HUJMSS 2 (2) June 2020

HALLMARK UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & SOCIAL SCIENCES (HUJMSS)
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Vol. 2, No. 2 ISSN 2705-358X JUNE, 2020
HALLMARK UNIVERSITY
JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT &
SOCIAL SCIENCES
(HUJMSS)
Vol. 2. No. 2 JUNE, 2020
Published by
Faculty of Management and Social Sciences,
Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele,
Ogun State, Nigeria.
Vol. 2, No. 2 ISSN 2705-358X June 2020
@Faculty of Management and Social Sciences

Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele, Ogun State, Nigeria
Copyright 2020
All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in
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without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Published June 2020
By:
Faculty of Management and Social Sciences

Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele,
Ogun State, Nigeria.
Disclaimer
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Management and Social Sciences is exclusively the author(s) concern. The publisher of the
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Hallmark University Journal of Management and Social Sciences (HUJMSS)
EDITORIAL BOARD
Adebayo Adegboye, PhD- Dean, FMSS
Eze Benneth Uchenna, PhD, FME, FEB, FIIAS, FISPRM - Editor-in-Chief
Salami Lateef, PhD - Managing Editor
Miss Faith Ohwofasa - Journal Secretary
1. Prof. A. A. Sulaimon (Department of Business Administration, University of Lagos, Akoka)

2. Prof. T. O. Akinbobola (Department of Economics, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife)
3. Prof. O. O. Aregbeyen (Department of Economics, University of Ibadan, Ibadan)
4. Prof. O. J. Oyeniyi (Department of Marketing, Lagos State University, Ojo)
5. Prof. Seth Akutson (Department of Economics, Kaduna State University, Kaduna)
6. Prof. A. R. Bankole (Department of Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management,
Lagos State University, Ojo)
7. Prof John Aiyedogbon (Department of Economics, Bingham University, Karu)
8. Prof. J. O. Olujide (Department of Business Administration, University of Ilorin, Ilorin)
9. Prof. Ranti Uwuigbe (Department of Accounting, Covenant University, Ota)
10. Dr A. Adebayo (Department of Accounting, Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele)
11. Dr M. S. Oladimeji (Department of Business Administration, Olabisi Onabanjo University,
Ago-Iwoye)
12. Dr A. T. Onanuga (Department of Economics, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye)
13. Dr F. Ajayi (Department of Economics, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye)
14. Dr A. A. Adeyemi (Department of Accounting, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye)
15. Dr Femi Adedina (Department of Theatre Art, Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education,
Ijanikin)
ii
A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Hallmark University Journal of Management and Social Sciences (Vol. 2, No. 2, June 2020)
consists of research papers that cut across several domains of knowledge in management
and social sciences. The journal seeks to provide a credible outlet for the dissemination of
research findings, towards the expansion of the frontiers of knowledge. The journal boasts
global reach, as its contents will be accessible from around the world via the Hallmark
University sub-domain: www.hujmss.hallmark.edu.ng. This edition has both online and
offline versions to enhance easy open access that expands the visibility of our authors. The
Editorial board expresses our profound gratitude to all our reviewers across the globe as well
as our contributors.
Eze B. U., PhD, FME, FEB, FIIAS, FISPRM
Editor-in Chief
iii
CALL FOR PAPERS
Hallmark University Journal of Management and Social Sciences (HUJMSS) is published thrice
a year - February, June and October. Scholars in management and social sciences, as well as
related fields all over the world, are invited to send in their contributions. The journal
welcomes the submission of manuscripts that can withstand rigorous review. Papers
submitted will be published approximately two months after acceptance. Interested
contributors should type their scientific papers on A4 size with wide margins and 1.5 line
spacing. It should not exceed 15 pages including the abstract of not more than 250 words. A
maximum of five keywords should be provided. This journal employs double-blind review
process, which means that the reviewers’ identities are concealed from the authors, and vice
versa and all submitted manuscripts are assessed by two reviewers. HUJMSS equally uses
plagiarism software (Turnitin) to check the similarity index, which should not exceed 20%.
The paper should be empirical or theoretical, well researched, and relevant to the broad
domain. Short communications, reviews, commentaries, data set and methods could also be
considered. Contributors should include Author's name(s), institutional affiliation, the title of
the paper, abstract, introduction, statement of the problem, review of related literature,
methodology, findings, discussion of findings, conclusion and recommendations. Authors
should include their phone numbers and e-mails. Manuscripts must conform with the latest
American Psychological Association (APA) documentation style. Manuscripts should be
submitted in Microsoft Office Word with Times New Roman, 12 fonts size. This should be sent
to hujmss@hallmark.edu.ng, copyinghujmss@gmail.com.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial Board ......................................................................................................................... ii
A Note From The Editor-in-Chief........................................................................................... iii
Call For Papers ....................................................................................................................... iv
List of Contributors ............................................................................................................... vii
Audit Firm, Audit Partner Rotation and Audit Quality in South-South Nigeria.
Umasabor Eghosa Isabel & Okafor Chinwuba ................................................................. 1
Development and Carbon Emission: Does Health Policy Matters?. Adekoya

Adenuga Fabian & Oluwo Peter Olugbenga ................................................................... 11
Reward Management System and Employees’ Productivity in the Public Sector:

Evidence from Lagos State University. Eyanuku Julius Paul & Alasan Ali Ibrahim ....... 20
Job Stress and Employees’ Performance: Evidence from Manufacturing Industries in

Lagos, Nigeria. Anifowose Simeon O., Afolayan Michael A. & Shogunle Mariam
D .......................................................................................................................................... 36
Development and Validation of a Happiness Scale Among Africans: A Preliminary

Study. Awosola Rasaq Kayode & Idemudia Erhabor Sunday ....................................... 50
Assessment of Print Media Reportage of the Menace of Cultism in Nigerian

Societies: A Content Analysis of the Punch and Nigerian Tribune Newspapers from
January-June, 2019. Ojo Titiloye Oyeyinka, Ayobolu Yetunde O., Oyewo
Ayanfeoluwa Oluwatosin & Oyeniran Stella Titilope ..................................................... 59
Impulse Buying: Implications and Coping Strategies of Neo-Pentecostal Churches'

Women in Southwestern Nigeria. Adenuga Ademolu Oluwaseun, Ogunyemi
Segilola Yewande & Oyekanmi Abiodun Abdullahi ....................................................... 73
An Overview of Heterogeneity, Governance, and Insecurity in Nigerian Societies.

Omotajo Julia Arit & Bode-Okunade Abiodun Sekinat .................................................. 86
An Overview of Information Communication Technology and the Development of

Nigerian Economy. Yusuf Modupe Ololade, Asunmo Motunrayo Risikat,
Adekoya Opeyemi Jonathan, Odulate Lucia & Aleshinloye Ibrahim Babatunde ........ 97
Economics Teachers’ Knowledge and Attitude of Sustainable Education

Development in Ogun State. Yusuf Modupe O., Toriola Anu Keshiro, Oyewole
Sule Adegboyega, Saula Dele Taiwo & Nwabuisi Olanrewaju Florence .................... 105
Employees’ Evaluation and Banks’ Performance: Evidence from Selected Banks at

Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria. Wahab Nurudeen Opeyemi, Kolawole Ibukun O,
Oyewole Adeola Abosede & Eze Benneth Uchenna .................................................... 114
Channel of Distribution and Organizational Performance: Evidence from Selected

Confectionary Businesses In Ogun State, Nigeria. Adegbite Ganiu Adewale,
Sabitu Owotutu Olalekan & Adeniran Ademola ........................................................... 124
Standup Comedy in Nigeria: Evolutionand Prospects of a Performance Genre.

Oyetoro Hafiz Adebimpe ................................................................................................. 130
Creative Writing as a Tool Towards Nudging Nigeria to Development: An Overview.

Adedina Femi ................................................................................................................... 144
v
Corporate Reputation Management and the Nigerian Tertiary Institutions:
Assessment of Stakeholders' Perception of Corporate Image of Lagos State
University (LASU) Between 2007 and 2017. Ojo Titiloye Oyeyinka & Onaopepo
Ibrahim Bamiidele ............................................................................................................ 153
Worklife Balance and Employees Job Commitment: Evidence from Selected Banks
in Lagos, Nigeria. Sholesi Olayinka Yusuf, Erigbe Patience A., David Folashade
Grace & Adebayo Adegboye .......................................................................................... 169
An Overview of the Nigerian Film Industry: Appellation, Prospects and Challenges.

Sunday Ufot Imoh ............................................................................................................ 179
Communication and Organizational Change: A Study of First Bank of Nigeria and

Access Bank Plc in Lagos State. Adelekan Saidi Adedeji, Dave-Robinson
Chinenye May, Eze Benneth Uchenna & Eze Blessing Mary ...................................... 192
Employee Engagement and Adaptive Performance in the Manufacturing Sector:

Evidence from Drury Industries Limited, Ogun State, Nigeria. Sholesi Olayinka
Yusuf, Agboola Oluyemisi, Oyewole Adeola Abosede & Olatunji Elizabeth
Taiwo................................................................................................................................. 207
Conflict as an Organization’s Element of Adjustment. Ganiyu Rasaq Omokeji,

