Transformers TRANSFORMER THEORY

TRANSFORMER THEORY

Transformers are used extensively for AC power transmissions and for various
control and indication circuits. Knowledge of the basic theory of how these
components operate is necessary to understand the role transformers play in
today’s nuclear facilities.

EO 1.1 DEFINE the following terms as they pertain to

transformers:
a. Mutual induction
b. Turns ratio
c. Impedance ratio
d. Efficiency

EO 1.2 DESCRIBE the differences between a wye-connected

and delta-connected transformer.

EO 1.3 Given the type of connection and turns ratios for the
primary and secondary of a transformer, CALCULATE
voltage, current, and power for each of the following
types:
a. ∆-∆
b. ∆-Y
c. Y-∆
d. Y-Y

Mutual Induction

If flux lines from the expanding and contracting magnetic field of one coil cut the windings of
another nearby coil, a voltage will be induced in that coil. The inducing of an EMF in a coil by
magnetic flux lines generated in another coil is called mutual induction. The amount of
electromotive force (EMF) that is induced depends on the relative positions of the two coils.

Rev. 0 Page 1 ES-13

TRANSFORMER THEORY Transformers

Turns Ratio

Each winding of a transformer contains a certain number of turns of wire. The turns ratio is
defined as the ratio of turns of wire in the primary winding to the number of turns of wire in the
secondary winding. Turns ratio can be expressed using Equation (13-1).

NP
Turns ratio (13-1)
NS

where

NP = number of turns on the primary coil

NS = number of turns on the secondary coil

The coil of a transformer that is energized from an AC source is called the primary winding
(coil), and the coil that delivers this AC to the load is called the secondary winding (coil) (Figure
1).

Impedance Ratio

Maximum power is transferred from one circuit to another through a transformer when the
impedances are equal, or matched. A transformer winding constructed with a definite turns ratio
can perform an impedance matching function. The turns ratio will establish the proper
relationship between the primary and secondary winding impedances. The ratio between the two
impedances is referred to as the impedance ratio and is expressed by using Equation (13-2).

N  2 ZP
 P (13-2)
N  ZS
 S

Another way to express the impedance ratio is to take the square root of both sides of Equation
(13-2). This puts the ratio in terms of the turns ratio, which is always given for a transformer.

where

NP = number of turns in the primary

NS = number of turns in the secondary
ZP = impedance of primary
ZS = impedance of secondary

ES-13 Page 2 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER THEORY

Efficiency

Efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power output to the power input, as illustrated by
Equation (13-3).

Power Output PS
Efficiency x 100 (13-3)
Power Input PP

where

PS = power of secondary
PP = power of primary

Theory of Operation

A transformer works on the principle that energy can be transferred by magnetic induction from
one set of coils to another set by means of a varying magnetic flux. The magnetic flux is
produced by an AC source.

The coil of a transformer that is energized from an AC source is called the primary winding
(coil), and the coil that delivers this AC to the load is called the secondary winding (coil) (Figure
1).

In Figure 1, the primary and secondary coils are shown on separate legs of the magnetic circuit
so that we can easily understand how the transformer works. Actually, half of the primary and
secondary coils are wound on each of the two legs, with sufficient insulation between the two
coils and the core to properly insulate the windings from one another and the core. A
transformer wound, such as in Figure 1, will operate at a greatly reduced efficiency due to the
magnetic leakage. Magnetic leakage is the part of the magnetic flux that passes through either
one of the coils, but not through both. The larger the distance between the primary and
secondary windings, the longer the magnetic circuit and the greater the leakage.

Rev. 0 Page 3 ES-13

TRANSFORMER THEORY Transformers

Figure 1 Core-Type Transformer

When alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding, an alternating current will flow that
will magnetize the magnetic core, first in one direction and then in the other direction. This
alternating flux flowing around the entire length of the magnetic circuit induces a voltage in both
the primary and secondary windings. Since both windings are linked by the same flux, the
voltage induced per turn of the primary and secondary windings must be the same value and
same direction. This voltage opposes the voltage applied to the primary winding and is called
counter-electromotive force (CEMF).

ES-13 Page 4 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER THEORY

Voltage Ratio

The voltage of the windings in a transformer is directly proportional to the number of turns on
the coils. This relationship is expressed in Equation (13-4).

VP NP
(13-4)
VS NS

where

VP = voltage on primary coil

VS = voltage on secondary coil
NP = number of turns on the primary coil
NS = number of turns on the secondary coil

The ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is known as the voltage ratio (VR). As
mentioned previously, the ratio of primary turns of wire to secondary turns of wire is known as
the turns ratio (TR). By substituting into the Equation (13-4), we find that the voltage ratio is
equal to the turns ratio.

