disorder (DCD)?
There is an element of confusion about dyspraxia and developmental
coordination disorder. In Britain both terms are used, often interchangeably,
and there can be some confusion among practitioners about whether DCD
and dyspraxia are the same condition. In their article on the ‘enigma’ of
dyspraxia and DCD, John Gibbs, Jeanette and Richard Appleton argue
that different professionals have had an impact on how coordination
Understanding Dyspraxia 17
difficulties are defined and this has resulted in different terminologies

(Gibbs et al. 2007).
Although there are similarities, dyspraxia differs from DCD because
its definition encompasses perceptual and thinking differences. The
Dyspraxia Foundation describes dyspraxia as:
A form of developmental coordination disorder… While DCD is often
regarded as an umbrella term to cover motor coordination difficulties,
dyspraxia refers to those people who have additional problems planning,
organising and carrying out movements in the right order in everyday
situations. Dyspraxia can also affect articulation and speech, perception
and thought. (Dyspraxia Foundation 2013a)
The significant role that the mind plays in this condition cannot be
underestimated. This book is by definition about dyspraxia because one
of the key focuses is the dyspraxic mind and its impact on learning. I
would be reluctant to lose the term dyspraxia because it is well established
in many people’s minds and, of course, has linguistic associations with
another key SpLD, dyslexia.
Causes
The Dyspraxia Foundation explains that, for most dyspraxics, there is no
‘clinical neurological abnormality’. But research has found that it may
be related to the central nervous system and immaturities in neurone
development (Dyspraxia Foundation 2014b). An immaturity in the
development of neural pathways could be seen to result in physical and
cognitive difficulties. There could, for example, be an impact on teenage
and adult thinking patterns, resulting in repetitive or even obsessive
thoughts.
Hereditary
Students with SpLDs often have parents, relatives and siblings with
similar traits. Forty years ago assessment for dyslexia and dyspraxia was
not nearly so prevalent. In the last 20 years, research has advanced rapidly,
particularly research into dyslexia. Recognition of dyspraxia will improve
because diagnosis is already in place for a current generation of students.
Comorbidity and heredity could have interesting implications where,
for example, a child growing up with the challenges that dyspraxia brings,
is growing up in a home environment where a parent is, for example, on
the autistic spectrum and is facing their own challenges.
Birth
Research tends to show that DCD is more likely in premature and low
birth weight children (Holsti, Grunau and Whitfield 2002, Edwards et al.
2011 and Zwicker et al. 2013). Chartered psychologist David Grant has
found that, ‘In my experience, and that of others [e.g. see Gubbay 1985,
cited in Drew 2005], birth complications are reported in about 50% of
dyspraxics’ (Grant n.d., p.9).
Diagnosis
It is thought that dyspraxia affects between six and ten per cent of the
population, leading to the likelihood that there is at least one learner
with dyspraxia in every classroom. Classroom, seminar and lecture theatre
adjustments are particularly important for the six to ten per cent of pupils
who have dyspraxic tendencies because some of these students will never
be assessed for dyspraxia.
The complexity of dyspraxia with its framework of mental, cognitive
and physical issues can easily lead to confusion about how to treat or to
assess dyspraxia. Physiotherapist Pam Versfeld argues that:
There are no formal criteria for a diagnosis of dyspraxia. This makes
it very confusing: different people use the term dyspraxia in different
ways… Including all these different developmental difficulties into one
diagnosis has its drawbacks because it prevents clear thinking about the
different factors contributing [to] the everyday difficulties the child is
experiencing. (Versfeld 2007)
Dyspraxia is a condition with a medical and an educational impact.
As a result of its physical and mental nature, there are various routes
for assessment of dyspraxia. GPs will either direct their patients to an
occupational therapist (OT) who can only focus on physical dyspraxia, or
to a psychologist, who can look at cognitive aspects of dyspraxia. They
might also refer to a neurologist for diagnosis, which is followed up with
OT support. This can cause diagnostic confusion. The specialist teacher
assessor can also assess for dyspraxia in an educational context (SpLD
Assessment Standards Committee 2013, pp.1–2).
Chartered psychologist David Grant believes that identification of an
SpLD is ‘a clinical judgement…in which labels are best viewed as having
fuzzy edges rather than box-type characteristics’ (Grant n.d., p.2) and he
has encountered diagnoses where although an SpLD has been identified,
a co-existing SpLD has been overlooked (Grant n.d., p.7). ‘Although
books about dyspraxia suggest there is a classic profile, in practice I find

that there are many variations’ (Grant n.d., p.10).
Over-zealous labelling
People still mistakenly believe that if a child is simply clumsy or has
illegible handwriting, then they must be dyspraxic. In their article
entitled ‘Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder? Unravelling
the enigma’, John Gibbs et al. discuss the increasing tendency to label
awkward or clumsy children as dyspraxic (Gibbs et al. 2007). Of course,
this is why it is so important for different practitioners involved with
teenagers and adults with SpLD to be aware of all facets of dyspraxia.
Children and teenagers are generally at a stage of their development
where they can at times be clumsy, forgetful or disorganised. This does
not mean that they are dyspraxic.
Leading authority on autism Professor Simon Baron-Cohen
believes that everyone falls on a continuum of autistic traits and that the
diagnosis should be influenced by environment as well as assessment
score. Individuals who are coping with their autism may not require
a diagnosis because they do not need intervention (Dommett 2011,
p.30). This is applicable to dyspraxia, with its broad spectrum too:
without a need for intervention, there is no need for diagnosis. However,
assessment for dyspraxia can be important in an educational and a
medical context. In an educational setting, it can be important because it
can result in, for example, extra time and a laptop for exams. These exam
concessions become increasingly vital for teenage dyspraxics tackling
GCSEs, A-levels and degree level exams, ensuring parity with other
students. At tertiary level, educational intervention can also facilitate
access to specialist teacher support or mentoring, both of which can be
an invaluable resource for the student with dyspraxia. Assessment for
dyspraxia will also be important where physical or mental difficulties
require medical intervention.
Treatment
I have worked with students with dyspraxia who have been well
served physically by occupational therapy in early childhood. I have
also worked with students who have excellent mental strategies from
educational psychologists. Those psychological strategies are particularly
advantageous for teenage and adult dyspraxics. As a result of its diverse
nature there are many other interventions available for dyspraxia, some
of which are available from qualified practitioners, others being lifestyle

choices:
• Alexander Technique
• physiotherapy
• podiatrist
• speech therapist
• Cognitive behavioural therapy
• counselling
• gym
• mindfulness
• yoga.
This book will discuss these strategies in more detail.
Unfortunately, there are many individuals who grow up feeling
debilitated by their awkwardness and difference, and are very poorly
supported for coping with their dyspraxia. They have never realised that
there is a significant reason for their physical difficulties or the emotional
challenges they face. For those pupils with dyspraxic tendencies, who may
never go down the medical assessment route, the best accommodations in
a classroom are achieved through being aware of:
• physical difficulties and strategies to compensate
• different styles of learning.
Comorbidity
There can be comorbidity between these key SpLDs:
• dyslexia
• dyspraxia/DCD
• autism spectrum disorders (ASD) (including Asperger syndrome)
• AD(H)D.
That is, two or more can occur in an individual at the same time.
The Make-up of Neuro-Diversity
This is a document for discussion. Concentrating mainly on the difficulties of those with neuro-diversity. It must, however, be pointed out that many
people with neuro-diversity are excellent at maths, coordination, reading etc. We are people of extremes.
Dyscalculia
Dyspraxia/DCD Difficulties with calculation
Dyslexia
Difficulties with planning movements, Difficulty with reading, writing, spelling,
and number concepts
coordination and practical tasks as well as word recognition and sequencing
tracking and balance, poor spatial awareness
and muscle tone Word finding and speech problems
Neuro-diversity
Difficulties with organisation,
Over-and under-sensitive to light and memory, concentration, time, Lack of concentration,
noise, touch, temperature direction, perception, sequencing distractibility
Speech and language difficulties Poor listening skills – leading to
low self-esteem
Anxiety, depression but creative,
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) inc. original, determined AD(H)D
Asperger syndrome Oppositional defiant disorder Impulsive, temper outbursts, hyperactivity
Social and communication problems Low frustration threshold
Obsessive, difference of imagination Easily distracted or over-focused, lack of
Tourette’s syndrome inhibitions
Verbal and physical tics
(Colley 2006, p161)

Figure 1.1 Diagram depicting the make-up of neuro-diversity
(Colley 2006, p.161)
Figure 1.1, ‘The make-up of neuro-diversity’ (Colley 2006, p.161),

provides an excellent visual aid to show the convergences and divergences
between SpLDs. This tool has been invaluable to me when working
with students with different SpLDs. This comorbidity between different
SpLDs means that dyspraxics can also have other SpLDs. Autism and
Asperger syndrome are autism spectrum disorders (ASD); dyspraxia is not.
However, dyspraxia does share characteristics with ASDs, particularly
Asperger syndrome.
This comorbidity can, unfortunately, cause diagnostic confusion with
different SpLDs sharing similar traits. It could be argued that currently
there is an element of over-labelling, with some students seeing a variety
of professionals, the result being that they are labelled with all the broad
category SpLDs, because they all share common characteristics. It can
be really helpful for specialist teacher assessors to identify dyspraxic
tendencies because the needs of learners with dyspraxia diverge from
the needs of their dyslexic peers. Ultimately, psychiatric definitions and
professional judgements discriminating between diagnostic differences
have to be deferred to and the most important outcome is that the most
needy learners have been assessed and qualify for support.
Asperger syndrome
There seems to be a clear relationship between dyspraxia and ASDs, even
although dyspraxia is not on the autism spectrum. In my own experience,
when working with students with Asperger syndrome, it is as if I am
looking at some of the traits of dyspraxia through a microscope to find
them magnified. For example, any issues the dyspraxic might have with
obsessiveness about small details or daily routines seem to be exacerbated
in Asperger syndrome.
The National Autistic Society recognises that for autism spectrum
disorders, ‘some of the characteristics of the two conditions overlap,
meaning that both have many similar characteristics’ (The National
Autistic Society 2014). The National Autistic Society draws a distinction
between the causes of poor social skills experienced by people with
dyspraxia and a key characteristic of Asperger syndrome, ‘impairment
in social intelligence’. Social difficulties experienced by the dyspraxic
are not fundamental to the condition but are an outcome of physical
difficulties leading to isolation (The National Autistic Society 2014). A
key trait of people with dyspraxia is empathy, whereas for people with
Asperger syndrome, cognitive empathy can be impaired (Baron-Cohen
et al. 2014). So, although there are similarities between dyspraxia and
ASD, there are key differences too.
Motor difficulties seem to present in Asperger syndrome as well as in
dyspraxia. Clinical psychologist Tony Attwood devotes a chapter of his
book, The Complete Guide to Asperger’s Syndrome (2008), to movement and
coordination. According to McCleery et al., difficulties with motor skills
seem to be a common experience of autism and this can have an impact on
social and language skills (McCleery et al. 2013). Research by Dzuik et al.
into motor skills deficits in autistic children suggested that dyspraxia could
be a fundamental feature of autism (Dzuik et al. 2007, p.738). This overlap
between dyspraxia and autism means that ‘it is important that the person
making the diagnosis has the relevant experience and knowledge to make
a thorough assessment (National Autistic Society 2014).
Dyslexia
Links can be seen between dyspraxia and dyslexia as well. Comorbidity
occurs with organisational and literacy difficulties. Dyspraxic people
can be dyslexic, but dyspraxics can have literacy difficulties without
being dyslexic. Dyspraxics and dyslexics also seem to share a short-
term memory deficit. In fact, I have never worked with these two SpLDs
without encountering short-term memory difficulties.
Attention deficit disorder (ADD)

There is some comorbidity between dyspraxia and ADD because both
SpLDs display difficulties with:
• distractibility
• concentration
• listening and following instructions
• organisation.
However, the comorbidity is limited to these areas, and learners with
ADD do not seem to exhibit the physical difficulties or many of the other
cognitive strengths and weaknesses which are associated with dyspraxia.
Brain dominance
Although left and right brain hemispheres are responsible for different
cognitive functions, the left and right brains in dyspraxics (and dyslexics)
seem to be wired unusually. According to author Thomas West, the

neurologist Dr Norman Geschwind found that some individuals have
relatively ‘symmetrical brains’ and that this symmetry can lead not only
to ‘special abilities’ but to ‘special areas of difficulty’ as well (West 1991,
p.13). West argues that, for some, the roles assigned to the two different
hemispheres can be reversed, and for others, language abilities can be
found on both sides (West 1991, p.14).
According to the Dyspraxia Foundation, for dyspraxic individuals,
both brain hemispheres do not seem to respond in a coordinated way.
There may be no marked handedness preference and this will impact
on handwriting skills (Dyspraxia Foundation 2014c). This can result in
learners with dyspraxia displaying different handedness for different tasks.
For example, cutlery might be held in a left-handed way while scissors
are held in the right hand. When pre-school children are first holding a
pencil to learn to write, the child with dyspraxia might show no marked
preference for left- or right-handed grip. Neurologist Martha Denckla
refers to a paradox where the ‘good’ hand may not perform as well as the
hand that is not used (Denckla 1984, p.251). This indecisiveness between
the two brain hemispheres could well be one of the factors that causes
handwriting difficulties for dyspraxics throughout their lives.
Various researchers have found left-handedness to be statistically
more prevalent in individuals with DCD or dyspraxia than it would be in
the general population. Certainly, when teaching students with SpLDs, I
teach quite a large number of left-handers. There is a common assumption
that left-handedness means that a person is right-brain dominant (Broca’s
Rule) and that left-handed dyspraxics, as a result of this, must be creative
and less language oriented. It is not as straightforward as this and writing
hand does not necessarily seem to be an indicator of brain dominance. Dr
M.K. Holder of the Handedness Institute at Indiana University refers, in
his Public Interest Survey, to left-handed surgeons and dentists operating
right-handed (Holder 2005a). It can be interesting to observe brain
dominance in learners by watching the following:
• thumb on top when hands and thumbs crossed
• leg or arm on top when arms or legs crossed
• foot used to kick a ball
• hand used to catch a ball.
The dominant foot for kicking a ball might be the right foot, even
though a person is left-handed. There does not seem to be anything as
straightforward as a crossover between the brain with the right-hand,
more creative side of the brain being dominant for left-handers and the
left-hand, more logical brain being dominant for right-handers. Holder
notes that ‘a majority of left-handers also seem to have a left-hemispheric
brain specialization for language abilities’ (Holder 2005b).
The power of dyspraxia

If society had not needed its ‘clumsy’ individuals, would they have
survived? On a simplistic view at least, Darwin’s theory of ‘survival of the
fittest’ would seem to suggest that if there were anything inherently weak
about dyspraxia, then dyspraxics would not have evolved beyond the
world of primitive man. Might an ancient tribe have valued a dyspraxic’s
differences, even if they were useless at hunting, tracking a beast with even
a semblance of quietness, or sewing a loincloth for the winter months?
Some of the differences associated with dyspraxia certainly seem to be
beneficial. Whether they compensate for the weaknesses is a moot point
and depends on how and in what circumstances they manifest themselves
and how they are viewed by the individuals affected.
So, before engaging with the troubles which dyspraxia may cause, it
is worth looking at the strengths which often seem to accompany it. One
of the key features of dyspraxia is ‘thinking differently’. When engaged in
any conceptual task, the dyspraxic is likely to approach it from a different
angle and this can lead to an inventive or creative perspective, to clever
problem-solving and strategies, and to developments in thinking about
particular areas.
Cognitive strengths
In a speech to the Orton Dyslexia Society, neurologist Norman
Geschwind argued that the advantages of dyslexia might well outweigh
the disadvantages, ‘the important advantages conferred on those who
carry the predisposition to these conditions may outweigh the obvious
dramatic disadvantages’ (Geschwind 1982, cited in West 1991, p.20).
Similarly, there may be cognitive difficulties associated with dyspraxia,
but there may also be cognitive strengths, many of which are shared with
dyslexic thinkers too.
The physical attributes of dyspraxia may at times be demeaning,
but the cognitive benefits of brains which are wired to think differently
to the norm cannot be underestimated. In spite of tripping up, dressing
haphazardly and failing to catch a ball, the dyspraxic has a potential
advantage in the classroom and in the workplace because of a different
cognitive style. This difference in mindset will always be apparent in

group activities and team work.
In listing common dyspraxic strengths, it should be noted that these
strengths are as variable and versatile as dyspraxia itself. Some dyspraxics
have lifelong difficulties with literacy; others are highly literate, their
literacy contrasting with that of their peers. Some dyspraxics struggle
primarily with organisation and time management, while others are
highly efficient at organising not only themselves, but other people
as well. Strengths do not necessarily compensate for weaknesses and
it is unlikely that a dyspraxic would have all the strengths or all the
weaknesses associated with dyspraxia. There does seem to be a tendency,
however, for the cognitive traits which are discussed in this chapter to
prevail in dyspraxia.
Key strengths that are associated with dyspraxia include:
• verbal intelligence
• attention to detail
• creativity
• lateral thinking
• holistic thinking
• strategic thinking
• problem solving
• conceptual thinking
• inventiveness
• empathy
• determination
• motivation.
It really is worthwhile for learners with dyspraxia to be aware of these
potential strengths, because often they have very clever thinking skills
but are more aware of their negative academic and sporting experiences.
Verbal intelligence
People with dyspraxia can have a high verbal intelligence, an aptitude
for language which can lead to a strong vocabulary. When assessed, they
will often perform highly in verbal tasks. Gubbay noted that people
with dyspraxia have a verbal intelligence that is significantly higher
than performance IQ (Gubbay 1975, cited in Denckla 1984, p.246). As

a result of this verbal intelligence, some dyspraxics are highly literate.
Younger dyspraxics may take longer to read and write because of visual
and auditory processing issues, but have literacy strengths as they get
older because of an underlying verbal intelligence.
Attention to detail
Interestingly, according to Disability Salford, ‘Many dyspraxic people and
people with other non-verbal learning disabilities tend to focus on the
incongruent details in a story rather than automatically form a coherent
narrative. In general, this gives me a good eye for detail’ (Disability
Salford n.d.).
Creativity
According to the Dyspraxia Foundation, ‘Many people with dyspraxia
are very creative, determined, persistent and intelligent’ (Dyspraxia
Foundation 2014a). Certainly, this has been my experience of working
with students who have SpLDs at a university which specialises solely in
the arts.
Lateral thinking
The Civil Service Appraisal document, The Dyslexia and Dyspraxia Toolkit:
Enabling a Whole Organisation Approach, acknowledges dyspraxic thinking
skills when it instructs appraisers to ‘Give credit for lateral thinking
because dyslexia and dyspraxia are cognitive differences’ (Todd 2011,
p.31). Jacky Birnie of the University of Gloucestershire writes that,
‘Asperger syndrome lateral thinking may come up with “right” answers
which had not been anticipated by the tutor setting a standard essay
exam.’ (Birnie n.d., p.10) This could equally be applied to students with
dyspraxia and could, in fact, affect exam results if marking structures are
not expecting unusual (but accurate) answers.
Ross Cooper emphasises the importance of random association for
lateral thinking and although his focus is dyslexia, this also has huge
resonance for how learners with dyspraxia think, and demonstrates how
easily the learner with dyspraxia can be underestimated in a traditional
classroom environment:
But the importance to holistic thinking is extremely undervalued

in the classroom. Random association is the underpinning of lateral
thinking…Random association allows us to rethink what the organising
principle of the information needs to be to suit the current purpose.
(Cooper n.d., p.10)
Strategic thinking and problem solving

A key strength of dyspraxia is an ability to think strategically and to
problem solve. Possibly these thinking skills have less opportunity to thrive
during childhood education, but become more applicable at secondary
school and beyond. ‘The right-brained mode of thinking is ideally suited
for problem solving, intuitive and holistic thinking, and quantum leaps
in understanding: These are the very qualities that have aided humans to
evolve into such technologically advanced beings’ (University of Hull,
n.d.(a) p.5).
Conceptual thinking
West recognises that people with SpLDs will often find supposedly easier
concepts more difficult and more advanced ideas more straightforward
to grasp (West 1991, p.69). This could be partly why some learners
with dyspraxia find the simple building blocks of learning difficult to
acquire but the more academic the context, the easier it becomes to
engage and to apply the learning. This difference in thinking could also
be an explanatory factor for difficulties students with dyspraxia have in
concentrating and remaining attentive in the classroom.
Inventiveness
Inventiveness could well be a result of the attributes that are typically
associated with strong dyspraxic thinking, where the lateral, problem-
solving nature of the thinking often makes associations between ideas
which might not instantly be connected or correlated, leading to inventive
solutions.
Empathy
Teacher and author Geoff Brookes believes that the difficulties which
accompany dyspraxia lead to an emotional perceptiveness and that this
facet of the dyspraxic personality often leads them into caring professions
(TES 2003). Although a strength, this intuitive sensitivity towards others

can have an extremely negative aspect for some dyspraxics, leading to
hypersensitivity about the thoughts and motives of others and resulting
in difficulties in establishing and maintaining sound social relationships.
Cognitive weaknesses
Cognitive weaknesses, some of which are interlinked, which will have an
impact on learners with dyspraxia are:
• memory deficit
• planning and organisation
• concentration
• visual processing
• auditory processing
• sensory issues.
It is useful for students with dyspraxia to understand that, for example,
not being able to recall what has been taught in a recent lesson or not
being able to concentrate at all in the classroom, are deficits that relate to
dyspraxia and these weaknesses do not mean that they are ‘stupid’.
Memory deficit
Working and short-term memory are cognitive weaknesses for learners
with dyspraxia. The Student Services department at the University of East
London identifies the following difficulties which will occur for learners,
as a result of memory deficits:
• forgetfulness
• recall of what has just been said
• remembering instructions
• information retrieval
• understanding group discussions
• mental arithmetic
• multi-tasking
• getting diverted
• time management and organisation.
(University of East London n.d.)
The Dyspraxia Group of New Zealand refer to the difficulty of gauging

the progress or potential of learners with dyspraxia:
Teachers may, find the child’s ability to retain learning inconsistent…
making it difficult to gauge either what the child’s intellectual potential
might be, or how much information the child has retained or can
recall. He or she will certainly need to discover the child’s strengths
and encourage these in order to maintain self-esteem… Inconsistency
means that a skill or ability today may be a disability tomorrow. This is
not laziness – he simply can’t (The Dyspraxia Support Group of New
Zealand n.d.).
Ultimately, memory difficulties have the potential to have a detrimental
impact on all aspects of dyspraxic learning.
Planning and organisation

Cognitive weaknesses in planning and motor planning difficulties are
related, but weaknesses in planning and organisation could also result
from memory difficulties (see Chapter Two). Cognitive difficulties with
planning can lead to:
• indecisiveness
• impulsiveness
• difficulties structuring work
• time management difficulties
• untidiness
• multi-tasking difficulties.
For the learner with dyspraxia, ‘Poor planning skills may mean that
he needs constantly to know what is going to happen today, tonight,
tomorrow, to plan ahead and repeat the plan often’ (The Dyspraxia
Support Group of New Zealand).
Concentration
Learners with dyspraxia may be easily distracted or even hyperactive in a
learning setting. Work may at times be careless, with words crossed out as
a result of inattentiveness:
A perceived ‘lack of concentration’ may simply mean that his planning
(or praxis) deserted him mid-task… These children need to learn, would
if they could, but – sometimes – can’t… He or she is not dumb, not

stupid, not lazy, and not often un-cooperative. (The Dyspraxia Support
Group of New Zealand)
Research by Hanes and McCollum looks at links between the vestibular
system and cognitive deficits such as poor concentration or weaknesses
of short-term memory (Hanes and McCollum 2006, p.75). Difficulty
in concentrating could also be attributed to the fact that learners with
dyspraxia may think in a lateral and holistic manner.
Visual processing
As a result of weaknesses in visual processing, learners with dyspraxia
may take longer to make sense of visual information. There may be
difficulties in:
• visual discrimination
• visual sequencing
• visual memory.
All these visual difficulties can have an impact on reading and writing.
According to the University of East London, this may also result in:
• disorientation
• slower reading examination questions
• slowness in learning to spatially navigate different environments.
‘In combination with working memory, this weakness can affect
automaticity; extra energy is required to concentrate on areas that are
automatic for non-dyspraxic students’ (University of East London n.d.).
Auditory processing
As a result of weaknesses in auditory processing, learners with dyspraxia
may struggle with:
• auditory discrimination – resulting in difficulties with reading and
writing
• auditory distractibility – making it more difficult to concentrate
• auditory memory – making it more difficult to retain what has
been learned in the classroom
• auditory sequencing – making it more difficult to follow

instructions.
Sensory issues
Some dyspraxics may be over- or under-sensitive to noise, light, taste,
smell and touch. Tactile reactions, for example, can result in a refusal
to wear certain fabrics, a dislike of physical contact or proximity, or an
aversion to certain food consistencies and textures.
Splinter skills
It could be that learners with dyspraxia have what psychologists describe
as ‘splinter skills’. Perhaps some learners with dyspraxia might have a
strength in one aspect of an area which is generally weak. For example,
a poor speller might have a large, academic vocabulary which does not
get used because of fears about spelling, or a learner with some visual
processing difficulties might have excellent visual-spatial skills. A learner
who is woeful at mathematics might be excellent at arithmetic.
If the needs of the learner with dyspraxia are ignored in the classroom
or this type of learner is misunderstood, then they will flounder. But
if accommodation is made for their difference in learning style, and
strategies are applied to their difficulties, then they will often have the
capability to flourish academically.
Famous dyspraxics
Unfortunately, although the internet attributes dyspraxia to several
famous living people (including Stephen Fry and Bill Gates), I cannot
find anything to substantiate these rumours, and these people are all of a
generation when diagnosis of any SpLD was less prevalent. The following
famous people have actually said they are dyspraxic and in each case the
symptoms they mention would have had an impact in the classroom:
• Daniel Radcliffe says that he has mild dyspraxia, impacting on his
handwriting, and tying shoelaces (The Daily Telegraph 2008b).
• In an interview with Francesca Ryan, Florence Welch of Florence
and the Machine said that she had been dyslexic and dyspraxic
and, therefore, was not really present mentally in the classroom
(The Daily Telegraph 2009a). Interestingly, she was very creative
and went on to art college.
• Max Kaufman (captain of the winning University Challenge team

in 2008) was diagnosed with dyspraxia at an early age and is a
resounding example of how clever and how literate dyspraxics can
be, with a verbal IQ of 170 and a written IQ of 120 (The Daily
Telegraph 2008a).
I am sceptical when I see dyspraxia attributed to historical figures, for
example Sir Isaac Newton or Albert Einstein. Apparently, Albert Einstein
walked around with his shoelaces untied. Does that necessarily indicate
dyspraxia, or was it simply a man with his mind on other matters? It is
necessary to remain grounded about the clever thinking patterns which
accompany dyspraxia and other SpLDs and to remember that strategising
and lateral thinking are not the sole preserve of dyspraxics or dyslexics.
Non-dyspraxics can also possess these cognitive strengths. Neurologist
Norman Geschwind noted that dyslexics can have non-dyslexic relatives
who are left-handed and share the strengths of dyslexia without suffering
from any of the weaknesses (Geschwind 1982, cited in West 1991, p.23).
CHAPTER TWO
PHYSICAL DYSPRAXIA
The interesting thing about dyspraxia, when compared with autism

spectrum disorders (ASDs) or dyslexia, is the way in which dyspraxia can
have such a pronounced effect, not only on the mind, but on physical
skills as well. Current research suggests that dyspraxia results from
underdeveloped neurons (nerve cell transmitters) preventing messages
from passing efficiently between the brain and the body. This means that
the neural pathways which would usually form to allow a task to be
performed (even the most basic task of coordination, for example) are not
formed properly. The more a task is performed efficiently the stronger the
neural pathway will become, which is why practice and reinforcement of
skills are particularly important for the learner with dyspraxia, for both
physical and mental tasks. An example of current neural research giving
dyspraxia a clearer definition is the work of Julie Werner, Sharon Cermak
and Lisa Aziz-Zadeh, which links mirror neuron dysfunction with DCD
(Werner et al. 2012).
For efficient neural messaging to occur a two-way transmission of
messages is required, involving:
• sensory input
• motor output.
A dysfunction between sensory input and motor output seems to be
central to physical dyspraxia.
(For a teacher’s guide to the brain see the National Institute of Health
and the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke 2005.)
Sensory input
Sensory input involves transmission of nerve impulses via neurons and is
important for motor planning. Sensory integration of this input depends
on various sensory systems:
34
Physical Dyspraxia 35
• somatic (muscles and joints)

• visual
• auditory
• gustatory (taste)
• olfactory (smell)
• tactile (touch)
• vestibular system (body position, motion, balance, spatial
awareness)
• proprioception (kinaesthetic) (body position, movement of body
parts, coordination).
Motor output
Motor planning, a part of ‘praxis’, involves the planning and execution of
a sequence of movements. (The other part of praxis is forming an idea of
using a known movement to achieve a planned purpose.) Having received
neural messages through sensory integration, the brain then transmits
messages back to the muscles and joints. If the nerve impulses are
compromised, as they seem to be in dyspraxia, this will have an effect on:
• joints and muscle tone
• coordination
• balance
• posture
• spatial awareness.
These physical components are not isolated and difficulties with one
will often have an impact on another. Gubbay noted that for dyspraxics,
some motor activities might actually be performed well, while others are
performed badly (Gubbay 1975, cited in Denckla 1984, p.246). This can
mean that fine motor skills are sound, while gross motor skills are weak
or some fine or gross motor skills are sound while others are not. For
example, difficulties with catching could be accompanied by proficiency
in sewing. A very early indication of dyspraxia could be when a child
never crawls but bottom shuffles instead. Occupational therapist Jill
Christmas writes that in the opinion of many practitioners, crawling helps
with fine motor skills, hand–eye coordination and posture and helps to
integrate both sides of the body. (Christmas 2009). (See sections on fine
motor skills and gross motor skills later in this chapter.)
Can I think of one good thing or key strength associated with the
physical impact of dyspraxia? I cannot. Not one thing. People with
dyslexia and dyspraxia often seem to be highly visual and creative but I
have worked with students with dyspraxia who have struggled with finely
coordinated creative skills such as drawing or sewing because of inherent
weaknesses in their muscle tone and coordination. What sort of paradox
is that for the dyspraxic? To be highly creative and yet unable to use all
the physical tools available to them to realise their artistic creativity.
Vestibular skills
Weaknesses in neural transmission between the brain and the body
have an impact on vestibular skills. Deficiencies in the functioning of
the vestibular system, which is located in the inner ear, seem to have a
significant impact on the physical symptoms of dyspraxia. Occupational
therapist and educational psychologist Dr A.J. Ayres describes the
vestibular system as ‘the unifying system… All other types of sensation
are processed in reference to this basic vestibular information’ (Ayres
1979, cited in Stock Kranowitz 2005, p.115).
Vestibular relates to perception of body position (including the
position of the head in relation to the body), balance, movement and
spatial awareness. It also gives a sense of gravity, literally the position of
the body in relation to the earth. The Vestibular Disorders Association
describes the vestibular system as including, ‘parts of the inner ear and
brain that process the sensory information involved with controlling
balance and eye movements’ (Vestibular Disorders Association 2014a).
Proprioception is closely associated with the vestibular system,
giving awareness of body position through vestibular and other sensory
system input. Proprioception provides ‘information about body position
and movement of our body parts’ (Stock Kranowitz 2005, p.54) and is
‘the sensory information that we receive from our joints and muscles.
This information is telling us about the position, movement, force, and
direction needed for activities such as buttoning clothes, writing, screwing
a lid on a jar’ (Hopscotch Children’s Therapy Centre 2012).
If all sensory information is processed in relation to the vestibular
system, then it is not surprising that vestibular difficulties will have
profound implications for the learner with dyspraxia, resulting in physical
or cognitive effects on:
• visual and auditory perception