Tunde Adelaja & Atobajaye Emmanuel Modojutimi..................................................... 217
vi
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
S/N NAMES INSTITUTION/ AFFILIATION
1 Abiodun Abdullahi Oyekanmi Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun,
Ogun State
2 Adebayo Adegboye Hallmark University, Ogun State
3 Adedina Femi Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education,
Oto/Ijanikin, Lagos State.
4 Adegbite Ganiu Adewale Ogun State Institute of Technology, Igbesa,
Nigeria.
5 Adekoya Opeyemi Jonathan Michael Otedola College of Primary
Education, Noforija-Epe, Nigeria
6 Adelekan Saidi Adedeji Dominican University, Ibadan
7 Ademolu Oluwaseun Adenuga Hallmark University, Ogun State
8 Adeniran Ademola Ogun State Institute of Technology, Igbesa,
Nigeria.
9 Adenuga, Fabian Adekoya Michael Otedola College of Primary
Education, Noforija-Epe, Lagos, Nigeria.
10 Afolayan Michael A. Anchor University, Ayobo, Lagos, Nigeria
11 Agboola Oluyemisi Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
12 Alasan Ali Ibrahim National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)
13 Aleshinloye Ibrahim Babatunde Michael Otedola College of Primary
14 Anifowose Simeon O. Anchor University, Ayobo, Lagos, Nigeria
15 Asunmo Motunrayo Risikat Michael Otedola College of Primary
16 Atobajaye Emmanuel Modojutimi Federal College of Animal Production and
Health Technology, Ibadan
17 Awosola Rasaq Kayode Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma
18 Ayobolu Yetunde O. KolaDaisi University, Ibadan, Oyo State,
Nigeria.
19 Bode-Okunade Abiodun Sekinat The Polytechnic, Ibadan
20 Dave-Robinson Chinenye May Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye
21 David Folashade Grace Yaba College of Technology
22 Erigbe Patience A. Mountain Top University, Ogun State
23 Eyanuku Julius Paul National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)
24 Eze Benneth Uchenna Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele, Ogun State,
Nigeria
25 Eze Blessing Mary National Open University Of Nigeria
26 Ganiyu Rasaq Omokeji Fountain University, Osogbo
27 Idemudia Erhabor Sunday Northwest University (Mafikeng Campus),
South Africa
28 Kolawole Ibukun O. Lagos State University, Ojo
29 Nwabuisi Olanrewaju Florence Michael Otedola College of Primary
30 Odulate Lucia Michael Otedola College of Primary
31 Ojo Titiloye Oyeyinka KolaDaisi University, Ibadan, Oyo State,
Nigeria.
32 Okafor Chinwuba University of Benin, Nigeria
33 Olatunji Elizabeth Taiwo Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye
vii
34 Omotajo Julia Arit The Polytechnic, Ibadan

35 Onaopepo Ibrahim Bamidele Public Relations Practitioner and Media
Consultant, Ijebu-ode, Ogun State, Nigeria.
36 Oyeniran Stella Titilope KolaDaisi University, Ibadan, Oyo State,
Nigeria.
37 Oyetoro Hafiz Adebimpe Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education,
Oto/Ijanikin, Lagos State.
38 Oyewo Ayanfeoluwa Oluwatosin Kola Daisi University, Ibadan, Oyo State,
Nigeria.
39 Oyewole Adeola Abosede Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos.
40 Oyewole Sule Adegboyega Michael Otedola College of Primary
41 Oluwo Peter Olugbenga Michael Otedola College of Primary
Education, Noforija-Epe, Lagos, Nigeria.
42 Sabitu Owotutu Olalekan Ogun State Institute of Technology, Igbesa,
Nigeria.
43 Saula Dele Taiwo Michael Otedola College of Primary
44 Segilola Yewande Ogunyemi Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun
State
45 Shogunle Mariam D. Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos
Nigeria
46 Sholesi Olayinka Yusuf Lagos State University, Ojo
47 Sunday Ufot Imoh Hallmark University, Ijebu Itele, Ogun State
48 Toriola Anu Keshiro Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun
State
49 Tunde Adelaja Hallmark University, Ijebu Itele, Ogun State
50 Umasabor Eghosa Isabel University of Benin, Nigeria
1
51 Wahab Nurudeen Opeyemi Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun
State, Nigeria
52 Yusuf Modupe Ololade Michael Otedola College of Primary
viii
AUDIT FIRM, AUDIT PARTNER ROTATION AND AUDIT QUALITY IN SOUTH-SOUTH
NIGERIA
UMASABOR Eghosa Isabel & OKAFOR Chinwuba
Department of Accounting, University of Benin, Nigeria
Email: eghosa.umasabel@uniben.edu, 07036670686,
chinwuba.okafor@uniben.edu, 08037867627
Abstract
The study investigates the relationship between audit firm, audit partner rotation and audit quality
in South-South Nigeria using the cross-sectional survey. The study used primary data, whereby a
total of 390 copies of questionnaire were distributed to auditors, accountants and accounting
lecturers (university) in the South-South states of Nigeria. A sample of two hundred and eight
respondents was analysed using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and least squares
regression analysis. The findings with an R2 of 0.311615 revealed that firm rotation had a
significant positive relationship with audit quality with 0.189521 coefficient, prob(0.04) tested at
95% confidence level (p<0.05). Partner rotation had a positive but insignificant relationship with
audit quality with 0.079398 coefficient, prob(0.51, p> 0.05).The study, therefore, recommends that
companies should rotate their audit firm on a 10years basis and rotates their audit lead partners on
a 5years basis by strictly complying with the Nigerian Code of Corporate Governance Section 20.1
and Section 20.4 respectively issued in 2018 by the Financial Reporting Council of Nigeria (FRCN)
this would assure users of the financial report since auditor's independence is intact and further
boost their confidence.
Keywords: Audit Firm Rotation, Audit Partner Rotation, Audit Quality
1. Introduction of 10 years for audit firms (section 20.1) and