VR = TR

A voltage ratio of 1:5 means that for each volt on the primary, there will be 5 volts on the
secondary. If the secondary voltage of a transformer is greater than the primary voltage, the
transformer is referred to as a "step-up" transformer. A ratio of 5:1 means that for every 5 volts
on the primary, there will only be 1 volt on the secondary. When secondary voltage is less than
primary voltage, the transformer is referred to as a "step-down" transformer.

Example 1: A transformer (Figure 2) reduces

voltage from 120 volts in the primary
to 6 volts in the secondary. If the
primary winding has 300 turns and the
secondary has 15 turns, find the
voltage and turns ratio.

Solution:

VP 120 20
VR 20:1
VS 60 1

NP 300 20 Figure 2 Example 1 Transformer

TR 20:1
NS 15 1

Rev. 0 Page 5 ES-13

TRANSFORMER THEORY Transformers

Example 2: An iron core transformer with a primary voltage of 240 volts has 250 turns in the
primary and 50 turns in the secondary. Find the secondary voltage.

Solution:

VP NP
VS NS

Next, solve for VS.

NS
VS VP
NP

50
VS 240 volts
250

VS 48 volts

Example 3: A power transformer has a turns ratio of 1:4. If the secondary coil has 5000 turns
and secondary voltage is 60 volts, find the voltage ratio, VP, and NP.

Solution:

VR TR

VR 1:4

VP 1
VR 1:4
VS 4

1 60
VP V 15 volts
4 S 4

NP 1
TR
NS 4

1 5000
NP N 1250 turns
4 S 4

ES-13 Page 6 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER THEORY

Current Ratio
The current in the windings of a transformer is inversely proportional to the voltage in the
windings. This relationship is expressed in Equation (13-5).

VP IS
(13-5)
VS IP

where

IP = primary coil current

IS = secondary coil current

Since the voltage ratio is equal to the turns ratio, we can express the current ratio in terms of the
turns ratio, as in Equation (13-6).

NP IS
(13-6)
NS IP

Example 1: When operated at 120 V in the primary of an iron core transformer, the current
in the primary is 4 amps. Find the current in the secondary if the voltage is
stepped up to 500 V.

Solution:

VP IS
VS IP

Next, we solve for IS.

VP
IS IP
VS

120
IS 4 amps
500

IS 0.96 amps
Example 2: A transformer with 480 turns on the primary and 60 turns on the secondary draws
0.6 amps from a 120 V line. Find IS.

Solution:
NP IS
NS IP

Rev. 0 Page 7 ES-13

TRANSFORMER THEORY Transformers

Next, we solve for IS.

NP
IS IP
NS

480
IS 0.6 amps
60

IS 4.8 amps
The student should note from the previous examples that a transformer that "steps-up" voltage,
"steps-down" the current proportionally.

Three-Phase Transformer Connections

So far, our discussion has dealt with the operation of single-phase transformers. Three-phase
transformer operation is identical except that three single-phase windings are used. These
windings may be connected in wye, delta, or any combination of the two.

Delta Connection
In the delta connection, all three phases are connected in series to form a closed loop (Figure
3).

Figure 3 Delta Connection

Wye Connection
In the wye connection, three common ends of each phase are connected together at a common
terminal (marked "N" for neutral), and the other three ends are connected to a three-phase line
(Figure 4).

ES-13 Page 8 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER THEORY

Figure 4 Wye Connection

Combinations of Delta and Wye Transformer Connections

A three-phase transformer may have three separate but identical single-phase (1φ) transformers
or a single 3φ unit containing three-phase windings. The transformer windings may be connected
to form a 3φ bank in any of four different ways (Figure 5).

Figure 5 3φ Transformer Connections

Figure 5 shows the voltages and currents in terms of applied line voltage (V) and line current (I),
where the turns ratio (a) is equal to one. Voltage and current ratings of the individual
transformers depend on the connections (Figure 5) and are indicated by Table 1 for convenience
of calculations.

Rev. 0 Page 9 ES-13

TRANSFORMER THEORY Transformers

TABLE 1: Voltage and Current Ratings of Transformers

Primary Secondary
Transformer
Connection Line Phase Line Phase
(Primary to
Secondary) Volt. Current Volt. Current Volt. Current Volt. Current
*
I V V aI
∆-∆ V I V a aI a
3 3
V V V
Y-Y V I I a aI aI
3 3a
V V V
Y-∆ V I I aI
3 3a 3 aI 3a
I 3V aI V aI
∆-Y V I V a
3 a 3 3

*a = N1/N2; 3 1.73

Example 1: If line voltage is 440 V to a 3φ transformer bank, find the voltage across each
primary winding for all four types of transformer connections.

∆-∆: primary voltage = V = 440 volts

V 440
Y-Y: primary voltage = 254.3 volts
3 1.73

V 440
Y-∆: primary voltage = 254.3 volts
3 1.73

∆-Y: primary voltage = V = 440 volts

Example 2: If line current is 10.4 A in a 3φ transformer connection, find the primary phase
current.