• spatial awareness
• balance and eye movements
• posture
• motion
• muscle maintenance
• coordination
• concentration.
All these skills will have an impact on planning and sequencing movements
and on perceptual ability.
According to the Laboratory of Vestibular Neurophysiology at Johns
Hopkins Hospital, although there is plenty of scientific knowledge
about the vestibular part of the inner ear, ‘key aspects of how the
vestibular receptors perceive, process and report essential information
are still mysterious’ (Laboratory of Vestibular Neurophysiology n.d.). A
fuller understanding of the causes of dyspraxia is very much dependent
on continuing scientific research into the very complex area of the
human brain.
Glue ear
The vestibular system is so near to the auditory system that if a child gets
glue ear this can have an impact on balance and coordination. Hearing
problems caused by glue ear might also affect literacy skills. Typically
glue ear can begin to affect children at a critical stage when they are
learning to read and write, thus affecting phonological awareness.
Muscles and joints

Children with dyspraxia can have muscle and joint problems affecting
their physical movements, making dyspraxia a condition with very real
physical difficulties. Muscle and joint weaknesses may be diagnosed as
hypermobility and hypotonia:
• Joint hypermobility means that joints have a larger scope for
movement than average. ‘Double jointed’ means hypermobile.
Ballet dancers and circus performers are often hypermobile.
• Hypotonia is the medical term for poorly functioning muscle tone.
Hypotonia often results in flat feet.
Loose joints and low muscle tone are key issues for many dyspraxics.
However, a child who has hypotonia and hypermobility is not necessarily
dyspraxic.
Although low muscle tone, a common feature of dyspraxia, manifests
as a physical symptom, its origin is neurological, with inefficient messages
from the brain regarding movement causing a weakness in the muscles.
It is also worth noting that the vestibular system helps to maintain
normal muscle tone, and weaknesses in the vestibular system will have an
impact on muscles too. Low muscle tone has an impact on, for example,
coordination and posture. Where muscle tone is low because of inefficient
transmission of messages from the brain, muscles also become weakened
over time because of these neural inefficiencies. This can have a resounding
effect on day to day living and classroom performance for the student
with dyspraxia from a very early age because it is quite simply exhausting
to have a body which is physically inefficient. So, where a learner with
dyspraxia might appear to tire easily or to be apathetic or lazy, this is not
really the case at all, they are simply struggling with their physicality and
allowances need to be made for this in a learning environment.
Muscle and joint effects

Low muscle tone can have an impact on both upper and lower limbs.
Upper limbs
A weakness in the wrist and forearm muscles can affect coordination,
making it awkward to use any kind of tools – anything from a tin opener
or scissors to a pair of garden shears or even a bow and arrow! In the
classroom, pens and pencils will be held awkwardly and this will impact
on quality and speed of handwriting. Slow writing speed can affect exam
performance and hinder note-taking in lessons.
Lower limbs
A key example of hypotonia in the lower limbs is flat feet (pes planus). A
flatness of feet and weakness in the lower limb muscles can affect motor
skills, making it difficult to run (and to walk) with an ensuing difficulty
in participating in sport, which can, in turn, have an effect on social skills.
Flat feet are associated with hypotonia but there has not been much
research into this area. Kirby and Davies (2007a) identified a need for
podiatry when researching joint hypermobility in DCD. Recent research
by podiatry lecturer Stewart Morrison and Jill Ferrari and Sally Smillie
confirms hypermobility of lower limbs and flat feet in DCD and indicates
that podiatric intervention is advantageous, but further research is still
needed into gait and DCD (Morrison et al. 2013). It is unfortunate for
the dyspraxic with hypermobility and flat feet that running as a hobby is
really not advised and they will probably never be able to run for their
lives. PE teachers really need to be aware of the damage that can be done
to dyspraxic muscles and joints in enforced PE running.
Eyesight
Although, it is known that dyspraxics can have visual processing difficulties
which can affect reading, I cannot find any research into dyspraxia and
sightedness. But could the muscles in the eye be weaker too, as a result of
muscular problems?
Verbal dyspraxia
People with a specific type of dyspraxia, developmental verbal dyspraxia,
have poor control of mouth and tongue muscles, leading to difficulties
with speech, and can require support from a speech therapist.
Muscle and joint pains

As a result of problematic muscles and bones, the prognosis for pain for
the dyspraxic is not good as they get older. There seems to be a link
between dyspraxia and muscle or joint problems later in life. The floppy
muscles and overly flexible joints of childhood make it almost inevitable
that some ageing dyspraxics will experience joint or muscle pain. Issues
could occur with:
• arthritis
• repetitive strain injury/upper limb disorder
• joint hypermobility syndrome (pain and swelling of hypermobile
joints).
Joint hypermobility syndrome (JHS)

According to consultant physician and neurologist Dr A.J. Hakim, ‘some
hypermobile people can injure their joints, ligaments, tendons and other
“soft tissues” around joints. This is because the joints twist or over extend
easily’ (Hakim 2013). Kirby and Davies (2007a) found that children with
DCD were more likely to suffer from JHS than non-DCD children.
Repetitive strain injury/upper limb disorder

This is not a well-researched area for dyspraxia at the moment, but it
would be interesting to know, for a generation which has grown up heavily
using the computer, how many teenage dyspraxics have wrist pain, or
develop repetitive strain injuries which they then cope with throughout
their working lives. There is some evidence that hypermobility can
lead to physical complications in the workplace. According to Arthritis
Research UK:
People who are born with particularly supple joints in the fingers seem
more prone to work-related upper-limb disorders than others… A slight
twist in the spine, commonly found in people with joint hypermobility
may upset the balance between the two sides of the body causing
symptoms. (Arthritis Research UK n.d.)
Fibromyalgia
Key symptoms of fibromyalgia include muscle pain and fatigue, so it would
be interesting to know whether there is any prevalence of fibromyalgia in
a dyspraxic population.
Remedies for muscle and joint issues

(See also the section on key professionals later in this chapter, page 52.)
Heat and ice

For the relief of pain, ice packs alternated with heat or heat-releasing gel
can be used for reducing inflammation and pain. For some people this
can mean salvation from painful wrists or backs, whereas for others, this
method rarely or never works. For some, heat works best; others prefer
cold. This is one method for using hot and cold for dyspraxic aches
and pains:
• Use an ice pack for at least six minutes but not more than 20
minutes (being careful to follow manufacturer’s instructions about
length of time and protection of skin from direct contact with the
ice pack).
• Two hours later use a hot water bottle or a heat ointment.

• Alternate, heat and cold every two hours.
Gym
Regular activity at a gym can strengthen dyspraxic muscles. Types of
exercise to strengthen muscles can include:
• stretching
• running short circuits
• balancing on wobble boards and on one leg
• throwing and catching balls.
Handwriting
Ultimately there would not be much value in focusing on letter shapes
and styles to improve dyspraxic handwriting without first focusing on
increasing muscle strength in the hand and wrists. Equipment that can be
used to increase hand strength includes:
• stress balls
• Rubik’s cube
• powerball.
Desk space
In a classroom setting, it is quite possible that teenage and adult students
with dyspraxia are suffering from physical pain or discomfort, and
inevitably this will have an impact on concentration and learning. It
is really crucial, because of weaknesses in dyspraxic muscle and joint
formation, that dyspraxic workspaces are monitored, from an early age.
Ideally, chairs should be at an appropriate height for desks, particularly
where laptops or computers are being used, and computer breaks
should be encouraged. Unfortunately, the natural inclination of teenage
dyspraxics is to slouch, probably as a result of muscle and joint problems,
but also because of self-esteem issues. In order to avoid future difficulties
with pain and to aid concentration, dyspraxics need to be aware of their
posture in a learning environment. Ramrod backs are not considered to
be a good thing nowadays, but slouching is not recommended either,
particularly when teenage dyspraxics may spend so many hours a day

sitting at a desk. (See also reading environment, page 71.)
Coordination
Weaknesses in the vestibular system can result in issues with physical
coordination. The brain controls different parts of the body so they work
effectively together, in a coordinated way. Low muscle tone and poor
coordination are interlinked. There may also be problems with ‘bilateral
integration, the neurological process of connecting sensations from both
sides of the body’ (Stock Kranowitz 2005, p.76). This would cause
problems, for example, when learning to pedal a bicycle. Difficulties with
coordination also cause difficulties with motor planning for the dyspraxic.
It will be hard to catch a ball or to hold a pen or cutlery properly. They
may actually feel fear when trying to climb a tree or ride a bicycle.
Difficulties with coordination can have a major impact on daily life and
as a result on general confidence and emotional well-being. Coordination
difficulties will inevitably have a negative effect in an educational context:
• How can ideas flow when writing if the physical act of writing is
laborious?
• How will the peer group react to a child who repeatedly lets the
team down in team games or cannot participate properly in a
simple ball game?
Fine motor skills

Fine motor skills can offer early evidence of a child with dyspraxia. Fine
motor tasks are tasks that are performed with the hands. Dr A.J. Ayres
refers to the importance of perceptual-motor abilities for fine coordination
skills (Ayres 1963, p.108).
Fine motor skills weaknesses can manifest in different ways:
• Awkwardness using scissors or knowing which hand to use with
scissors.
• In early childhood, a clumsy pencil grip and a lack of certainty
about which hand is the preferred hand for drawing or writing.
• In adolescence, difficulty holding a pen properly which will affect
writing speed.
• Illegible handwriting.
• Inaccuracy when throwing or catching a ball.

• Difficulty tying shoelaces or fastening buttons.
• Difficulty using kitchen utensils or DIY tools.
Difficulty with fine motor skills will remain in teenage and adult life.
Gross motor skills

Gross motor skills involve balance and coordination and often involve
both sides of the body.
Examples of gross motor skills are:
• running
• riding a bicycle
• climbing a tree
• jumping.
Speech difficulties
Some children with dyspraxia will be slower to speak or have immaturities
in speech development as a result of motor coordination difficulties. This
does not necessarily mean that they have developmental verbal dyspraxia,
which is a separate condition (Dyspraxia Foundation 2014d).
Clumsiness
Coordination, spatial awareness and balance, all share a role in the
clumsiness which is so often associated with dyspraxia, and the remit
for clumsiness is broad. Not only do things get dropped but physical
injury occurs too. Chairs are tripped over, steps are missed, and objects
and walls are walked into. The more severe the dyspraxia, the more likely
it is that falls will occur too – balance is lost, the world spins and goes
into slow motion and the next thing the dyspraxic knows, they are lying
on the floor. Bumps and bruises are, of course, a part of daily life for
many dyspraxics.
Strategies for coordination

Practice
Muscle, joint and coordination issues can make any physical activities
involving fine or gross motor skills difficult for the dyspraxic. Dyspraxia
is not synonymous with lack of aptitude though. For example, learning to
ride a bicycle may be difficult, it may take time but ultimately, it is a skill
that will be learned. And once that skill is secure, it is as secure as it is
for the non-dyspraxic. In spite of any difficulty and hardship experienced
while learning, the child with dyspraxia will learn to ride a bicycle just
as well as anyone else. Physical activity will, with practice, strengthen
muscles and joints and improve coordination and balance.
Neuroscientist Robert Sekular, co-author of a study from Brandeis
University into how we learn to do things, believes that prowess in any
physical activity is based on practice as well as talent (Medical News Today
2007). Paediatrician D. Hall writes that clumsiness rarely results from
lack of talent and because it is a learning disability, it is an educational
issue. (Hall 1988, p.376) This is interesting because it means that with
practice, at least in theory, the learner with dyspraxia can become more
physically coordinated and display more physical aptitude for activities
which were at first very difficult indeed to learn, for example riding a
bicycle or driving a car. Denckla notes that, ‘Persons given the advantage
of training or overpractice on essential motor skills may enter adult
life without obvious difficulty unless challenged by new skills to learn’
(Denckla 1984, p.253). This is why occupational therapy can be literally
life changing for young dyspraxics.
Are dyspraxics born with an aversion to sport? I think not. It is
inevitable that the child who becomes aware that they are not proficient
physically at school, and may well be mocked by their peers as a result of
their lack of aptitude for catching a ball or running, may well grow up to
feel a profound self-consciousness when performing any physical task and
have a deep embarrassment about their physical self. The resulting lack of
self-esteem can be etched very deeply indeed into the dyspraxic psyche:
once damaged, confidence is difficult to mend. The result could be that
a child who actually found physical activity invigorating (most children
do) but performed poorly might avoid participating in physical activity as
much as possible with a resulting social isolation at the playground stage
of schooling. The irony is that the child with dyspraxia or adolescent who
shirks sport because of poor performance could actually have become a
more able sportsperson through practice, which would have strengthened
muscle tone, improved coordination and perceptual motor skills, and

boosted confidence.
Sport
Examples of sports that will benefit dyspraxia are detailed below.
Swimming
Swimming should be excellent for developing proprioceptive skills
relating to body position and movement of body parts. Teacher and
author Geoff Brookes recommends swimming because the water allows
sequential, planned movement which can be used as a model for other
non-water-based physical activity (TES 2003).
Tennis
The Vestibular Disorders Association gives tennis as an example of a skill
where balance control will be maximised through repeated movements
(Vestibular Disorders Association 2014b). Visual perceptual skills should
also be improved too.
Cycling
Cycling will improve balance and coordination and bilateral skills.
Skateboarding
Skateboarding is good for balancing skills, but obviously requires a lot of
practice, and falls may damage joints which are already weak.
Horse riding
Horse riding is very good for posture and balance. Alexander Technique
practitioners (see page 54) use a model of a horse when they are teaching
their students how to align themselves physically.
Karate
Karate can be a good option for the flat-footed dyspraxic who might
injure lower limbs and weak ankles when doing running activities. The
repetition of actions in Karate will help balance and coordination.
Dancing
Dance will reinforce coordination and balance skills and should appeal to
dyspraxics who enjoy motion.
Running
One flat-footed student with dyspraxic tendencies, when asked how he
had learned to run in the armed forces, replied, ‘It was the shouting!’
In fact, he had been taught to run by learning to mimic the breathing
and the physical stance of his fellow runners, including how they moved
their arms and shoulders in rhythm with their feet. Running has to be
approached with caution for flat-footed dyspraxics though because of the
serious damage that can be done to weak joints and ligaments. Insoles from
a podiatrist, tailored to the individual’s feet, can make a huge difference
to running speed and walking stamina. Probably, for dyspraxics with flat
feet, running could never be a hobby because foot and ankle difficulties
will remain, in spite of orthoses.
Computer games
In an interview with Richard Alleyne, psychologist Dr Matthew Dye
discusses research that has found that video games can develop hand–
eye coordination and improve visual cognition and visual-spatial memory
(The Daily Telegraph 2009b).
Dyspraxic tools
Adapted products can help with coordination difficulties both in the
classroom and at home.
Stationery
Adapted pens need to be tried and tested for comfort and versatility. An
adapted pen can make writing a more comfortable, easier and speedier
process, potentially making a difference to progress in the classroom. A
comfortable grip can also result in legible instead of illegible writing,
with the possibility of gaining better marks. For students with dyspraxia,
rollerball rather than ballpoint pens may be preferable because less pressure
is required. Modern technology has produced a priceless solution for the
dyspraxic who struggles with handwriting. There is a major downside
though: endless keyboarding can damage weak, dyspraxic wrists.
Adapted scissors with larger finger loops can also be useful for
students with dyspraxia.
Personal care
Electric toothbrushes and electric shavers can be easier to use than non-
electric gadgets.
Kitchen utensils
Jar grippers and wide-handled utensils can be useful in the kitchen.
Cycling
Jyrobikes can help children with dyspraxia, adolescents (and adults) to
ride a bicycle because the gyroscope mechanism stabilises the bicycle.
This is a life-changing, innovative product for dyspraxics who have
struggled to learn how to bike.
Balance: a balancing act

Difficulties with balance are a consequence of other factors of physical
dyspraxia, such as poor proprioception, low muscle tone and coordination
difficulties. The Vestibular Disorders Association also describes the
importance of sensory input from sight, touch and the vestibular system:
‘Balance is achieved and maintained…[through]…integration of that
sensory input; and motor output to the eye and body muscles’ (Vestibular
Disorders Association 2014b). Balance is yet another factor which can
make it difficult for the child with dyspraxia to learn to ride a bicycle.
The balancing bench

Balance is a sensitive issue for me as a result of a gym class at school,
when I was eight years old. We were in small groups balancing along
upturned benches. The teacher stopped the entire class of more than 30
children to watch me carry on my struggle to navigate along a bench.
Why? So everyone could have a giggle about the child who could not
balance, leading to this question: how much do negative experiences at
school impact on the confidence of the child with dyspraxia to reinforce
and perpetuate difficulties in performing simple physical tasks?
Posture
For the dyspraxic, problems with posture may occur for physical and
psychological reasons:
• Vestibular and proprioceptive difficulties can lead to poor posture.
• Muscle and joint problems can put strain on posture, resulting in
poor posture.
• As they progress through their teenage years, dyspraxics can
develop a tendency to slouch, as a result of low self-esteem.
This poor posture can in turn create muscle and joint problems,
exacerbating an existing weakness in physical structure.
Paediatric occupational therapist Catherine Williams suggests that,
‘Children who slump in their seat, lean against surfaces or people
persistently are likely to have difficulties with vestibular processing’
(Williams 2013, p.38).
Alexander Technique (see the section on general strategies for physical
dyspraxia, page 54) can be invaluable for improving posture. Alexander
Technique (AT) has to be taught properly by a qualified practitioner. An
Alexander Technique practitioner taught me that the neck is supporting a
head, which as a part of the physical whole is actually very heavy. This is
an AT ‘lengthening’ and ‘widening’ method for improving posture which
I was taught to use:
• Think about the neck when walking. Think giraffe.
This focus on ‘lengthening’ and ‘widening’ tends to instantly result in
better posture and can be used as a quick and easy remedy for a slouching
dyspraxic in the classroom, to bring immediate benefit to their posture
and increase blood flow to the brain so they can concentrate better.
(See also the section on desk space, page 41).
Spatial awareness
Difficulties with visual perception and proprioception can lead to difficulties
with spatial awareness for dyspraxics. Spatial awareness, or lack of it, can
have an impact on many different areas of life: not only is it yet another
factor contributing to difficulties in the gym and in PE lessons, but it
can affect mathematical ability too. Spatial awareness can cause difficulties
of navigation when travelling through a crowded space, using stairs or
ladders and, of course, for the adult dyspraxic, spatial awareness reaches
an apex of importance when driving. Could difficulties with space even

have some impact on the social unease which many dyspraxics experience?
Motion
Some dyspraxics seem to crave motion as a result of being ‘undersensitive
to vestibular input, and may seek out extra movement experiences in an
effort to “fuel” their central nervous system with meaningful information’
(Kurtz 2007, p.80). A sense of equilibrium can be achieved through
motion: spinning, dancing and swinging. When other people are ‘green’
with dizziness on the spinning cups at the fairground, and the cups are
spinning wildly, the spinning dyspraxic could still be having fun. Rocking
is something of a taboo because of its links with mental disturbance but
search any dyspraxic forum and there will be discussions about rocking.
Rocking can be a sign of vestibular disorder. However, rocking stimulates
the vestibular system, so it would make sense that where there is a vestibular
deficit, a child with dyspraxia, teenager or even adult might rock, even if it
is only a slight, barely noticeable, unconscious adjustment backwards and
forwards. Perhaps dyspraxic vestibular difficulties, even in adult life, can be
eased by rocking chairs or swing benches? Conversely, there may also be
dyspraxics who suffer badly from motion sickness and do not like motion,
‘Some children with inadequate sensory processing of vestibular input may
be overly sensitive, causing them to get dizzy easily and to avoid activities
that involve strong movement experiences’ (Kurtz 2007, p.80).
Co-existing physical symptoms

Dr Alex Richardson, founder of Food and Behaviour (FAB) Research,
and a leading researcher into the use of omega-3 fatty acid, has found
that fish oil could be helpful in controlling some of the symptoms of
dyspraxia, both physical and mental. According to a FAB factsheet on
SpLDs, ‘imbalances or deficiencies of certain highly unsaturated fatty
acids (HUFA) may contribute to a range of behavioural and learning
difficulties’ including dyspraxia (Food and Behaviour Research 2003).
Indicators of deficiency include:
• emotional issues
• memory difficulties
• concentration issues
• sleeplessness or oversleeping
• atopic reactions (e.g. asthma/eczema)

• hair in poor condition
• weak nails
• urinating frequently
• visual sensitivity
• visual difficulties when reading.
(Food and Behaviour Research 2003)
Richardson does not expect fatty acids to help in every case and
recognises that they are only one contributory factor for an SpLD, but a
good response to fatty acids would involve improvements in the indicators
listed above. The experience of Paul Shattock and Paul Whiteley of the
Autism Research Unit at the University of Sunderland leads them to also
support the use of omega-3-based fish oil supplements for individuals
with dyspraxia (Shattock and Whiteley 2004, p.14).
While researching autism spectrum disorders, Shattock and Whiteley
have become aware through sibling anecdotal evidence that the following
difficulties also appear to be present in some people with dyspraxia:
• eczema
• predisposed to ear problems
• bowel difficulties
• sensory issues
• symptoms stress-induced
• certain foods (e.g. citrus fruits) contribute to worsening symptoms
• higher than average consumption of gluten and casein (found in
milk, cheese and some additives).
So diverse are the physical and mental symptoms of dyspraxia that there
can be a sense that general medical practitioners are simply not making
a connection between the diversity of different ailments/difficulties with
which the dyspraxic patient can present.
Eating
Eating can affect dyspraxics in various ways, literally ruining their
enjoyment of food. There are three ways in which they may be affected:
• Muscular when swallowing and chewing.

• Coordination when using cutlery.
• Sensory issues when confronted with different textures of food.
Swallowing/chewing
According to the Dyspraxia Support Group of New Zealand, the
dyspraxic infant ‘may have had trouble learning to feed or suck’. It would
be interesting to know how many dyspraxics are slow eaters because of
oral muscular weaknesses.
Cutlery
Cutlery can make eating slow and cumbersome for dyspraxics at home
and at school, and when cutlery is badly designed with, for example, an
uncomfortable, unwieldy handle or a fork that is too narrow or a knife
that is not serrated enough, the dyspraxic will be aware of this even if
their non-dypraxic counterparts are not. They will eat much more slowly,
particularly struggling with, for example, peas or rice, and will not enjoy
their food as much or maybe will not clear their plate because they are
feeling rushed. Learners with dyspraxia may have to sit through afternoon
classes hungry and this could lead to inattentiveness. Coordination
difficulties can also mean that dyspraxics are ‘messy’ because food and
drink does not always convey smoothly to the mouth, and there may be
frequent spillages and food-stained clothing. Does eating also become a
chore when cutlery is difficult to manipulate?
Faddy eaters
Gustatory perceptions can mean that the dyspraxic can have particular
textures and tastes which they will not eat throughout their life. Sensory
issues can mean that the texture of food, for example ‘lumpy’ food such as
potatoes which are not thoroughly mashed, can be literally revolting for a
dyspraxic, resulting in faddy eating. They might also have unusual tastes,
for example liking their food well cooked to the point of being burnt.
School meals can be very difficult because they cannot cater for individual
tastes. Certainly, dyspraxics are not ‘faddy’ to be difficult but because of
physical sensations over which they have no control.
Digestive disorders
Is it possible that the low muscle tone that is so commonly associated
with dyspraxia could also cause some dyspraxics to have bowel and
gut problems? Author and dyspraxic champion Mary Colley notes that
‘Constipation and irritable bowel syndrome can be caused by problems in
contracting the abdominal muscles and pushing at the same time’ (Colley
2006, p.63). Shattock and Whiteley also note that in later life casein may
be excluded from the diet, almost as if the individual knows it is causing
problems (Shattock and Whiteley 2004, p.11).
How many dyspraxics have dietary or digestive difficulties which they
tolerate by adjusting their lifestyle or self-medicating, without realising
that these difficulties may in fact be yet another aspect of their daily lives
which is closely associated with dyspraxia?
Urinary difficulties
Could weak muscle tone mean that children with dyspraxia are bedwetters,
even when they are at junior school? Annell mentioned enuresis as a
‘behavioural’ consequence of dyspraxia in the late 1940s (Annell, cited in
the British Medical Journal 1962, p.1665).
Key professionals for physical dyspraxia

Key NHS professionals, accessible through a GP, who can support the
physical symptoms of dyspraxia, are:
• occupational therapist
• physiotherapist
• podiatrist
• speech therapist.
Occupational therapist (OT)

The OT can give a valuable assessment and advice about tools and
exercises which may be of use in developing muscles (and motor skills).
They can also provide recommendations for access to exams. Some OTs
use Sensory Integration Therapy, based on occupational therapist and
educational psychologist Dr A.J. Ayres’s Sensory Integration Theory. This
type of sensory therapy is used to give dyspraxics sensory experiences to
encourage development of motor skills. Referring to Ayres’s hypothesis,
academic Nancy Pollock writes that sensory integration difficulties could

explain why some children have difficulty in learning, organisation,
concentration and social activities (Pollock 2009, p.6). Occupational
therapists may also use a perceptual-motor approach, with the emphasis
on practising a skill to improve perceptual or motor ability.
Physiotherapist
The physiotherapist can be invaluable for giving muscle-building
exercises tailored to the individual dyspraxic’s needs. They also have tools
for reducing inflammation in muscles, for example ultrasound, which uses
high-frequency sound waves to treat tissue. As with every strategy, where
ultrasound is hugely beneficial for some, it does not seem to work at all
for others. The physiotherapist might also use, for example a wobble
board to improve muscle tone and balance or focus on perceptual-motor
activities. Mary Colley writes that the physiotherapist can also help with
hand–eye coordination and spatial awareness (Colley 2006, p.34).
There is some evidence of the benefits of physiotherapy for dyspraxia.
Michèle Lee and Graham Smith, having audited physiotherapy outcomes,
found that physiotherapy had a positive impact on a group of children
with dyspraxia, aged four to fourteen. They also noted an increase in
confidence and self-esteem (Lee and Smith 1998, p.282).
Podiatrist
The podiatrist plays a very important role for the dyspraxic with flat
feet. The podiatrist will cast feet for insoles (orthoses). These personalised
insoles can make a huge difference to the gait of a child with dyspraxia,
allowing them to walk and run with more ease and, it is hoped, helping
to prevent foot, leg and hip pain in later life. Unfortunately, although
podiatry is available on the NHS, insoles tend to be mass-produced
nowadays because of budgetary considerations. Insoles that are tailored
to the individual are only available privately.
Carolyn Kates, a physiotherapist at the Boyer Children’s Clinic in
Seattle, writes that three key reasons for using foot orthoses for flat feet
and hypotonia are to:
• ‘prevent future foot deformity’
• ‘prevent future pain’
• ‘improve stability and energy expenditure during walking.’
(Kates n.d., p.1)
However disorganised a dyspraxic teenager is, the one thing they will
never forget or lose is their insoles.
Speech therapist
Assessment and intervention for speech difficulties of dyspraxia or verbal
dyspraxia involve a speech therapist.
General strategies for physical dyspraxia

Alexander Technique
This is described as ‘a method by which we become more aware of
balance, posture and movement in all of our daily activities’ (Brennan
1998, p.92). If posture is secure and the body is relaxed, then pain which
occurs in, for example, the back or forearms can be controlled. The key
advantage of Alexander Technique is that the ethos is to learn to use
this technique through a series of lessons from a qualified Alexander
Technique teacher. Once learned it cannot be unlearned, and it can be
hugely beneficial in controlling back and forearm pain, and controlling
RSI conditions. Alexander Technique can help the dyspraxic suffering
from computer-related pain to alleviate that pain so that they can keep on
working, both in an educational context and in the workplace. A standard
Alexander Technique exercise for reducing back and forearm pain is:
• Place a rolled towel under the neck.
• Lie on the floor with knees bent and hands clasped gently across
stomach.
• Lie like this for 20 minutes, no less.
This exercise is also used by some physiotherapists. Ideally, a book is
rested under the head but it has to be the right size, and an Alexander
practitioner is the best judge of book size. It is hard to find 20 minutes to
lie down each day, but this exercise really is excellent for aching muscles
and joints.
Colette Lyons, Pat Payton and Meg Winfield undertook some research
at Mark College in 1999 to study the possible benefits of Alexander
Technique for children with dyslexia and dyspraxia. The research,
conducted using four children, found that after 16 weekly Alexander
Technique sessions, the children tended to have greater muscle awareness,
kinaesthetic sense and improved self-esteem. Academic performance for
reading and comprehension had also improved, although the latter could
not be directly correlated with the use of Alexander Technique (Lyons,

Payton and Winfield 1999, pp.18–20).
Yoga
Yoga can be a useful tool for suppleness, flexibility, balance and mental
harmony. It can also help with dyspraxic muscles, as long as it is practised
properly (see section on muscles and joints, page 37). Some doctors
discourage dyspraxic patients from practising yoga because it could
damage their overly supple muscles. There are dyspraxia practitioners,
however, who advocate the use of yoga. The Special Yoga Centre in
London, for example, offers yoga for children with a wide range of special
needs, including dyspraxia.
CHAPTER THREE
LITERACY STRATEGIES
At an international expert meeting in June 2003, UNESCO proposed the

following definition for literacy:
Literacy is the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create,
communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated
with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in
enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge
and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider
society. (UNESCO 2004, p.13)
Dyspraxia can cause literacy difficulties, but some dyspraxics are dyslexic
as well. There are various potential causes of literacy difficulties in
dyspraxia. ‘Limited concentration and poor listening skills, and literal use
of language may have an effect on reading and spelling ability. A child
may read well, but not understand some of the concepts in the language’
(Dyspraxia Foundation 2014e). Reading can also be affected as a result of
visual processing difficulties.
When teaching older learners with SpLDs, however, there can be
a marked difference between dyspraxic and dyslexic students, and
a distinction can be drawn between dyspraxic and dyslexic literacy
difficulties. Both student types may present with reading and writing
difficulties but although a learner with dyspraxia might experience visual
and auditory processing difficulties when reading, writing or speaking,
they may differ from their dyslexic counterparts by: displaying a marked
verbal ability, manifesting in a particularly strong vocabulary or an aptitude
for the written word. Phonological difficulties may be present for the
learner with dyspraxia, as a result of auditory processing difficulties, but
may not be as profound as difficulties experienced by the dyslexic learner.
Research by Everett, Weeks and Brooks (2008) found that when tested
for rapid naming, phonological awareness and verbal span, the results
for children with dyspraxia were similar to the control group, whereas
56
Literacy Strategies 57
performance for dyslexic learners was significantly lower (Everett et al.