Audit rotation is a tool put in place to check can be reengaged after 7 years (section
auditor's independence. It is when limits are 20.2). Consequently, a tenure of 5years for
put on the maximum number of years an partner rotation, section 20.4 of the Code,
audit firm or audit partner can audit a and at least, 3 years cooling off period
particular client (Nigerian Code of Corporate (section 20.5). Audit rotation helps to break
Governance, 2018). The relationship the absolute power or monopoly of a
between audit rotation and audit quality has particular firm or partner over a client and
been indistinct over a period. Increased strengthen the auditor's independence, thus,
participation in the capital market has led protecting the users of financial statements.
individuals to have an interest in financial The choice between conducting a
reports that the management prepares in professional non-subjective audit and
order to make an economic decision. In line intentionally conniving with the management
with the auditing codes of best practices, of a firm to engage in opportunistic
auditors perform their obligations in absolute accounting manipulations is what auditors’
good faith, thus, adding credibility to audit independence involves. Auditor’s
quality. Audit rotation is a tool in corporate independence does not only comprise
governance used to strengthen auditors' independence of the mind but also
independence. It is in this light that the translates to the quality of financial reporting,
Nigerian Code of Corporate Governance which is independent in appearance.
2018 (NCCG) specified that all Private According to Mautz and Sharaf (1961), two
companies, with the exclusion of private types of auditor's independence exist,
companies with a staff strength of 8 or less namely practitioner-independence (fact) and
and files, return to Federal Inland Revenue profession independence. If auditor's
Service (FIRS) and Corporate Affairs independence is much needed, then there
Commission (CAC) and the Public has to be a way to uphold it by audit rotation
companies listed should not exceed a tenure (Dunakhir, 2016).
1
However, the issue of audit rotation has its results. Therefore, there is the need to
debate such as there will be no incentive for assess the effect of audit rotation on audit
reappointment especially in the last year and quality in the light of the pronouncement of
this will reduce the audit quality; there is also NCCG (2018) to know the level of
increased audit fees as a result of startup compliance and its impact, to bridge the
cost; then the effect of the learning curve; existing gap in knowledge. Most studies
and finally, the presence of information conducted on the effect of audit rotation on
asymmetry (Sayyar, Basiruddin, Abdul Rasid audit quality (Kim, Lee & Lee, 2015;
& Sayyar, 2014). The cost of audit rotation Imeokparia, 2014; Mgbame, Eragbhe &
was seen to exceed the said benefit hence Osazuwa, 2012; Okaro, Okafor & Egbunike,
rotation does not improve audit quality 2013; Onwuchekwa, Erah & Izedonmi, 2012)
(Rong, 2017). However, there are ways to have either shown that there is a significant
reduce the cost of rotation by handling effect or not and either to the positive or
working papers to the new firm (Imeopkaria, negative direction. Therefore, this study
2014). Therefore, audit rotation is practiced contributes by examining whether there is a
in both developing and developed countries. significant effect, the direction, and the effect
that the NCCG’s pronouncement of audit
Bronson, Harris and Whisenant (2016)
rotation has on audit quality.
studied the mandatory audit rotation using
1. What is the relationship between firm
the United States as one of the case studies
rotation and audit quality?
found that firms are rotated on a 5 years
2. What is the relationship between audit
basis. Mandatory audit firm rotation was
partner rotation and audit quality?
introduced into the Nigerian financial sector
(banking and insurance) in 2006 as a result The broad objective of this study is to
of the consolidation in banks (Omoye & investigate the compliance, with rotation
Aronmwan, 2013; Otusanya & Lauwo, rule, changes that have been made and its
2010). This was to rotate external auditors impact on audit quality in South-South
on a 10years basis in the banks and a Nigeria. Therefore, the specific objectives
5years basis in insurance companies to are to:
strengthen audit quality which is germane to 1. Establish the relationship between audit
financial reporting quality. firm rotation and audit quality; and
2. Determine the relationship between
Corporate failures and scandals have raised
audit partner rotation and audit quality.
questions as to the ability of auditors to
objectively give an opinion on the books and In order to achieve the objectives of this
records prepared by management (Omoye & study, the following null hypotheses are
Aronman, 2013).This question is particularly formulated:
relevant given that some of the auditors H01 There is no significant relationship
were apparently not objective enough to between audit firm rotation and audit quality
have been able to present a check on most Ho2There is no significant relationship
of the failed companies. According to Hoyle between partner rotation and audit quality
(1978), long audit tenure threatens auditors'
2. Literature Review
independence. Although it is expected that
Audit Quality
auditors will act in a way and manner that
"Audit is a systematic process of objectively
will help to reduce any information
obtaining and evaluating evidence regarding
asymmetry present in the link between
assertions about economic actions and
shareholders and management, the long
events to ascertain the degree of
tenure was seen to have threatened this
correspondence between those assertions
objectivity, hence the need to rotate auditors
and established criteria, and communicating
arose to increase audit quality. Several
the results to interested parties"(Bahram,
pieces of literature on the linkage between
2007:4). Several researchers (e.g. Enofe,
audit rotation and audit quality reflect mixed
2
Mgbame, Efayena, & Edegware, 2014; standard. This is the reason why
Knechel, Krishnan, Pevzner, Shefchick, & shareholders and corporate managers bring
Velury, 2013) have documented that there is in a neutral person (auditor) to give a report
no generally agreed definition of audit that is not biased and ensures that the
quality; that it is hard to give the meaning of records and accounts are prepared in
what audit quality entails because of the accordance with the generally accepted
views of various users of financial statement. accounting principles (Watts & Zimmerman,
While Watts and Zimmerman (1981) put 1980) or International Financial Reporting
audit quality as a function of auditor's Standard as the case may be. The concept
competence and independence. Again, of audit quality is germane in financial
DeAngelo (1981) defined audit quality as the reporting. When audit standards are
ability of the auditor to discover a adhered to by auditors, it goes a long way in
discrepancy in the client's accounting record affecting the audit quality (Abdollahiebli,
and not only to discover but also having the 2018). Knechel and Vanstraelen (2007)
willpower to report the discrepancy carried out a research in Belgium using
accordingly. Audit quality is a multi- propensity to measure audit quality.They
dimensional construct (Defond & Zhang, found that auditors do not become less
2014). independent over time nor do they become
better at predicting bankruptcy, which
An audit quality measurement system is
implies that audit rotation has no significant
formed to monitor, maintain and control the
relationship with audit quality.
audit process. This is necessary because
the users of financial statements rely on However, Mgbame, Eragbhe and Osazuwa
auditor's report to enable them to make (2012) examined the relationship between
decisions on their investments. The audit audit partner tenure and audit quality in
quality measures which are tools for the Nigeria, using binary logit to analyse their
quality of audit are the forward-looking data, identified that longer tenure above 3
indicators that help stakeholders to predict years showed a negative association. In
the quality of the audit and possibly highlight 2014, Imeokparia's study documented that
areas for change (Zheng, Srinivasan & shareholders perceive long audit tenure as a
Rajgopa, 2018). Extant literature revealed threat to the objectivity of the auditor, hence
that researchers have used proxies such as firm rotation will drive home audit quality and
accruals to measure audit quality which for this to be achieved, there should be a
indicates that firms with higher accruals are mandatory rotation of audit firms. The Big 4
more likely to have a higher rate of audit firms (PWC, KPMG, Deloitte, and Ernst
uncertainty and hence auditors should give a & Young) were the sample population and
modified report (Francis & Krisnan, 1999). In revealed that the cost of rotation could be
addition, the ability to give a modified audit reduced by the handing over of working
opinion was also seen to reveal the audit papers to new auditors. Audit rotation can
quality (Firth, Rui & Wu, 2012). In the same drive home audit quality, thus helping users
vein, Defond and Park (2001) documented of financial statement to have confidence in
that abnormal working capital accrual, which the report of auditors. Among studies of
is the difference between changes in non- audit rotation, it was observed that a
cash current assets and the change in negative relationship exists between
operating current liabilities, was used to mandatory audit rotation and shareholders'
measure audit quality. confidence, using regression analysis to
analyse the data collected. This implies that
Audit quality must have consistency,
the rotation of external auditors does not
independence documentation, examination,
boost the confidence of shareholders in
verification of activities, records, processes
Nigeria. The study recommended that
and the internal control system to know
mandatory rotation of external auditors in
whether they conform to the required
3
Nigeria be revisited (Dibia and Okafor, & Ofoegbu, 2018). It attempts to
Onwuchekwa, 2013). restore the lost confidence that most
members of the public have in an audit
Similarly, Olowookere and Adebiyi (2013)
report, which has brought about the
examined the impact of mandatory firm
emergence of various regulatory Acts such
rotation rule and audit quality in Nigeria
as the Sarbanes Oxley Act in the United
deposit banks. The data were analysed
States, Mandatory audit firm rotation in
using a binary logit model technique of
European Union (Siregar, Amarullah,
estimation. The findings revealed that audit
Wibowo & Anggraita, 2012).
quality is not affected by audit firm
mandatory rotation rule. The findings of In order to safeguard the reliability and
Omoye and Aronmwan (2013) also integrity of financial reporting quality,
inveterate the stance that there exists a auditor’s independence must be in place. It
negative relationship between mandatory indicates that an auditor must be objective
audit rotation and audit quality in Nigerian and unbias in carrying out his duties.
banks. They used logit regression to analyse Auditors' independence is a show of
their data. In their study, they could not objectivity. The definition of audit quality by
imagine the reason behind the fall of DeAngelo (1981) covers what it means to be
companies like Enron and WorldCom in the independent, thus having the ability to
United States of America (USA) and discover and report a discrepancy in the
Parmalat in Italy if the companies were records of the client. Again, putting into play
audited by auditors and were given a clean the auditing regulatory framework is what
financial report, not a qualified report. auditor's independence entails (Marnet et
al., 2019). The devastating effect of
In 2017, Turel, Tas, Genc and Ozden's
corporate failures as documented in
study employed the regression model to
literature has been blamed on poor audit
analyse the impact of audit firm tenure on
quality as a result of lack of auditors
audit quality. Their result showed that limited
independence (Omoye & Aronmwan, 2013).
auditor tenure does not ease audit quality.
This is also consistent with the study of Reacting to this, the Nigeria code of
Tagesson, Sjodah, Collin, Olsson and corporate governance (2018) has
Svensson (2015). Nevertheless, the pronounced that all companies should rotate
research of Odia (2015) showed that audit audit firm on a 10years basis and audit
rotation impairs audit quality. Contrary to the partners on a 5years basis which is still
foregoing, the effect of mandatory firm awaiting the backing of the government for
rotation on auditor's independence was private companies to be a part of it and for
examined using binary logit to analyse the unquoted companies also. The examination
data. The result showed a positive of audit rotation on how it affects audit
significant impact on mandatory firm rotation quality is of great importance. Hence, audit
and auditor's independence (Onwuchekwa, rotation variables and their relationship with
Erah and Izedonmi, 2012). The study of audit quality are discussed below:
Lobo, Paugam, Zhang and Casta (2017)
posit that auditors' independence is very Firm Rotation and Audit Quality
vital in audit quality. Audit rotation is, Mandatory firm rotation connotes that there
therefore, seen as an important tool for should be an imposition of a limit on the
enhancing audit quality which would further number of years an audit firm is supposed to
increase auditor's independence as put by be an auditor to a particular client (Sayyar,
various researchers. Most researchers see et al. 2014; Okaro, Okafor & Egbunike,
audit quality as very germane in financial 2013). Audit firm rotation is the practice of
reporting quality when auditor’s mandatory or voluntary changes in audit firm
independence is in place (Marnet, Barone & after a specified period in order to keep
Gwillian, 2019; Yan& Xie, 2016; Okaro, afresh a set of eyes on the books and
4
records of the company (Siregar et al., State. 390 copies of the prepared
2012). The National code of corporate questionnaire were given to the respondents
governance (2018) has made it mandatory which comprised of auditors in audit firms,
for all sectors to rotate their audit firm on a accountants (with a minimum of a B.Sc. and
10 years basis with effect from 2018 and those with professional qualifications such
that any firm that has stayed up to 10 years as ICAN and ANAN) and accounting
should be rotated. The rotation of firm was teachers in universities. A total of 208 copies
first introduced in 2006 for Banks only to of the questionnaire were returned and
rotate their external auditors on a 10 years analysed. The study chose the South-South
basis and insurance companies on a 5years region because it is more convenient for the
basis (Okaro, Okafor & Egunike, 2013).The study and involves less cost. The sample
study of Imeokparia (2014) documented that size for the study was determined by the
shareholders perceive long audit tenure as a Cochran (1977) sampling formula. The
threat to the objectivity of the auditor, hence population of the study was made up of
firm rotation will drive home audit quality and people from the South-South region in
for this to be achieved there should be a Nigeria. The researchers estimated the
mandatory rotation of audit firms. population because of its infinite number of
respondents. The formula used is stated as
Partner Rotation and Audit Quality
follows:
By partner rotation, it is the mandatory 2
n0= z pq
imposition of a limit on the maximum number 2
e
of years a lead partner is allowed to audit a
Where: n0 = the sample size
particular client. The national code of
z = values in the table
corporate governance (2018) has stipulated
e = desired level of precision (the margin of
a maximum number of 5 years for a lead
error 0.05 on a 95% confidence level)
partner and thereafter rotated. An audit
p = estimated proportion of the population
partner can also be changed by the auditing
which has the attribute in question (50%)
firm voluntarily. However, the reason for the
q=1-p
voluntary change of an auditor is unrevealed
Therefore; n0 = 1.962 (0.5) ( 1 - 0.5)
to the public, although, Nashwa (2004) 2
0.05 =384.16
posits that voluntary change, in most cases,
approximately 385
is caused by perceived audit failures while
At a 95% confidence level, the Z value is
another cause for rotation could also be as a
1.96 at 5% + or - on the table
result of a discrepancy between a client and
n0= 385 questionnaires.
an auditor. This mandatory partner rotation
prescribes that audit partners be rotated; this In total, our sample size was 384.16
is applicable in Nigeria and it was put in approximated to 385 which were given to the
place to further strengthen auditor's auditors, accountants and accounting
independence (Hoyle, 1978). Agency theory teachers in the six states equally. Dividing
underpins this study as the independent 385 by six gave 64.16 and it was
auditor helps to reduce the information approximated to Sixty-Five (65) copies of the
asymmetry present in the contractual questionnaire were distributed each to the
relationship between management and six states in the zone, making a total of three
shareholders increasing the audit quality. hundred and ninety (390) copies of the
questionnaire.
3. Methodology
The impact of audit rotation on audit quality The Agency theory confers on auditors the
was investigated in Nigeria and samples responsibility of bridging the gap that exists
were collected from the South-South between shareholders and management by
geopolitical zone, which comprises Edo reducing information asymmetry. According
State, Delta State, Bayelsa State, Rivers to Maria and Welten (2016), auditors boost
State, Cross-Rivers State and Akwa-Ibom financial report.
5
The econometric form is: = + + FR= Firm rotation
PR= Partner rotation
AQ= Audit quality β1, β2 > 0
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics

AQ FR PR
Mean 2.380769 2.093269 2.398077
Median 2.400000 2.000000 2.200000
Maximum 3.800000 3.600000 3.800000
Minimum 0.000000 1.000000 1.000000
Std. Dev. 0.572658 0.631196 0.632758
Skewness -0.782517 0.434343 0.521714
Kurtosis 4.918079 2.582562 2.545652
Jarque-Bera 53.11242 8.050193 11.22485
Probability 0.000000 0.017862 0.003652
Source: Researcher's compilation (2019)
The mean for audit quality (AQ) was 2.38 for rotations within the period and that the
the 208 observations. It showed that based highest number of audit firm rotation done
on the criteria utilized, the level of audit was 4 and this may be because these were
quality among the independent variables the audit firms that have spent up to 10years
under consideration is relatively high. This is with effect from 2018. This, therefore,
buttressed in the range between the implies that the average responses by the
minimum value (0) and the maximum value various respondents were in support of the
(3.8). The standard deviation which fact that firm rotation tends to increase audit
measures the spread of the distribution was quality.
0.57%. This, therefore, indicates that the
Partner rotation (PR) was found to have a
average audit rotation enhances auditor’s
mean value of 2.39, indicating a relatively
independence in an audit process and
high yield. It means those audit lead
hence audit quality.
partners were rotated in the period under
Firm rotation (FR) had a mean value of 2.09 review. The standard deviation stood at a
and a standard deviation value of 0.63. It value of 0.63, indicating that 63% of the
indicated that audit firm rotation compliance samples carried out partner rotation. This,
was relatively high and that there was 63% therefore, indicates that the average majority
compliance to rotate audit firm in Nigeria. of the respondents agreed to the fact that
The minimum of 1 and maximum of 4 partner rotation is an effective way to
showed that at least there were audit firm improve audit quality.
Table 2: Correlation Matrix result

Probability AQ FR PR
AQ 1.000000
......
FR 0.113812 1.000000
0.1033 .......
PR 0.279714 0.389902 1.000000
0.0000 0.0000 .........
Source: Researcher's computation (2019)
AQ was positively correlated with FR (0.113) Heteroskedasticity test was performed to
and PR (0.28).The implication of this to the determine whether there were specification
study is that there is no problem of errors.
multicollinearity.
6
Chi - Square =7.8 Model Specification test was performed to
P-value = 0.093 determine whether there was specification
The results showed high probability values error. The results showed high probability
that were greater than 0.05, which led to the values greater than 0.05, meaning that there
rejection of the presence of was no significant evidence of
heteroscedasticity in the residuals. misspecification.
Table 3: Regression analysis
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Probability
FR 0.189521 0.091216 2.077716 0.0404*
PR 0.079398 0.119898 0.662216 0.5094
C 0.820670 0.452779 1.812518 0.0730
R- squared 0.311615
Adjusted R- 0.282933
squared
F- statistic 10.8423
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000
Durbin Watson 1.859740
Source: Researcher's computation, (2019)
2
AQ= 0.820670+ 0.189521FR+ 0.079398PR The R with a low value of 0.28 have been
(0.07) (0.04)* (0.51) due to the heterogeneous nature of the data
(cross-sectional) which made the fitness of
Regression Result
the model veer off from the symmetry line
R- Squared = 0.3116, Adjusted R- square
because of various responses of
= 0.2829
respondents.
Table 4: Test of Hypotheses
Variables Beta Coefficient value Sig Remark
FR 0.189521 0.0404* Reject Null hypothesis
PR 0.079398 0.5094 Accept the Null hypothesis
Source: Researcher's computation, (2019)
Note: * implies significant at 5% significant level
The hypotheses formulated earlier were hypothesis that there is a significant
tested and the decision rule was to reject the relationship between firm rotation and audit
null hypothesis if the probability values were quality.
greater than 5% (p>0.05) level of
Hypothesis Two: Ho2: there is no significant
significance, otherwise we accept the
relationship between partner rotation and
alternate hypothesis.
audit quality in Nigeria.
Hypothesis One: Ho1: there is no significant
Partner rotation was found to have a positive
relationship between audit firm rotation and
impact on audit quality. This, therefore,
audit quality in Nigeria.
implies that on the average a unit change in
The result supported that audit firm rotation partner rotation would lead to a 0.07 unit
would lead to an increase in audit quality. As increase in audit quality. It was however not
firms rotate their firms on a 10 years basis found to be statistically significant when
this would lead to an increase in audit tested at 5% (0.05), a p-value of 0.50
quality. The result showed a positive impact (p>0.05) had no relationship with audit
on audit quality with a coefficient value quality at the critical level. Therefore, we
which stood at 0.18 and a p-value of (0.040) accept the null hypothesis that partner
and a statistically significant relationship. rotation has no significant relationship with
The results, therefore, rejected the null audit quality in Nigeria and reject the
hypothesis and accepted the alternate alternate hypothesis.
7
Discussion of Findings al., 2012). However, these findings are
The study found a positive and significant contrary to those of Lennox et al. (2014),
relationship between firm rotation and audit Mgbame et al. (2012) who found a negative
quality. This, therefore, implies that firm relationship between audit partner rotation
rotation is positively associated with audit and audit quality and Sharma, Tanyi and Litt
quality in Nigeria. It gives evidence that if an (2017) who established that partner rotation
organization opt for a change of service as is negatively associated with audit quality.
regards an audit firm after spending the
Conclusion and Recommendation
required number of 10 years as stipulated by
Firm rotation has a positive and significant
the Nigerian Code of Corporate Governance
relationship with audit quality in Nigeria. This
it will go a long way in improving audit
suggests that when firms are rotated for all
quality in Nigeria. These findings were in line
companies in Nigeria on a ten years basis, it
with the work of other researchers that
will enhance auditor's independence and
studied the effect of firm rotation on audit
promote audit quality. We, therefore,
quality (Kim et al., 2015; Imeokparia, 2014;
suggest that there should be full
Okaro et al., 2013; Onwuchekwa et al.,
enforcement of the Code of Corporate
2012; Sayyar et al., 2014) they found a
Governance (2018) thus transferring to strict
positive relationship between firm rotation
monitoring to ensure that all companies
and audit quality, but at variance with the
comply and that stringent actions are taken
findings of Dibia & Onwuchekwa (2013),
against defaulters.
Omoye & Aronmwan (2013) and
Olowookere & Adebiyi (2013) who Partner rotation is seen to have a positive
established a negative relationship between but not a significant relationship with audit
the firm rotation and audit quality. quality. We recommend that all lead partners
should be rotated when their five-year tenure
With regard to partner rotation, we found a
elapses in Nigeria. This will further enhance
positive but not a significant relationship with
auditor's independence as this is a
audit quality. This implies that a change in
necessary tool in financial reporting. The
the audit lead partner, after the stipulated
study suggests that there should be full
period of 5years, would improve audit quality
enforcement of the Code of Corporate
in Nigeria. Hence, partner rotation tends to
Governance (2018) thus, transferring to
increase audit quality but it is not statistically
strict monitoring to ensure full compliance
significant. The reason could be that since
and stringent actions taken against
firm rotation is carried out also in a particular
defaulters. The study used primary data
firm, the rotating partner would mean 2
which resulted in a low value of R
duplication of rotation, hence transferring to
secondary data should be used and other
its insignificant relationship. These findings
proxies for audit quality be used also in
are consistent with extant literature which
further studies.
found partner rotation to be positively related
to audit quality (Manry et al., 2008; Firth et
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10
DEVELOPMENT AND CARBON EMISSION: DOES HEALTH POLICY MATTERS?
a
ADEKOYA Adenuga Fabian
&
b
OLUWO Peter Olugbenga
a,b
Department of Economics, School of Arts and Social Sciences,
Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, Noforija-Epe, Lagos, Nigeria.
Corresponding Email: adenugaadekoya@gmail.com
Abstract
The attainment of appreciable developmental level remains a major task in Nigeria. Policymakers
have been looking for ways to improve development through a sustained increase in the GDP per
capita to achieve sustainable development goals in the country by 2030. But, a key factor
contributing to poor development is environmental degradation caused by human activities in the
depletion of the ecosystem. Therefore, this paper examined the impact of carbon emission on
development by controlling for health. To unravel this linkage, this paper considered annual data in
Nigeria from 1970 to 2014. The data set was estimated using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag
Model as the series is a mixture of I(0) and I(1). The results showed that carbon emission had
negative (-0.471) and significant (1%) on development; also, the labour force population had
negative (-0.919) and effect significant at (1%) on development. However, health is positive
(0.117) and significant (1%) to determine development. These results suggest that activities of
unskilled labour encourage carbon emission to reduce development but this can be minimized
through investment in health programs as it would help the labour force to contribute positively to
future development. Therefore, policymakers need to orientate youths on the imminent danger
posed by forest depletion; provide alternative jobs with the positive contribution of the labour force
in the country; and good health policy to stimulate positive contribution in the working population
that embeds better development in the country.
Keywords: Development, Carbon emission, Health

JEL Classification: Q01, Q53, I18
1.0 Introduction assist them to be healthy people, qualified to