I 10.4
∆-∆: primary phase current = 6 amps
3 1.73

Y-Y: primary phase current = I = 10.4 amps

Y-∆: primary phase current = I = 10.4 amps

ES-13 Page 10 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER THEORY

I 10.4
∆-Y: primary phase current = 6 amps
3 1.73

Example 3: Find the secondary line current and phase current for each type of transformer
connection, if primary line current is 20 amps, and the turns ratio is 4:1.

∆-∆: secondary line current = 4(20) = 80 amps

aI 4 (20)
secondary phase current = 46.2 amps
3 1.73

Y-Y: second line current = aI = 4(20) = 80 amps

second phase current = aI = 4(20) = 80 amps

Y-∆: secondary line current = 3 aI = (1.73)(4)(20) = 138.4 amps

secondary phase current = aI = 4(20) = 80 amps

aI 4 (20)
∆-Y: secondary line current = 46.2 amps
3 1.73

aI 4 (20)
secondary phase current = 46.2 amps
3 1.73

Transformer Losses and Efficiency

All transformers have copper and core losses. Copper loss is power lost in the primary and
secondary windings of a transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the windings. Copper loss,
in watts, can be found using Equation (13-7).

2 2
Copper Loss IP RP IS RS (13-7)

where

IP = primary current
IS = secondary current
RP = primary winding resistance
RS = secondary winding resistance

Rev. 0 Page 11 ES-13

TRANSFORMER THEORY Transformers

Core losses are caused by two factors: hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis loss is that
energy lost by reversing the magnetic field in the core as the magnetizing AC rises and falls and
reverses direction. Eddy current loss is a result of induced currents circulating in the core.

The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated using Equations (13-8), (13-9), and (13-10).

Power Output PS
Efficiency x 100 (13-8)
Power Input PP

Power Output
Efficiency x 100 (13-9)
Power Output Copper Loss Core Loss

VS IS x PF
Efficiency x 100 (13-10)
(VS IS x PF) Copper Loss Core Loss

where

PF = power factor of the load

Example 1: A 5:1 step-down transformer has a full-load secondary current of 20 amps. A

short circuit test for copper loss at full load gives a wattmeter reading of 100 W.
If RP = 0.3Ω, find RS and power loss in the secondary.

Solution:

2 2
Copper Loss IP RP IS RS 100 W

To find IP:

NP IS
NS IP

NS 1
IP IS 20 4 amps
NP 5

To find RS:

2 2
IS RS 100 IP RP

2
100 IP RP 100 0.3 (4) 2
RS 0.24
2
IS 202

ES-13 Page 12 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER THEORY

Power loss in secondary = IS2 RS = (20)2 (0.24) = 96 W

Example 2: An open circuit test for core losses in a 10 kVA transformer [Example (1)] gives
a reading of 70 W. If the PF of the load is 90%, find efficiency at full load.

Solution:

VS IS x PF
Eff. = x 100
(VS IS x PF) Copper Loss Core Loss

VSIS = transformer rating = 10 kVA = 10,000 VA

PF = 0.90; Copper loss = 100 W; Core loss = 70 W

10,000 (0.90) 9000

Eff = x 100 x 100 98.2%
10,000 (0.90) 100 70 9170

Transformer Operation Under No-Load

If the secondary of a transformer is left open-circuited (Figure 6), primary current is very low
and is called the no-load current. No-load current produces the magnetic flux and supplies the
hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core. The no-load current (IE) consists of two
components: the magnetizing current (Im) and the core loss (IH). Magnetizing current lags
applied voltage by 90°, while core loss is in phase with the applied voltage (Figure 6b). VP and
VS are shown 180° out of phase. IH is very small in comparison with Im, and Im is nearly equal
to IE. No-load current, IE, is also referred to as exciting current.

Figure 6 Open-Circuit Secondary

Rev. 0 Page 13 ES-13

TRANSFORMER THEORY Transformers

Example: When the secondary of a 120/440 V transformer is open, primary current is 0.2
amps at a PF of .3. The transformer is a 5 kVA transformer. Find: (a) IP, (b) IE,
(c) IH, and (d) Im.

kVA Rating
(a) Full load current
VP

(b) IP at no load is equal to IE

IE = 0.2 amp

(c) IH IE cos θ IE x PF

0.2 (0.3)

IH 0.06 amps

(d) IM IE sin θ

θ arccos 0.3 72.5°

(0.2) sin 72.5° (0.2) (0.95)

IM 0.19 amps

Coil Polarity
The symbol for a transformer gives no indication of the phase of the voltage across the
secondary. The phase of that voltage depends on the direction of the windings around the core.
In order to solve this problem, polarity dots are used to show the phase of primary and secondary
signals. The voltages are either in phase (Figure 7a) or 180° out of phase with respect to primary
voltage (Figure 7b).