2008, cited in McMurray n.d., p.5).
Dyspraxic literacy difficulties are complex, and are affected by:
• visual and auditory processing difficulties
• memory deficits
• physical aspects of dyspraxia such as motor-visual difficulties, low
muscle tone and weak coordination.
According to Harold Solan, John Shelley-Tremblay and Steven Larson,
delays in vestibular maturation may be connected with ‘slow vision
processing, and delayed acquisition of reading skills’ (Solan et al.
2007, p.14).
Some learners will have key strengths in literacy, accompanied by
some visual and auditory deficits, while others will struggle with all
aspects of literacy. For some, literacy difficulties result only from the
physical rather than the cognitive effects of dyspraxia. The diversity of
physical and cognitive dyspraxic attributes will mean that a learner with
dyspraxia might have a ‘spiky’ literacy profile where, for example:
• Reading proficiency is acquired slowly, but visual processing may
improve as vestibular skills strengthen and once reading is secure,
there can be a strong aptitude for reading.
• Reading may be sound but memory difficulties result in slow
processing and reading comprehension difficulties.
• Spelling is weak as a result of poor auditory discrimination but
verbal language strength results in large vocabulary base which the
learner may fail to use because of fear of misspelling.
• Reading is sound but weaknesses in auditory processing lead
to difficulty verbalising what has been read or researched for
discussions or presentations, or there is difficulty finding a fluent
word flow for writing.
Certainly it is worth trying to establish where a learner’s auditory and
visual strengths or weaknesses lie so that deficits can be addressed and
strengths developed. A learner with an auditory or visual weakness when
reading and writing might have auditory and visual strengths in other
areas, for example demonstrating strong visual-spatial skills (see section
on splinter skills, page 32). It is worth noting that mathematics can also be
difficult for some dyspraxics. Nichols and Chen found that an arithmetic
deficit is more common in children with dyspraxia (Nichols and Chen
1981, cited in Denckla 1984, p.251).
Vestibular impact
As with physical aspects of dyspraxia, the vestibular system can be seen to
play a part in literacy difficulties. Stock Kranowitz stresses how dependent
visual skill is on other sensory systems (auditory, tactile, vestibular
and proprioceptive) (Stock Kranowitz 2005, pp.156–157). Vestibular
difficulties can have an impact on some aspects of visual perception (the
ability to process information visually) and this can have an effect on
reading. Ocular motor control is critical for the dyspraxic in a learning
environment because difficulties may result in:
• visual disturbances to text when reading
• loss of place in text because of eye movements when reading.
The vestibular and auditory systems are also closely linked because
the receptors for both systems are in the ear. ‘Although they attend to
different information, the proximity of the vestibular and cochlear systems
allows them to complement each other. The other consequence of their
relationship is that if one system is weak, the other may be concurrently
affected’ (Listen and Learn Centre 2011). Vestibular difficulties may,
therefore, have an effect on auditory processing and language development,
with an impact in the classroom on reading, writing and communication
(Stock Kranowitz 2005, p.117).
Visual processing
Visual cues are actually dependent on other sensory systems, such as the
auditory and tactile systems. Teacher Carol Stock Kranowitz writes that,
‘Vision, unlike sight, is not a skill we are born with’ (Stock Kranowitz
2005, p.156). Key aspects of visual processing difficulties which can
impact on reading and writing skills for the learner with dyspraxia
include the following areas.
Visual discrimination
• Difficulties in interpreting different letters when reading.
• Difficulties in discriminating between different words and letters
on the page to form individual words.
Visual sequencing
• Misreading. Letters are not in the correct sequence or letters may
be reversed.
• Place in text is easily lost or lines are skipped.
• Difficulties in correctly sequencing numbers for maths may occur.
Visual figure-ground discrimination

• Difficulty screening out surrounding text from reading focus.
• Difficulty scanning to find specific information on a page.
Visual memory
• Spelling difficulties.
• Reading comprehension difficulties.
Visual motor integration

• There can also be a connection between visual processing and
motor difficulties in the classroom, when looking between, for
example, the whiteboard and the paper while writing.
Stock Kranowitz notes that we need all our senses to develop vision (Stock
Kranowitz 2005, p.157).
Auditory processing
Auditory processing difficulties which manifest with dyspraxia do not
mean that the student has hearing difficulties but that they may have
difficulties in comprehending sounds and this can impact on literacy. Stock
Kranowitz distinguishes between hearing and auditory processing skills:
Hearing, or audition, is the ability to receive sounds. We are born with
this basic skill. We can’t learn how to do it; either we hear, or we don’t…
We are not born with the skill of listening; we acquire it, as we integrate
vestibular and auditory sensations. (Stock Kranowitz 2005, p.176)
Paediatric optometrist Dr Jerome Rosner believes that reading is more

dependent on auditory than visual skills (Rosner and Simon 1970, p.19).
This could mean that, for some dyspraxics, auditory processing difficulties
play a key role in any reading difficulties experienced.
Key aspects of auditory processing difficulties include the following:
Auditory figure-ground discrimination

• Distracted by more than one noise.
• Will not work as well if there is a competing noise. At home, for
example, television or radio might be a distraction.
Auditory memory
• Slower to learn.
• Difficulty remembering letter sounds.
• Difficulty note-taking.
See note-taking skills section (page 86) for strategies for note-taking.
Auditory sequencing
Difficulties with:
• following instructions
• alphabet sequencing
• concepts of time, for example, ‘next week’
• syntax of speech – speech may be slightly disorganised or too
concise, or ideas may not be expressed clearly. This can also have
an impact on writing
• turn-taking difficulties lead to interruptions of peers and teachers.
Auditory closure
• Difficulty comprehending everything the teacher says in a noisy
classroom environment because the learner cannot fill in the gaps
when not everything is heard.
Stock Kranowitz also refers to difficulties with auditory attention having

an impact on concentrating on what is said by the teacher/lecturer
(Stock Kranowitz 2005, p.178). However, it should not be assumed that
learners with dyspraxia always have difficulties listening or concentrating.
Interestingly, audiologist Dr Jay R. Lucker notes that people with auditory
processing disorder, ‘often look like they have attention problems,
but they are attending very well’ (Lucker 2012, p.27). Some students
with dyspraxia may appear not to listen because they have difficulty in
maintaining eye contact and prefer to focus elsewhere visually, while
actually listening carefully.
Auditory discrimination
• Confuses letter sounds.
• Mishears words.
• Has poor phonological awareness.
• Confuses homophones.
• Has spelling difficulties.
• Has reading difficulties.
Auditory processing difficulties will have an impact on all aspects of
classroom learning throughout the learner’s academic life. Auditory
processing difficulties are also associated with other key aspects of
dyspraxia in the classroom. There are connections with concentration,
memory and organisation difficulties. Difficulties with knowing when to
speak and when not to speak, will impact on social skills.
For the dyspraxic, however, although there may be auditory processing
difficulties, there can be underlying auditory skills. In its employer guide,
the Dyspraxia Foundation refers to the auditory strength which some
dyspraxics experience, ‘Many have good auditory skills such as an ability
to learn languages, music, produce creative writing or poetry; traits shown
by Daniel Radcliffe and Florence Welch, both of whom have dyspraxia’
(Dyspraxia Foundation 2012a, p.3).
Key auditory and visual strategies

Key, easily applied auditory and visual teaching strategies for the learner
with dyspraxia include the following:
• Reinforce what will be learned and how before any new theme
is taught.
• Sit learners with dyspraxia with visual or auditory processing
difficulties near the front of the classroom.
• Be aware of learning styles and make lessons as multi-sensory
as possible.
• Repeat instructions and repeat anything taught more than once
because it will not necessarily be learned the first time it is heard.
• Write key phrases or information on the whiteboard.
• Angle paper for reading or writing in the direction in which the
individual’s eyes usually look when thinking.
• Use a traffic light system where a learner with dyspraxia has the
option to have a red, an orange and a green cup on their desk
(or for older learners, a red, an orange, or a green highlighter).
They should keep a cup upside down to show their learning status.
This system allows learners with dyspraxia to discreetly and easily
communicate with the teacher when they need further explanation
or reinforcement of learning:
ºº Green = secure understanding
ºº Orange = beginning to understand
ºº Red = failing to understand.
(Professor Dylan Wiliam used this method on the BBC programme,
The Classroom Experiment)
Key literacy strategies

Phonological awareness (the ability to identify, blend, segment and
manipulate language) is an aspect of auditory discrimination and analysis
that is significant for literacy strategies, even for Key Stage 3 and Key
Stage 4 learners with dyspraxia. An understanding of letter sounds and
syllable division can be really useful for older learners with auditory
discrimination difficulties. Of course, all the key literacy, reading and
writing strategies are valid for dyslexic learners too, but for learners with
dyspraxia, they should be applied with an awareness that reading or
writing may be fluent, but phonological difficulties may still occur because
of auditory processing difficulties. Research by Elizabeth Bridgeman and
Maggie Snowling has found that dyspraxic difficulties in this area are not
at a peripheral level of auditory discrimination but are associated with

a stage of processing requiring segmentation and coding of phonemes
(Bridgeman and Snowling 1988).
For secondary school and older learners, some of the literacy
strategies listed in this general section may seem too basic. But these
strategies can be invaluable in empowering the learner because by
looking at letter sounds they have difficulty with and by breaking words
down, they will have a better understanding of what is causing their
literacy difficulties. I have worked with students who have begun to
read more confidently for the first time in their lives simply because
they have become aware of the impact different letter sounds are having
on their reading and writing, and are segmenting rather than being
‘fazed’ by complex words.
Key words
Although, the average English speaking person has a vocabulary of
20 000 words (Ladybird Books 2014), mobile phone predictive text
demonstrates that there are a basic number of words and word sequences
which are used repeatedly. British educationalist William Murray and his
research partner, educational psychologist Joe McNally, researched words
to find that, ‘For example, just 12 words make up ¼ of the words we read
and write every day and only 100 words make up ½ of the words we
read and write every day’ (Ladybird Books 2014). That puts an English
language system of 400 000 words nicely into perspective and, in theory,
should make reading and writing a more manageable proposition if
familiarity with word recognition and spelling of the key words can be
achieved in childhood. Murray and McNally’s high-frequency word lists
are still available, re-published by various sources and still used in schools.
Unfortunately, their pamphlet on word frequency, Key Words to Literacy
(1962), is no longer in print. Murray actually helped millions of children
to learn to read because Ladybird Books commissioned him to use his
knowledge of key words to write its Key Words reading scheme.
Identifying difficult sounds

Difficulties with auditory memory, discrimination, analysis, and synthesis
can make it difficult for dyspraxic (and dyslexic) students to distinguish
between letter sounds, leading to difficulties with reading and spelling.
Each learner will have different letter sounds, or vowel combinations, or
vowel/consonant combinations that they will have particular difficulty
with and it can be worthwhile to encourage the learner to be aware of

sounds and sound combinations for reading or writing which they stall
on. If a student keeps a note of difficult words, they will quite quickly find
that a pattern emerges, which can allow them to focus to some extent on
the sounds that are causing them difficulties.
Letter sounds
Vowel/consonant digraph:
aw er ir ur ar or our
Consonant blends:
thr shr tw
Consonant digraphs:
ch wh ph gh
Vowel digraphs:
ae ai au ay
ea ee ei ew ey ei
ie igh io
oa oi oo ou ow oy
ue
Final syllables:
tion sion
tle ble dle ple gle kle
ough
Word endings:
ck ll ff ss ce le ng
Silent letters:
kn ph ch sh mb gn ps
Hard and soft sounds:
ti saying ‘sh’
ci saying ‘sh’
c before ‘e’, ‘i’ or ‘y’ at the beginning of a word saying ‘s’
g saying ‘j’
ch saying ‘k’
gh saying ‘f ’
ph saying ‘f ’
que saying ‘k’
Syllable division
Younger children do not seem to be routinely taught about syllable
division when they are learning to read but syllable rules can be invaluable
for older learners who are at a stage when they can really grasp and apply
this concept to their reading or spelling. Syllable division can be applied
to any reading material. Learners can either:
• break difficult words down into syllables because some of these
syllables will usually be familiar
or
• look at the beginning of the word up to the first vowel (onset) and
the remainder of the word (rime).
When stalling on a word, older learners often hurriedly misread rather
than pause to segment the word into smaller chunks which may contain
recognisable syllables. This is maybe because older learners think syllable
division and segmenting are for younger learners. Breaking words down
in this way can be particularly useful when misreading occurs because of
letter confusion, as a result of visual processing difficulties. These rules
can be useful for spelling too.
The basic rules of syllable division can be taught as follows:
Syllables
• A syllable is a beat in a word.
• Each syllable can be felt when speaking, if the hand is placed
under the chin.
• There is a syllable for every vowel sound.
Open and closed syllables

• Open syllables – when a syllable ends with a vowel it is an open
syllable and has a long vowel sound (e.g. hi, me, go).
• Closed syllables – when a syllable ends with a consonant it is
a closed syllable and usually has a short vowel sound (e.g. hit,
met, got).
Once taught, the learner simply needs to get into the habit of applying
these rules when reading or writing words that have sounds that are
difficult for that individual student.
Resources that I would recommend for pursuing letters and sounds
further are:
• Toe by Toe: A Highly Structured Multi-sensory Reading Manual for
Teachers and Parents (1993) by Keda and Harry Cowling.
• Alpha to Omega: the A–Z of teaching reading, writing and spelling
[student and teacher’s versions] (6th ed.) (2006) by Beve Hornsby,
Frula Shear and Julie Pool.
• A Resource Pack for Tutors of Students with Specific Learning Difficulties
(1992) by Marion Walker (available from www.dyslexia-resources.
com). This resource is unusual because it is specifically designed
for older learners.
All of these resources do involve ‘companionship’ though, and exercises
probably need to be practised with someone with whom the learner can
interact.
Reading strategies
It is interesting that all readers, including those with SpLDs, can usually
read jumbled text, as long as the first and last letter remain in place. Writing
a letter about word recognition to the New Scientist, Graham Rawlinson
demonstrates how jumbled letters can be recognised as whole words:
This is easy to denmtrasote. In a puiltacibon of New Scnieitst you could
ramdinose all the letetrs, keipeng the first two and last two the same,
and reibadailty would hadrly be aftcfeed… The resaon for this is suerly
that idnetiyfing coentnt by paarllel prseocsing speeds up regnicoiton.
We only need the first and last two letetrs to spot chganes in meniang.
(Rawlinson 1999)
Unfortunately, visual processing difficulties are more complicated than

merely jumbled text and the following issues can arise:
• Difficulties in interpreting different letters and letter combinations
will make reading slower.
• Difficulties in discriminating between different words and letters
on the page prevents the reader from forming individual words.
• Text is misread because the eye does not process letters in the
correct order or loses place in text.
• Reading is not comprehended properly because of visual memory
difficulties.
• Visual disturbances cause letters to flicker or move.
As always, all learners with dyspraxia are different, and visual difficulties
manifest in different ways for each learner.
In the classroom, as readers get older, reading material will become
more challenging. There are techniques and strategies that can make the
process of reading more efficient and more manageable for the learner
with dyspraxia:
• accessible text
ºº online
ºº coloured overlays.
• scanning
• skimming
• topic sentences
• avoiding repetitive reading
• creating a suitable reading environment
• consulting with a behavioural optometrist.
Basic strategies
At school children are told not to sub-vocalise or to finger point when
reading, but these are really helpful strategies to aid concentration and
focus because:
• sub-vocalisation can aid recall
• finger pointing maintains concentration and focus.
Further basic strategies:

• Never read back over what has just been read, because the writer
will tend to repeat their point.
• Use a ruler or pointer, for example a pen, to anchor the text visually.
Accessible text
For readers with dyspraxia who have visual processing difficulties (and
learners with dyslexia too), typeface and font are very important. Ideally
documents prepared for use by a teacher or lecturer within a classroom
will have a size 12 font and a sans serif typeface, as a simple way of
ensuring that reading material is SpLD-student friendly. Verdana, for
example, is a particularly clear typeface for reading.
Online
Preference for reading from online or paper-based text will, as with all
aspects of dyspraxia, vary from student to student. Some students will
prefer traditional paper texts for reading. Others will prefer reading from
a computer screen. I have found that most of my older learners prefer
reading offline to online. Some prefer online. This surprises me for a
younger generation who have grown up with computers as an integral
part of reading. There are key advantages to online reading, and text
on screens is so much easier for the student to control because they can
adjust:
• typeface
• font size
• background colour
• brightness.
An assistive tool for the computer is MyStudyBar, a tool bar that includes
a screen colour changer and magnifier.
Colour
Reading classroom handouts can be so much easier for learners with
dyspraxia who have visual processing difficulties if the paper is cream
coloured. There is less of a contrast than for black text on a white
background. Although cream-coloured paper is considered to be easier
to read for people with visual processing difficulties, some individuals
will respond well to other paper colours, so it can be helpful to show

learners with dyspraxia text printed on different colours of paper to find
out which colour suits best and then to use this colour for any handouts
or photocopying.
Coloured overlays (originally researched by teacher Olive Meares and
psychologist Helen Irlen) can also be extremely beneficial for students
with dyspraxia with visual processing difficulties. Again, each student
will have a preferred colour. Distorted text becomes clearer with the use
of rulers, overlays or lenses. The Dyslexia Research Trust (co-founded
by Professor John Stein) has argued that, ‘since the visual magnocellular
system is mainly influenced by just yellow and blue light, these are
the only two colours that will really make much difference’ (Dyslexia
Research Trust n.d.). Blue seems to lend itself well to headache sufferers.
Scanning
Most learners, even younger learners at secondary school, know how
to scan, even if scanning has not been formally taught. Scanning looks
for a particular word or phrase in the text and naturally enables reading
efficiency, even for readers who are slower to process text visually. The
process is rendered easier if the reader looks for the first two letters of the
word, not simply the first letter.
Scanning is a prerequisite of skimming.
Skimming
Skimming is an extremely valuable reading tool for the dyspraxia learner.
Although skimming aims to make reading more effective, it also aims to
empower the student with dyspraxia. This technique has to be used as a
‘flexible friend’, empowering the learner because judgements are made
constantly about when to read and when to skip reading and move on
to the next paragraph. For this reason skimming needs to be used in
conjunction with scanning. Having read the topic sentence of a paragraph,
a judgement is made about the value of that paragraph. A quick scan can
be used to check if any key words are in the paragraph, before moving on
to the next paragraph.
Skimming methodology:
• Identify key words of interest for a particular topic before
beginning skimming.
• Check date of publication to place book’s ideas.
• Check chapter headings and any keywords in index to narrow

scope of reading.
To skim a chapter:
• Read introduction which should describe content of chapter.
• Read final paragraph to see author’s conclusion at end of chapter.
• Read topic sentences at beginning of each paragraph. Make a
judgement whether rest of paragraph will be of value. Possibly use
key words to scan down paragraph. Some paragraphs list examples
or names and this can allow for easy skimming.
‘Review’ is an important part of the skimming process because this
process encourages the reader to review what has been read and notes
that have been taken, at the end of the skimming process. As part of the
review, the reader can read more thoroughly anything that was noted as
important during the skimming process. The review process can give the
reader more confidence to pursue the skimming process because text and
notes will be revisited and reinforced.
Topic sentences
It can be really helpful to learners who struggle with either reading or
writing to be aware of the structure of the first sentence in any paragraph:
the topic sentence. It can give confidence to know that a well-written
paragraph must follow only the topic of the first sentence without
deviating. (See also the section on writing strategies, page 72.)
Avoid repetitive reading

The short-term memory deficit which accompanies dyspraxia can
make both processing information and concentration difficult and, as a
result, the reader with dyspraxia can waste time and suffer undue stress
by reading a piece of academic text repeatedly, slowing down what
can already be a fairly torturous process. Skimming allows control to
be retained and progress to be made. The reader knows that they can
always re-read a piece of text later. And the second reading might well
be slightly easier than the first. To avoid loss of concentration, which can
result from constantly re-reading text rather than reading forwards to
new text, the reader can:
• highlight text to re-read later
• use Post-it notes to return to later

• keep a notebook of texts read and pages that may be critical for
a repeat read through (this can be helpful for bibliographies too).
This takes the pressure off the student who can read forwards without
constantly fretting that meaning has been lost.
I have never worked with a post-16 student who has been taught to
skim or, at least, I have not worked with any students who remember that
they have been taught to skim. But this technique could be an invaluable
aid for younger learners too. The methodology is quite simple and can be
applied to any text the student is reading for educational purposes at that
time. As with all dyspraxic learning techniques, skimming will need to be
reinforced and practised until it becomes a habitual part of the academic
reading process.
Reading environment
Learners with dyspraxia are often so wrapped up in the visual or processing
difficulties they are experiencing when reading that they do not realise
how significant the impact of their reading environment can be. Students
can be empowered by thinking about their reading environment which is,
of course, an aspect of reading over which they have some control.
How learners with dyspraxia can control their reading environment:
• Holding reading matter an optimum distance away. Not too near,
not too far. An octogenarian optician in Liverpool once told me
to hold anything I was reading at arm’s length from my eyes to
prevent eye strain.
• Obviously, in the classroom reading has to be done at desks. But,
outside, for revision and homework, students with dyspraxia
should be encouraged to read where they feel most comfortable,
attentive and productive. This is particularly important for
dyspraxia where students struggle to concentrate and have a
particular need to be physically comfortable. If they really do
produce their best homework while sitting on a bed, then that is
where they should work.
• Physical effects of dyspraxia, such as low muscle tone and poor
posture mean that the rigid posture that is so often encouraged for
learning may be yet another hurdle to overcome. It is interesting that
a collaboration between researchers at the University of Alberta and
Woodend Hospital in Aberdeen found that, ‘A 135-degree body-
thigh sitting posture was demonstrated to be the best biomechanical

sitting position, as opposed to a 90-degree posture, which most
people consider normal’ (Bashir, cited in Morley 2006). So learners
with dyspraxia who throughout their lives will increasingly struggle
with posture might actually benefit by sitting slouched backwards
when reading or listening, or even just relaxing!
• Slanted desks can lead to improved concentration and less eye
stress when reading (Eastman and Kamon 1976, cited in Jensen
2000, p.36).
• Lighting is important for reading because access to decent lighting
reduces eye strain and aids concentration. Lighting should be as
glare-free as possible. It is helpful to study near a good source of
daylight too.
• Posture also seems to be important for encouraging blood flow to
the brain. Researchers have found that stretching increases oxygen
flow to the brain (Henning, Kissel and Sullivan 1997, cited in
Jensen 2000, p.34).
It is helpful to encourage students with dyspraxia to experiment with
where they read best. They could try this checklist at home:
• Still/moving.
• Silent/noisy.
• Artificial or natural light. Which artificial lights work best?
• Where to sit? Sofa or dining chair or chair at desk? Lying on
a bed?
Behavioural optometrist
Behavioural optometrists use eye exercise to improve visual processing
skills. Once learned these exercises can be practised anywhere and can
help with reading.
Writing strategies
Difficulties in writing for any learner with an SpLD may involve:
• difficulties expressing thoughts and ideas in writing (writer’s block)
• spelling
• grammar.
Difficulties in writing for the learner with dyspraxia are multi-faceted,

resulting from a combination of physical and cognitive factors including:
• visual-motor difficulties when copying from the whiteboard
• motor-coordination difficulties and hypotonia/hypermobility
affecting wrist control for writing, making it difficult to write
quickly enough to keep up with thoughts and ideas
• auditory sequencing difficulties, causing difficulties with conversion
of thoughts into words
• visual memory or auditory discrimination difficulties causing
difficulties with spelling.
Writing difficulties will have an impact when the student is:
• note-taking while listening or copying
• writing independently in lessons or for homework assignments
• writing in examinations (see Chapter Four).
Writing difficulties can result in untidy work, with a lot of crossing out.
This can be due to mistakes resulting from indecisiveness, as well as
motor difficulties or lack of concentration. Writing difficulties can also, of
course, affect marks.
Basic strategies
Basic writing strategies are designed to get ideas written into a draft
copy. There are no easy solutions for writing difficulties but key strategies
are to:
• never be fazed by the word count – build it slowly
• keep writing.
Classroom
In anticipation of written work, it is really beneficial for learners with
dyspraxia if the teacher:
• writes instructions on the whiteboard, as well as giving them orally
• allows longer to copy from the whiteboard or to note-take when
listening
• allows an arrangement to photocopy a trusted peer’s lesson notes
• makes sure the learner is in a position for optimum listening

without distractions from other noises
• encourages the student to bullet point key points from a lesson, to
reinforce learning and to create a landscape for writing.
Independent writing
The following strategies can help to build dyspraxic writing confidence
and to encourage writing:
Environment
• Try to have the best possible study environment which is as quiet
as possible if the writer is distracted easily by other noises.
Writer’s block
• Verbalise while writing to allow for a smoother transition from the
mind to the written word.
• Avoid being fazed by the idea of writing by thinking small initially.
Words can grow from:
ºº bullet-point
to
ºº phrase
to
ºº sentence
to
ºº paragraph.
• Remember that the writing is always a draft until the deadline
day and that it can be reformatted and have academic conventions
applied later on. The most important thing is to get thoughts, ideas
and evidence of reading or research onto the page.
• Keep writing into draft. Do not stall because the stress of writer’s
block, or thoughts of a piece of work that has not been written
will make the act of writing even harder.
• Establish a word count target for each paragraph or section to
make writing more manageable.
Notes
• Try to write straight onto computer. But if writing onto paper
really works best, then write onto paper first.
• Keep a notebook to jot ideas into so they do not get lost. Write
down any ideas that arise while reading or anything useful learned
during lessons.
Colour
• Colour code draft copy to identify texts that can be linked together
for final draft.
Time out
• Take breaks and have treats. The subconscious mind thinks about
assignments while sleeping or resting, without the conscious mind
ever needing to be aware of this.
Topic sentences
(See also section on reading strategies, page 66.)
The topic sentence is the first sentence in the paragraph and tells the
reader what that paragraph will be about. Each paragraph should cover
one issue only. The rest of the paragraph, if well written, should stick only
to that point, elaborating and giving further examples. Topic sentences
can really help with structure and writing flow.
Signal words
Signal words are transition words that can be used to move ideas and
arguments forward in writing. It could help with writer’s block for a
learner with dyspraxia to have a signal words handout when writing
academically. This table gives examples of signal words and their types:
Signal word type Example words

Time (when) presently, ultimately, next, finally
Illustration (example) for example, for instance, this is
specifically to illustrate
Enumeration (ideas in order) firstly, secondly, finally
Continuation (there are more furthermore, moreover, in addition
ideas)
Contrast (show differences) although, but, whereas, however
Comparison (show similarities) similarly, in comparison
Cause/effect (show result of an because, therefore, consequently, for this
idea) reason, as a result
Emphasis (introduces an important important to note, a key feature,
point) noteworthy, especially, a significant
factor
Repeat words (to reinforce an idea) briefly, to simplify
Swivel words (changing direction) however, nevertheless, but
Summation (concluding) to summarise, in conclusion, finally, to
conclude
Spelling
Computer spellcheckers have offered salvation to poor spellers when
writing onto the computer. Unfortunately, not all writing is done on
a computer and strategies referred to in the key literacy strategies section
(page 62) and Chapter Five (memory) may be useful for learners who want
to hone their spelling skills.
Homophones
Words with the same sound but different spellings are particularly difficult
for learners with dyspraxia with auditory difficulties. For regularly used
homophones to be properly learned, spelling strategies do need to
be used:
• See Chapter Five for Neuro-Linguistic Programming spelling strategy

(page 122).
• Anchor words visually, for example use a mental image of a
broomstick for ‘witch’, and contrast this with a visual ‘wh’ for
‘which’. Or use an image of ‘I’ for ‘their’, to recollect that ‘their’
has an ‘I’ when it is about people.
Top misspelled words list

Oxford Dictionaries supply a very useful list of the most misspelled words
at www.oxforddictionaries.com/words/common-misspellings, including
spelling advice.
Grammar
Learners with dyspraxia with literacy difficulties will often struggle
with grammar but it is useful to focus on certain aspects to ensure that
an assignment is readable for the marker, otherwise a student may lose
points. Some comprehension of certain grammar rules will also ease
writer’s block too. Key grammar areas to reinforce are:
• sentence structure
• commas
• parallel sentences
• semi-colons
• apostrophes
• writing paragraphs.
Parallel sentences
One of the key areas of grammar that can cause difficulties for learners
with dyspraxia with auditory processing difficulties is parallel sentence
structure. Often the sense of a sentence gets jumbled because clauses are
in the wrong place for syntactical flow, or verb tenses or singular/plural
connections are formed differently in different parts of a sentence. Verbs
and nouns in each part of a sentence should have the same construction.
An example of a sentence which is not parallel is:
• Some learners find it useful to doodle or having something to hold,
for example, a soft ball.
To become parallel, this sentence should use the verb ‘to have’ instead of
‘having’, to balance with the verb used in the first part of the sentence:
• Some learners find it useful to doodle or to have something to hold,
for example a soft ball.
The best way for students to recognise that a sentence is not parallel is
to read it out loud, possibly more than once, reworking it each time.
If a sentence is not sounding right, this can usually be heard. Reading
out loud can also be helpful for small connective words which can be
confused as a result of auditory difficulties. If the sentence is spoken as
it would be delivered in conversation, often the correct connective will
be present.
Writing paragraphs
• Use a topic sentence at the beginning of a paragraph. Everything else
in the paragraph should be relevant to that sentence.
• When writing a paragraph:
ºº use a topic sentence to introduce the paragraph
ºº explore the theme of the paragraph further
ºº give examples to support the theme
ºº finally, conclude the paragraph, if necessary. Some paragraphs
will move easily into the next topic sentence and paragraph
without needing any concluding words.
• The acronym PEE (point, evidence, explanation) can be used to
structure a paragraph and to identify where to use quotations:
ºº Point – make a point.
ºº Evidence – use a quote to support the point.
ºº Explanation – explain the quote, referring to who made it, what
it means and how it backs up the point made.
Handwriting
Difficulties with handwriting can be profound for the learner with
dyspraxia, resulting from:
• muscle and joint weaknesses
• hand–eye coordination
• posture.
These handwriting difficulties will have an impact on writing generally.
According to dyspraxia adviser Gill Dixon and occupational therapist
and lecturer Lois Addy, ‘The profound impact of perceptual and motor
dysfunction on a child with Dyspraxia has an enormous influence on
the child’s ability to write legibly, fluently and at speed’ (Dixon and
Addy 2004, p.1). Dyspraxic handwriting difficulties will be evident from,
for example:
• unusual posture
• awkward pencil hold
• misalignment of paper
• uneven positioning of words and writing
• variable letter size and use of case
• imprecise letter forms.
(Dixon Addy 2004, p.1)
Dixon and Addy recommend:
• positioning of 90 degrees for hips, knees and feet
• positioning of paper in line with angle of arm
• upper limb and hand–eye coordination exercises
• use of an angle board
• cursive writing
• use of technology
• access arrangements.
Dyspraxic adolescents may hold their pens unusually but Dixon and
Addy advise that ‘if the grip used is enabling the child to write fast and is
effective and not causing any pain, no matter how bizarre the grip, leave
it alone!’ (Dixon and Addy 2004, p.2).
CHAPTER FOUR
EFFECTIVE STUDY SKILLS
Cognitive weaknesses associated with dyspraxia inevitably have an impact

on different aspects of learning.
• Memory deficits lead to difficulties in:
ºº following instructions
ºº retaining learning
ºº retrieval and recall
ºº organising and structuring work.
• Concentration difficulties make it harder to retain knowledge and
learning.
• Visual processing and auditory processing difficulties impact on
reading and writing.
• Planning difficulties lead to indecisiveness and organisational
difficulties.
Strategies for study skills and literacy need to be in place to enable
dyspraxic cognitive strengths to flourish.
For the dyspraxic, concentration and memory deficits have a
significant impact in a learning context and require two opposing
approaches in the classroom: variety and reinforcement. Because the
dyspraxic mind is easily distracted when bored, variety will help stimulate
interest. Slower processing which can occur with dyspraxia means that
reinforcement allows a greater opportunity for learning to get into the
long-term memory. Learners with dyspraxia can often perform better than
adequately, if they are given a little longer to accommodate new material.
This is why reinforcement is so important in a classroom setting because
learners with dyspraxia will suddenly ‘get it’ and when they do they can
quite easily suddenly become very proficient in topic areas they have
previously really struggled with.
80
Effective Study Skills 81
The key strategies for teaching a learner with dyspraxia in a classroom

context are:
• multi-sensory teaching
• repeating and reinforcing learning
• using visual whiteboard cues as prompts.
Effective study skills are fundamental to dyspraxic learning outside the
classroom. If these skills can be strengthened, then application of study
skills to academic work ought to facilitate progress and achievement for
the student with dyspraxia, even from quite an early stage at secondary
school. All the strategies listed in this chapter are meant to be a support
rather than a straightjacket. Learners need to find the ones that work for
them and disregard the strategies that are not effective.
Variability
Children with dyspraxia seem to have good days and bad days; it’s as
if their central nervous systems can ‘get things together’ better at some
times than at others. Tension also has an adverse effect on performance,
so don’t put undue pressure on the child. (BBC Cymru 2003)
For learners with a short-term memory deficit, whatever their age, there
are good days and bad days for learning. When working with younger
dyslexic learners, I discovered quite quickly that they would often muddle
through a session with me one week, really struggling with, for example,
letter sounds or basic alphabet sequencing. The next week, however, great
progress would be made and the learning which had been so difficult the
week before would be more fluent. For learners with dyspraxia, there
are days when concentration skills are elevated or organisation is better
managed and days when the mental ‘fog’ which can, at times, accompany
dyspraxia is no longer in ascendance and clarity prevails. Equally, there are
negative days when prevarication, incomprehensible learning and shoddy
time management prevail. For learners with dyspraxia, this variability is
accompanied by an additional burden because it applies to physicality, as
well as mental processing.
The more preoccupied the brain is, the slower the aptitude for
learning becomes. For everyone, of course, good days and bad days are
a part of life; but for the learner with a specific learning difference, the
impact is more profound and dyspraxia is no exception.
The ‘difficult’ days seem to some extent to be governed by:
• fatigue
• stress
• mental overload.
The ‘bad’ days seem to strike at times of fatigue or stress, i.e. times when
the mind has too much to think about or to cope with. By mental overload,
I am referring to the busyness, the creativity and the inventiveness of
the dyspraxic mind. The greater the stress, or the greater the amount
of mental activity, the more this seems to impact on issues such as time
management and organisation, or reading and writing.
It makes sense that processing skills are slower on some days and
learning deficits, although always present, have more impact. Hence,
good days and bad days. The SpLD student really needs to distinguish
between quality learning time and quantity of learning time when they
are studying outside the classroom, because there will be days when the
trajectory for learning will be ‘below par’ and time spent studying will be
unproductive. This is one of the reasons why learners with dyspraxia can
baffle teachers in an educational setting, because their performance can
be so volatile. Their ability to achieve academic success is compromised
at times, to varying degrees, by a lack of automaticity and a slowness to
learn. This volatility can result, for example, in an erratic performance
pattern where a learner might get 20/20 for a weekly mental arithmetic
test one week, and 4/20 the week after.
Establishing learning styles