The desire to increase human welfare in drive the development we want in the future.
societies has been a major focus of Therefore, the climatic situation is connected
policymakers in recent times. Various United to the issue of the environment and it has
Nations programs have attributed to the become a central matter in development.
need to ensure sustainable development in
Efforts to increase human welfare in society
the World to enhance human welfare. This
cannot be separated from growth policy.
means that future development must not be
Growth policies in most developing countries
compromised by the pursuit of unhealthy
provide the government with the opportunity
environmental practices that may harm GDP
to enhance income-employment and reduce
in the medium to long term development. It
poverty and income inequality. It helps to
presumes that the current health status
provide a healthy economy, which gives the
needs preservation for further accumulation
citizens an enabling comfort. This is done by
of short term wealth, considering its impact
increasing income-employment to reduce
on the future. To ensure that there is no
poverty and income inequality. The pursuant
compromise, the idea of a safe environment
of growth policy requires the economy's
that is free from environmental degradation
mechanism to use available natural
must reduce to enhance good health status
resources for development. Human activities
(UNICEF, 2013). It is accepted that
increase output in the economy with a
environmental sustainability must be
consequent effect on numerous aspects of
achieved because nurturing and safe
global ecosystems. These effects are
guiding the young generation now shall
revealed in the increased carbon dioxide
11
(CO2) concentration in the atmosphere gained prominence in a World Bank Report
(Abdusalam & Noguchi, 2005). The increase (1992) which alluded on the link between
in CO2 emanated from the high usage of sulfur dioxide and GDP per capita among 47
energy, especially from the combustion of cities in the world. The World Bank Report
fossil fuels. Consequently, it has led to the (1992) buttressed the U-shaped work of
death of human beings and high numbers of Kuznets (1955) on inequality and economic
diseases which has impaired human capital growth. The U-shaped implied that a nation
(Shrestha, Shrestha & Shrestha, 2017). shifts from agricultural production to
Indeed, the studies conducted in Nigeria industrial production by the transformation of
have also provided evidence that the CO2 its rural areas to urban areas. There is a
consists of poisonous gases released from tendency for pollution to increase. Carbon
the combustible engine of automobiles that emission would be lowered at the initial
use fossil fuels; these increase health stage of development (Aye & Edoja, 2017),
hazards (Chamberlain, 2016). This is but while the economy begins to grow, the
because higher outdoor CO2 values carbon emission increases. Although as a
obtained in the country have become nation becomes industrialized, higher
worrisome since there is an increase in technological production takes place, which
toxicity levels (Okobia, Hassan & Peter, may encourage a reduction in pollution
2017). Protracted exposure to CO2 from (Cederborg & Snöbohm, 2016). Bouvier
generating sets causes unconsciousness, (2009) asserted that when a country is at the
which results in oxygen therapy for those low-level income, the combination of the
patients (Afolayan, Edomwonyi & technologies used increase emissions. But a
Esangbedo, 2014). Matthew, Osabohien, high-level nation’s income has its emissions
Fasina, and Fasina (2018) demonstrated flattened because of the high technologies
and concluded that the greenhouse effect employed.
reduces life span.
More so, there is a list of studies that
In light of the above, this paper considers explored the joint movement and long-run
the need to improve environmental safety relationship between the two variables:
practices. This would encourage the carbon emissions and economic growth via
government and private organizations GDP per capita (Armeanu, Vintilă, Andrei,
operating in the industrial sector to reduce Gherghina, Drăgoi, & Teodor, 2018; Bilan,
CO2 emission in the country. Also, a vacuum Streimikiene, Vasylieva, Lyulyov, Pimonenko
exists in the empirical link on how the health & Pavlyk, 2019). Armeanuet al. (2018) and
policy could help to reduce CO2 in Nigeria Bilan et al. (2019) used Vector Error
within the context of development. This Correction model to establish that co-
study provided vital information to the integration exists between carbon emission
policymakers on how to minimize CO2 and and economic growth in a panel study on EU
improve health matters. While the rest of the countries. Furthermore, previous studies on
paper follows accordingly, Section 2 focuses the link between carbon emissions and
on the literature review, while Section 3 economic growth via GDP per capita in
presents the model specification and Nigeria have supported the World Bank
econometric techniques. The results of the Report of 1992. For instance, Onakoya,
empirical analysis are presented in Section 4 Onakoya, Jimi-Salami and Odedairo (2013)
and Section 5 presents the conclusion and studied the causal link between energy
policy. consumption and economic growth in
Nigeria from 1975 to 2010. In the study, gas
2.0 Literature Review consumption and coal were labelled as
Previous studies employed the carbon emissions because of the emissions
Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) to they generate. The data were estimated by
theorize the link between carbon emission the ordinary least squares method (OLS).
and economic development. And it further
12
They found that gas consumption is positive The mixed findings show that the debate on
to economic growth but coal emissions the link between carbon emission and
adversely affect economic growth. In economic development is still open for
addition, they asserted that the long-run further contribution.
relationship is a U-shape. Aye and Edoja’s
3.0 Model specification and econometric
(2017) study, which was based on
techniques
developing countries, supports this U-shape;
3.1 Data
while Bilan et al. (2019) found that an
Annual data from 1970 to 2014 were used to
increase in carbon emission leads to an
examine the link between carbon emission
increase in the GDP. Similar to the method
and development while controlling the health
of analysis in Onakoya et al. (2013),
policy. The data on development, physical
Ejuvbekpokpo (2014) examined carbon
investment, labour force, health policy and
emissions and economic growth in Nigeria
carbon emission were obtained from the
using the annual data from 1980 to 2010.
World Development Indicator (2018). The
The study used emissions from fossils fuels,
data on investment in human capital was
emissions from gas fuels and emissions
sourced from the Central Bank of Nigeria
from liquid fuels to measure carbon
Annual Reports of various years.
emissions while GDP per capita was used to
measure economic growth. The data were 3.2 Model estimated
estimated with the ordinary least squares The researchers tested the model presented
method (OLS) and found that carbon in equation 1.The model followed Dogan
emissions harm economic growth. The result (2015). Dogan (2015) considered natural
shows that the aggregate output used as a gas consumption per capita, gross capital
yardstick to measure development reduces formation per capita and labour force per
when the three sources of emissions are capita on GDP per capita. Moreover, the
used in the economy. Likewise, Bello's model was extended by the addition of
(2016) discovery supports the findings of investments in human capital and health
Onakoya et al. (2013) and Ejuvbekpokpo policy. A similar model was also employed
(2014) but differs in terms of the method of by Bilan et al. (2019). In equation 1, the
estimation and year of analysis. logarithm of GDP per capita is ; the
Significantly, this study is different from the physical investment measured by gross
studies of Onakoya et al. (2013), capital formation as % to GDP is . The
Ejuvbekpokpo (2014) and Bello (2016) for investment in human capital proxy by total
three reasons: one, it uses expanded annual expenditure on education as % to total
data from 1970 to 2014; two, it uses the expenditure is ℎ ; captures labor force
Bound Test approach to conduct the population proxy by the logarithm of
analysis; and thirdly, it includes health as a population; and 2 indicates carbon
control variable in the model but our emission per capita and the health policy
measure of development is similar to that of (ℎ ℎ ) is proxy by life expectancy (%).
Ejuvbekpokpo (2014). Armeanuet al. (2018) , , , , are
did not provide such findings in their study. parameters, and is the white noise.
= + + ℎ + + 2 + ℎ ℎ + (1)
In equation 1, the a priori expectations of the coefficients are:
> 0: ℎ ;
> 0: ;
> 0: ℎ ;
< 0: ;
> 0: ℎ ℎ .
13
3.3 Long-run co-integration analysis the lag variable of and is the white
Following previous researchers, the noise. In ADF, : = 1is the null hypothesis
Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root while : ≠1 < 0. is the alternate
test was used to detect whether variables hypothesis. The decision is based on the
are stationary or not. This is to avoid the test statistics greater than the critical value,
spurious regression problem. Conducting : = 1 would be rejected; this means that
the unit root test further allows for the co- the variable is integrated. The variable is
integration test. The Augmented Dickey- tested at the level I(0) at first instance,
Fuller (ADF) in equation 2 and 3 were tested where the null hypothesis of non-stationarity
while equation 2 specified the level and the ( : = 1) fails to be rejected, the variable is
trend, equation 3 specified at first different transformed. The transformation of the
from the trend. In equation 2 and 3, and variable into a differentiated form was also
∆ show variables at the level and first tested by applying the same testing
difference correspondingly; term is the processes (Huang, 2007).
constant, is a trend; is a parameter of
= + + + + (2)
∆ = + + + ∆ + (3)
Pesaran, Shin, and Smith (2001) proposed (see Adekoya & Abdul Razak, 2017; Liew,
bound to test for the long-run relationship to 2004).
estimate co-integration among variables
Following the model transformation of
having a mixture of integration order I(0) and
equation 1, the bound test was conducted to
I(1), and also considers mutually exclusive
determine the existence of co-integration
I(0) and I(1), but it does not consider
using the F-test statistic. Using equation 4,
variables with I(2). Autoregressive
the F-statistic tested the joint significance of
Distributed Lag Model (ARDL) has
the coefficients at one period of lag. The null
advantages over the co-integration test. This
hypothesis of no co-integration shows
is because ARDL generates sufficient lags
that : = = = = = =0
for variables in the model and its ability to
(this implies the non-existence of co-
determine residual correlation makes it more
integration) and the alternative is : ≠
superior. The model is dynamic as it
≠ ≠ ≠ ≠ ≠ 0 and where at
transforms the variable at the period of one
least one of the ≠ 0 (implies the
lag using the optimal lag length. Variables
existence of co-integration). The short-run
transformation was carried out with the
dynamics of the ARDL model in equation 4
Akaike information criterion (AIC) because of
and the ECT are presented in equations 5
the small sample size tested in this study
and 6.
∆ = + + + ℎ + + 2 + ℎ ℎ
+ ∆ + ∆ + ∆ ℎ + ∆
+ ∆ 2 + ∆ℎ ℎ + (4)
∆ = + + ∆ + ∆ + ∆ ℎ + ∆
+ ∆ 2 + ∆ℎ ℎ + (5)
= − (− − ℎ − − 2 + ℎ ℎ + ) (6)
14
4.0 Results and Discussion of squares, shows that parameters are
The result in Table 1 reveals the unit root stable over time as they jointly move
test conducted with ADF using SIC at together at the 5% level of significance.
maximum lags of 9. All the variables were
The long-run results showed that carbon
integrated at the appropriate level of
emission due to human activities comprising
significance, not beyond 5%. While
of a high unskilled labour population is
development, physical investment and
significant at the 1% level of significance to
carbon emission are integrated at I(1);
determine development. A unit change in
investment in human capital, labour
carbon emission causes a 0.471 percentage
population and health policy are integrated
point change in development. Similar results
at I(0). The results show that the data is
were found in Ejuvbekpokpo (2014) and
valid for regression. The variables that were
Dogan (2015). Dogan obtained a reduction
estimated using the ARDL technique and the
in the effect of gas consumption on GDP per
estimated results are presented in Table 2.
capita. The presence of the labour
In the development model presented in population as unskilled type is significant to
Table 2, lag 1 specified and the inbuilt tool in reduce development at the 1% level of
ARDL selected the appropriate model based significance. A 1% increase in the unskilled
on AIC. The selected and tested model is labour population would deplete future
ARDL (1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1). Also, the F statistic is development by 0.919%. This means that
greater than the critical value at a 5% level the high number of unskilled labour
of significance. The ECT values of -0.589 population in the country contributes little to
are significant at a 1% level of significance. the economy at present and also consumes
It means that irrespective of the distortion in future resources that are required for future
the model, the model can reach the development. This result is in line with the
equilibrium by 58.9% over the first year. negative link obtained in Dogan (2015).
Besides, the health factor shows a positive
The ECT and other estimated results were
link with development at the 1% level of
subjected to diagnostic tests to ensure their
significance. An increase of 1% in health
robustness. Diagnostic tests include a
policy would cause a 0.117% increase in
normality test, functional test, serial
development. This means that adequate
correlation test, heteroscedasticity test, and
health programs provided at this present
stability test. The normality test of Jarque-
time will ensure future energetic personnel
Bera indicated that the residual of the model
resources for better development tomorrow.
is normal at the 5% level of significance.
To ensure growth in the economy, David,
Ramsey RESET test reveals that there is no
Bloom, Canning, & Sevilla (2004) and
absence of misspecification at 5%. Besides,
Onisanwa (2014) affirmed that health policy
there is no serial correlation based on
promotes economic growth. Also, Matthew,
observed R2 probabilities at 5% in the
2 Osabohien, Fasina & Fasina (2018)
Breusch-Godfrey LM test. The observed R
concluded that health program ensures good
in the Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey
health outcomes even if carbon emission
Heteroscedasticity test indicated that there is
exists. Meanwhile, the investment variable
no presence of heteroscedasticity in the
which comprises physical and human capital
models at 5%. The stability test, comprising
investment is not significant.
the cumulative sum and the cumulative sum
15
Table 1: Result of the Unit Root Test
Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF)
Variables ADF Model Lag length ADF statistics Prob. Value Decision
Trend and intercept 1 -6.140*** 0.000 I(1)
Trend and intercept 0 -3.752** 0.029 I(0)
Note: The figures reported are t-ratio and it shows the p-values of MacKinnon (1996) one-
sided at various levels of significance. The asterisks (***) are at 1%; (**) and at 5%. The lag
length 0 means variables are stationary at a level while lag length 1 shows that variables are
stationary at first difference.
Table 2: Estimates of the development model using ARDL