ES-13 Page 14 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER THEORY

Figure 7 Polarity of Transformer Coils

Rev. 0 Page 15 ES-13

TRANSFORMER THEORY Transformers

Summary
The important information covered in this chapter is summarized below.

Transformer Theory Summary

The induction of an EMF in a coil by magnetic flux lines generated in
another coil is called mutual induction.

The turns ratio is defined as the ratio of turns of wire in the primary
winding to the number of turns of wire in the secondary winding.

The ratio between the primary and secondary impedances is referred to as

the impedance ratio.

Efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power output to the power

input.

In a delta connection, all three phases are connected in series to form a

closed loop.

In a wye connection, three common ends of each phase are connected

together at a common terminal, and the other three ends are connected to a
three-phase line.

In a ∆ connected transformer:

VL Vφ

IL 3 Iφ

In a Y connected transformer:

IL 3 Vφ

IL Iφ

ES-13 Page 16 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER TYPES

TRANSFORMER TYPES

Transformers can be constructed so that they are designed to perform a specific

function. A basic understanding of the various types of transformers is necessary
to understand the role transformers play in today’s nuclear facilities.

EO 1.4 STATE the applications of each of the following types of

transformers:
a. Distribution
b. Power
c. Control
d. Auto
e. Isolation
f. Instrument potential
g. Instrument current

Types of Transformers

Transformers are constructed so that their characteristics match the application for which they
are intended. The differences in construction may involve the size of the windings or the
relationship between the primary and secondary windings. Transformer types are also designated
by the function the transformer serves in a circuit, such as an isolation transformer.

Distribution Transformer

Distribution transformers are generally used in electrical power distribution and transmission
systems. This class of transformer has the highest power, or volt-ampere ratings, and the highest
continuous voltage rating. The power rating is normally determined by the type of cooling
methods the transformer may use. Some commonly-used methods of cooling are by using oil
or some other heat-conducting material. Ampere rating is increased in a distribution transformer
by increasing the size of the primary and secondary windings; voltage ratings are increased by
increasing the voltage rating of the insulation used in making the transformer.

Power Transformer

Power transformers are used in electronic circuits and come in many different types and
applications. Electronics or power transformers are sometimes considered to be those with
ratings of 300 volt-amperes and below. These transformers normally provide power to the power
supply of an electronic device, such as in power amplifiers in audio receivers.

Rev. 0 Page 17 ES-13

TRANSFORMER TYPES Transformers

Control Transformer

Control transformers are generally used in electronic circuits that require constant voltage or
constant current with a low power or volt-amp rating. Various filtering devices, such as
capacitors, are used to minimize the variations in the output. This results in a more constant
voltage or current.

Auto Transformer

The auto transformer is generally used in low power applications where a variable voltage is
required. The auto transformer is a special type of power transformer. It consists of only one
winding. By tapping or connecting at certain points along the winding, different voltages can
be obtained (Figure 8).

Figure 8 Auto Transformer Schematic

Isolation Transformer

Isolation transformers are normally low power transformers used to isolate noise from or to
ground electronic circuits. Since a transformer cannot pass DC voltage from primary to
secondary, any DC voltage (such as noise) cannot be passed, and the transformer acts to isolate
this noise.

ES-13 Page 18 Rev. 0

Transformers TRANSFORMER TYPES

Instrument Potential Transformer

The instrument potential transformer (PT) steps down voltage of a circuit to a low value that can
be effectively and safely used for operation of instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, watt
meters, and relays used for various protective purposes.

Instrument Current Transformer

The instrument current transformer (CT) steps down the current of a circuit to a lower value and
is used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer. This is done by constructing
the secondary coil consisting of many turns of wire, around the primary coil, which contains only
a few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high values of current can be obtained.

A current transformer should always be short-circuited when not connected to an external load.
Because the magnetic circuit of a current transformer is designed for low magnetizing current
when under load, this large increase in magnetizing current will build up a large flux in the
magnetic circuit and cause the transformer to act as a step-up transformer, inducing an
excessively high voltage in the secondary when under no load.

Rev. 0 Page 19 ES-13

TRANSFORMER TYPES Transformers

Summary

The important information covered in this chapter is summarized below.

Transformer Types Summary

Distribution transformers are generally used in power distribution and

transmission systems.

Power transformers are used in electronic circuits and come in many different
types and applications.

Control transformers are generally used in circuits that require constant voltage
or constant current with a low power or volt-amp rating.

Auto transformers are generally used in low power applications where a variable
voltage is required.

Isolation transformers are normally low power transformers used to isolate noise
from or to ground electronic circuits.

Instrument potential and instrument current transformers are used for operation
of instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, watt meters, and relays used for
various protective purposes.

ES-13 Page 20 Rev. 0