Learning style is crucial for learners with dyspraxia. If lessons and study
are multi-sensory and varied, using a mixture of visual and auditory
methods, learning will be enhanced for the easily distractible dyspraxic.
Inchworms and grasshoppers

The dyspraxic mind tends to lean more towards lateral, holistic thinking
than sequential, methodical thinking. A distinction can be made between
two broad categories of learners in the classroom:
• inchworms
• grasshoppers.
These terms were first used in a learning context by two American high
school teachers in the 1980s, who investigated which learning style
worked best for dyslexic learners (Bath and Knox 1984).
Inchworms:
• are methodical
• are procedure-based
• learn sequentially
• focus on detail.
Grasshoppers:
• are lateral, holistic thinkers
• approach their work in a more random way
• use alternative methods of problem-solving
• use a greater variety of methods than inchworms.
I would predict that many dyspraxics are predisposed to be grasshoppers
because of the dyspraxic strength in lateral, inventive thinking.
Different learning types

Key learning types, known as VAK (Barbe and Swassing 1979) are:
• visual
• auditory
• kinaesthetic.
These types represent learning preferences for:
• looking
• listening
• tactile or physically active learning.
There is also a VARK model of learning which adds learners who prefer to
learn through reading and writing to the VAK mix. It is commonly believed
that 65 per cent of learners are predominantly visual. Some learners are an
equal balance between visual and kinaesthetic. Statistically, fewer learners
are predominantly auditory (between 10 per cent and 30 per cent), which
is ironic given that traditionally education involves a lot of listening for
the learner. In my experience, learners with dyspraxia may well be less
inclined to learn in a kinaesthetically dexterous way as their predominant
learning style, but this does not necessarily mean that they do not learn
from physical practice. Also, learners with dyspraxia may like to learn while
in motion.
When assessed for learning style, some learners are found to use all
three learning styles equally, but most will have a dominant learning
style. This does not mean that learners do not benefit from using a mix
of learning styles. And it would be impossible for anyone teaching a
large group of students with lots of different learning styles to tailor the
learning individually. There are distinguishing characteristics associated
with each learning style, which will be apparent in the classroom and
which can, to some extent, be accommodated through a balanced mixture
of teaching styles. Awareness of learning styles can be particularly helpful
for the learner with dyspraxia outside the classroom.
Visual learners:
• remember things which have been seen
• spell visually
• daydream
• learn well from diagrams, illustrations, flipcharts and the electronic
whiteboard.
Auditory learners:
• talk or sing to themselves
• are distracted by other noises when they are trying to listen
• may be articulate
• remember by repeating out loud
• are good listeners
• avoid eye contact
• spell by sounding out the word
• learn best from lectures or when a teacher is talking to the class
• may comprehend better when reading out loud or using dictation
software, for example, Read & Write.
Kinaesthetic learners tend to:
• remember through hands-on learning
• fidget
• enjoy physical activity
• find it difficult to sit through a lesson

• want to doodle or have something to hold, such as a soft ball, or
some modelling clay to mould
• read and think with greater clarity while in motion.
Although learners with dyspraxia may have visual or auditory processing
difficulties, this should not imply that they do not have auditory or visual
strengths. Learners with dyspraxia, like any learners, will benefit from
a mixture of styles. They can be auditory learners but if learning is too
auditory or auditory for too long, their thoughts are likely to drift and
they are more likely to be distracted or lose concentration without some
visual stimulus to break the potential tedium of listening to one human
voice for a long period of time. Learners with dyspraxia will often avoid
eye contact, listening more readily when focusing elsewhere. Lack of eye
contact from a learner with dyspraxia does not mean that they are being
rude or not concentrating. If eye contact is forced, they may be less likely
to listen.
Tools which are worth allowing in the classroom for a dyspraxic are:
• voice recorder to record speech-based lessons, so that slowness of
note-taking is not a hindrance
• digital camera to record anything which needs to be learned
kinaesthetically.
Doodling is also a useful ‘tool’ for enhancing concentration.
There are plenty of questionnaires to establish learning styles (see, for
example, University of Hull n.d. (b)) There are also models other than the
VAK/VARK model. A quick way to establish VAK learning style is based
on neuro-linguistic eye movements (developed by Richard Bandler and
John Grinder in the 1970s):
• Ask the learner what they ate for breakfast.
• Watch where they look:
ºº Looking outwards and upwards to the right or the left can
indicate that a learner is predominantly visual.
ºº Looking more inwards, to the right or the left, tends to indicate
that a learner is more auditory.
ºº Looking forwards and downwards tends to indicate that a
learner is more kinaesthetic.
Most people tend to look in a particular direction when thinking. Awareness

of eye focus is a very useful tool, because dyspraxic concentration can be
enhanced if paper (or books) for reading and writing are placed at the
angle in which the eye looks when thinking.
Study skills ‘melting pot’

I am not an advocate of deadline extensions for homework or coursework
as an aid for any learners with SpLDs, because the more extra time they
have, the more they will lag behind on subsequent assignments. For the
learner with dyspraxia, the following study skills strategies will help to
underpin work in the classroom or in an FE or HE study environment
and should ensure that progress in formal lessons or sessions is smoother:
• note-taking skills
• structured assignment planning
• research strategies
• reading strategies
• writing strategies
• time management and organisation strategies
• thinking skills
• examination strategies.
These strategies are really all about tapping into existing aptitudes and are
important because of difficulties dyspraxics may experience in:
• literacy
• planning
• organisation
• retention of learning.
Assistive technology resources are also discussed at the end of the chapter.
(See Chapter Three for literacy strategies and Chapter Five for memory
strategies.)
Note-taking skills
Note-taking is particularly difficult for students with dyspraxia because
muscle tone, joint hypermobility and poor coordination will often result
in slow handwriting and discomfort when holding a pen. There may also
be concentration or comprehension difficulties. Note-taking difficulties

can arise for:
• lesson/lecture note-taking
• note-taking when reading/researching.
Lesson/lecture note-taking
It can be extremely useful for the teacher or lecturer to provide guided
notes, for example a handout with PowerPoint slides or a handout with
the structure and themes of the lesson. This is particularly helpful for
learners with dyspraxia because they then have a map of the key points
the teacher will make. And they have less writing to do because they
can jot any additional key points into the guided framework which has
already been written for them.
In the absence of guided notes, here are some key tips for note-taking:
• If PowerPoint is being used or guided notes are available, it is
useful for the teacher to remind students with dyspraxia of this
at the beginning of the lesson so that they do not unnecessarily
duplicate notes.
• For dyspraxics, who so often have handwriting difficulties which
lead to slow and illegible writing, it might be better to use a laptop
for note-taking. (Unfortunately, students with dyspraxia might be
more susceptible to wrist problems and may need to maintain a
balance between notebook writing and keyboarding.)
• If a laptop is not available, lined A4 notebooks are best, to allow for
a better overview of lesson/lecture structure afterwards. It is better
to write on only one side of the paper so sheets can be laid out and
the direction of the lesson/lecture can be seen quickly afterwards.
• Pages need to be numbered so they do not get muddled.
• A column or margin on the left side of the paper can be useful,
allowing notes to be added later and headings, sub-themes and
topic changes to be added to the column after the lesson or lecture.
• It is helpful to leave a line gap between each new point, so that the
notes are not too crammed.
• For dyspraxics whose writing is very slow due to manual dexterity
issues, an abbreviation system can be devised with the same
abbreviations always being used. (Random abbreviations will not
work because the student will forget their meaning.)
• Notes should be read as soon as possible to assist with recall and

reinforcement of learning, otherwise it is possible that new learning
will not be retained due to short-term memory difficulties and the
struggle of trying to write to keep up with the teaching flow.
Examples of abbreviation techniques that can be used for note-taking are:
• Use initials for key themes.
• Leave out connectives and verbs where possible.
• Use common symbols
ºº ‘+’ = ‘and’
ºº ∴ = ‘therefore’
ºº ∵ = ‘because’
ºº ⟶ = ‘leads to’.
• Use Latin symbols, ‘cf.’ for compare or ‘n.b’. for ‘note well’.
• Omitting vowels and consonants from the middle of words will
often leave enough information to indicate the full word; for
example ‘sth’ for ‘something’.
• Use the first syllable of the word, for example ‘resp’ for ‘respiratory’,
or the first syllable and the first letter of the second syllable, for
example ‘hist’ for ‘history’.
A well-regarded formal note-taking system is the Cornell System (devised
in the 1950s by Walter Pauk, an education lecturer at Cornell University).
Note-taking when reading/researching

• When note-taking for reading or research, there is obviously more
flexibility in terms of writing speed, so writing can be more legible.
• To avoid repetitive writing (and aching wrists), it is helpful to
encourage learners with dyspraxia not to overwrite. So, where a
source is easily available to be reviewed online, notes do not need
to be taken (common sense, yes, but not necessarily for a teenager
who is anxious about being in control of all the information they
might need for a written assignment or exam). Website addresses
can be jotted down for future reference.
• Post-it notes can be used for ideas, and index cards can be used for
quotes. Colour coding can help to sequence thoughts.
• A notebook can be carried at all times, even kept beside the bed at
night because lateral-thinking dyspraxics will often be ‘buzzing’
with ideas but these thoughts can be quickly forgotten due to idea
overload.
For both types of note-taking, dyspraxics who are predominantly visual
learners will also benefit from colour coding different themes and topics.
This helps with reinforcement and organisation of information learned.
Also, where the dyspraxic is more visual, concentration and retention
can be aided by creating visual associations for learning. The mind will
remain more attentive if the learner tries to associate learning with existing
knowledge, something for which dyspraxics should have an aptitude.
Non-linear note-taking
Dyspraxic ‘grasshopper’, lateral-thinking learners could well benefit from
non-linear note-taking. Instead of methodically writing in a traditional,
linear way, they might benefit from creating more of a mind-mapped effect
for their notes, with key themes and sub-notes written more randomly
on a horizontal piece of paper. This will allow them to learn in their
preferred way, seeing links and associations to reinforce their learning.
Strategies for assignment planning

Assignments benefit from organisation and planning, as well as clever
thinking skills. Learners with dyspraxia can be disadvantaged as a result
of difficulties in application to task, organisation and planning, and also
slower processing skills. If they receive some guidance in methods which
can be applied when they are preparing work, then this guidance can
become reinforced through practice and can become a useful basis for
how to approach academic work.
Approaching brief
The learner with dyspraxia may need to properly understand a brief as
soon as possible because of potential:
• perceptual difficulties
• organisational difficulties.
Strategies for approaching a brief:
• As a teaching strategy, it is helpful with a spoken brief to repeat

the brief visually on the whiteboard and verbally more than once,
because when receiving instructions, learners with dyspraxia can
be diverted from what a teacher/lecturer actually wants them to do
and, initially, may not fully understand the brief.
• Ensure the due date is recorded and the number of days/weeks
remaining is established as soon as the brief is set. Create a schedule
of work to balance time when the brief will be worked on with the
time requirements of other current assignments.
• Learners with dyspraxia can have a tendency to miss important
information when first reading a brief so the brief should be read
more than once in case any nuances have been missed or any
sweeping errors of judgement in interpretation have occurred.
• Highlighting key words and themes in the brief can be helpful for
focusing thoughts.
• A guide to verbs used in assignment briefings can help to avoid
questions being answered in the wrong way (see below).
• Learners can also benefit from having a copy of the brief beside
them whenever they are working on it so that they do not digress.
• Students with dyspraxia should always be encouraged to ask if
they do not understand a brief, or are struggling with the structure
of an assignment.
Key verbs in questions

In order to avoid misunderstandings about method, an understanding
of definitions for standard verbs which appear in questions is of key
importance:
Analyse – take the main ideas and investigate them thoroughly,
looking at interrelationships.
Compare – look for similarities between the main ideas.
Contrast – look for differences between the main ideas.
Define – give the meaning of a word, phrase or concept.
Discuss – write about the various points of view, for and against an
argument.
Examine/explore – investigate an argument or idea in detail, looking
at different perspectives.
Explain to what extent – give ideas for and against a subject, comparing
and contrasting them.
Illustrate – give an example or examples to justify an argument or
demonstrate an idea.
List – list reasons or facts relating to a theme.
Outline – give the main features of a subject without going into detail.
State – give facts briefly and concisely.
Summarise – give basic facts without going into detail.
An understanding of these verbs will also help the dyspraxic to understand
whether brevity or detail is required.
Spidergrams
Spidergrams (spider diagrams) should, in theory, lend themselves to the
dyspraxic, ‘grasshopper’ mind, allowing information to be presented
and processed in a non-linear way. This type of technique is probably
better suited to visual than to auditory learners. Spider diagrams are an
ancient technique, commonly referred to as mind maps, but they are not
really mind maps at all because they are a more random tool, lacking the
stepped method of mind maps (a term introduced and popularised by
Tony Buzan in the 1970s). Learners seem to either love or hate spider
diagram techniques though, with no ambivalence in between. So it can
help for learners to be aware of them but use should never be forced. The
diagrams can also be colour coded to organise and enhance learning.
Spider diagrams can be used for different purposes:
• Brainstorming for ideas at the beginning of a project.
• Planning and structuring written work.
Essay planning
Having approached the brief and made sure it is understood, and that
time is being organised to avoid thinking being compromised by a rush
at the end, the essay planning stage needs to be methodical because a
clever response to a question can easily become lost if the information is
not planned and organised properly.
To give essays structure, keywords highlighted at the ‘approaching
the brief ’ stage can be used to form a skeleton plan comprising:
• Introduction
ºº Introducing the essay content. This can be written after the

other paragraphs in the essay have been completed.
• Paragraphs
ºº Preliminary paragraphs can be structured to show theory and
examples, while later paragraphs may contain case studies as
examples of the essay topic theory in practice.
ºº To avoid digressing from the brief, constantly refer back to the
question. (A ‘Post-it’ note with the question can be created on
the computer desktop and dragged into the document, so the
title is easily available at all times.)
• Conclusion
ºº Concluding points can be taken from conclusions reached
in each paragraph, but the conclusion should also reflect the
overall concluding thoughts that have been reached as a result
of writing the essay.
It can also be useful to break down the word count between paragraphs
to make writing more manageable.
Anxious students with dyspraxia need to be aware that their work is
always a draft until the day it is due. Paragraphs can move round endlessly
if the sequence does not seem right, and words and ideas are changeable
and can keep developing. Indecisiveness can also be part of the dyspraxic
mental landscape because of perceptual difficulties and lack of confidence,
so students need to understand that ideas may fit into more than one
paragraph and the control of the content is theirs.
Final essay copy

Formatting details can easily be forgotten by a learner with dyspraxia
who has been caught up with the content and structure of their work.
Guidance for formatting includes:
• Follow any formatting guidelines for typeface, font size and line
spacing.
• Add header/footer to the essay with name, course name, tutor
name and date.
• Paginate the essay.
Research strategies
(See also the note-taking section earlier in this chapter, page 86.)
If students with dyspraxia are shown how to research properly,
and these research strategies are reinforced, then they will develop the
potential to have strong research skills to support their written work. If
they are not taught how to research properly, then they may undermine
the content of their work by searching in a more random, erratic way.
Key strategies for research

• A broad variety of book, journal and internet sources should be
researched.
• Some dyspraxics will feel ‘awkward’ about visiting unfamiliar
environments. Visits to the library for study need to be strongly
encouraged, so it becomes a habitual environment for the student
with dyspraxia. A learning ‘buddy’ can be a helpful ally for initial
research trips to the library.
• To avoid digression from the brief, two questions which should be
asked constantly are:
ºº Is this research valid?
ºº Is this research academic enough?
• Research references must always, always be noted immediately,
because tracking references down later can be a very irritating,
time-consuming process.
• If a notebook is used, colour-coded or numbered notes can assist
with organisation of text so that research can be worked into the
essay structure methodically.
• Students should know when to stop and consolidate research into
writing, then identify gaps and research some more.
It can be difficult for the dyspraxic to understand new concepts when
they are first taught. This is why reinforced learning is such a luxury.
Research which is able to discriminate and find the best sources can be an
additional strategy for the learner with dyspraxia to use when they have
not understood something in class because there are so many different
ways in which knowledge can be delivered over the internet.
SEARCH STRATEGIES
The aptitude of the dyspraxic mind for rigorous attention to detail should
be well suited to researching in this way:
• Begin by making a list of different search terms to use.
• Avoid connectives and stick to the key terms to make the research
as efficient as possible.
• Try combining different terms from the search terms list to enhance
the search results.
• Each new piece of relevant research may provide more search
term leads.
• Search a variety of search engines.
• Search newspaper archives.
• Search topic-specific journals online.
Breadth of non-library research can be achieved by being aware of as
many online sources as possible.
SEARCH ENGINES
• Google
• AlltheWeb
• Yahoo
• DuckDuckGo
• Exalead
• About
• Excite
• Altavista.
METASEARCH ENGINES (SEARCH GROUPS OF SEARCH ENGINES)
• Hotbot
• Dogpile
• Kartoo
• Mamma
• Surfwax
• Clusty.
ACADEMIC SEARCH ENGINES
• Jurn
• Refseek.
ONLINE DIRECTORIES OF RESOURCES
• ipl2.
INVISIBLE WEB (DEEP CONTENT WHICH STANDARD

ENGINES CANNOT ACCESS)
• Infomine
• Infoplease.
Reading strategies
See Chapter Three for key reading strategies (page 68):
• scanning
• skimming
• environment.
To maintain control of reading in an assignment planning context the
learner can:
• verbalise what has been read before note-taking to help with
comprehension
• where useful information or quotes have been found in a book,
note page references and approximate place on the page to be
referred to later or scan relevant pages for future reference
• create visual associations while reading to focus concentration.
Writing strategies
The quickest writing process is to gather research in stages, writing bullet-
pointed ideas, notes and quotes straight into an online assignment draft.
Some anxious learners prefer to gather notes by hand into a notebook
and then write them up on the computer because they feel that this allows
them to think more clearly about their reading and writing, and to feel
more in control of the work they produce. If this is the case, even although
output is slower, the student ought to be allowed to work within their
‘comfort zone’. Strategies cannot be forced.
Strategies for writing are:

• Remember to save all computer-generated writing and to have a
memory stick backup.
• Use signal words to move between ideas and arguments. (See
Chapter Three.)
• Use topic sentences to help to build paragraphs. (See Chapter Three.)
• If writing is hard, vocalise sentences to get them into written
format, then rework them using academic language.
• For final copy, avoid colloquial language, or slang, or contractions
(for example, ‘isn’t’).
(See Chapter Three, page 72 for section on writing strategies.)
Referencing
The importance of referencing should be emphasised, partly so that
sources are always easily traced if they need to be revisited. Older students
could be encouraged to keep a notebook of texts read, publication details
and relevant page numbers, to avoid bibliographies being a very major
chore at the end of a piece of written work. Alternatively, an index card
box can be used, with texts read and suitable quotes noted on each card.
The importance of referencing also needs to be emphasised to avoid
plagiarising another author’s words. Students for whom writing is a trial
can have real difficulty understanding that it is not an admission of defeat
to quote. Because their own words are so hard won, they can slip so easily
into using other people’s words, without ever realising that paraphrasing
and citing can offer salvation from writer’s block. Learners need to begin
referencing and citing both for quotes and paraphrased text as early as
possible so that this is fully learned behaviour by the time lengthy pieces
of work are being researched and written at A-level and beyond.
Proofreading strategies
Strong proofreading strategies allow the hard work of a learner with
dyspraxia to be marked to its best potential, without being undermined
by weak grammar and spelling, or inconsistencies of thinking. This is a
broad array of strategies to cover every proofreading eventuality:
• Leave work overnight or for a few hours before proofreading to

ensure clarity and distance.
• Take advantage of the spelling and grammar checks on the
computer.
• Print out a draft. Do not just proofread from the computer. Visually
it can be easier to see errors in a printed copy.
• Proofread for grammar and punctuation, and proofread separately
for content.
• Read out loud because the eye will see what it expects to see.
• Read text backwards to pick up errors from a different perspective.
• Use at least one ‘backup’ proofreader for grammar and spelling, for
example a long-suffering parent, sibling or friend.
To keep track of content ensure that:
• topic sentences tell the reader what the paragraph is about
• new terms have been explained
• the writing addresses the question
• all references are cited correctly.
Achieving results
Students who can see associations and relationships between themes and
ideas should achieve better marks, and this style of thinking should suit
the dyspraxic thinking style. It is a lack of thought, research, structure
and general engagement with a piece of work that yields weaker marks.
Strategies for assignment planning can be used to combat dyspraxic
weaknesses in planning, organisation and memory, and these strategies,
combined with strong lateral-thinking skills, attention to detail and
problem-solving skills, should enable learners with dyspraxia to achieve
well in their work.
Time management and organisation strategies

Associated with dyspraxic motor planning difficulties, there can be
difficulties in planning and organising thoughts. Weaknesses in time
management and organisation are fundamental for many dyspraxics. This
is why strategies to organise and plan workload, and to organise time are
so essential. Organisational difficulties can also mean that multi-tasking
is difficult for learners with dyspraxia and they can become ‘fazed’ when
there are several tasks to do. This means that some learners with dyspraxia
often perform better when they tackle one task at a time. Fortunately,
there is an abundance of time management and organisation strategies
which can be tried to find out which methods best suit the learner.
Time management
DIARIES
• Use a diary or phone to note all important deadlines and timetable

details, otherwise they will be forgotten.
• Record all dates and deadlines in the same place to avoid confusion.
• Diary or phone entries can be reinforced by moving them to a wall
planner, where they will be more prominent.
LISTS
• Use a jotter to time manage each day with a ‘to do’ list.
• Non-linear lists can work best for the dyspraxic mind.
• Some students will prefer to list major tasks first.
• It can be preferable to put minor tasks at the top of the list though,
because they can get ticked off quicker, so that progress has been
made and the time allocated for the larger tasks becomes more
manageable.
PLANNERS
• A weekly timetable to organise work can be helpful.

• Searching ‘time management planner’ on the internet will bring up
a vast array of blank time management charts.
• If a locker is available, stick a planner to a locker door.
TIMETABLE
• Work at the best time of day so that work is efficient. Unfortunately,

some students really do seem to work at their best in the middle of
the night, playing havoc with sleeping patterns, which for many
dyspraxics are already disrupted.
• Students are often advised to work for 45 minutes at a time. The

problem for learners with dyspraxia is that they can easily be
distracted during a break and not return to study or find it hard
to resume concentration when they do begin to work again. So,
it may be better to keep working at productive times, rather than
break too often or too soon.
• Quality and concentration rather than rigorous quantity will be the
most efficient way of working.
REWARDS
Comfort times and reward systems can be used as compensation for study
time. ‘If I do this, then I can have that when I have finished…’ According to
Pelligrini, Huberty and Jones, time not learning is just as important as
time spent learning (Pelligrini et al. 1995, cited in Jensen 2000, p.34).
PLANNING ESSAY STRATEGY AROUND DEADLINE DATE

In my experience, with regard to time management and study, there are
three types of learners:
• ‘Early birds’ who always work well ahead of the deadline and
often achieve good results.
• ‘Late type one’ who leave their work until near the deadline, do
not have time to work sufficiently, and panic, resulting in terrible
grades.
• ‘Late type two’ who also leave their work until the final deadline,
but work extremely hard, late and achieve good results.
For older learners certainly (over 16s) the early type of working pattern
can be encouraged but not forced, particularly since some learners do
actually thrive on working to a late schedule.
Organisation strategies
APPROACHING WORK
• Think about learning styles.

• Is anything unclear? Do any questions need to be asked?
Always ask.
• Be prepared. Plan ahead on paper and reinforce the plan to
memory.
• Use a planner for all aspects of individual pieces of work, not just
for time management.
• Reminders can be random, for example reminder notes can be
stuck to the front door, the bedroom door or even to furniture.
• Sleep adequately at a regular time.
• Eat a balanced diet, including fruit and vegetables.
• Keep hydrated.
• Use rewards and treats.
ENVIRONMENT
• Keep desk area tidy. Tidy after each work session, not at the
beginning of the next one.
• Think about how, when and where best work is done. Some students
work better when they are not in the room where they sleep.
PRIORITIES
• Check emails. Do not let them build up without responding.