Dependent variable: Development
Critical bounds (F-test) 1% significance level 5% significance 10% significance
level level
Lower 3.06 2.39 2.08
Upper 4.15 3.38 3.00
F-stat 3.900 K 5
Conclusion (sign level) Co-integrated (5%) ARDL specification 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1
Test of ARDL specification AIC*=-2.821 SB=-2.456 HQ=- Adj-R-
significance 2.659 square=0.949
Long-run Estimates Short-run
Estimates
Variables Coefficients & T-stat Variables Coefficients & T-
stat
24.003 (7.551)*** 14.151 (3.342)***
-0.003 (-0.850) -0.589 (-3.843)***
ℎ -.0.000 (-0.112) -0.002 (-0.896)
-0.919 (-4.386)*** ℎ -0.000 (-0.112)
2 -0.471 (-3.171)*** -0.542 (-2.739)***
ℎ ℎ 0.117 (6.032)*** 2 -0.278 (-2.733)***
ℎ ℎ 0.0691 (2.936)***
∆ 2 -0.065 (-0.664)
∆ℎ ℎ 0.715 (4.485)***
(−1) -0.589 (-5.656)***
Diagnostics Tests
( ) = 0.397 (0.528) ( ) =
1.381(0.501)
( ) = 10.744 (0.216) ( ) =
2.775(
0.104)
Note: The asterisk (*) shows that the estimated coefficients are significant at 1% (***) and 5% (**).
Also, the diagnostic tests , , , are not rejected at 5%. Variables are defined as
Development is as a dependent variable while Physical Investment ( ), Investment in
Human Capital ( ℎ ), Labour ( ), Carbon Emissions ( 2 ) and HealthPolicy (ℎ ℎ )are
16
independent variables. In the ARDL specification, the F-stat in the bounds test is based on critical
upper bounds while relying on AIC.
20 1.4
15 1.2
1.0
10
0.8
5
0.6
0
0.4
-5
0.2
-10
0.0
-15 -0.2
-20 -0.4
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
CUSUM 5% Significance CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance
a. CUSUM Test b. CUSUM Sq Test

Figure 1: Stability Test
5.0 Conclusion would encourage them to replant and

This paper considered the effect of carbon replace fallen trees.
emission on development by controlling ii. Provision of jobs for the unemployed
health policy. The results revealed that that constitute the labour population
carbon emission reduces development, force in the country.
likewise, the labour force population iii. Improving energy efficiency by seeking
adversely affects development; but health alternative renewable means to
policy has a positive effect on development generate electricity which will go a long
in the country. As noted in the findings, way to reduce carbon emissions in the
human activities through the channel of country.
labour population encourage carbon iv. To encourage high and advance
emission. An increasing amount of labour technology usages in the
force population engages in farming manufacturing sector and other sectors
business which depletes forestry in the form of the economy.
of bush clearing and burning. Trees felled in v. Improving the health sector through the
forests are not replaced. The devastating continuous investment in health
effect is that future development is programs would stimulate the energy of
compromised. However, development can the working population to reduce stress
be sustained through improved on their income as it will reduce health-
environmental and health policy because a related problems among the working
friendly environment and a healthy nation is population and mortality due to the
a wealthy nation. harmful activities.
The adoption of the above suggestions will
For policy implication, this study suggests
serve as a measure to preserve resources
the followings:
for future development because productivity
i. Required skills and knowledge should
and income growth emanate from conscious
be provided for the labour force
people who are effective and efficient in their
population in the country to meet up
economic activities. However, the limitation
with future developments. This would
of the study borders on carbon emission
ensure that those right tactics are
data. Nevertheless, the estimations in this
employed to preserve current
study are robust, and further studies should
resources for optimal use in the future.
consider whether the relationship between
The ways of doing this are to orientate
carbon emissions and development is linear
the youths on the imminent danger in
or non-linear in Nigeria.
forest depletion as the orientation
17
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19
REWARD MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND EMPLOYEES’ PRODUCTIVITY IN THE PUBLIC
SECTOR: EVIDENCE FROM LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY
EYANUKU Julius Paul
Faculty of Management Sciences
Department of Entrepreneurial Studies
Department of Business Administration
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)
jeyanuku@noun.edu.ng, jpee2002@yahoo.com
&
ALASAN Ali Ibrahim
Faculty of Management Sciences
National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)
alasanali30@gmail.com
Abstract
This research assessed the effect of reward management system on employee productivity
in the public sector with special reference to Lagos State University, Ojo. The research
examined the role of reward management in enhancing the productivity of employees at the
University. This is not unconnected with the general belief that a just and efficient reward
management system enhances workers' morale and improves their effectiveness and
performance at the workplace. To achieve the above research objective, three research
hypotheses were put forward. The first hypothesis determined the relationship between the
reward management system and employees' morale. The second hypothesis determined if
there was any significant difference between financial and non-financial reward
management and workers' effectiveness. And the third hypothesis determined if reward
incentive positively affected employees’ performance. The study used the descriptive survey
research method and the population of the study comprised the academic, non-academic
and senior academic staff of LASU. The findings of the study showed that there is a
significant relationship between monetary rewards and employees’ performance among
LASU staff. Also, the findings of the research showed that there is a significant difference
between financial and non-financial reward management and workers’ effectiveness, and
that reward incentive positively affects employees’ performance. Based on the findings of
this project, it was concluded that both monetary and non-monetary rewards have significant
effects on staff performance at Lagos State University, Ojo. It also shows that there is a
significant relationship between the reward system and employees’ effectiveness. It was
recommended that a well-articulated blueprint on employees’ reward and motivation be
designed whereby the management would identify the types of the incentive scheme,
provide basic infrastructures and improve the funding of the university.
Keywords: Employees Productivity, Incentives, Public Sector, Reward Management
1. Introduction means of rewarding employees. Other