• Use a paper tray to prioritise and keep control of work.
• Prioritise workload. Put any tasks that can wait until another day
at the bottom of the list.
PROCRASTINATION
• Recognise that not working can lead to stress. Do some work…
ORGANISING NOTES
• Use separate, differently coloured folders for different courses or

modules. (This sounds obvious but learners with dyspraxia will not
necessarily be thinking in such an organised way.)
• A folder specifically for homework assignments can help to prevent
work from going astray.
• Use divider cards or hole-punched plastic wallets for individual
topics/modules.
• Use a jotting book so ideas and plans do not get lost.
• Carry a jotter everywhere and keep it beside the bed at night.
• Use index cards to help remember key learning points.
Targets
• Have a target/objective every time any work is done. Be flexible.
See also Chapter Five for the section on memory strategies (page 114) which
can be extremely useful for organisation skills.
Thinking skills
Critical thinking
Thinking critically is important for the learner with dyspraxia because
it encourages them to use their thinking skills and to engage with their
work, avoiding the boredom and mind-drift which can so easily distract
them. When reading for an assignment, students should be encouraged
to have certain questions in mind to structure their thoughts. These key
questions are applicable to any learning, from Key Stage 3 onwards:
• Who is the author?
• What is the source?
• When was the source written?
• What is the main idea or general message?
• What is the key argument or what are the key arguments?
• What evidence does the author use to support their argument(s)?
• Can I think of any counter-arguments?
• What are the main ideas that have been learned from this book/
article?
Metacognition
Metacognition (a term developed by developmental psychologist John
Flavell in the 1970s) can also be an empowering tool for learners with
dyspraxia because, by definition, it encourages them to think about their
own thinking processes.
• Are my ideas valid?
• Is my thinking as rigorous as it should be?
• Do I understand this? Do I need to ask my teacher for help?
• Have I left anything unexplored?
• Am I answering the question?
• Are there any other strategies I could use to help me with this
piece of work?
• Am I structuring the work correctly?
• Have I understood what I am reading or do I need to re-read
it later?
Examination strategies
For the learner with dyspraxia, examinations can be particularly difficult
because issues associated with dyspraxia can have a detrimental effect on
exam performance, meaning that the learner with dyspraxia can simply fail
to fulfil their potential in an exam situation. In an ideal world, dyspraxics
would be assessed on assignment-based performance, not exams. Issues
affecting dyspraxics in an exam situation are explained below.
Muscles and joints

Low muscle tone and hypermobile joints can result in slow writing speed.
Fortunately, there are remedies for physical difficulties, in the form of
access arrangements. (See the section on access arrangements later in this
chapter, page 107.)
Memory deficit
Deficits in short-term memory and working memory can mean learners
with dyspraxia have difficulties retaining information revised for exams,
and even where information has been solidly retained through revision,
the mind can be so stressed in an exam situation that it quite simply fails
to recall learned information.
Concentration
Concentration issues can also become an issue because the learner with
dyspraxia may simply lack the stamina for concentrated thinking lasting
the full duration of a test or exam.
Indecisiveness
Indecisiveness can also impact negatively on students with dyspraxia in
examinations when choosing questions from a selection, or in multiple-
choice questions, where more than one answer is available.
Visual and auditory processing

Visual processing issues which affect some dyspraxics can make it harder
to read the exam paper. Auditory processing difficulties can make it
difficult to find the words for writing answers.
Lateral thinking skills

Lateral thinking skills can become a weakness in exams because the
student might incorrectly interpret what is wanted by a question without
actually reading it properly, or answer more broadly than is necessary.
The student might also come up with accurate answers which are not in
the mark scheme (Birnie n.d., p.10).
Organisation
Organisation issues may mean that:
• questions are not read thoroughly
• basic details, such as candidate name or examination centre number,
are not entered on the paper
• time for answering all the questions on the paper may not be
planned properly
• planning issues might also lead to difficulties with decision making.
If all of the different difficulties can be addressed and bypassed through
exam strategies, then strengths in dyspraxic thinking should have a chance
to prevail in an exam situation and performance could be enhanced.
(See also Chapter Five for section on memory strategies and Chapter Six for
strategies for dealing with stress.)
Strategies for revision

There are many strategies, tailored for dyspraxia, which can be used to
assist with revision:
• Use a revision timetable to plan revision.
• Think about what time(s) of day the mind is sharpest for revising.
• Begin revising in plenty of time – cramming just before an exam
may not be such a good idea for dyspraxics because of short-term
memory issues.
• Note-take for revision and once the learning is reinforced, narrow

the notes down so that bullet points provide visual or auditory
cues for what has been revised.
• Use VAK for revision, making it multi-sensory by:
ºº voice recording
ºº chanting
ºº colour coding revision notes onto index cards
ºº making mind maps
ºº pacing the floor.
• Take regular short breaks.
• Eat and sleep well.
• Know when to relax.
Memory strategies
Key strategies to remember are:
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming visual screen for remembering
information
• peg word memory system
• memory palace
• large Post-it notes on furniture
• laminated sheets on backs of doors
• index cards with key, bullet-pointed details
• chanting topics, revising out loud
• mind map key revision themes and topics.
(See also Chapter Five).
VAK learning style is particularly applicable to revision:
• Visual style should work for most learners with dyspraxia. Index
cards and spidergrams can be used with colour and imagery.
Index cards can also be extremely useful for last-minute revision
just before the exam.
• For auditory learning, reading revision notes out loud, chanting
or even singing the revision will be very beneficial. It can also be
helpful to dictate revision into a digital recorder or onto a mobile
phone app. Some learners even play the recordings back while
they are sleeping! Notes can also be played back while walking or
travelling on a bus to get to school or college.
• Learners who struggle with concentration may find it helps to
walk around while learning.
Strategies for the exam room

Unfortunately, for the dyspraxic, examinations can present a twofold
problem because of cognitive difficulties and the physical constraints of
dyspraxia. It is not just about quantity of learning retained for an exam
but also quality of input in the exam itself, and this is where difficulties
may also arise.
Physical logistics
• Know where the exam room is, in advance.
• Make sure any access arrangements are actually in place, in advance.
(See also the access arrangements section on page 107.)
Stress
• Practise breathing or visualisation strategies to relax. Imagine
you are your best possible self, doing your best possible exam
performance.
Interpreting questions
• Check how many questions are on the paper and their mark
allocations at the beginning of the exam and plan time accordingly.
• Move on to the next question if time overruns on a particular
question, to avoid running out of time before questions with the
greatest mark weighting have been answered.
• If possible, leave some time for proofreading.
• Read any instructions three times so that, for example, the correct
number and combination of questions are answered.
• Read each question three times.
• Turn over each page of the question paper to avoid missing any
questions.
• Highlight key words and verbs in questions.
• Refer to the question constantly, to avoid digressing.
See earlier in the assignment planning section for key verbs in questions.
If these verbs are understood then, hopefully, basic misinterpretation of
questions in exams can be avoided.
Planning and structuring

• Make a plan for each question before beginning. If spidergrams
suit best, use a spidergram.
• Do not necessarily answer questions sequentially. Answer the
questions that look most straightforward first, and leave the really
difficult questions until last.
• Make sure each page is named and numbered and that you have
the right information on the front of the paper, for example the
test centre number.
• If too many questions have been answered, cross out any that the
examiner should not mark.
When the exam is finished…move on.
Assistive technology for revision

Some assistive technology is designed for revision:
• Cram.com allows learners to create, study and share revision
flashcards.
• Evernote Peek allows the user to create flash cards and to audio self-
test. Questions and answers can be created to aid revision with
self-testing and scores.
• A useful web link is Get Revising (getrevising.co.uk).
Access arrangements
The Equality Act 2010 requires exam boards to make reasonable
adjustments so that disabled students are not at a significant disadvantage.
There are various options available to help learners with dyspraxia to

achieve equity with their non-dyspraxic counterparts in examinations.
• Laptop – as an alternative when handwriting is slow or illegible.
• Extra time – for reading or writing difficulties.
• Scribe – as an alternative to a laptop, the student can dictate the
answers to a scribe.
• Reader – where reading is slow, a reader can compensate by
reading the questions to the student.
Obviously, arrangements available will vary for each individual. Access
arrangements for a laptop can be made at the school’s discretion, having
assessed the student’s handwriting speed. The impetus for this often
comes from the class teacher who has observed that a dyspraxic pupil’s
handwriting is illegible or very slow and knows that, if an adjustment is
not made, this will have a negative impact on a competent student’s exam
performance.
Requests for extra time may need to be validated by a professional
report, for example an educational psychologist or specialist teacher
report. Requirement for extra time for handwriting may need to be
evidenced through a qualified practitioner’s assessment. For example,
an occupational therapist can assess for handwriting and write a report
which can be used to request extra time. This process can take some time.
Assistive technology
Assistive technology is there to help students with all aspects of study,
and there are some very sophisticated options available for areas such as:
• recording/note-taking
• text to speech
• voice recognition (speech to text dictation software)
• mind mapping
• research
• time management.
Key examples below are free.
Recording/Note-taking
Recording software is particularly useful for learners with dyspraxia
who are slow to write, allowing them to record lectures or lessons and
meaning information does not get lost in the written note-taking process.
Note-taking options are invaluable because, for the dyspraxic, retention
of ideas and information can be difficult, but technology allows instant
logging of any ideas or information, for retrieval later.
• Evernote will:
ºº record lessons or lectures
ºº note-take by acting as a notebook or series of notebooks, to
create and organise notes
ºº capture thoughts and ideas
ºº be accessible through a mobile device or computer
ºº synchronise across all devices, mobile phone, laptop and
computer.
• MS One Note can also be used for note-taking.
Examples of paid options:
• Audionote
ºº Can be accessed through mobile device or computer.
ºº Records lessons or lectures or acts as a note-taker.
ºº Synchronises audio and notes.
ºº Offers an indexing tool and highlighter for key terms.
• Noteshelf (Apple).
• The Olympus digital recorder can also be used for recording lectures.
Text to speech
Text-to-speech software can be used by learners with dyspraxia who
experience reading difficulties, allowing them to listen to text. This
software is liberating for anyone with a reading SpLD.
• Balabolka reads internet or text written by learner, acting as a
reading tool for research or proofreading. Can read a variety of
different document types.
• Natural Reader is an Apple app, performing the same function as

Balabolka.
(Example of paid option: Texthelp.)
Speech to text
There are two types of speech-to-text software. Mobile phone apps can
be used for note-taking, whereas there are other software packages which
can be used for dictating larger amounts of text for assignments, enabling
the student to express their ideas in writing without struggling with the
writing process.
• MS Vista Windows 7 and 8 have built-in voice-recognition software.
• TalkTyper requires Google Chrome.
• Mobile phones offer speech to text in their operating systems.
The student will need to practise with any voice-recognition software,
free or paid for (for example, Dragon), so that the software becomes
accustomed to their voice.
Mind mapping
Mind-mapping software can be useful for students with dyspraxia who
experience difficulties with planning and organisation because it allows
them to create computer-generated mind maps. Not all learners with
dyspraxia will want to work with mind maps and a desire to use them
seems to be innate rather than acquired.
• XMind/Free Mind – planning, note-taking and brainstorming.
(Examples of paid options: Inspiration, Mindmanager.)
Time management
The following apps can be used on mobile phones and are an invaluable
option for dyspraxics who struggle to manage and organise their time,
allowing for instant organisation of dates and deadlines.
• Google calendar – reminders.
• Evernote – an organisational and assignment planning tool.
• Errands – lists (Apple).
Research
Google Chrome and Bing offer voice-activated searching of internet search
engines and websites, making searching more accurate for learners with
dyspraxia who experience difficulties with spelling.
Webpages can be saved to Evernote, so that once a useful page is
found, it does not get lost.
A general tool is MyStudyBar, a tool bar containing free apps for all
types of assistive technology software (for example, Xmind and Balabolka).
MyStudyBar also includes a screen colour changer and magnifier and can
be run from a USB.
(See earlier examination strategies section on page 102 for revision
technology.)
It should, of course, be noted that all of these assistive technology
examples are current at the time of writing. Technology evolves quickly
and new apps are being developed all the time.
CHAPTER FIVE
THE DYSPRAXIC MIND
Neurological Effects
The importance of the neurological and emotional effects of dyspraxia

on learning, and on life, should not be underestimated. The first part of
this chapter covers the dyspraxic memory deficit, using strategies that
have direct relevance to the classroom and to life generally. Strategies
contained in subsequent sections on sleeplessness and obsessive thoughts,
although not directly related, will it is hoped have a positive impact in
an educational environment. Characteristics of dyspraxia discussed in this
and the following chapter can be so fundamental to the life of the learner
with dyspraxia, that awareness of these neurological and emotional issues,
and strategies that can be used to challenge them, or simply to cope
with them, can be extremely useful and maybe even life changing for the
dyspraxic at school, college or university.
The mind games dyspraxia plays

Although there are positive aspects to the mindset of the dyspraxic in terms
of thinking skills, there are negatives too. This chapter and the subsequent
chapter attempt to identify the different effects dyspraxia can have on
the individual’s mind. These effects will, of course, vary from individual
to individual. Some of the effects seem to be dyspraxic neurological
traits (caused by the wiring of the brain), for example obsessiveness or
sleeplessness. Others seem to result from self-awareness, the psychological
experience of the dyspraxic condition, for example low self-esteem. And
there are some traits which could have a neurological and a psychological
basis, for example difficulties with social skills.
The box on page 112 shows the mind games caused by dyspraxia.
111
Neurological effects Emotional consequences

Memory deficit Poor self-esteem
Sleeplessness Anxiety
Obsessive thoughts Stress
Emotional volatility
Social skills
Memory deficit
Wiman and Meierhenry (1969) found that people will usually remember:
• 10 per cent of what is read
• 20 per cent of what is heard
• 30 per cent of what is seen
• 50 per cent of what is seen and heard.
(Wiman and Meierhenry 1969, cited in
Blowers and Bryan 2004, p.171)
This demonstrates how difficult learning retention can be, even without
a short-term memory deficit. Apparently, if a learner is interrupted or
distracted while using working memory, learning is lost and they have
to begin the process again (Gathercole and Packiam Alloway 2007, p.6).
Professor Gathercole and Dr Packiam Alloway record that, in a
class of 30 seven-year-olds, a teacher should expect to work with three
children with the working memory capacity of a four-year-old, and at
the other end of the memory spectrum, three children with the working
memory capacity of an 11-year-old (Gathercole and Packiam Alloway
2007, p.7). This shows just how broad a spectrum of learners there is
in any classroom, and this will not change with age, making a targeted
teaching style very difficult to accomplish.
Learning differences often seem to be associated with short-term
memory difficulties, both in short-term memory and in working memory,
and dyspraxia is no exception. This of course can lead to difficulties in
learning and reinforcing new learning in the classroom but also, for some
dyspraxics, general organisational skills can be very difficult indeed. As
The Dyspraxic Mind: Neurological Effects 113
well as a short-term memory deficit, learners with dyspraxia may also

suffer from auditory or visual memory deficits.
There is a curious strength to dyspraxic memory though, because
some dyspraxics have an extraordinary long-term memory for small details.
Dyspraxia authority Amanda Kirby writes that people with dyspraxia ‘may
have a good retentive memory, and seem to be able to store information
from years before in great detail and to recall it with accuracy’ (Kirby
1999, p.152). Students with dyspraxia may remember, for example, what
they were doing on a given day or week, two, three or even five years ago.
It is that capacity for memory which this chapter seeks to tap into.
Unfortunately, retentive memory strengths do not seem to
automatically extend to retention of what is learned in the classroom or
through studying. ‘His memory may be excellent for some things, but
unreliable; he may have a poor memory for either things heard or things
seen’ (The Dyspraxia Support Group of New Zealand n.d.). The learner
with dyspraxia can, in fact, display acute short-term memory deficits.
I describe this as the ‘candyfloss fog’, the tendency to:
• forget assignment deadlines
• struggle to retain revision for exams
• struggle to retain learning between one lesson and the next
• forget to attend tutorials
• forget conversations
• misplace everything – purses, keys, toothbrushes, drinks
• forget whether a pill has been taken or not
• miss the bus.
Efficient memory depends on:
• storage
• capacity
• retrieval.
If any of these factors are deficient, then a learner’s progress academically
will be affected. And these memory deficits can have a profound effect in
the classroom with resulting difficulties in:
• processing and retaining information learned
• automaticity for new learning
• recalling information learned

• following instructions
• concentration
• time management and organisation.
Overloading students with tasks can lead to memory overload. Three
key teaching strategies for tackling short-term memory deficits in the
classroom are:
• breaking work down into learning chunks
• overlearning and repetitive teaching
• encouraging students to ask when they are struggling to understand
new learning.
Overlearning is crucial for learners with dyspraxia in an educational
context (and for other learners with SpLDs). This overlearning will
involve repetition, reinforcement and revisiting information taught several
times. Learning needs to be broken down into chunks and repeated in as
straightforward and concise a way as possible.
Memory strategies
Strategies that can be used to compensate for the short-term memory
deficit that is experienced by many dyspraxics tend to make use of key
sensory learning styles:
• visual
• auditory
• kinaesthetic.
Particularly for visual learning, the fact that dyspraxics may suffer from
visual processing difficulties does not necessarily mean that they are not
visual or creative thinkers. Some strategies are acquired early in childhood
and come naturally without being taught, others need to be learned later
on in life. All the strategies listed below can be used to help with:
• retaining information or instructions in classroom/lectures
• general organisation (both academic and general life skills)
• revision.
Memory is very elusive because, in addition to the conscious act of

remembering, there are subconscious, long-term depths of memory, and
as a result the long-term memory can be incredible in terms of how much
information can actually be stored. Although learners with SpLDs often
have short-term memory deficits, long-term memory does not seem to be
affected. Memory strategies described in this chapter also aim, therefore,
to tap into the capacity for long-term memory which learners with
dyspraxia have, in an attempt to bypass the deficiencies of the short-term
memory. The more random the memory strategy is, the more memorable
it will be. Students may well approach these strategies with caution and
a belief that they are too random to work. These strategies will work
though and while different strategies will work for different learners,
once tried successfully, a strategy will never be forgotten and will become
a dependable tool for aiding memory, a salvation in the classroom and
in examinations. Although examples in this section focus primarily on
academic learning, many of these strategies are also applicable to general
life where memory difficulties will have a persistent lifetime effect for
many dyspraxics.
There are two fundamental memory strategies to mention before
multi-sensory strategies are covered:
• association
• exercise.
Association
The most fundamental strategy that can be used to secure learning in the
memory is linking learning with existing knowledge. Queen’s University
SEN lecturer Dr Sharon McMurray writes that associated meaning needs
to be attached to new learning because otherwise retrieval will be difficult.
Pattern is also important for reducing demand on capacity and for
allowing the memory to organise itself efficiently (McMurray n.d., p.4).
Exercise
Research has suggested that exercise may be extremely good for memory.
In the 1990s, Henriette van Praag, Gerd Kempermann and Fred Gage
of the Salk Institute of Biological Studies found that exercise enhanced
the Hippocampus of mice. The Hippocampus is mainly associated with
memory (van Praag, Kempermann and Gage 1999). More recently, in a

study of memory in humans, Lindsay Nagamatsu et al. found that memory
does improve with exercise but different types of exercise seem to improve
different areas of memory (Nagamatsu et al. 2013). Dr Ratey, Associate
Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School, has also found
that a key strategy for improved memory is regular, moderately intense
exercise because it encourages the areas of the brain which are associated
with memory to release a chemical called BDNF which rewires memory
circuits, making them more efficient (Harvard Medical School 2013).
Visual memory strategies

Visual skill can be harnessed to compensate for short-term memory
weaknesses. Some key visual memory strategies which can be tried are:
• the memory palace
• the memory room
• the story board.
The memory palace

The memory palace, an ancient memory strategy, is still an extremely
useful visual tool to combat short-term memory difficulties. In a lecture
at Houston University, John Lienhard, Professor Emeritus of Mechanical
Engineering and History, described how in 1596, Jesuit priest Matteo
Ricci recreated the medieval European idea of a memory palace for the
Chinese. The memory palace is an edifice which:
• is built in the mind
• has rooms containing distinct and dramatic mnemonic images.
The first letters of items in each room form memorable mnemonics,
and recollection is achieved by mentally walking from room to room,
associating information being memorised with items in each room.
Professor Lienhard regrets the loss of this type of memory as printing
processes evolved and a reading society was formed (Lienhard, n.d.).
The modern memory palace particularly lends itself to the visual,
creative mind and can be helpful in counteracting the effects of dyspraxic
short-term memory weaknesses.
The palace can be based on a real house, or a partially or fully

imagined house. Here are some examples of how a memory palace can be
used to assist with school or college work, and with organisational skills:
• Items associated with a shopping list can be placed in one room.
• The outline of a speech or presentation is placed in another room.
• Biology revision can be placed upstairs, while English literature
revision is placed in a neighbouring room.
• The current ‘to do’ list can be placed in the basement.
Rooms need to be as visually ‘busy’ and random as possible, the more
outlandish the better. A pink elephant crouching in the corner, wearing
purple striped socks and sporting a memory tattooed across its ample
forehead would not be a bad starting point.
American historian Tony Judt provides a modern example of the
effectiveness of the memory palace as a memory technique. Judt was left
quadriplegic as a result of motor neurone disease. In an interview with
Guardian journalist Ed Pilkington in 2010, Judt explained that at night he
builds a memory palace in his mind. His memory palace is modest: it is a
Swiss chalet. In each room he places a paragraph or a theme for work he
will compose the next day with the help of a Dictaphone and his personal
assistant (The Guardian 2010). Judt is evidence of just how successful the
memory palace technique can be, because this technique has allowed him
to deliver lengthy lectures, at a time when he has been paralysed from the
neck down.
The memory room

The memory room is a good place to begin building a memory palace.
Take any bedroom, with the familiarity of its standard objects – a bed, a
wardrobe, a desk, a chair and a lamp. The room can be easily recollected and
visualised and the items from, for example, a revision or shopping list can
then be placed on the different pieces of furniture, not forgetting, of course,
the elephant in the corner. Kinaesthetic strength can also be brought to this
imaginary bedroom by writing the items to be remembered on imaginary
Post-it notes and sticking them to the relevant piece of furniture.
Here is an example of the memory room in practice, being used to
learn the meaning of ‘laser’ for physics homework:
Imagine walking into a room lined with newspaper. The first thing
which is seen is a shadeless light bulb, dangling from the ceiling (L). An
amplifier on the wall blasts music for amplification (A). The right-hand
wall is covered in the graffiti word stimulated, in different colours and font
sizes (S). In the corner of the room there is a pipe giving off emissions
which smell of diesel fuel (E). Blue gas radiates (radiation) from the floor
(R). The mnemonic to recall laser is:
• light
• amplification
by
• stimulated
• emission
of
• radiation.
Story board
The story board memory strategy is useful for remembering lists or
instructions. Here is an example of how this strategy works:
Instructions to remember:
• Hand in history homework.
• Buy replacement item of PE kit.
• Collect drama script from teacher.
• Hand money for school trip into office.
• Visit school nurse for jab.
To remember this, the following story board could be visualised:
• History teacher is sitting on a chair in an empty classroom wearing
school PE kit.
• She is reading from a drama script.
• A purse is open at her feet with money rolling across the floor.
• The school nurse is standing next to her with a needle poised
ready to give the history teacher a jab.
That is how random these visual memory images need to be. This visual
story board can be played over repeatedly in the mind, like a film, as an
aide memoire.
Auditory memory strategies

So successful are some auditory memory strategies that they are deeply
rooted in early schooling and practised in classrooms throughout the
world. Some auditory strategies that can be tried are:
• mnemonics
• melody
• rhyme
• chanting
• dictation.
Mnemonics
A word can be made up using the initial letters of something that is being
remembered. MRS GREN is the classic example of a mnemonic being
used as a scientific aide memoire, where the letters MRS GREN stand for
the seven processes of life:
• Movement
• Respiration
• Sensitivity
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Excretion
• Nutrition.
Another type of mnemonic is when the initial letters of the information
being remembered are taken to form a sentence, a classic example being
the musical treble clef EGBDF, remembered as Every Good Boy Deserves
Fun. Mnemonics can be particularly useful for learners with dyspraxia
who find sequences challenging.
Melody
Number sequences are often very difficult to remember for dyspraxics,
and even regularly used telephone numbers and PINs can be hard to
retain. One auditory method of retaining this type of number is to hum

the number. Outlandish as this method may seem, I have known students
who used this memory method long before I ever met them.
Rhyme
Use of rhyme is a very traditional method of remembering and most people
grow up with at least one rhyming memory aide. Classic examples are:
• Remember, remember the fifth of November.
• ‘In fourteen-hundred-and-ninety-two, Columbus sailed the ocean
blue.’ (Sackville Stoner 1919)
• Thirty days hath September
April, June and November,
All the rest have thirty-one
excepting February alone.
Chanting
Traditionally, school children have also learned by chanting the alphabet,
times tables, spellings of words or even historical facts. Learning by rote
involves the repetition of sounds and this auditory repetition secures
the memory. It is very effective for examination revision if the learner
is auditory.
Dictation
Finally, the act of saying something out loud – a revision fact or a new
name, for example – can act as an effective memory strategy.
Mixed memory strategies

Some key memory strategies rely on visual, auditory and kinaesthetic
methods:
• Peg word memory system
• Neuro-Linguistic Programming.
Peg word memory system

The peg word memory system is a traditional memory method which
uses visual and auditory responses to harness memory. First, learn these
rhymes.
one bun
two shoe
three tree
four door
five hive
six sticks
seven heaven
eight gate
nine wine
ten hen.
A visual association has to be created between the number and the
rhyming word attached to it, so this memory strategy does require a feat
of memory before it can be used, but this extra act of remembering is
worthwhile because once secure, this memory strategy can be extremely
useful.
Once the rhyme is in place, the list of things to remember can be
pegged to it. For example, to remember the following list of French
vocabulary:
1. chambre (bedroom)
2. froid (cold)
3. J’habite (I live)
4. heureusement (luckily)
5. commerces (shops)
6. l’escalier (stairs)
7. maison (house)
8. Angleterre (England)
9. maintenant (now)
10. nouvelle (new).
This is how the peg word memory system will be used:

1. A bun in the middle of a four poster bed in a bedchamber
(chambre) with the letters ‘RE’ iced on top to prompt a reminder
of the correct ending of the word.
2. A shoe shivering in the snow, saying ‘ffffffffffffffrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr’ with
the label ‘oid’ on the front of the shoe.
3. A tree house in a tree with the learner waving a banner from it
with the letters in huge capitals, ‘J’HABITE’.
4. A door with a lucky rabbit foot hanging from it and the nameplate:
‘Heur Euse’. Are you ‘ment’ to knock before entering?
5. A beehive with lots of miniature shops with bees selling, for
example, vegetables, flowers and clothes to other bees. A big sign
at the top of the hive says ‘Commerces’.
6. A staircase made of ‘sticks’ but moving like an ‘escal’ator. As you
move up the escalator, you see a sign on each step which reads ‘ier’.
7. Heavenly clouds with a house floating on them. The house has
three upstairs windows and two downstairs windows with a door
in the middle. Each window and door has a poster with a letter
attached to it, reading (you’ve guessed): M-A-I-S-O-N.
8. A white and red gate with a mathematical angle drawn horizontally
and vertically: ‘angle’. The gate is being moved quickly: it ‘terre’s
across the earth, leaving deep ridges behind it.
9. Now the ‘main’ ‘tenant’ in a farmhouse is sitting at the table
drinking a bottle of red wine.
10. The new hen is reading a book, a ‘nouvelle’.
The peg word memory system can also be used for organisation.
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)

Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is a useful visual and kinaesthetic
memory tool for people with dyspraxia. Here is an example of how a
teacher would use it for spelling:
• Having established which word is being learned, ask the learner
what they ate for breakfast. In which direction does the learner
look while answering? Is it, for example:
ºº left and upwards?
ºº down and to the right?

ºº straight ahead?
• Ask the learner to write the word. If the word is spelled incorrectly,
discuss where the error lies and dictate the word to be learned,
while the learner writes it.
• Ask the learner to hold the paper with the word on it at the angle
where they looked when answering the breakfast question.
• The learner should visualise a picture image of the word with a
colour for the initial letters which precede the first vowel (onset) and
a different colour for the first vowel and subsequent letters (rime).
• Ask the learner to write the word again, using different colours for
onset and rime.
• Discuss the word shape. Does it have any distinguishing letter
characteristics?
• Encourage the learner to draw a cloud round the word.
• Ask the learner to write the word again, but with their eyes closed.
This shows visual processing and kinaesthetic skills in action
because without the sensory input of the eye, the word will format
with surprising consistency.
• Ask the learner to write the word backwards. Thinking about the
letter sequence backwards will help to reinforce the spelling. If the
word cannot be written backwards, the visual picture of the word
is less secure and it is less likely to be remembered.
• Encourage the learner to write the word regularly in a sentence for
the next few weeks, to secure the spelling.
This strategy originated in the 1970s with the creation of Neuro-
Linguistic Programming (Bandler and Grinder 1979, p.33).
If all other memory strategies fail, there is always one remaining
strategy, used by students since writing was invented: write what is to be
remembered on the hand!
Sleeplessness
Dyspraxia is commonly associated with:
• wakefulness – disturbing easily from slumber
• sleeplessness – difficulties falling asleep.
Interestingly, these traits are also found on the autism spectrum.

Sleeplessness and wakefulness, for the dyspraxic, could be induced by:
• neurological inefficiencies in sleep transition
• sensory factors linked to auditory processing
• difficulty ‘winding down’ for sleep as a result of a dyspraxia-
induced ‘fight or flight’ state of tension
• physical effects of dyspraxia, such as hypotonia, hypermobility and
abdominal discomfort
• stress and anxiety
• hyperactive or repetitive thoughts
• fatigue.
The dyspraxic inability to sleep must be connected to some extent with
the alertness of the dyspraxic mind. Although it is a disadvantage to
be woken up by the slightest sound every night, throughout the night,
might this alertness partially account for the survival of the dyspraxic trait
in society? How useful were these dyspraxic individuals in ancient times
when wakefulness was key to surviving the night? The instant wakefulness
of the dyspraxic allows for an alertness and cognitive productivity at
times when others are shaking off the sluggishness and mental sloth
in the aftermath of waking up from deep slumber. Could this ease of
transition between sleep and wakefulness also mean that dyspraxics rouse
quickly after anaesthetic? The wakefulness of the dyspraxic mind could
be a strength as well as a burden.
Sleepiness
Conversely, the dyspraxic who struggles to sleep at night can have
difficulties in getting up to go to school, college or university in the
mornings. The best thing I can recommend for this situation is a vibrating
pillow alarm clock to activate when it is time to wake up.
Strategies for sleep

Lack of sleep, in an academic context, will inevitably result in concentration
difficulties and poor performance, so strategies for sleep are particularly
important for the learner with dyspraxia.
There are many strategies that can help with sleep:
• hazard warning sign
• counting/visiting rooms
• noise acceptance
• deep breathing
• eight hours a night?
• three hours is enough
• regular bed times
• napping.
Different strategies work for different individuals, so (like so many of
the strategies that are discussed in this book) sleep strategies have to be
experimented with. If a sleep strategy does not work at first, it could, in
fact, work with practice. It is certainly worth having an arsenal of tried
and tested sleep strategies to deflect the highly active dyspraxic mind
from wakefulness at nighttime.
Hazard warning sign

Stop thinking! The endless rambling of the mind causes sleeplessness.
When a negative thought or a negative, repetitive thought comes into
the mind, a red warning triangle can be visualised to quell the thought.
Visualising a red warning triangle can also be used to appease anxious
thoughts.
Counting/visiting the rooms in a house

Traditionally, it has been believed that repetitive counting of sheep leads
to sleep. Not everyone is numerate, however, and it follows that not
everyone will want to count sheep to get to sleep. Another similar strategy
(which relates to the memory palace in Chapter Five) is to visit a house,
any house, real or imaginary. Each room in the house can be visited,
refurnished and decorated. The house can be redesigned completely or a
street of houses, or even a palace, can be designed. This repetitive internal

designing ought to lull the mind into sleep.
Noise acceptance
Dyspraxia expert Maureen Boon writes that, ‘Dyspraxic children can
show an oversensitivity to sensory stimulation, whether in response to
noise or tactile stimuli’ (Boon 2000, p.68). It is ironic that as a result
of auditory processing difficulties, although people with dyspraxia can
struggle to comprehend what is being said during the day, they can
equally have an extraordinarily heightened awareness of noise at night.
Many adults will remember sharing houses or halls of residence with
dyspraxic or autistic companions: the person who was crotchety to the
point of psychosis about noise late at night.
To sleep through noise and not lie awake becoming increasingly
stressed out and angry about the noise disturbance can involve:
• accepting sounds, even people’s voices
• tolerating sounds rather than becoming agitated about them and
abandoning any false convictions that noise makes it impossible
to sleep
• aiming for snooze time rather than deep sleep.
For the adult dyspraxic, the baby-rearing years can lead to something of
a revelation regarding sleeplessness. Being awakened by small mammals
in nappies, without any concessions, throughout the night, can result in
the slightly surprising discovery that in spite of severe sleep deprivation,
life is still there to be lived.
Breathing
Breathing is key to falling asleep. One has to be relaxed to sleep, and for
the dyspraxic individual, the dyspraxic condition seems to lend itself to
being fired up, taut and ready for action. If the mind continuously drifts
on to the next thought that is passing through, then the endless stream
of thoughts can be counterbalanced by simply focusing on each breath.
Here is a useful breathing strategy to encourage sleep.
Count breaths from one to ten, i.e. one breath in and one breath out,
two breaths in and two breaths out…up to ten. Every time the mind
is distracted with a thought, begin to breathe at one again. (See also
strategies for breathing in section on strategies for calm in Chapter Six.)
Eight hours a night?

Worry about not getting enough sleep keeps people awake! Dyspraxia
is no exception. The lightness of sleep experienced by some dyspraxics
means that they can quite easily be woken several times in the night
and find it difficult to sleep again. According to the National Sleep
Foundation, not only do different age groups require different amounts
of sleep, but individuals also vary in how much sleep is needed (National
Sleep Foundation 2013). That is why it is not really worth fretting about
getting eight hours of sleep a night, if six hours is sufficing without
causing overwhelming fatigue during the day. A review of American
Cancer Society surveys by researchers Shawn Youngstedt and Daniel
Kripke found that the people who slept for seven hours a night had the
greatest longevity, greater than those who slept less, but also greater than
those who slept more (National Sleep Foundation 2013).
Three hours is enough

This is the most effective sleep strategy that I have ever used. It has served
me well for many years. The basic premise is this: three hours of sleep a
night is enough to survive. If I stop fretting about getting seven or eight
hours of uninterrupted sleep a night and just lie awake, literally waiting
for sleep to come, without panicking about not sleeping, then I will sleep
and I usually get a reasonable amount of sleep. A person who goes to bed
at eleven and gets up at seven could stay awake until four o’clock in the
morning using this sleep strategy, without worrying about losing sleep.
Of course, it could not work for everyone indefinitely, but it can calm
fears about not getting enough sleep and help to re-establish a regular
sleep pattern.
Regular bed times

Regular bed times are inevitably conducive to better sleep patterns. People
who go to bed late, allowing for a minimal night’s sleep before work the
next day, often tell those who retire to bed early to ‘live a little’, even
although the ‘late to bed’ individuals are often exhausted during daylight
hours. The key is to have a regular pattern for sleep, so that the body’s
clock is adjusted for sleep at sleep times. There are free phone apps that
monitor sleep to show the sleep cycles which occur each night. Based on
the individual’s sleep cycles and getting up time, phone apps can predict
the optimum time for going to bed and getting a decent night’s sleep.
I have known many, many students over the years who work all night
and sleep all day. For some people that does work really well and they
are at their most productive in the middle of the night. For some it works
exceptionally well as a strategy for coping with the all-night noise of
student accommodation! For others it does not work at all – they become
sleep deprived and visibly exhausted, with dark circles under their eyes
and pasty faces. But they also tend to become more stressed because the
more tired one becomes, the more difficult it is to be rational and the more
difficult it is to cope with the minutiae of day-to-day living. Also, the all-
nighters will have to adjust at some point to an ordinary workplace day.
Napping
Naps during the day can compensate for lack of sleep at night. According
to Laura Barnett, Churchill, Thatcher, Clinton and even Einstein insisted
on a nap in the afternoon. Churchill believed that an afternoon nap
helped him to think more clearly (The Guardian 2011b). Unfortunately,
of course, for the sleepy dyspraxic, struggling to concentrate during
afternoon lessons, this strategy is something of a non-starter. For the
university student with a more flexible timetable, maybe a nap is more of
a possibility.
Primitive sleep patterns

Primitive man tended to sleep with naps, taking his opportunity to
sleep when there was nothing else going on, just like domesticated
dogs. This requirement for eight hours of sleep at night is a relatively
recent phenomenon for humans. Historian Roger Ekirch has amassed a
large amount of evidence that people used to have a wakeful period in
the middle of the night when they might get up and do chores or visit
neighbours. There was a first and a second sleep each night, with a two-
hour interlude. Ekirch found that this sleep pattern seemed to begin to
disappear in the 17th century (Hegarty 2012). This more primitive sleep
function could explain those wakeful times that humans still experience
during their nightly sleep cycle, a sleep disruption which is even more
acute for the noise-sensitive dyspraxic sleeper.
Sleep environment
Sleeping environment needs to be factored into strategising for sleepless
nights. The following factors can be considered:
• Supportive, comfortable bedding, including mattress and pillow.

• One pillow may be physically more comfortable than two pillows.
• Reduce room temperature.
• Are curtains or blinds substantial enough to reduce light? Does
lighting from outside come into the room?
• Wear foam ear plugs for noise reduction.
Various other strategies

According to the National Sleep Foundation, experts also recommend the
following:
• Stop smoking.
• Regular exercise.
• Abstain from alcohol or caffeine near to sleep time.
• Avoid food for a few hours before sleeping.
• Relax during the hour before going to bed with, for example, a
bath or calming music.
• If possible, bedrooms should be for sleep and not for computer use
or watching television.
Obsessive thoughts
According to the Dyspraxia Foundation, phobias, addictions, obsessiveness
and compulsiveness can be associated with dyspraxia (Dyspraxia
Foundation 2014f ).
It could be argued that for the dyspraxic, obsessive thoughts result
from a need to be in control of life, because of the multiple difficulties and
resulting anxieties which dyspraxia may bring. However, because of the
neural nature of dyspraxia, it could equally be the case that the obsessive
thoughts and obsessions which some dyspraxics experience are yet another
result of inefficiencies in neural connectivity in the brain. Certainly, it is
thought by some scientists that obsessive compulsive disorder is caused
by neural circuits triggering repetitive thoughts and behaviour patterns
(Graybiel and Rauch 2000, p.343). Unfortunately, obsessive, repetitive
thinking patterns will be another cause of dyspraxic inattentiveness in the
classroom and lecture theatre, hindering concentration and hampering
progress. These thought processes need to be challenged, not only to
enable better concentration for learning but to give the learner with
dyspraxia some peace of mind.
Obsessive thoughts seem to divide into two specific types of thinking
for the dyspraxic (and there is some overlap with autism spectrum
disorders, particularly Asperger syndrome):
• Obsessiveness with routine and rituals.
• Distorted thinking can occur in relation to past events and
conversations, and these thoughts can be repeated obsessively.
Obsession with routine

Anchors of routine and order in everyday life are a perfectly natural way
of coping with the chaos which dyspraxia brings. However, there are
times when a fear of change can have an impact on living life to the full
and on the future, and this is when a dedication to order and routine
should be challenged.
For the dyspraxic mindset, times of transition can be stressful. This
would encompass the inevitable transitions that occur during adolescence
and early adult life, with change from:
• junior to secondary school
• secondary school to sixth-form or FE college
• college to university
• further or higher education to the workplace.
In Anne Tyler’s novel, Searching for Caleb, the heroine always tells people
to ‘Change …Take the change. Always change’ (Tyler 1992, p.29). ‘Make
a change’ is a useful mantra for the change-averse dyspraxic to consider
because change and destiny are intertwined. Changes, both major and
minor, can lead to more life opportunities, and the more change is
embraced, the more dynamic life can become. For dyspraxics at secondary
school, the positivity of change has to be acknowledged and sensitivity
to change discussed – change needs to be embraced, but prepared for in
advance as well. And however ‘scary’ some of the unavoidable transitions
of adolescence might be, these changes of habitat, academic environment
and social groupings can be positively life affirming. Without such change,
adult life for the change-averse dyspraxic could be a very dull, colourless
affair, and that could give real cause for persistent depression.
Repetitive thinking
Scottish musician and co-founder of the Scottish Dyspraxion Roy Moller
gives an extremely apt description of repetitive dyspraxic thinking:
‘The dyspraxic mind tends to “riff” on people’s remarks, examining the
implications of what they’re saying, honing in on cliché, like a habitually
zealous customs officer – waving very little through unexamined’ (Moller
n.d.). This can mean that while a situation or conversation is occurring, it
can seem perfectly acceptable, friendly and harmless and does not require
a negative or combative reaction. However, a few hours later or even the
next day, the dyspraxic mind will often begin to dwell on one thing that
was said, that maybe did cause discomfort at the time, and that interaction
will be treated separately from the context in which it was said or the
outcome of the conversation. The mind will keep thinking back to the
conversation endlessly, until another conversation or incident takes its
place, to feed the dyspraxic brain’s seemingly endless desire for anxiety
and disturbance.
Strategies for dealing with repetitive thinking

This overly officious and inaccurate conversation monitor which exists
solely in the dyspraxic’s mind can be manipulated and challenged by
using the following strategies:
• Thought recognition
• Memory manipulation
• Accept things as they are
• Visualisation – film format.
Thought recognition
The ‘riffing’ aspect of the dyspraxic mind tends to move from being
offended by one person, to being offended by another person, so it is
important to adopt a more reflective stance and to learn to recognise these
negative thinking patterns as soon as they occur (and for the dyspraxic, they
can occur very frequently). The tendency to be an over-zealous customs
officer with the events of daily life can be used to advantage. Thoughts
can be monitored as they occur. Whenever a repetitive, negative thought
comes to mind, it can be banished by the thought: I will think about this later.
Psychologist Laurence Hirschberg’s 2013 article entitled ‘Do you

have your thoughts, or do your thoughts have you?’ describes how every
time a thought or action is repeated neural connections are strengthened
and are then more likely to recur, ‘Like well worn paths in the woods’
(Hirschberg 2013). Unfortunately, in an endless ‘Catch-22’, neural
pathways will be set up in the dyspraxic mind, exacerbating anxieties
and negative thinking. Hirschberg offers an easy and effective solution
to challenge negative thoughts, simply by recognising repetitive thought
patterns and moving the mind into the present moment. By moving,
‘what you are feeling, sensing, or experiencing, you are starting to build
a new path’ (Hirschberg 2013).
Several hours after any social interaction or day at work, school or
university, the mind may well begin its habitual ‘riff’ about something
that was said or done. However, if Hirschberg’s approach is adopted, then
the mind can become accustomed to recognising and dismissing negative,
repetitive thinking patterns, in the same way as it becomes accustomed to
repeating certain thoughts. Negative thoughts can be dismissed repeatedly
until a more positive thought occurs in the mind’s endless narrative,
and although negative thoughts will always recur, it is empowering to
understand that mental control can be exerted over this type of thinking.
Memory manipulation
The past is finished, it cannot be changed and one person’s perspective
on a memory, including a conversation, is always different from another
person’s memory. When reflecting negatively on a conversation or
incident, it is worth asking:
• How much has the dyspraxic mind distorted the original
conversation or incident in the several hours after it occurred?
• How much out of context has the incident been taken?
When fretting about something that has happened, certain thinking
strategies can be useful for reframing the context:
• Revisit the memory of an event in context. Think about everything
that happened, without simply isolating one incident or a few
stray words.
• Focus on positive recollections of the memory or the person
involved.
• It is easy to take offence but, in fact, everyone says the ‘wrong’

thing or something they do not really mean or have not had a
chance to think through properly.
Accept things as they are

Be stoical. This ancient philosophy can be used to dyspraxic advantage.
Instead of negative, critical thinking about things, even quite minor
things, that have happened or situations that have occurred, stoicism
encourages greater acceptance of what life brings. It is reassuring to
know that even in ancient times people suffered from the same mental
difficulties as modern man.
• In the first century AD, Epictetus wrote, ‘Men are disturbed not
by things, but by the views which they take of things’ (Epictetus
2014, v.5).
• Roman Emperor and philosopher Marcus Aurelius wrote, ‘Put
from you the belief that “I have been wronged”, and with it will
go the feeling. Reject your sense of injury, and the injury itself
disappears’ (Aurelius 2004, p.31).
Visualisation – film format

Visualisation strategies can be used for controlling distorted memories of
events and conversations. When recollecting an event or a conversation
and giving it that ‘spin’ which the dyspraxic mind so often gives, it can
be useful to revisualise what happened, as if watching a film and seeing
oneself in the third person. It can, in fact, be a revelation to realise that
not everyone recollects in the first person. Neuro-Linguistic Programming
(NLP) (developed by Richard Bandler and John Grinder in the 1970s)
recognises that many people remember scenes from their lives as if they
are watching themselves in a film. Inevitably, remembering in the third
person is a more detached, less involved way of re-experiencing the past
and hence a useful skill to learn for the hypersensitive dyspraxic person
who might be unaccustomed to anything other than first-person thinking.
Some other strategies for tackling negative, repetitive thinking are:
• To never look back and reflect on the past.
• Mindfulness meditation. (See the section on strategies for calm in

Chapter Six.)
• Hazard warning sign. (See the section on strategies for sleep earlier
in this chapter.)
CHAPTER SIX
THE DYSPRAXIC MIND
Emotional Consequences
As the brain evolves in teenage and early adult life, dyspraxia seems to
become more complex in its manifestation, impacting on emotional well-
being. Research by Skinner and Piek, for example, has demonstrated the
mental impact of DCD, manifesting in lower self-worth, greater anxiety
and weaker social support than non-DCD peers (even when the child is
still at junior school) (Skinner and Piek 2001, p.73). This chapter (and
the sections in Chapter Five on sleeplessness and obsessive thinking)
contrast with Chapters Three and Four as the focus is on life outside the
education system because, for the dyspraxic, the effects of dyspraxia are
pervasive, affecting all aspects of life. However, although this chapter
does not directly address the impact of the emotional effects of dyspraxia
in the classroom, it is hoped that strategies covered will have a positive
effect in the classroom too.
Where the role of the occupational therapist (OT) is of primary
importance for physical dyspraxia, psychological support becomes
increasingly important as the child gets older. Parents of infant school
children are sometimes told that their child’s dyspraxia has been cured or
controlled for the future after a course of coordination exercises from an
OT, leaving the child to move forward into adolescence coping alone with
the emotional and social effects of dyspraxia. Although the OT is often
the first source of assessment and remedial strategies, the psychiatrist or
psychologist can play an invaluable role in providing coping strategies for
the adolescent or adult dyspraxic.
The Dyspraxia Foundation website lists emotional difficulties
associated with dyspraxia:
• sleep difficulties
• self-esteem issues and emotional volatility
• depression, stress and anxiety.
135
Many of these characteristics are not unique to people with dyspraxia

and not even the most severe case will have all the above characteristics.
But adults with dyspraxia will tend to have more than their fair share of
co-ordination and perceptual difficulties.
(Dyspraxia Foundation 2014f )
The emotional consequences of dyspraxia may be partly neurological or
genetic, but are also psychological, resulting from the difficulties caused by
dyspraxia. For example, difficulties with social skills could be attributed
to neurological immaturity, but are also clearly connected with the social
experiences of the child with dyspraxia. Stress and anxiety could have
a genetic basis, but are also psychological states of emotion. Emotional
consequences of dyspraxia can lead to:
• emotional volatility
• low self-esteem
• anxious thoughts
• stress
• social difficulties.
Emotional challenges faced by adolescent dyspraxics can easily become
allied to academic progress and may become barriers to:
• academic learning
• academic performance
• living a fully fulfilling life.
All of the emotional challenges faced by the learner with dyspraxia can
result in a lack of fulfilment and wasted potential. Dyspraxic lives can be
ruined if the mental consequences of dyspraxia are not addressed.
Emotional volatility
Although some of the emotional consequences of dyspraxia may have a
neural base, it could also be that the frustration which dyspraxia causes,
both physically and mentally, makes the sorely tried dyspraxic irritable,
prone to rages and extremes of emotion. The mental and physical
unpredictability of dyspraxia can represent for some an endless, emotional
rollercoaster ride, leading to real anxiety and emotional volatility. The
refusal of the body to cooperate and perform in a coordinated way
can lead to frustration and anger. There might also be rage at a world
The Dyspraxic Mind: Emotional Consequences 137
that cannot be controlled, a world in which, at times, the person with

dyspraxia can be labelled as ‘useless’ simply because of a lack of physical
dexterity and prowess. Fluctuations of temperament can be extreme for
some dyspraxics, whatever their age.
The two key states of emotional volatility which seem to be associated
with dyspraxia are:
• overreacting
• irritability.
Both of these emotions can cause difficulty in an educational environment.
All the emotional states of dyspraxia are interconnected. Irritability
may be caused by stress, frustration or anxiety so when, for example,
stress is tackled successfully, a result could be reduced irritability.
Overreaction
Overreaction is caused by strength of emotions and results in impulsive
behaviour and emotional extremes. This will manifest as being:
• easily upset
• hypersensitive
• negative
• over-dramatic
• argumentative.
And having:
• uncontrolled reactions, even to minor incidents
• instantaneous reactions without engaging in rational thought first
• a tendency to react instantly to any situation.
A tendency to overreact can be checked by:
• strategies from the anxiety and stress sections
• self-awareness – identifying the ‘triggers’ for overreaction
• a ‘wait and see’ procrastination approach – there are times when
it is better to ‘keep your head down’ than to be a ‘drama queen’
• remembering that for every negative, tricky dyspraxic day, there
will be a good day when life moves forward more easily and
situations are managed in a more straightforward way.
Irritability
Anger or irritability should not be ‘bottled up’ but controlled: there are
times when irritation or anger is necessary but there are also situations
socially and academically where anger needs to be controlled as a damage-
limitation exercise. Colley advises dyspraxics to ‘master impulsiveness
and anger’ (Colley 2006, p.51).
To contain irritability:
• Be accepting and observant of each day, whatever the mood –
there will always be ‘tetchy’ days.
• Be observant of anger or irritation as it develops (see section on
repetitive thinking).
• Try not to overreact to people or situations.
• Adopt a calm approach – this will achieve more than aggression.
(‘A soft answer turneth away wrath’, Proverbs 15 v.1, Revised English
Bible 1989)
(See also the section on strategies for calm, page 145.)
Low self-esteem
Dyspraxic people are not born with low self-esteem but the clumsy
episodes, poor performance in physical activities and, at times, the
impossibility of performing simple physical tasks can be demoralising.
There must be a moment of acute self-awareness for the child with
dyspraxia at school – the moment when they do something clumsy, when
a chair is tripped over or a ball is not caught and the discomfort of this
moment will be exacerbated during the school years by the presence
of a fairly large audience to capture and maybe even to ridicule every
physical mishap. By their teens, or even while still at junior school, it is
almost inevitable that the child with dyspraxia will become increasingly
self-conscious about their physicality and could easily begin to suffer
from poor self-esteem and a lack of confidence. Unfortunately, these
traits are not easily altered and seem to become more deeply entrenched,
particularly in the teenage years.
Self-esteem will affect not only how a person thinks about themselves
but also their interactions with other people and their perceptions of
how others see them. These perceptions may be very negative or even
inaccurate. The three main causes of lack of self-esteem for dyspraxics as
they grow older are probably:
• lack of physical proficiency

• learning difficulties
• other people’s reactions.
Bullying
In Kaplan and Sadock’s Concise Textbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,
Benjamin and Virginia Sadock note the self-esteem issues which can
develop for adolescents with coordination difficulties, referring also
to the self-esteem issues which may result from bullying (Sadock and
Sadock 2009, p.45). People in any environment and at any age will bully
partly because they are uneasy with anyone who does not fit in to a social
‘norm’. Unfortunately, children (and adults) will often follow the lead
of the group which is ostracising an individual and the individual will,
consequently, become more isolated and less confident of their social skills.
For dyspraxics, bullying can be particularly difficult to handle because
words can literally fail them. It should not really be the dyspraxic’s purpose
at school to deal with verbal bullies or silent bullying, when there are so
many other issues to be tackled in a classroom environment. They do,
however, need strategies for dealing with bullies, such as ‘walking away’,
avoidance or pre-planned verbal responses. The Dyspraxia Foundation
has published two short guides on bullying:
• Seeing Your Way Through: Beat the Bullies – A Guide for Children
(Dyspraxia Foundation (2013b))
• Seeing Your Way Through: Bullying – A Guide for Parents (Dyspraxia
Foundation (2013c)).
Strategies for tackling low self-esteem

There is an arsenal of strategies, both physical and mental, which can be
used to challenge lack of self-esteem and confidence issues. It would be
irresponsible to claim that any strategy could completely eradicate the
emotional challenges faced by students with dyspraxia, but practising and
assimilating some of these strategies can make school, university and life
generally, a little easier:
• visualisation techniques
• adopting someone else’s skin
• posture
• experiment
• positive affirmations.
Visualisation techniques
A dyslexic neighbour once told me that she finds she can do things she
does not think she is going to be able to do, if she visualises herself doing
them successfully. Athletes often use this type of imagery, and according
to sport psychologist David Yukelson of Penn State University, it can also
be used as a coping skill, a communication tool or when learning a new
task. Yukelson describes visualisation as creating a vivid, visual image,
using emotions, senses and adrenaline, which should then strengthen
neural pathways (Yukelson n.d. p.1).
Of course, this technique is not about eliminating the physical
difficulties of dyspraxia, but it is about challenging the mindscapes that
accompany it:
• Lack of self-esteem and self-confidence.
• Fear of being ridiculed for making a mistake.
• Reluctance to participate in group activities.
• Aversion to trying anything new, for fear of failing.
• Avoidance of social interaction.
By harnessing the ability that human beings have to change their thought
patterns, visualisation techniques can be a valuable tool for challenging
negative self-esteem and boosting self-confidence.
Adopting someone else’s skin

American author Jonathan Safran Froer has to be the best example of
assuming another identity to cope, at those anxious, stressful times when
he is simply unable to be himself. When Jonathan Safran Froer was nine
years old he was caught in an explosion in a chemistry lesson at summer
camp. For the next three years he suffered from what he has described
as a nervous breakdown. In an interview with Suzie Mackenzie, Froer
explains that, when he was 12, he realised that his coping mechanism
needed to be dissociation, and he achieves this by imagining himself to
be someone who can cope with whatever situation he is dealing with.
For example, as an adult he has become a writer and is expected to give
readings. He suffers from stage fright, so when he has to speak in public,

he simply pretends to be someone else (The Guardian 2005).
Posture
Most people are born with perfect posture. Until they are at infant school,
children will sit in a perfectly natural position with a beautifully straight
back, which is not forced into position. Most teenagers and adults seem
to lose this perfect posture as they become more self-aware.
Writer and educator Mark Rowh refers to a 2009 study by
Naumann et al. that cited clothing and posture as influencing first
impressions (Rowh 2012, p.32).
As discussed in Chapter Two, there are various causes, both physical
and mental, of poor posture for the dyspraxic, and these postural
difficulties will have a physical impact in the classroom and an impact on
how an individual is perceived by others. For the dyspraxic who is ill at
ease with themselves, the effect on posture could, in fact, mean an endless
reinforcement of negative self-image as a result of the reactions of others.
And these ‘others’ are, of course, not responding to the dyspraxic as an
individual but to the self-image that is portrayed in their posture.
Health psychologist Kelly McGonigal discusses the effect of posture
on self-esteem in Psychology Today, referring to research into the influence
of posture on self-confidence. According to McGonical, Brion, Petty and
Wagner found that if a mock job application form was completed while
slumped in a chair, the mock-applicant would be less confident of their
suitability for the job, than the applicants who filled in the form while
sitting confidently, with good posture (McGonigal 2009).
Walking tall not only improves confidence but also improves the
image that is presented to other people. Alexander Technique taught me
to focus on having a long neck when walking. This particular technique
is a ‘quick fix’ for poor posture because by focusing on the head and
neck, better posture occurs automatically, without any strained attempts
to achieve good posture through a straight back (see also Chapter Two).
Experiment
Even the basic things which are learned in life, for example tying a shoelace
or telling the time, may take longer to learn for someone with dyspraxia
because of a lack of physical dexterity or slower automaticity for learning
new tasks. It is particularly easy for the dyspraxic to stop trying to learn
new skills and activities as a result of negative learning experiences in the
past, when at times they might have wondered whether a skill could ever
be acquired. It may take longer to learn something new but once a skill
or activity has been learned, the dyspraxic person will be just as adept as
anyone else. Practice and developing new skills are subtly connected with
self-esteem. This is why it is particularly important for the dyspraxic to
accept a challenge, to experiment and to persevere with new activities.
(See also the section on practice in Chapter Two, page 44.)
Positive affirmations
For the dyspraxic, the ability to learn and to succeed at different skills
and activities needs to be anchored in their thoughts because without the
acknowledgement that they can persevere and achieve, many dyspraxics
will simply ‘give up’ the will to learn or to try new things. To anchor
self-image, a mental checklist of physical achievements and cognitive
aptitudes could be used to counteract negative feelings about physical
difficulties and areas of mental weakness.
(See also the section on anchors on page143.)
Anxious thoughts
(See also ‘hazard warning sign’ in the sleeplessness section of Chapter Five,
page 125.)
Dyspraxia manifests in such a maelstrom of different ways, both
mentally and physically, that it is almost inevitable that the dyspraxic
individual will be an anxious individual. Research into anxiety and
behavioural difficulties in children diagnosed with DCD, by Michelle
Pratt and Elizabeth Hill, has supported the findings of earlier researchers,
that children with DCD develop high anxiety and emotional issues (Pratt
and Hill 2010).
Strategies for coping with anxious thoughts

As with all the traits associated with the dyspraxic mind, there is an
arsenal of weapons which can be used to combat anxiety. Of course,
anxious tendencies cannot be cured, but strategies for controlling anxiety
can be adopted. Dyspraxia plays unwitting mind games on the individual,
so mind games can be played to combat the dyspraxia:
• worry later
• double think
• anchors
• CBT techniques
• brain space.
(See also engaging the senses in the section on stress, on page 145.)
Worry later
Eckhart Tolle quotes the Indian philosopher Krishnamurti, whose secret
was this: ‘I don’t mind what happens’ (Tolle 2009, p.198). Anxiety and
worry tend to be about what will happen in the future, rather than what
is happening at this moment. Author Oliver Burkeman writes (with
reference to the ideas of leading psychotherapist Albert Ellis), ‘“What’s
the worst that could happen?” The answer is sometimes pretty bad. But it
is finitely bad, rather than infinitely terrifying, so there is always a chance
of coping with it’ (Burkeman 2012, p.210).
An effective tool for controlling anxiety is to defer the worry until later,
simply by thinking, ‘I will worry about that later.’ Eckhart Tolle writes:
Ask yourself what problem you have right now, not next year, tomorrow,
or five minutes from now. What is wrong with the moment? You can
always cope with the Now, but you can never cope with the future – nor
do you have to. The answer, the strength, the right action or the resource
will be there when you need it, not before, not after. (Tolle 2005, p.70)
Double think
Anxious or negative, repetitive thoughts can be controlled by examining
them in a more objective, less subjective way by asking the following
questions:
• Is there a different or more positive perspective on the situation?
• Are there more positive outcomes than the one I am dwelling on?
• What is the worst-case scenario and how would I cope?
Anchors
Anchors are a useful tool, often used in Neuro-Linguistic Programming
(Bandler and Grinder 1979). This method can be useful to store positive
memories to refer to when anxiety occurs. Anchoring is:
A process of associating an internal response (a desirable emotion) with

some internal or external trigger so that the response may be quickly,
and often covertly, reaccessed… [Like ships] we can choose where we
want to keep ourselves to avoid drifting into feelings of tension, stress or
worry, for example. (Knight 2010, p.169)
Here are some examples of anchors which can be used to challenge
preconceived worries:
Anxious thought Anchor
Agitation about another Remember something positive about that
person’s behaviour or person – something they have said or done or
something they have even a mannerism.
said.
Fear of a future event. Focus on an event or situation which caused
unnecessary apprehension.
Fear of change. Anchor to any positive changes that have
been made, for example changes of job or
relocation.
(See also positive affirmations in the section on low self-esteem, on page 142.)
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) techniques

Cognitive behavioural therapist Dr Robert Leahy listed the following
CBT techniques for taming anxiety, during an interview with Jon Ronson:
• Confront fears by ‘hoping’ that the worry will happen. [‘I hope
that I fail my exams!’]
• Recognise the difference between different types of worry: the
worries that can be solved and those that cannot be solved.
• Repeat the unresolvable worry until the mind becomes bored with
it and moves on to something else.
• Live in the present; don’t worry about the future.
(The Guardian 2013a)
Brain space
Sunny Jacobs, who spent more than 15 years in solitary confinement on
death row for a crime she had not committed, decided that she could be
imprisoned physically, but her mind remained her own space, which no
one else could control (The Guardian 2013b). Ultimately, every individual
has some control over their brain and the thoughts that present and the
effect that they have. Basically, humans are neurological machines and
machines are operable.
Sensory strategies can also be useful at times of anxiety. (See the stress
strategies section on engaging the senses below.)
Stress: strategies for calm

It is almost inevitable that the complex difficulties associated with
dyspraxia will result in stress, even for the mildly dyspraxic person. Here
are some strategies that can be used to ease stress:
• engaging the senses
• breathing
• mindfulness
• meditation.
Engaging the senses

Another strategy for dealing with the mind games dyspraxia plays is simply
to learn to focus on everything that is going on outside the conscious
mind, with its endless stream of egotistical thinking, by concentrating on
the five senses and what is being experienced in the present. The senses
can be used as an instant and easy calming tactic, for example:
• Focusing on what can be seen, heard, touched and smelled in the
immediate moment.
• ‘Thinking big’ by being aware of the infinite space beyond the
individual self, and its physical and mental constraints.
• An Alexander Technique exercise encourages the individual to
focus intention on, for example, the arm, thinking oneself outside
of the physical self.
• Square exercise: find something square to look at, for example a
picture. Keep visually tracking the square shape, round and round.
All of the strategies listed above could be described as ‘distraction’
techniques.
Breathing
There are many different breathing strategies which can be used to
reduce stress and induce relaxation generally, and these techniques can be
particularly useful just before:
• examinations
• interviews
• presentations.
Various breathing strategies

There are various calming, breathing techniques which can be useful for
combating stress:
• 555. Breathe in to the count of five, hold for the count of five, out
for the count of five.
• 7:11. Breathe in to the count of seven, out to the count of eleven.
• Count down from 100 in sevens. The mind can only really
concentrate on one thing at a time and the mental calculation
involved in counting down acts as a useful calming, distractive tool.
• To relax just before any stressful situation, for example before an
interview, before public speaking or even just before entering a
room full of doting relatives: ‘Breathe in for three counts; hold
breath for three counts; breathe out for three counts. Repeat,
increasing the counts’ (Marash 1947, p.35).
(See also breathing strategies in the section on sleeplessness in Chapter Five,
page 123.)
Deep breathing technique

Deep or belly breathing techniques can be particularly useful for tackling
stress. It is important, with deep breathing, to focus on breathing out
fully and then to relax and allow the in-breath to flow in from the
belly upwards. If the in-breath is taken actively and taken in the upper
chest this can trigger the ‘fight or flight’ mode, the result being a state
of permanent adrenaline-induced stress! Voice-coaching expert Barbara
Houseman taught me to breathe through the diaphragm using this deep
breathing technique:
• Place one hand on the stomach and the other hand lightly on the
chest bone.
• Breathe normally and notice movement of the hands.