One of the most important mechanisms for methods of reward include the
motivating employees to contribute their best commendations that employees receive
effort is the rewards management system. It from their managers, the opportunity to take
induces workers to be more productive, to on newer and greater responsibilities by
better organizational effectiveness, performing important projects or tasks and
efficiency and performance. being given leadership roles. The latter
refers to the treatment of the employees by
According to Falola, Ibidunni and Olokundun
their managers in such a manner that the
(2014), financial compensation is the
employees are also considered to be
primary and, often, the most important
20
leaders as well. These three motivators self-development are also being honed and
constantly appear in most research studies taken care of by their companies. This
as non-financial rewards are excellent implies that aside from working on satisfying
means to encourage the employee to work their customers, it is crucial that companies
harder and produce better performance also work on identifying the motivators that
results. boost the performance of their workforce
and in so doing, they make appropriate and
Studies on leadership have found that a
sufficient offers for their employees.
supervisor’s reward power would be
positively associated with employee task Karami, Dolatabadi and Rajaeepour (2013)
performance, productivity, satisfaction, suggest that motivation represents those
turnover, and organizational citizenship psychological processes that cause the
behaviours (Adeoye & Elegunde, 2014). arousal, direction and persistence of
Reward system is a significant tool that voluntary actions that are goal-directed.
management can use to direct employees’ Since it is the role of managers to
motivation in desired ways. Put differently, successfully guide employees towards
reward systems seek to draw people to join accomplishing organizational objectives, it is
the organization, to keep them coming to imperative that they understand these
work, and motivate them to perform to high psychological processes. Thus, this study
levels. The reward system consists of all investigates the effects of reward
organizational components including people, management system on employee
processes, rules and decision-making productivity in the public sector, using the
activities involved in the allocation of Lagos State University (LASU) as a case
compensations and benefits to employees in study.
exchange for their contribution to the The main objective of this study is to
organization (Adeoye & Elegunde, 2014). examine the effect of reward management
system on employee productivity in the
In today's dynamic work environment,
public sector. Other specific objectives of
systems and processes can be duplicated
this study include:
but the competitive advantage provided by
1. To study the relationship between the
higher rewards and compensations cannot
reward management system and
be replicated and this forms the
employees’ morale in Lagos State
differentiating factor. Employees’ productivity
University.
is a significant determinant of organizational
2. To determine the difference between
outcomes such as customer satisfaction,
financial and non-financial reward
retention, competitiveness and profitability.
management and how they affect
Ayodele and Ezeokoli (2015) have shown
workers' effectiveness at Lagos State
that there is a statistically significant
University.
relationship between reward and
3. To assess the effect of reward system
recognition, and motivation and satisfaction.
on employee performance at Lagos
Their study revealed that if rewards or
State University.
recognition offered to employees were to be
4. To identify the problems confronting
changed, then there would be a
reward management system and job
corresponding change in work motivation
satisfaction at Lagos State University.
and satisfaction. An effective rewards
5. To find solutions to the problems of
management system makes the employees
reward management to increase
feel that they are valued by the company
employees' productivity.
that they work for. They are also encouraged
to work harder and better if they are aware This study will beam a searchlight on the
that their well-being will be taken seriously following research questions:
by their employers, and that their career and 1. Is there any relationship between the
21
reward management system and objectives: to attract new employee, elicit
employees' morale in Lagos State good work performance and maintain a
University? commitment to the organization. The
2. Is there any significant difference primary focus of organizational reward and
between financial and non-financial recognition programs is to define the reward
reward management and how they schemes and communicate this in a manner
affect workers’ effectiveness in Lagos that employees clearly understand the link
State University? between reward and performance (Jibrin,
3. To what extent does reward incentive Ejura & Augustine, 2015).
affect employee performance in Lagos
Employees expect 'fairness', that is, the
State University?
reward proportional to their contribution from
4. What are the problems confronting
their employers. Perceptions of reward
reward management system and job
fairness have been found to impact on
satisfaction at Lagos State University?
employee/organizational performance such
5. What are the possible solutions to
as absenteeism, individual output and
problems of reward management
organizational output (Pratheepkanth,
system in promoting employee
2012). Therefore, for an organization to treat
productivity in the public sector?
its employees as its most valuable assets, it
The study is based on the following has to be knowledgeable about what
hypotheses: motivates them to reach their full potential.
Hypothesis One The argument is that people work well in
Ho: There is no relationship between the accordance with what they regard as a fair
reward management system and reward. Employees consider whether
employees' morale in Lagos State management has treated them fairly when
University. they look at what they receive for the effort
Hypothesis Two they have made in comparison to referents.
Ho: There is no significant difference An employee compares the ratio of his/her
between financial and non-financial reward input to his/her reward to that of another
management and how they affect workers' employee. If he/she feels the ratios are
effectiveness at Lagos State University. similar, he/she is bound to be satisfied with
Hypothesis Three the treatment received and improve the
Ho: Reward incentive does not affect current level of performance. If he/she feels
employee performance at Lagos State inadequately treated, he/she is bound to be
University. dissatisfied and reduce the current level of
2. Literature Review performance (Osamwonyi, Igbinomwanhia &
2.1 Conceptual and Theoretical Iyayi, 2012).
Frameworks 2.2 Concept of Reward
Employees do not work for free. The notion Several attempts have been made in the
of rewarding employees for "a job well done" past to define reward. Reward, according to
th th
has been in existence since the 19 century Webster 9 New Collegiate Dictionary, "is
when piece-work systems (reward based on something that is given in return for good or
output levels) were first implemented evil done or received and especially that is
(Aninkan, 2014). From these piece-work offered or given for some service or
systems evolved the traditional merit attainment. Rewards could be referred to as
program (reward based on performance the total remunerations made available by
appraisals). Performance-based reward an organization to employees. The word
emerged in the 1990s when both public and rewards state the benefits that workers
private employers began to lose faith in the receive from their jobs (Abosede &
traditional merit programs (Eze, 2012). Adekunle, 2012), and significant elements of
Reward systems have three main
22
employee job attitudes such as on the job and may include having
organizational commitment, motivation and supportive relationships with supervisors
job satisfaction. In any organization, rewards and coworkers.
play an important role in building and
2.3 Concept of Reward Management
sustaining the commitment among
System
employees that ensures a high standard of
Reward management is concerned with the
performance and attainments of the
design of appropriate reward structures,
organizational goals and objectives (Agburu,
policies and procedures in addition to
2012).
implementing and maintaining the reward
According to the individual-organization processes in a manner that would promote
exchange theme, individuals enter and enhance individual and corporate
organizations with a specific set of skills, effectiveness. Reward management is most
desires and goals, and expect in return a successful when it incorporates the goals
decent working environment where they can and aspirations of the major participants in
use their skills, satisfy desires, and attain the labour management exchange process
their goals (Wasiu & Adebajo, 2014). Mostly, (Ashatu, 2011). The organization's goals
organizations have increased the substantial and objectives include growth, profitability
improvement by entirely complying with the and enhanced survival. The individual's
organizational strategy by a well-balanced goals and objectives include personal
reward and recognition programs for the growth and development, the security of
employee. Reward refers to all categories of employment opportunities, improved career
financial benefits, tangible services and prospects and welfare. On the part of the
benefits that an employee receives as part unions, their goals include security of jobs
of the employment relationship with the for their members, improved welfare
organization (Odunlade, 2012). Generally, packages and a stronger voice in the
employees' job description and job conduct of the affairs of the organization
specification determine the rewards to (Ashatu, 2011). Reward management deals
maintain fairness among employees within with the strategies, policies and processes
an organization and competitiveness in the required to ensure that the contribution of
marketplace (Ayodele & Ezeokoli, 2015). people to the organization is recognized by
financial and non-financial means. It is about
Organizational rewards mean all the benefits
the design, implementation and
i.e. financial and non-financial that an
maintenance of reward systems (reward
employee receives through their
processes, practices and procedures), which
employment relationship with an
aim to meet the needs of both the
organization (Milkovich & Gerhart, 2011).
organization and its stakeholders. The
According to existing literature, the rewards
overall objective is to reward people fairly,
that individuals seek from their organization
equitably and consistently in accordance
are grouped into three main types: extrinsic,
with their value to the organization to further
intrinsic and social rewards (Audu, 2015).
the achievement of the organization's
Extrinsic rewards are the physical benefits strategic goals (Idemobi, Onyeizugbe &
provided by the organization such as pay, Akpunonu, 2011).
bonus, fringe benefits and career
Reward management is not just about pay
development opportunities. Intrinsic rewards
and employee benefits. It is equally
refer to the rewards that come from the
concerned with non-financial rewards such
content of the job itself and encompass
as recognition, learning and development
motivational characteristics of the job such
opportunities and increased job
as autonomy, role clarity and training
responsibility.
(Adeoye & Elegunde, 2014). Social rewards
arise from the interaction with other people
23
Reward management is also concerned with set of beliefs which underline the reward
the procedures, rules, and standards strategies which the organization believes
associated with the allocation of benefits would help in achieving the aims and
and compensation to employees (Idemobi, objectives of its reward management efforts.
Onyeizugbe & Akpunonu, 2011). It is
2.4 Concept of Employee Productivity
developed within the framework of the
Productivity is an economic measure of
organization's reward philosophy, strategies
efficiency that summarizes and reflects the
and policies, and contains arrangements in
value of the output created by an individual,
the form of processes, practices, structure
organization, industry or economic system
and procedures which will provide and
relative to the value of the inputs used to
maintain appropriate types and levels of
create them (Eze, Olatunji & Aina, 2018;
pay, benefits and other forms of reward
Rahman, 2012). It is an indication of how
(Jason & Wesson 2011).
efficiently an organization uses its resources
Reward management is based on a well- to produce its output. Productivity is vital for
articulated philosophy - a set of beliefs and any business organization and employers
guiding principles that are consistent with because it can make the difference between
the values of the organization and help to failure and success for the organization,
enact them (Olubusayo, Ibidunni & thus employee productivity is critical for
Olokundun, 2014). The philosophy profitability. A primary objective of
recognizes that if human resource measuring productivity is to improve
management (HRM) is about investing in operation either by using fewer inputs to
human capital from which a reasonable produce the same output or to produce
return is required, then it is proper to reward more output with the same inputs.
people differently according to their Improvement in productivity requires firms to
contribution (Abosede, Eze & Sowunmi, identify benchmarks or criteria against which
2018). The philosophy of reward to assess their changes in productivity and
management also recognizes that it must be to determine the needed improvement to
strategic in the sense that it addresses attain their goals. Among criteria often used
longer-term issues relating to how people are past productivity measures of the firm, of
should be valued for what they do and what another division of the firm, or other firms in
they achieve (Aninkan, 2014). Reward the same industry and the industry’s
strategies and the processes that are standard or a benchmark established by top
required to implement them have to flow managers as the goal for the firm to attain
from the business strategy (Eze, 2012). (Olusanya, Awotungase, Ohadebere, 2012).