• Ideally the movement should start in the belly and move gently up
towards the chest as if the lungs are filling from their base and are
doing so deep inside the body.
• To help this happen, breathe out fully as if sighing with contentment
or relief and let the belly fall in towards the spine, while the chest
gently melts rather than sharply drops.
• Relax the belly and let the breath fill up from the bottom again.
• This process is about taking the breath fully into the lungs, rather
than simply into the top of the lungs.
This technique is the best I have ever known for de-stressing, and the
simplest, harnessing something everyone has to do, every minute of our
lives. It takes practice though, and if in doubt about how to do it properly,
ask a voice expert.
Mindfulness
Recent research has found that mindfulness-based therapy is particularly
useful for reducing stress, anxiety and depression (Khoury et al. 2013).
In January 2012, as something of a New Year sweetener, BBC Breakfast
promoted mindfulness meditation and the effect it can have on positive
thinking and the reduction of stress and anxiety. When scanned by
neuroscientists, Buddhist monk Matthieu Ricard’s brain was found to have
a high level of activity in the part of his brain associated with positivity
(Sillito 2012). Ricard is an expert in meditative practice, so his brain scan
is evidence that meditation really is good for the mind.
Mindfulness tends to focus on the physical, including breathing. As
the thoughts pass through the mind during mindfulness practice, each
thought, although noted, is simply not pursued. The aim is to be:
• more observant
• less self-absorbed
• more detached from stressful, negative or anxious thoughts.
Mindfulness is a flexible technique for reducing stress, which can be
practised:
• anywhere
• anytime
• sitting or walking.
Mindfulness can be practised fleetingly, for example while walking along

a corridor or waiting for a lesson or lecture. Or it can be practised for
longer, with a 10- or 20-minute session at the beginning or end of
each day.
Meditation practitioner Eric Harrison of the Perth Meditation
Centre writes that meditation or mindfulness involves two skills, based
simultaneously on relaxation and attention:
• ‘learning how to relax quickly and consciously’
• ‘“thought control” or paying attention…becoming able to direct
our thoughts, to switch thoughts and abandon thoughts, and to
wind back mental activity at will.’
(Harrison n.d.)
The result is physical relaxation and mental calmness. And it is that focus
on the physical and on the mental that makes mindfulness so well suited
to individuals with dyspraxia.
Three-minute meditation
An informal, three-minute mindfulness meditation can be done anywhere,
at any time of day. Psychologist and director of Oxford University’s
Mindfulness Centre Professor Mark Williams has a brief video guide to
a three-minute meditation (Williams 2014). In brief, the technique for
Williams’s three minute breathing space is:
Step 1
• Focus on the present moment:
ºº thoughts
ºº emotions
ºº feelings in body.
• Accept thoughts, emotions and feelings as they are in the present
moment.
Step 2
• Focus on the sensation of the in-breath and the out-breath.
• Guide the mind back to the breath if it wanders away.
Step 3
• Expand awareness to body as a breathing whole and to sensations
in the body.
• Accept things as they are. Be open to the moment and what is

here, now.
Ten-minute mindfulness meditation

As part of the BBC Breakfast Happiness Challenge in January 2011,
Andy Puddicombe of HeadSpace demonstrated a ten-minute mindfulness
exercise, which can be found at www.bbc.co.uk/news/12263893
(Sillito 2011).
Mindfulness visualisation
Visualisation can also be used as part of a longer mindfulness meditation,
for example imagine walking towards a favourite place and sitting down
to enjoy it, while still breathing slowly.
An example of a visual mindfulness meditation is Jon Kabat-Zinn’s
Lake Meditation:
• Visualise a lake at different times of the day and in different weather.
• Imagine being the lake in its entirety with its changing flow.
(Kabat-Zinn 2004, p.141)
Visualisation can be tacked onto the three-minute mindfulness meditation.
Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)

Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) was developed by John
Teasdale, Zindel Segal and Mark Williams, originating from Jon Kabat-
Zinn’s Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction programme. Williams went on
to develop an eight-week MBCT course, which is used by the NHS. For
details and guidance on this eight-week programme, see Mark Williams
and Danny Penman’s book, Mindfulness: a practical guide to finding peace in
a frantic world (Williams and Penman 2011).
Social difficulties
Social effects
The social difficulties associated with dyspraxia should not be
underestimated, and will have an impact on other areas of life. These
difficulties can be exacerbated early in life, at a stage when physical
performance in the playground and on the playing field is so very
important socially. Kaplan and Sadock’s Concise Textbook of Child and
Adolescent Psychiatry mentions the difficulties that individuals with DCD
have in social relationships with peers, resulting from lack of sporting

prowess (Sadock and Sadock 2009, p.45).
‘Difference’ is fundamental to social difficulties for the dyspraxic. It is
inevitable that dyspraxia will result in a level of non-conformity because
the dyspraxic person is physically and mentally ‘different’. Most dyspraxics
will have friends and a social life but may be less comfortable in large
groups. Also, the more ‘conformist’ or traditional the environment, the
more likely it is that social rejection might occur for the non-conformist
dyspraxic, and the more acutely aware of social difficulties they will
become. If social experiences have been awkward at school, then these
experiences are likely to be repeated later on. Unfortunately, children (and
adults) will follow the lead of the group which is ostracising an individual
and the individual will become more isolated and less confident of their
social skills. Possibly, for student dyspraxics in tertiary education, it is
easier to escape overt labels such as ‘clumsy’ and to have access to a
broader catchment of friends than they would within the confines of a
community school. (See also the bullying section earlier in this chapter,
page 139.)
Social difficulties could result from neurological immaturities, as well
as the emotional consequences of other people’s reactions and behaviour.
According to teacher and author Geoff Brookes, dyspraxics will ‘struggle
to pick up non-verbal signals or misread the tone of others. They might
take things too literally’ (Brookes 2007, p.109). Auditory processing
difficulties and tactile sensitivity might also affect social interaction.
Effects of dyspraxia on social skills might include:
• inclination to interrupt
• impulsiveness
• oversensitivity
• self-consciousness
• being over-emotional
• shyness
• being easily offended, resulting in ‘dropping’ friends
• distractibility
• sensitivity to physical proximity and contact
• tactlessness.
There might also be difficulties with:
• recognising social cues
• comprehending facial expressions

• controlling own body language
• understanding body language of others
• eye contact
• conversation
• listening
• discriminating between friendship and polite disengagement.
Other people’s social reactions are not, however, necessarily personal.
Sharon Sayler writes that dislike of others can result from reactions to body
language cues (Sayler 2010). These reactions are innate and, therefore,
dislike is not necessarily based on personality or conviviality. For people
with dyspraxia, appropriate body language and eye contact cues can
be difficult to understand, and this can be a further factor contributing
to social difficulties. Innate social difficulties could also become more
dominant as a result of negative social experiences, and the outcome
could be that the dyspraxic might become nervous around other people.
This could lead to fickleness in friendships, a lack of trust and difficulties
in establishing strong friendships. Geoff Brookes acknowledges that for
the dyspraxic, ‘Uncertainty in relationships with their peers can mean that
they are not sure how genuine others are, so isolation and loneliness can
be inevitable’ (Brookes 2007, p.110).
It is worth noting that an important social strength is strongly
associated with dyspraxia, and that is the ability to be hugely empathic
and sensitive to other people. Possibly, an awareness of others is
heightened by the difficulties caused by dyspraxia. This means that in
the right context, others may seek the dyspraxic out for their empathy,
creating an instinctive social connection.
Social burden
Dyspraxia carries something of a social burden because the dyspraxic does
not necessarily want to be isolated and is likely to be sociable, but may
lack the skills to socialise. An anonymous person with Asperger syndrome
writes that they like people, desperately want to have friends and a
partner, to be able to make conversation and to socialise, but quite simply
cannot accomplish these things. This person’s anguish is heartfelt and
they argue that, for humans, the ability to interact socially is a basic need
(The Guardian 2011a).
Social skills strategies

People are not mindreaders, so nerves and anxieties can remain invisible,
hidden behind social strategies. There are many strategies which can be
used to compensate for or tackle social difficulties:
• first impressions
• eye contact
• conversation:
ºº timing
ºº interrupting
ºº different methods of conversing
ºº asking questions
ºº listening.
• focusing outwards:
ºº cameras out
ºº alternative realities.
• familiar strangers.
For social situations, key strategies to ease communication and reduce
stress or anxiety include:
• deep breathing
• focusing outwards
• listening.
First impressions
(See also the section on posture earlier in this chapter, page 141.)
First impressions are made in three to five seconds (Quast 2013)
and will influence future social interactions or success at interviews. First
impressions are based on:
• eye contact
• voice tone
• attire and grooming
• confidence of body language.
The key components of first impressions are all things that can be subject to
individual control. All of these things can be changed. Social psychologist
Amy Cuddy has researched the premise ‘Can you fake it until you make
it?’ and has found evidence that assuming a confident body pose can
actually result in greater confidence, leading her to conclude that it is, in
fact, possible to ‘fake it till you become it’ (Cuddy 2012).
Eye contact
People with dyspraxia may avoid eye contact or have difficulty gauging
how much eye contact is needed. Perhaps eye contact feels too personal
or intrusive, or a heightened neuro-sensitivity makes this type of
unspoken communication difficult. Eye contact is important because it
enables engagement, communication and connection with other people
but it needs to be carefully balanced because too much eye contact can be
unnerving and too little can suggest lack of confidence.
Ben Decker of San Francisco-based Decker Communications
writes that:
Recently, someone came into my office with eyes darting all around –
left, right, up and down. This person displayed a lack of confidence. And
what’s worse, it looked shifty, unsure, and a bit jittery. When I saw this,
I translated it into a lack of trust for this individual. I couldn’t help it –
nor can you…it’s an instinct, a feeling… Hold your gaze. (Decker 2014)
This demonstrates the importance of eye contact and how lack of eye
contact can result in misconceptions and affect an individual’s credibility.
It is unfortunate that preliminary personal judgements are made on eye
contact, rather than personalities, but humans are conditioned to make
quick judgements about strangers.
For the dyspraxic, there could well be something slightly insincere
or contrived about controlling eye contact, but eye contact is a crucial
component of social interaction, so it could be very useful to practise
different strategies for it. For one-to-one conversations, the eye contact
triangle could be a useful tool for a dyspraxic who is uncomfortable with
maintaining eye contact. Instead of making direct eye contact, focus on
a triangular facial area, around the eyes. This gives the illusion of eye
contact. Sharon Sayler describes two types of triangle:
• a triangle between the eyes and the forehead.
• an inverted triangle between the eyebrows and the nose.

According to Sayler, the first triangle is more appropriate for communication
in formal situations, while the second triangle is appropriate for social
communication (Sayler 2010).
Other strategies that can be used are:
• When talking, maintain eye contact to engage the listener, but
glance away briefly to gather thoughts or words.
• When listening, maintain eye contact to show engagement, but
glance away to visualise what is being heard.
• While briefly breaking eye contact, focus can be retained by
looking at the conversant’s face, using the eye triangle.
Eye contact is a prerequisite not only of one-to-one talking and listening,
but also of group communication. For group eye contact tactics, Kelly
Vandever, president of Communications for Everyone, recommends
gauging eye contact changes by stating a thought or finishing a sentence,
before moving eye contact to someone else in the group (Vandever 2014).
Conversation
Conversation is a particularly complicated social skill and for some
dyspraxics who have difficulty in planning and sequencing thoughts,
and associated difficulties with verbalising those thoughts, conversation
and ‘small talk’ can be challenging. It is ironic that dyspraxics who are
oversensitive about what is said to them spend a lot of time being tactless
through sheer awkwardness and an inability to think coherently from
moment to moment, and thus agonise afterwards not only about what has
been said to them but about what they have said to others!
In awkward social situations it should be helpful to remain:
• calm
• still
• focused
• aware of conversational cues and follow them.
And to remember to:
• acknowledge that others are equally responsible for the conversation
• allow other people to talk
• let other people prompt the conversation.

Some types of conversation are more difficult than others. The type of
unforced chatter which occurs naturally in, for example, a classroom can
be more straightforward than a chance encounter in the street, where
it is easy to say the wrong thing or use the wrong phraseology, or a
classroom question from a teacher when the mind might quite simply
fail to remember the right response. West distinguishes between
‘demand language’ (where a response is required and because thoughts
are elsewhere the verbal response required socially cannot be mustered)
and ‘spontaneous’ language, which can be less complicated because the
speaker is taking the initiative (West 1991, p.182).
Interrupting
One of the key weaknesses which some dyspraxics bring to social
situations is a capacity for interrupting. This could stem from:
• concentration issues
• an inability to recognise the cues that another person has finished
speaking
• auditory issues.
Dyspraxic champion Mary Colley writes that:
Sometimes we wait for the other speaker to draw breath and then blurt
out ideas we have not thought through. The way that we communicate
can be negative, competitive and self-centred. Our tendency to interrupt
and the lack of reciprocity can be frustrating for family, friends and
colleagues. (Colley 2006, p.49)
Timing
For the dyspraxic, closely connected with interrupting is difficulty
in judging timing of a conversation. Appropriate timing can make a
significant difference to outcome. Mary Colley advises that, ‘Choosing
the right time and place to bring up a topic can make all the difference
between being listened to and being ignored’ (Colley 2006, p.51).
Different types of conversation

Dr Scott Williams from Wright State University, Ohio, writes that the
most common mistaken conversational response is ‘to give advice or
deflect in a situation where counseling is appropriate’ (Williams n.d.).The

conversational trait of deflection moves the conversation to another topic.
Williams suggests that deflection needs to be used carefully because
deflection ‘can unintentionally communicate that we haven’t listened and
that we aren’t interested… Many of us deflect unwittingly by sharing our
personal experiences when we should be focusing on the other party’
(Williams n.d.).
According to Williams, a counselling response requires two
conversational tools:
• Reflecting – ‘paraphrasing back to the speaker what they said’,
which also acts as a conversational lead because questions can
be asked.
• Probing – non-judgementally asking for additional information
about what has just been said.
(Williams n.d.)
These two techniques are taught to trainee Citizen’s Advice Bureau
advisers because often the client’s meaning is subject to misinterpretation
and might require clarification.
Asking questions
Questions can be asked to move the conversation forward but should
not rely on intrusive personal questions. Colley encourages adults with
dyspraxia to be aware that personal questions or comments can cause
embarrassment or make others feel uncomfortable (Colley 2006, p.51). If
questions are not too probing and follow conversational leads, then the
conversant will engage. Most people like to talk about themselves.
Listening
According to listening expert Dr Ralph Nichols, ‘The most basic of all
human needs is the need to understand and be understood. The best
way to understand people is to listen to them’ (Nichols 1980, p.5). Lack
of concentration is not just limited to the classroom and, of course, can
occur socially as well. In social situations, there can be a tendency for the
dyspraxic person to:
• lack concentration
• be easily distracted
• interrupt
• speak impulsively
• fail to speak at all.
Listening is good for calming nerves and for social interaction. The
anxious thoughts which so often seem to be present in the dyspraxic
mind can become so preoccupying that it is difficult to listen not only to
random small talk but also to the people who really matter, to family and
friends. Listening requires:
• presence
• patience
• concentration
• eye contact
• non-verbal cues, e.g. nodding
• awareness of the speaker’s non-verbal cues, e.g. hand gestures,
voice pitch and tone
• empathy
• non-judgemental attitude.
Listening skills do not just require silence though. A good listener will
respond verbally too, through paraphrasing and questions, but without
interrupting or deflecting.
Focusing outwards
(See also the section on self-esteem, page 138.)
Dyspraxia can be a very introspective condition. People who have
grown up with dyspraxia tend to feel physically self-conscious, possibly
because even the simplest physical tasks have been so difficult at times,
and other people, particularly during the school years, have subjected
them to so much critical scrutiny. These experiences can lead to self-
conscious feelings of physical gawkiness or awkwardness when speaking.
A friend of author Maeve Binchy’s mother gave her some useful advice:
people are too preoccupied with looking at themselves to look at anyone
else; no one looks at anyone else (The Guardian 1985).
In the Pont cartoon, Popular Misconceptions – the People Behind (Laidler
1942, p.61), the people in the pews behind a small boy at a church
service have horns, monstrous moustaches and outrageous hats. For the
dyspraxic, this is how strangers can seem, possibly partly as a result of
unpleasant experiences of other people at school, which can lead at times
to a real reluctance to engage with others at all. In social situations, it

can help simply to observe that other people are not monsters at all, they
are just other human beings, each with their own human frailties. Two
strategies which can be used to counterbalance self-consciousness and
social stress are:
• Barbara Houseman’s Cameras out acting technique.
• Robert Leahy’s Alternative realities cognitive behavioural technique.
Cameras out
A useful technique for focusing outwards in social situations is Cameras
out (Houseman 2008, pp18–20). This technique was devised by the voice
coach and acting director Barbara Houseman, and it aims to tackle self-
consciousness by encouraging a non-judgemental focus on other people.
This technique allows focus to move away from the self to observe instead
other people’s:
• clothing
• facial features
• body language
• mood
• nervousness
• physical awkwardness
• conversation
• sound of voice.
It can be helpful when using Cameras out to observe that social stress is
not solely a dyspraxic trait and that other people feel uncomfortable or
awkward socially, and other people have clumsy moments too. Everyone
has good moments and bad moments, good days and bad days, dyspraxic
moments and non-dyspraxic moments.
Alternative realities
Cognitive therapist Dr Robert Leahy’s advice for dealing with social
anxiety is to observe and be aware that everyone at a social event has
their own ‘reality’ which gives them an individual perspective and their
responses to others relate to themselves and their reactions, not their
reaction to the other person. He recommends seeing a party from the
viewpoint of five other guests (Leahy 2006).
Familiar strangers
Finally, it is useful to recognise that social difficulties are part of the human
condition, not limited solely to people with dyspraxia. Many people
suffer from social awkwardness and anxiety. The concept of the ‘familiar
stranger’ could be of value to anyone who is hypersensitive about their
relationships with others because it shows how uncomfortable people
are socially with strangers. Stanley Milgram studied ‘familiar strangers’
in the 1970s, researching New York commuters to try to understand the
role of unspeaking strangers who share a station platform every day of
their working lives. He found that it becomes increasingly difficult for
familiar strangers to talk, but if they see each other in a different context,
for example, on holiday, they will talk as if they are acquainted (Paulos
and Goodman 2004, p.1).
It is not just strangers who ignore each other. An anonymous teenager
asks why we ignore friends or schoolmates who have not been seen for a
while. And the answers are:
• fear of being ignored
• not being ‘mentally prepared’
• not ‘looking at best’
• feeling guilty about not speaking afterwards
• shyness
• people change and become more like strangers.
(Yahoo! Answers 2007)
These answers also show that social anxiety happens to everyone, not just
those within the narrower definition of dyspraxia.
(To tackle oversensitivity see strategies for dealing with repetitive
thinking in Chapter Five, page 131.)
CHAPTER SEVEN
PREPARING FOR WORK
Although the overall aim of this book is to suggest strategies which can
be useful for learners with dyspraxia at secondary school, college and
university, it also aims to provide strategies for teenagers and young adults
moving from education into the workplace. The child with dyspraxia
experiencing difficulties in the classroom can quite easily go on to
experience difficulties in the workplace and these difficulties will remain
both physically and mentally diverse. Equally, dyspraxia can bring key
strengths to working life, and to employers. Working with Dyspraxia: a hidden
asset, a Dyspraxia Foundation guide for employers, refers to the qualities
which dyspraxia brings to the workplace, ‘Persistence, determination and
extremely hard working are all characteristics associated with dyspraxia –
which makes people with this condition valuable employees’ (Dyspraxia
Foundation 2012a, p.3).
This chapter will discuss:
• workplace difficulties
• workplace strengths
• strategies for the workplace
• employer strategies for the workplace
• employee strategies for the workplace
• proactive employers
• careers
• interview techniques
• presentation techniques
• learning to drive.
The Disability Discrimination Act 1995 (DDA) states that employers and
education providers are not allowed to discriminate against employees or
160
Preparing for Work 161
learners with disablities. The Equality Act 2010 legislates for reasonable
adjustments to be made for people with disablities in the workplace. A
reasonable adjustment should take into account physical difficulties and
working differences experienced by any employee who declares an SpLD
or a physical difficulty. Trade unions are there to challenge discriminatory
practices in the workplace and will seek to ensure that adjustments are
made for workers with disabilities.
Workplace difficulties
Difficulties which people with dyspraxia may experience in the
workplace are:
• Postural discomfort when sitting at a desk for long periods.
• Muscle and joint problems leading to back, wrist and arm pain
when working at a computer or lifting.
• Poor spatial awareness and coordination difficulties that can
lead to:
ºº difficulties in operating machinery and equipment
ºº clumsiness and trips, bumps and even falls
ºº difficulties involving fine motor skills when using office
equipment.
• Visual and auditory processing deficits that can lead to
difficulties with:
ºº reading and writing
ºº sequencing
ºº noise
ºº bright office lighting
ºº communication.
• Problems with planning and organisation.
• Poor time management.
• Weaknesses in concentration leading to errors in repetitive
clerical tasks.
• Memory deficits that can lead to slower processing and automaticity
when learning new skills, and a poor sense of direction.
All of the above have emotional consequences for the workplace dyspraxic,
affecting:
• self-esteem
• social communication
• stress and anxiety.
Workplace strengths
Although the worker with dyspraxia can experience difficulties, these
may be offset, at least partially, by a combination of cognitive strengths
(see also Chapter One), such as:
• lateral thinking skills
• inventiveness
• attention to detail
• strategic thinking
• problem solving.
The worker with dyspraxia may also possess the following attributes:
• determination
• motivation
• creativity
• empathy.
Strategies for the workplace

The Government offers access to work funding that can be used for
workplace adjustments and to ensure that employment is accessible.
Examples of uses for this funding are:
• equipment modifications
• specialist equipment
• travel fares for employment
• relocation expenses
• support services or job coaches
• training on disability issues for colleagues.
(Gov.uk 2014)
Employer strategies for the workplace

Health and safety
Employers can make the following adjustments for workers with
dyspraxia:
• adapted keyboard
• wrist rest
• foot rest
• manuscript stand
• ergonomic office chair
• appropriate desk
• left-handed scissors
• long-handled stapler
• regular breaks
• needs assessment for lifting.
The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992
require employers to undertake workstation assessments. This type of
assessment can ensure that the workspace, including the desk area, is
suitable for dyspraxic physical needs and can be carried out to identify
necessary adjustments.
Dyspraxia awareness
It is particularly helpful if employers are aware of the dyspraxic profile
and the contribution it can make to the workplace:
• Although employees with dyspraxia are slower to process new
tasks, once a task has been mastered, the employee may be very
competent.
• People with dyspraxia think differently and may bring new ideas
and approaches into a business.
• Employees with dyspraxia tend to be hard-working and dependable.
Visual and auditory processing difficulties

Employers can help with visual and auditory processing difficulties by
supplying:
• anti-glare screen filter

• cream-coloured paper
• reading and writing software
• a digital recorder
• coloured overlays.
Employee strategies for the workplace

Strategies for employees to try in the workplace:
• Record or write down instructions/procedures. Also, repeat them
back at the moment they are given, to reinforce them sequentially.
• Video-record new procedures/tasks on a mobile phone.
• To enable concentration, wear earplugs or, conversely, listen to
music through headphones.
• Use a stackable tray with an ‘in’ and a ‘pending’ tray to organise
and prioritise work.
• Use a desktop planner, wall chart or computer planner/calendar
to try to organise tasks and allocate adequate time and priority for
each task.
• File regularly and carefully, with regard to alphabetical sequencing.
• Ask for help.
Lastly, never be afraid to ask for an accommodation to be made. Employers
are not being malicious when they do not make adjustments or seem to
be inept in their approach to health and safety; they simply do not always
‘think’. I once worked at a college where I had to sit on a dining chair at
a picnic/card table but as soon as this issue was raised, a suitable desk and
office chair were produced immediately and the situation was rectified. In
my experience, employers want to get the health and safety right because
the last thing they want is injured or sick employees.
Disclosure
Skill (the National Bureau for Students with Disabilities) addresses
educational and workplace disclosure in a useful leaflet, which gives
information about disability legislation, the pros and cons of disclosure,
and timing of disclosure. Ultimately, ‘there is no clear-cut answer as to
whether you should tell a prospective employer or institution that you

are disabled. You must use your own judgement’ (Skill 2005, p.1). For
an example of a disclosure document, see the Dyspraxia Foundation’s
Dynamo Project (Dyspraxia Foundation 2012b).
See also Chapter Six for help with social and emotional effects of
dyspraxia, because these factors will surely impact on the workplace
experience given that such a sizeable portion of life may be spent there.
Proactive employers
Some employers already recognise the benefits that a neurodiverse profile
can bring to business and so actively recruit dyspraxic and autistic staff.
For example, the Civil Service has a proactive approach to neurological
diversity and has developed a Dyslexia and Dyspraxia Toolkit for working
with neurologically diverse employees. The Civil Service encourages
managers to be aware of the following factors when working with
employees with dyslexia or dyspraxia:
• Learning and activities may take longer
• Method may not be as important as results
• Recognition should be given to lateral thinking, which is associated
with dyspraxia and dyslexia.
(Todd 2011, p.31)
In a speech on GCHQ and Turing’s Legacy at the University of Leeds
on 4 October 2012, Iain Lobban, Director of GCHQ , acknowledged
the value of a diverse, non-stereotypical profile for innovative work such
as code breaking, commenting that an intelligence agency cannot thrive
if it does not recruit people who do not conform to social stereotypes
(Lobban 2012). In an extract from an unpublished Equality and Human
Rights Commission report, GCHQ also recognises the work it has
done to help ‘managers understand the amazing abilities that go with
these “disabilities” and get real business to benefit from them’ (Equality
and Human Rights Commission 2009). When even one high-profile
employer begins to respond to dyspraxia in this way, this recognition
slowly infiltrates the workplace and the outlook for dyspraxia in the
workplace, in the future, is promising.
Careers
It is hoped that employers are beginning to recognise that although
dyspraxic employees can be slow to learn, once a task has been grasped
they often perform it with extreme proficiency. How many dyspraxics
have lost a job because the employer did not allow them the time to learn
to do the job properly? Key dyspraxic cognitive characteristics could
result in an aptitude for innovative, strategic or creative roles. Possibly, as
a result of concentration or memory difficulties, some dyspraxics might
be less well suited to repetitive, mundane tasks. Interestingly, according to
Disability Salford, ‘Many adults who have dyspraxia have careers in the
caring or teaching profession and those who facilitate support groups are
community workers’ (Disability Salford n.d.).
Interview techniques
‘At interview dyspraxia can affect many factors; speed of response to
questions, ease of maintaining eye contact, speech, appearance which can
be misinterpreted if the interviewer is not made aware of the profile’
(Dyspraxia Foundation 2012a, p.9).
Pre-interview
Pre-interview strategies are particularly crucial for dyspraxic interview
candidates, where planning and organisation can be so difficult. Advance
planning needs to involve the following actions:
• Take dress code into consideration.
• Plan journey.
• Conduct research into employer.
• Thoroughly re-read the job description, in case any aspects of the
job have been misunderstood.
• Ensure qualifications and skills or hobbies mentioned on the CV
are committed to memory.
• Get a proper night’s sleep. (See the section on sleeplessness in
Chapter Five, page 123.)
It can also be useful to be prepared for interview questions and topics for
discussion in advance:
• Think about strengths and weaknesses which will be brought

to the job. These are standard questions, and the ‘weaknesses’
question requires a positive spin.
• Another standard question to prepare for is, ‘Where would you like
your career to progress to in five years’ time?’
• If dyspraxia has been disclosed prior to the interview, be ready to
discuss it in terms of adjustments the employer may need to make.
• Be aware in advance of questions which the interviewee might
want to ask the employer.
Interview
Strategies to use during the interview:
• Turn mobile phone off.
• Pause for a moment to think and gather thoughts before answering
a question.
• Do not lie or tell half-truths. Be straightforward in answering
questions. Employers prefer this.
• Be positive. Focus on strengths which can be brought to the job
and why the job is desirable.
(See Chapter Six for sections on eye contact (page 153) and breathing
techniques (page 146), and below for presentation techniques.)
Panel-based interviews may have one member of the panel who
is more sympathetic and another who is more aggressive towards the
interview candidate. This can be difficult for a sensitive dyspraxic. It is
really important to be aware that these are roles the interview panel assume
to test the candidate. It is best not to react aggressively or defensively if
one member of the panel is being aggressive, and also not to feel anger
about this afterwards or to dwell on it. The employer is simply using this
technique as part of the process of finding out which candidate will be
the best one for the job.
The National Careers Service can offer interview and careers advice
on the internet, by phone or by email, or through interviews with a local
careers adviser. It can be found at https://nationalcareersservice.direct.
gov.uk/Pages/Home.aspx.
Presentation techniques
For the learner with dyspraxia or employee, presentations can be
particularly difficult not only because of anxiety and nervousness, but
also because of difficulties in processing thoughts verbally. It is worth
remembering that many people are uncomfortable about public speaking.
Preparation in advance and breathing strategies are the two most useful
strategies for presentations. The best strategy I know for nerves, taught to
me by voice coach Barbara Houseman (and tried and tested by university
students I have worked with), is deep breathing. (See Chapter Six for deep
breathing technique, page 146.)
Preparation
Preparation is key to a nerveless delivery.
• Research the topic thoroughly.
• Engage with the subject.
• Be aware of the target audience’s prior knowledge and what they
will want to learn from the presentation.
• Put key points on index cards to take into the presentation.
• REHEARSE, REHEARSE, REHEARSE, preferably with an
audience of at least one family member or a friend. A thorough
advance knowledge of the talk is extremely useful for achieving
calm delivery in the actual presentation. Rehearsing is also the
only way to accurately test the length of the presentation.
• Record rehearsed speech, to reinforce it and gain familiarity with
how it will sound to the audience.
• Try to be familiar with the room where the speech will be given.
• Visualise yourself in advance, giving your best possible speech –
confident, knowledgeable and with an appreciative audience.
Delivery
• Have a drink of water available.
• Try to accept the nervousness. Do not feel ashamed to be nervous.
There are famous actors who suffer terribly from nerves.
• Use a deep breathing technique to carry the word flow and calm
the ‘fight or flight’ mode. (See Chapter Six, page 146.)
• Visualise the best possible speech scenario from the ‘preparation’
stage and keep believing that you are giving an excellent speech
while delivering the presentation.
• Observe the audience neutrally, rather than looking inwards.
(See Barbara Houseman’s Cameras out technique in Chapter Six,
page 158.)
• Maintain eye contact by focusing briefly on different members of
the audience, without focusing for too long on any one individual.
(See the section on eye contact in Chapter Six, page 153.)
• Pace the floor, if necessary, to reduce trembling caused by
adrenaline flow.
• Never tell the audience you are nervous or unused to speaking. For
some reason, audiences are not impressed by this!
• Try to smile.
• Great orators speak slowly. What sounds slow to the speaker
should not be noticed by the audience, and allows them time to
receive the message.
• Take questions only at the end of the presentation to avoid
interruptions to flow during the presentation.
• If the answer to a question is not known, just say so.
Adrenalin
Adrenalin is useful and without adrenalin flow, delivery would be
characterless. Breathing techniques are used to make the speaker appear
outwardly calm at the beginning of the presentation, so that they are not
physically shaking and have plenty of breath for the words to flow. Having
achieved the physical and vocal appearance of calm at the beginning, the
speaker should mentally calm down as the speech progresses.
Learning to drive
One of the key physical challenges for teenage and adult dyspraxics is
learning to drive. Difficulties encountered in childhood when learning to
ride a bicycle are re-visited, except this time, instead of having to learn
to balance while holding onto and directing a handlebar and using two
pedals, an adjustment has to be made between multiple gears and between
three different pedals, while guiding a steering wheel!
For teenage and adult dyspraxics, driving can be very hard to achieve
because of difficulties with:
• coordination
• spatial awareness
• sequencing
• concentration.
As a result of these difficulties, some dyspraxics may become demoralised
and decide not to persevere with driving lessons and tests. Perhaps for
some, driving is an impossible skill to master, but for others driving can
be mastered with plenty of practice. (I should know, I took 11 driving
tests!) The issue which is particularly concerning about the difficulties
dyspraxics might face when driving, is that potential for careers and
employability and essentially life fulfilment can so easily become less
achievable without the use of a car.
Maxine Frances Roper discusses Laurence Roberts as an example
of how difficult it can be for people with dyspraxia to learn to drive.
The basics of driving had to be constantly reinforced and although he
did a perfect reverse corner manoeuvre the first time, subsequently he
could not reverse round a corner properly for several months. He tried to
squeeze himself out of the door of the car during his first lesson, because
it did not occur to him that he could open the door wider (The Daily
Telegraph 2011).
For most dyspraxics, I would presume that learning to drive is
difficult, and that even after the test has been passed, there can still be
difficulties with spatial awareness and particular difficulties with parking
manoeuvres. Certainly, in 2011, research found that fewer adults with
DCD learn to drive than their non-DCD counterparts, and that those
who do learn to drive report issues with calculation of distances and
parking difficulties (Kirby, Sugden and Edwards 2011).
Strategies for driving

There are strategies which can be used to make driving easier:
• additional wing mirrors to assist with observation, parking and
manoeuvring
• satellite navigation system for directions

• stickers as a reminder of ‘left’ and ‘right’.
According to Mary Colley, a larger steering wheel, mounted high, can
also be helpful to dyspraxic drivers (Colley 2006, p.74).
The Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency (DVSA) does offer
adjustments for learner drivers with evidence of reading difficulties who
are undertaking the driving theory test:
• test questions can be read by a voiceover
• extra time is available.
(Driver and Vehicle Standards Agency 2014)
The Forum of Mobility Centres can advise on physical adaptations which
can be made to vehicles to assist with specific physical difficulties (www.
mobility-centres.org.uk).
Driving proficiency
It should be noted that because people with dyspraxia are all individuals
with different strengths and weaknesses, I have known dyspraxics who
have passed their driving test first time and never fretted about how to
drive or where to park. Some dyspraxics are naturally proficient drivers
and it would be unfortunate to assume that just because a teenager
has dyspraxia, driving will be difficult. Also, whatever difficulties are
encountered in learning to drive, this does not mean that dyspraxics
cannot become perfectly competent drivers. Like so many dyspraxic
learning curves, driving may just take longer to achieve but, just like
catching a ball or riding a bicycle, driving should improve coordination
and spatial awareness.
CONCLUSION
Ultimately, whatever strengths are possessed by a dyspraxic individual,

these cannot negate or compensate for the difficulties which accompany
dyspraxia. Key difficulties faced by learners with dyspraxia are:
• Literacy, memory and physical difficulties, which can result in
failure to reach full potential in the classroom and in exams.
• Physical difficulties with coordination and balance, joints and
muscles.
• Embarrassing/humiliating experiences with clumsiness generally
and in sports, causing low self-esteem.
• Difficulty with social skills, despite wanting to be sociable.
• Stress and anxiety resulting from dyspraxia.
Key strengths associated with dyspraxia are:
• Empathy for other people.
• Lateral thinking and problem-solving abilities.
• Having a perspective that deviates from the ‘norm’.
Diagnosis
I belong to a generation where dyspraxia was scarcely heard of and it
was unusual to be assessed for dyspraxia. Even now, there are a variety of
assessments for children with DCD but there is no ‘gold standard’ means
of assessment (Kirby and Sugden 2007b).
For the learner with dyspraxia, there is a real risk that their condition
will remain unrecognised at home and in the classroom. This is why it
is so important that dyspraxia is properly understood by teachers and by
GPs who are responsible for making the referral for assessment. Does the
complex nature of dyspraxia make initial screening difficult? Chartered
psychologist David Grant believes that personal history is very important
as an adjunct to psychological assessment and when assessors do not look
at personal history, errors are made and, for example, dyspraxia can get
overlooked in favour of dyslexia. For this reason, David Grant will:
Ask questions about learning to drive, driving generally, work activities
such as being employed in bars and cafes, and preparing food in the
kitchen. Dyspraxia can affect the ability to judge distances and reverse
park. It results in difficulties with carrying trays of drink and food. In the
kitchen there is a tendency for dyspraxics to work slowly and carefully
to avoid burns and cuts. (Grant n.d., p.9)
Dyspraxia has a silent voice: the secret dyspraxic. For every classroom
learner who has been assessed as having dyspraxia, there will be learners
with dyspraxic tendencies who will never be assessed or even realise
that life is challenging because they have dyspraxia. Those learners with
dyspraxic tendencies need the same support in the classroom and beyond
as learners who have the ‘label’.
Treatment
Are any of the other key SpLDs as complicated as dyspraxia? There
remains a real lack of knowledge about dyspraxia and know-how can
be limited even among those who can really help, for example teachers,
GPs or occupational therapists. Tests for dyspraxia can be thorough or
astonishingly minimal with, for example, the ability to throw a bean
bag into a square being used as the sole measure of whether a child or
adolescent might be dyspraxic or not. Each profession seems to have an
awareness of different aspects of dyspraxia without necessarily having
an understanding of the whole condition. Some children are referred to
a psychologist for a dyspraxia assessment, while others are referred to
an occupational therapist, but the perspective of these two professionals
is different. Surely both the psychologist and the occupational therapist
need to be involved for maximum benefit to be achieved for the child
with dyspraxia? Educators also have a crucial role for dyspraxia, and
recognising and accommodating it in the classroom, the seminar room or
the lecture theatre can have a significant impact on the future success and
well-being of the dyspraxic.
173
Research
Currently, research into dyslexia seems to be more prevalent than research
into dyspraxia, possibly because dyspraxia is less well known. And yet
this is a very exciting time for dyspraxia because of research into the
significance of neurons. Over the next 20 years, there will be more
neurological research into the brain and this should result in a greater
understanding of dyspraxia.
The diversity of manifestations of dyspraxia is under-researched at
the moment, and although Amanda Kirby has led research into some of
the areas listed below, I would like to see more research on dyspraxia and
associated difficulties, such as:
• birth difficulties
• the impact of the vestibular system on dyspraxia
• flat feet
• handedness
• eating – slowness and faddiness
• irritable bowel syndrome
• fibromyalgia
• joint problems, such as arthritis
• repetitive strain injury
• physical improvements achieved through practising sporting
activities
• difficulties encountered in the classroom
• literacy
• driving
• remedial effect of strategies for supporting the dyspraxic mind
• working life experiences of dyspraxics.
Finally
Perhaps modern society is too keen to apply labels and there is a need
to adjust to accommodate dyspraxia into society. Maybe expectations
need to change. There needs to be more understanding of dyspraxia as
a complex condition that has mental as well as physical consequences.
There also needs to be greater awareness of the diversity of thinking skills
Conclusion 175
that comes with dyspraxia, if learning is to accommodate the cognitive

difficulties faced by the dyspraxic in any academic environment, at any
age. The educational years are crucial for people with dyspraxia. If their
needs are recognised and they are introduced to supportive strategies
then, it is hoped, they will reach their full potential, live fulfilled lives and
make a useful contribution to society, precisely because they are different.
APPENDIX: DYSPRAXIA
AT A GLANCE
Effect Impact
pencil grip, handwriting,

PE skills (catching,
Motor coordination throwing, running),
cycling/driving,
Physical dressing, using utensils
Muscle tone/joints coordination, posture, PE

skills, lethargy, physical
Posture/balance/ discomfort, walking/
spatial awareness PE skills, being accident running, typing
prone, driving
Sensory issues over- or under-sensitive

to noise, light, taste,
smell or touch
Visual/auditory processing literacy, social skills
Planning and organisation indecisiveness,

impulsiveness,
organisation, untidiness
Neurological/cognitive Memory deficit concentration, inconsistent
performance, recall,
time management
Sleeplessness fatigue
Obsessive thoughts concentration, social

difficulties
eye contact, body language,

conversing listening
Social skills
Emotional consequences low self-esteem, social
difficulties, stress, anxiety,
emotional extremes
176
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SUBJECT INDEX
acceptance 133 auditory memory 60 central nervous system 17

of noise 126 strategies 119–20 chanting 120
adrenalin 169 auditory processing 12, 27, chewing 51
affirmations, positive 142 31–2, 58, 103, 124 Churchill, Winston 128
Alexander Technique 45, 48, and literacy 56–7, 59–63, Civil Service 165
54–5, 141, 145 77, 80 Dyslexia and Dyspraxia Toolkit
alternative realities technique sleep, noise tolerance and 27, 165
159 126 Clinton, Bill 128
anchoring 143–4 and social interaction 150–1 clumsiness 43, 161, 172
anxiety/anxious thoughts 12, and the workplace 161, cognitive behavioural therapy
16, 21, 136, 142, 159, 163–4 (CBT) 144
172 auditory sequencing 60 colour
coping strategies 142–5 auditory system 37, 58 and note-taking 88
anchors 143–4 autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and reading 68–9
brain space 144–5 20–2, 124, 130 traffic light system 62
CBT techniques 144 see also Asperger syndrome and writing 75
double think 143 comorbidity 15, 17, 20–3,
worry later 143 Balabolka 108 49–50
and the workplace 162 balance 47 Asperger syndrome 22–3
see also stress and coordination 43 attention deficit disorder 23
ASD see autism spectrum bed times 127–8 dyslexia 23
disorder behavioural optometrists 72 and neuro-diversity make-up
Asperger syndrome 15, 20–3, birth complications 18 21–2
130, 151–2 body language cues 151, 157 computer games 46
assignment planning strategies brain computers 41, 75, 92, 95–6,
89–92 control by the individual 108, 164
approaching brief 89–90 144–5 computer-generated mind
essays dominance 23–5 maps 109
final copy 92 and emotional wellbeing computer-related pain 54,
planning 91–2, 99 135 see also emotional 161
with key verbs in questions consequences of laptops 19, 41, 87, 107–8
90–1 dyspraxia reading online 68
spidergrams 91 and exercise 115–6 spellcheckers 76, 97
assistive technology 107–10 Hippocampus 115 concentration 21, 29–31, 41,
computers see computers and mindfulness 147 49, 61, 80, 102, 170
mind-mapping 109 neural pathways 17 aids 41, 67, 70–1, 105
mobile phone apps 109–10, and the neurological and posture 41–2
127 effects of dyspraxia see see also attention deficit
recording/note-taking 108 neurological effects of disorder (ADD)
for research 110 dyspraxia conversation 154–7
for revision 106 breathing 105 asking questions 156
speech to text 109 deep breathing technique cues 154–5
text to speech 108–9 146–7, 169 eye contact during see eye
time management 109 and getting to sleep 126 contact
association 115 to reduce stress 146–7 interrupting 155
attention deficit disorder (ADD) briefs, approach strategies to knowing when to speak 61
15, 21, 23 89–90 listening 156–7
attention to detail 27, 162 bullying 139 misreading the tone of others
auditory closure 60–1 Buzan, Tony 91 150
auditory cues 104 probing 156
auditory discrimination 61, 73 Cameras out technique 158 reflecting (paraphrasing) 156
figure-ground 60 CBT (cognitive behavioural small talk 154
auditory learners 84 therapy) 144 timing 155
185
types of 155–6 and brain dominance 23–5 physical dyspraxia coping

coordination problems 42–7 and bullying 139 strategies
and balance 43 causes 17–8 Alexander Technique 45,
clumsiness 43, 161, 172 birth complications 18 48, 54–5, 141, 145
DCD see developmental heredity 17 coordination problems
coordination disorder cognitive strengths with 44–7
and driving 170 25–9, 166, 172 yoga 55
fine motor skills 42–3, 161 attention to detail 27, 162 physical impact 34–55
gross motor skills 43 conceptual thinking 28 see balance 43, 47
speech difficulties 43 also thinking and co-existing physical
strategies for dealing with creativity 27, 162 symptoms 49–50
44–7 empathy 28–9, 151, 162, on coordination see
adapted products 46–7 172 coordination
computer games 46 inventiveness 25, 28, 83, problems
practice 44–5 162 digestive disorders 52
sport 44–6 lateral thinking 27–8, eating 50–1
with writing 73, 86 103, 162, 172 eyesight 39
Cram.com 106 problem solving 28, 162 handwriting see
creativity 27, 162 strategic thinking 28, 162 handwriting
cues verbal intelligence 26–7 motion craving 49
auditory 104 cognitive weaknesses with motor output 35–6
non-verbal 150–1, 157 29–32, 80 muscle and joint problems
social/conversational 150–1, auditory processing see see muscle and joint
154–5 auditory processing problems
visual 58, 81, 104 concentration 21, 30–1, posture 41–2, 48, 72,
cutlery 51 61, 70, 80, 105, 125 141, 161
cycling 45, 47 see also concentration sensory input 34–5
indecisiveness 30, 73, 80, spatial awareness 48–9,
dancing 46 92, 103 161, 170
DCD see developmental literacy see literacy speech 39
coordination disorder memory deficit see urinary difficulties 52
deadlines 99 memory deficit, vestibular skills 36–7, 58
desk space 41–2, 100 short-term power of 25
developmental coordination organisation 30, 103 professionals for physical
disorder (DCD) 16–7, 21, planning 30 dyspraxia
135, 150, 170 sensory issues 32 occupational therapists
and joint hypermobility splinter skills 32 52–3
38–40 visual processing see visual physiotherapists 53
dictation 120 processing podiatrists 53–4
digestive disorders 52 comorbidity see comorbidity speech therapists 54
Disability Discrimination Act and DCD 16–7 see also psychological support 135
1995 (DDA) 160–1 developmental research 174
Disability Salford 27, 166 coordination disorder and social life see social
disclosure 164–5 definitions 15–6 difficulties; social skills
distraction techniques 145 diagnosis 18–9, 172–3 and study skills see study
doodling 85 and driving see driving skills
driving emotional consequences see treatment 19–20, 173
learning to drive 169–71 emotional consequences verbal 39
proficiency 171 of dyspraxia visual teaching strategies
strategies 170–1 and employment see 61–2
dyscalculia 21 employment of Dyspraxia Foundation 15, 17,
dyslexia 15, 17, 21, 23 dyspraxics 24, 27, 61, 129, 135–6,
and literacy 56–7 key difficulties and strengths 139, 166
Dyslexia and Dyspraxia Toolkit 172 Dynamo Project 165
27, 165 labelling, over-zealous 19, Working with Dyspraxia: a
Dyslexia Research Trust 69 174 hidden asset 160
dyspraxia and literacy see literacy Dyspraxia Support Group of
auditory teaching strategies neurological effects see New Zealand n 30, 51,
61–2 neurological effects of 113
awareness 163 dyspraxia
Subject Index 187
dyspraxic tools 46–7, 85 and writing 74 health and safety 163

assistive technology see Equality Act (2010) 107 heat 40–1
assistive technology; essays heredity 17
computers final copy 92 highly unsaturated fatty acids
planning 91–2 (HUFAs) 49–50
eating 50–1 for deadlines 99 Hippocampus 115
Einstein, Albert 33, 128 Evernote 108–10 homophones 76
Ekirch, Roger 128 Peek 106 horse riding 45
electric gadgets 47 examination strategies 102–3 Houseman, Barbara 146, 168
Ellis, Albert 143 access arrangements 107 Cameras out technique 158
emotional consequences of for the exam room 105–6 hypotonia 37–8, 73
dyspraxia 135–59, 172 and issues affecting
anxiety see anxiety/anxious dyspraxics in an exam ice packs 40
thoughts situation 102–3 ‘inchworm’ learners 82–3
emotional volatility 136–8 for remembering 104–5 indecisiveness 30, 73, 80, 92,
frustration 136–7 for revision 103–4 103
for others 155 with assistive technology between brain hemispheres
irritability 136, 138 106 24
overreaction 137 exercise 41 index cards 88, 96, 101, 104–5,
poor self-esteem 112, 138–9, memory, the brain and 168
162, 172 see also self- 115–6 interrupting 155
esteem eye contact 61, 84–5, 151–4, interview techniques 166–7
rage 136–7 157, 166, 169 inventiveness 25, 28, 82–3, 162
social see conversation; social eye movements, neuro-linguistic Irlen, Helen 69
difficulties; social skills 85–6 irritability 136, 138
stress see stress eyesight 39
in the workplace 161–2 Jacobs, Sunny 144
empathy 28–9, 151, 157, 162, familiar strangers 159 JHS (joint hypermobility
172 famous dyspraxics 32–3 syndrome) 39–40
employment of dyspraxics fatigue 12, 82, 124 joints
160–71 muscle 40 hypermobility 37–9, 73,
and the Disability fatty acids 49–50 86, 102
Discrimination Act fibromyalgia 40 syndrome (JHS) 39–40
160–1 fine motor skills 42–3, 161 joint and muscle problems
dyspraxic careers 166 fish oil 49–50 with dyspraxia see
and emotional consequences flat feet 38–9 muscle and joint
of dyspraxia 161–2 Flavell, John 101 problems
interview techniques 166–7 Froer, Jonathan Safran 140–1 Judt, Tony 117
and learning to drive see frustration 136–7, 155
driving low frustration threshold karate 45
presentation techniques (ASD) 21 Kaufman, Max 33
168–9 key words 63
proactive employers 165 GCHQ 165 Key Words to Literacy (Murray
workplace difficulties 161–2 Geschwind, Norman 24 and McNally) 63
workplace strategies 162–5 Get Revising 106 kinaesthetic learners 84–5
disclosure 164–5 glue ear 37 kitchen utensils 47
dyspraxia awareness 163 grammar 77–8 Kripke, Daniel 127
employee strategies 164–5 checks on the computer 97
employer strategies 163–4 ‘grasshopper’ learners 82–3, 89 laptop computers 19, 41, 87,
health and safety 163 gross motor skills 43 107–8
with visual/auditory gym 41 lateral thinking 27–8, 103,
processing difficulties 162, 172
163–4 handedness, left and right learning
workplace strengths 162 24–5, 33 literacy see literacy; reading
environment handwriting 15, 19, 24, 32, 38, strategies; writing
desk space 41–2, 100 42, 78–9, 86 strategies
and organisation strategies remedies 41 reinforcement see
100 using a laptop 87, 107 reinforcement
and reading 71–2 hazard warning sign study skills see study skills
sleep 129 visualisation 125, 134 styles 82–6, 104–5
variability 81–2 visual 116–8 Neuro-Linguistic Programming

Leeds Consensus Statement see also index cards; Post-it (NLP) 122–3
15–6 notes visual screen for remembering
left-handedness 24–5, 33 metacognition 101–2 information 104
letter sounds 63–5 Milgram, Stanley 159 neurological effects of dyspraxia
listening 156–7 mind mapping 109 111–34
eye contact whilst 154 Mindfulness-based Cognitive memory deficit see memory
literacy 56–79 Therapy (MBCT) 149 deficit, short-term
auditory and visual key mindfulness meditation 134, mind games 111–2
strategies 61–2 147–9 obsession see obsession;
and auditory processing and the brain 147 repetitive thinking
59–63, 77, 80 mindfulness-based cognitive sleepiness 124
and dyslexia 56–7 therapy 149 sleeplessness 123–4
grammar 77–8 mindfulness visualisation 149 Newton, Sir Isaac 33
handwriting see handwriting ten-minute 149 noise acceptance, and sleep 126
identifying difficult sounds three-minute 148–9 note-taking
63–5 mnemonics 119 in lessons/lectures 87–8
key strategies 62–6 mobile phone apps 109–10, non-linear 89
key words 63 128 organising notes 100–1
paragraph writing 78 Moller, Roy 130 in reading/researching 88–9
parallel sentences 77–8 motion craving 49 skills 86–9
reading strategies see reading motor coordination difficulties software 108
strategies see coordination problems as a writing strategy 75
spelling 76–7 motor planning 35–6
syllable division 65–6 motor skills objective-setting 101
vestibular impact 58 fine 42–3, 161 obsession
and visual processing 56–9, gross 43 obsessive thoughts see
65, 67–9, 80 ocular motor control 58 repetitive thinking
writing strategies see writing visual motor integration 59 with routine 130–1
strategies MS One Note 108 occupational therapists (OTs)
Lobban, Iain 165 multi-sensory teaching 81 52–3
long-term memory 80, 112–5 Murray, William 63 ocular motor control 58
muscle and joint problems omega-3 fatty acids 49–50
MBCT (Mindfulness-based 37–42, 102, 161 organisation 30, 103
Cognitive Therapy) 149 fibromyalgia 40 strategies 99–101 see also
McNally, Joe 63 and handwriting see memory strategies
Meares, Olive 69 handwriting overreaction 137
melody 119–20 hypermobility see joints: oversensitivity 126, 150, 154
memory deficit, short-term 23, hypermobility and repetitive thinking see
29–32, 58–61, 70, 80, hypotonia 37–38, 73 repetitive thinking
102–3, 112–4, 161 lower limbs 38–9
auditory memory 60 pains 39–40 paragraph writing 78
good and bad days with remedies 40–2 parallel sentences 77–8
81–2 desk space 41–2 peg word memory system
and long-term memory 80, exercise 41 121–2
112–5 handwriting 41 pens 46–7
visual memory 59, 67, 73 heat and ice 40–1 physiotherapists 53
memory manipulation 132–3 repetitive strain injury/upper planning 30
memory palace 116–7 limb disorder 40 podiatrists 53–4
memory room 117–8 upper limbs 38, 40 Popular Misconceptions – the People
memory strategies 104–5, MyStudyBar 68, 110 Behind (Pont cartoon) 158
114–23 positive affirmations 142
association 115 napping 128 Post-it notes 71, 88, 92, 104
auditory 119–20 National Autistic Society 22 imaginary 117
exercise 115–6 National Sleep Foundation 127 posture 41–2, 48, 72, 161
mixed 120–3 Natural Reader 108 and self-esteem 141
Neuro-Linguistic neural pathways 17 presentation techniques 168–9
Programming 122–3 neuro-diversity make-up 21–2 prioritising 100
peg word system 121–2 neuro-linguistic eye movements probing 156
story board 118 85–6 problem solving 28, 162
procrastination 100
Subject Index 189
proofreading strategies 96–7 scanning 69 focusing outwards 157–9

proprioception 36–7 search engines 94–5 spatial awareness 48–9, 161,
psychological support 135 search strategies 94–5 170
Puddicombe, Andy 149 Segal, Zindel 149 Special Yoga Centre, London 55
Sekular, Robert 44 speech
questions self-esteem 112, 138–9, 172 conversation see conversation
asking 156 and bullying 139 knowing when to speak 61
interpreting exam questions strategies for tackling low and motor coordination
105–6 self-esteem 139–42 difficulties 43
and presentations 169 adopting someone else’s presentation techniques
understanding verbs in 90–1 skin 140–1 168–9
experimenting 141–2 with verbal dyspraxia 39
Radcliffe, Daniel 32, 61 positive affirmations 142 speech therapists 54
rage 136–7 posture 141 spellcheckers 76, 97
Ratey, John 115–6 visualisation techniques spelling 76–7
reading environment 71–2 140 homophones 76
reading strategies 66–72, 95 and the workplace 162 spidergrams 91, 106
avoiding repetitive reading sensory engagement 145 splinter skills 32
70–1 sensory input 34–5 sport 44–6
basic strategies 67–8 sensory integration 34–5 stationery 46–7
with behavioural optometrists Ayres’s Sensory Integration Stein, John 69
72 Theory 52–3 story board 118
choosing typeface and font sensory issues, cognitive 32 strategic thinking 28, 162
68 signal words 75–6, 96 stress 12, 70, 82, 102, 112,
with colour 68–9 skateboarding 45 136, 172
environmental 71–2 Skill (National Bureau for balls 41
note-taking 88–9 Students with Disabilities) strategies for dealing with
online reading 68 164–5 105, 145–9
scanning 69 skimming 69–70 breathing 146–7
skimming 69–70 sleep distraction techniques 145
for text accessibility 68–9 environment 128–9 engaging the senses 145
with topic sentences 70 hours needed 127 mindfulness 147–9
recording software 108 napping 128 and the workplace 162
referencing 96 primitive patterns of 128 see also anxiety/anxious
reflecting (paraphrasing) 156 strategies 125–9 thoughts
reinforcement 34, 62, 80, 88–9, sleepiness 124 study skills 80–110
114 sleeplessness 123–4 and achieving results 97
negative 141 social cues 151, 154–5 assignment planning see
repetitive strain injury 40 social difficulties 22, 149–52, assignment planning
repetitive thinking 129–31 172 strategies
strategies for dealing with bullying 139 assistive technology see
131–4 ‘difference’ 150 assistive technology
research strategies 93–5 feeling a social burden examination strategies see
with assistive technology 110 151–2 examination strategies
note-taking 88–9 social skills 22, 38, 61, 111–2, and learning styles 82–6,
search strategies 94–5 136, 139, 150–2 104–5
revision strategies 103–4 conversational see memory strategies 104–5
with assistive technology 106 conversation note-taking see note-taking
rewards 99 empathy 28–9, 151, 157, organisation strategies
rhyme 120 162, 172 99–101
Ricard, Matthieu 147 strategies 152–9 proofreading strategies 96–7
Richardson, Alex 49–50 Alternative realities reading strategies see reading
Roberts, Laurence 170 technique 159 strategies
rocking 49 Cameras out technique 158
room counting/visiting strategy conversational see referencing 96
for getting to sleep 125–6 conversation research strategies 93–5
Roper, Maxine Frances 170 eye contact see eye contact revision strategies 103–4
routines, obsession with 130–1 the familiar stranger 159 thinking skills 101–2
running 46 first impressions 152–3 time management 97–9
writing strategies 95–6 see and literacy 56–9, 65, 67–9,

also writing strategies 80
swallowing 51 and the workplace 161,
swimming 45 163–4
syllables 65–6 visual sequencing 59
visualisation 105, 133–4
TalkTyper 109 of a hazard warning sign
target-setting 101 125, 134
Teasdale, John 149 mindfulness 149
tennis 45 in preparing for a
Thatcher, Margaret 128 presentation 168–9
thinking and self-esteem 140
anxious thoughts see anxiety/ voice-recognition software 109
anxious thoughts
conceptual 28 Welch, Florence 32, 61
critical 101 Wiliam, Dylan 62
diversity of thinking skills work see employment of
with dyspraxia 174–5 dyspraxics
double think 143 worry see anxiety/anxious
lateral 27–8, 103, 162, 172 thoughts
metacognition 101–2 writer’s block 74
obsessive/repetitive see writing environment 74
repetitive thinking writing strategies 72–6, 95–6
skills for studying 101–2 classroom 73–4
stopping 126 colour coding 75
strategic 28, 162 environmental 74
‘thinking big’ 145 handwriting 78–9 see also
thought recognition 131–2 handwriting
time management 97–9 independent writing 74–5
apps 109 note-taking see note-taking
topic sentences 70, 75, 78 paragraph writing 78
Tourette’s syndrome 21 signal words 75–6, 96
spelling 76–7
UNESCO 56 taking breaks 75
urinary difficulties 52 topic sentences 70, 75, 78
for writer’s block 74
VAK/VARK models of learning
83–5, 104–5 yoga 55
verbal dyspraxia 39 Youngstedt, Shawn 127
verbal intelligence 26–7
verbs, in questions 90–1
Vestibular Disorders Association
36, 45, 47
vestibular skills 36–7, 58
and glue ear 37
see also balance
vestibular system 31, 35–8, 42,
47, 49, 58
visual cues 58, 81, 104
visual discrimination 58
figure-ground 59
visual learners 84
visual memory 59, 67, 73
strategies 116–8
visual motor integration 59
visual processing 12, 27, 31,
67, 103, 123
and behavioural optometrists
72
Subject Index 191
AUTHOR INDEX
Addy, L. 78–9 Gibbs, J. 16–7, 19 Moller, R. 131

Annell, A.L. 16 Goodman, E. 159 Morley, M. 72
Appleton, J. 16–7 Grant, D. 18–9, 173 Morrison, S. 39
Appleton, R. 16–7 Graybiel, A. 130 Mostofsky, S. 15
Attwood, T. 23 Grinder, J. 85, 123, 133, 143
Aurelius, M. 133 Grunau, R. 18 Nagamatsu, L. 115
Ayres, A.J. 36, 42, 52–3 Gubbay, S.S. 16 Nichols, P.L. 57
Aziz-Zadeh, L. 34 Nichols, R. 156
Hakim, A.J. 39
Bandler, R. 85, 123, 133, 143 Hall, D. 44 Packiam Alloway, T. 112
Barbe, W. 83 Hanes, D. 31 Paulos, E. 159
Barnett, L. 128 Harrison, E. 148 Payton, P. 54–5
Baron-Cohen, S. 19, 22 Hegarty, S. 128 Pelligrini, A.D. 99
Bath, J. 83 Henning, R.A. 72 Penman, D. 149
Birnie, J. 27, 103 Hill, E. 142 Piek, J. 135
Blowers, H. 112 Hirschberg, L. 132 Pollock, N. 53
Boon, M. 126 Holder, M. 24–5 Pool, J. 66
Brennan, R. 54 Holsti, L. 18 Praag, H. van 115
Bridgeman, E. 62–3 Hornsby, B. 66 Pratt, M. 142
Brontë, C. 16 Houseman, B. 158
Brookes, G. 28–9, 45, 150–1 Huberty, P.D. 99 Quast, L. 152
Bryan, R. 112
Bryant, A. 13 Jensen, E. 72, 99 Rauch S. 129
Burkeman, O. 143 Jones, I. 99 Rawlinson, G. 66
Rosner, J. 60
Cermak, S. 34 Kabat-Zinn, J. 149 Rowh, M. 141
Chen, T. 57 Kamon, E. 72
Christmas, J. 35–6 Kates, C. 53–4 Sackville Stoner, W. 120
Colley, M. 21–2, 52–3, 138, Kempermann, G. 115 Sadock, B. 139, 150
155–6, 171 Khoury, B. 147 Sadock, V. 139, 150
Cooper, R. 27–8 Kirby, A. 13, 38, 40, 113, 170, Sayler, S. 151, 154
Cowling, H. 66 172, 174 Shattock, P 50, 52
Cowling, K. 66 Kissel, G.V. 72 Shear, F. 66
Cuddy, A. 153 Knight, S. 144 Shelley-Tremblay, J. 57
Knox, D. 83 Sillito, D. 147, 149
Davies, R. 13, 38 Kurtz, L. 49 Simon, D. 60
Decker, B. 153 Skinner, R. 135
Denckla, M. 15, 24, 27, 35, Laidler, G. 158 Smillie, S. 39
44, 57 Larson, S. 57 Smith, G. 53
Dixon, G. 78–9 Leahy, R. 144, 158–9 Snowling, M. 62–3
Dommett, E. 19 Lee, M. 53 Solan, H. 57
Dzuik, M. 23 Lienhard, J. 116 Steinman, K. 15
Lobban, I. 165 Stock Kranowitz, C. 15, 36, 42,
Eastman, M.C. 72 Lucker, J.R. 61 58–9, 61
Edwards, J. 18 Lyons, C. 54–5 Sugden, D. 170, 172
Epictetus 133 Sullivan, A.B. 72
Marash, J. 146 Sutton Hamilton, S. 16
Ferrari, J. 39 McCleery, J. 23 Swassing, R. 83
McCollum, G. 31
Gage, F. 115 McGonigal. K. 141 Todd, J. 27, 165
Gathercole, S. 112 McMurray, S. 57, 115 Tolle, E. 143
Geschwind, N. 24–5, 33 Meierhenry, W. C. 112 Tyler, A. 130
Vandever, K. 154
Versfeld, P. 18
Walker, M. 66
Werner, J. 34
West, T. 24–5, 28, 33, 155
Whiteley, P. 50, 52
Whitfield, M. 18
Williams, C. 48
Williams, M. 148–9
Williams, S. 156
Wiman, R.V. 112
Winfield, M. 54–5
Yukelson, D. 140
Zwicker, J. 18
192
Author Index 193

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What strategies are discussed for helping dyspraxic learners?

What strategies are discussed for helping dyspraxic learners?

THE DYSPRAXIC LEARNER

Can I tell you about Dyspraxia?

Can’t Play Won’t Play

Beating Dyspraxia with a Hop, Skip and a Jump

Jessica Kingsley Publishers

Copyright © Alison Patrick 2015

Front cover image source: Shutterstock®.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN 978 1 84905 594 9

Printed and bound in Great Britain

With thanks to:

4. EFFECTIVE STUDY SKILLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

5. THE DYSPRAXIC MIND

6. NEUROLOGICAL EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

7. THE DYSPRAXIC MIND

8. EMOTIONAL CONSEQUENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

9. PREPARING FOR WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

APPENDIX: DYSPRAXIA AT A GLANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Of all the key specific learning differences (SpLD) (autism, Asperger

secondary and tertiary education. Although the difficulties of dyspraxia

difficulties are defined and this has resulted in different terminologies

books about dyspraxia suggest there is a classic profile, in practice I find

of which are available from qualified practitioners, others being lifestyle

(Colley 2006, p161)

Figure 1.1, ‘The make-up of neuro-diversity’ (Colley 2006, p.161),

Attention deficit disorder (ADD)

seem to be wired unusually. According to author Thomas West, the

The power of dyspraxia

cognitive style. This difference in mindset will always be apparent in

than performance IQ (Gubbay 1975, cited in Denckla 1984, p.246). As

But the importance to holistic thinking is extremely undervalued

Strategic thinking and problem solving

(TES 2003). Although a strength, this intuitive sensitivity towards others

The Dyspraxia Group of New Zealand refer to the difficulty of gauging

Planning and organisation

if they could, but – sometimes – can’t… He or she is not dumb, not

• auditory sequencing – making it more difficult to follow

• Max Kaufman (captain of the winning University Challenge team

The interesting thing about dyspraxia, when compared with autism

• somatic (muscles and joints)

• visual and auditory perception

Muscles and joints

Muscle and joint effects

Muscle and joint pains

Joint hypermobility syndrome (JHS)

Repetitive strain injury/upper limb disorder

Remedies for muscle and joint issues

Heat and ice

• Two hours later use a hot water bottle or a heat ointment.

particularly when teenage dyspraxics may spend so many hours a day

Fine motor skills

• Inaccuracy when throwing or catching a ball.

Gross motor skills

Strategies for coordination

muscle tone, improved coordination and perceptual motor skills, and