Reward management adopts a “total Organizations around the world have come
reward” approach, which emphasizes the to recognize the importance of productivity
importance of considering all aspects of not only to compete but also to survive.
reward as a coherent whole that is linked to However, improving productivity takes a
other HR initiatives designed to achieve the major comprehensive approach that relies
motivation, commitment, engagement and heavily on the employees, hence the need
development of employees (Pratheepkanth, to provide them with the necessary fringe
2012). This requires the integration of benefits as a way of encouraging them to
reward strategies with other HRM give off their best.
strategies, including talent management and
Ekundayo (2015) says that in the broad
human resource development. Reward
sense, the term "productivity" represents
management in most companies is usually
goods and services produced in relation to
shaped by corporate philosophies,
the resources utilized in their production. He
established policies, and strategies that
defined productivity as "the ratio of output to
regulate how the organization reward is to
input." He said that productivity represents
be distributed. Reward philosophies reflect a
the balance between all factors of
24
production that will give the greatest output "measure of how well a nation's resources
at the smallest effort. The ratio between are utilized for accomplishing a set of results
output and one of the factors of input in ... reaching the highest level of performance
generality is known as productivity of factors with the least expenditure of resources".
considered. Thus, productivity means the This is a synthesized definition of
ratio between output and any of the factors productivity. Okoye and Ezejiofor (2013)
of production, say, labour, capital, materials, further maintained that productivity is an
land, etc. In economics, productivity is the attitude of the mind. It is the mentality of
ratio of what is produced to what is required progress and constant improvement of that
to produce. It is the measure of production which exists. It is the certainty of being able
efficiency over a given period. To the to change that which exists. It is the
engineer, productivity means new certainty of being able to do better today
technology, machines and equipment, than yesterday. It is the will to improve on
measurement and controls. To a business the present situation, no matter how good it
manager, productivity has various meanings may look. It is the constant adaptations of
including effectiveness and efficiency. This economic conditions. It is the continued
is because in management there are no effort to apply new techniques and put faith
measurable units of output, no productivity in human capabilities. From the above, it is
function and the non-existence of an clear that the applicability of the productivity
effective database. concept to every sphere of human
endeavour remains constant, the relevance
Okoye and Ezejiofor (2013) use the word and centrality of productivity to human
productivity to mean the output per unit of existence can never be denied. This study
factor input over a given period. It is the ratio assumes that productivity is effectiveness,
between the output of wealth produced and efficiency, performance and growth.
the input of resources consumed in the Productivity improvement, in the words of
process of production. Eastman (2009) Poomima (2009), "is not just doing things
emphasizes that productivity is a measure of better. It is doing the right things better”.
how well labour resources/skills are brought Productivity improvement, therefore,
together in a firm and utilized for depends on how successful the main factors
accomplishing a set result. Efficiency in of socio-production systems that influence
production is measured by the ratio of input productivity are identified and used. Ullah
to output. Efficiency in the utilization of (2010) had earlier contended that
labour in an organization involves obtaining productivity improvement was the increased
the highest level of performance from the input (goods and services) got from a given
employees with the least expenditure in input by better management and utilization
labour wages. The International Labour of resources, including human resources.
Organization (ILO), as cited in Gagne
(2009), defined employee productivity as the It does not necessarily mean getting them to
effective and efficient utilization of all work smarter. Work is generally easier when
resources - capital, labour, material, energy, productivity takes place. Productivity
information and time. Nevenka’s (2009) improvements are obtained through
definition is used as a working definition. improved product or system design, use of
She defined employee productivity as: "The improved machinery and equipment,
efficiency with which inputs are used to improved skill and effectiveness of the
produce the desired output". Zaman (2011) workers and increased production volume
defined employee productivity as a measure and levels (Rahman, 2012). Productivity
of overall production efficiency, improvement is important for this study
effectiveness and performance of the because it makes it easier to improve the
individual organization. Rahman (2012) standard of living of any nation hence its
contends that employee productivity is the applicability to the Nigerian business
25
situation. Productivity measurement can also many smaller employers do, however,
be regarded as the quantification of both the provide some, if not all, of these fringe
output and input resources of a productive benefits to their lower-wage employees,
system. These outputs and inputs are indicates that they view the investments as
expressed in a mathematical ratio to have a worthwhile for purposes of improving
quantified monitoring index (Ekundayo, recruitment, productivity, and retention. This
2015). shows how vital it is for organizations to
provide their employees with adequate
Methods of measuring productivity at the
fringe benefits (in addition to salaries and
company level are the Kurosawa structural
wages) and ensure that the contents of their
method, the Lawler's method, the Gold
Conditions of Service are satisfactorily
method, and the quick productivity method.
implemented. This will go a long way to
Other productivity improvement techniques
increase employee morale and will result in
include the following: work study, method
a better quality of goods and services at
study, work measurement, work
lower prices and eventually increase profit.
simplifications, parents analysis, just-in-time
method, management through value- For Aninkan (2014), since indirect
analysis, cost-benefit analysis, zero-based compensation helps organizations to recruit
budgeting, cost, productivity allocation, and retain high-quality employees that are
process, organizational development (OD) seen as strategic resources in achieving
processes and techniques, brainstorming, competitive advantage, one can expect that
forced field analysis, nominal group overall attractiveness of organizations can
techniques, and so on (Olusanya, be enhanced through benefits offerings and
Awotungase & Ohadebere, 2012). that employee will then be influenced to feel
greater satisfaction and loyalty (Anumihe,
2.5 The Link between Reward
2011). As a result, this should lead to
Management and Employee Productivity
greater effort and productivity. In short,
in the Public Sector
higher indirect compensation may increase
The drive for higher productivity makes
employee productivity by attracting and
managers conscious about the most
retaining labour of better quality. In other
economical use of the available factors of
words, indirect compensation may be a
production. An employee, therefore, plays a
moderating role and it enhances the positive
significant role in raising productivity in most
effect of labour input on an organization's
organizations. Thus, if the employees or
output through retention and recruitment of
labour force are not adequately qualified
competent employees. Eze (2012) says
and/or not motivated, all steps taken to
productivity is typically measured by the
increase productivity will have little or no
equation: Output/Input (output divided by
result (Olusanya, Awotungase & Ohadebere,
input). He said productivity is one of the
2012). Again, employees’ benefits have
major objectives of modem organizations
been proven to improve productivity
(the other being, quality). Many companies
because employees experience peace of
have found that the easiest way to increase
mind and become more effective if they are
their productivity is to down-size. This helps
assured of security for themselves and their
them to reduce their payrolls so that if they
families. While employers traditionally focus
can maintain their sales revenue, they can
on reducing the cost of employee benefits,
have more profit at the end of the year.
evidence suggests it may be more important
However, more effective organizations have
to understand how those benefits affect
realized that downsizing can be fraught with
productivity. Managers must begin to think
problems including loss of personnel morale
about the relationship between benefits and
and failure of the remaining employees to
productivity and focus on ways to derive the
keep up with workloads (Zaman, 2011). As
advantages of this relationship. Chukwulaka
such, organizations are now developing
and Anumihe (2011) posit that the fact that
26
methods to reduce the time needed to do 2.6Theoretical Framework
the work by effectively managing technology Even though rewards systems vary from one
with people as well as resorting to company to the other, its structures and
negotiating properly with their employees implementations are made within a given
and ensuring that the outcomes of the framework that guides the distribution of
negotiations are adhered to. To boost rewards within any organization. In deciding
employee morale, enhance performance on the appropriate reward structure, for the
and increase productivity, employers should various categories of staff, the organization
resort to the following: often acts within its established norms of
 Value people as human beings and compensation (Shafiq, Mariam & Raza,
develop policies and procedures that 2011). These norms or principles are put in
treat employees better; place to streamline the design and the
 Develop a support system for implementation of reward systems in a
recognizing and rewarding good manner that would enhance corporate
performance; efficiency and survival as well as satisfy the
 Create an atmosphere of trust and show individual's aspirations.
that management has confidence in the The Theory of Intrinsic and Extrinsic
workers; and Rewards
 Create a spontaneous, fun (recreation Intrinsic and extrinsic reward theories are
centres or clubhouses), collaborative based on the prerequisites of Herzberg's
social environment (end of year parties) (1987) Motivation-Hygiene theory. Also,
in which innovation is recognized. Abosede and Adekunle (2012) incorporate
People are the most important assets of rewards into the motivation theory where he
organizations. Hence, they wish to be held states, for example, that "Movement is a
in high esteem by their organizations, given function of fear of punishment for failure to
the necessary recognition and be provided get extrinsic rewards" and that "Motivation is
with the right environment to work in. Once a function of growth from getting intrinsic
the above measures are put in place in rewards out of interesting and challenging
organizations, the goal of high quality, work". Thus, the reward theory and
productive and relevant output would be motivation theory are closely bound. Reward
achieved and this will help the organization systems can be designed in accordance
attain success. with these intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and
as such be divided into intrinsic and extrinsic
Prasetya and Kato (2011) also analyzed rewards based on the outcome of the
that there are significant influences from reward (Agburu, 2012).
both financial and non-financial rewards to
employee performance. Reward is one of The theory assumes that rewarding an
the physical needs that influence motivation individual produces behaviour that benefits
which in turn affects the employee the organisation. However, the behaviour
performance. Reward includes the financial created for attaining a given reward is not
returns to the services rendered by the always positive from the organisations
employee as a part of employment perspective (Agburu, 2012). It is important to
relationships. Compensation is a form of remember that rewards, even though the
reward that flows to the employee arising word inherits a positive tone, can generate
from their employment (Zaman, 2011). behaviour both positive and negative from
Compensation has a big influence on the the organisational perspective. According to
recruitment of employee, motivation, Ayodele and Ezeokoli (2015), financial
productivity and employee turnover (Wasiu incentives have indicated positive outcomes
& Adebajo, 2014). of performance when the objective was
quantitative such as working faster or
producing more. However, 110 or fewer
27
benefits were shown when financial job. It is, therefore, imperative for the
incentives were used on qualitative work. organization to consider the needs and
The more creativity and open-ended feelings of its employees and not just
thinking the work required was the worse overlook them in order to safeguard
people performed when working for a industrial harmony because "a happy worker
reward. Ayodele and Ezeokoli (2015), thus, is a productive worker". Having stressed the
wonder if incentive plans really can work if importance of a good remuneration policy
extrinsic motivation generally does not on the performance of workers and the
strengthen performance." different kinds of reward that can influence
workers to perform better on the job. This
Herzberg's Motivation - Hygiene theory
study can, therefore, be seen as a call for
suggests intrinsic rewards such as self-
the employers' sense of commitment to put
actualization and job enrichment to be the
in place appropriate incentive plan that will
most influential and more important than
encourage workers to be more purposeful
extrinsic rewards such as money (Abosede
and improve their performance. Many
& Adekunle, 2012). This contrasts with the
organizations are transforming themselves,
view of Agburu (2012) of money as a reward
flattening hierarchies, empowering workers
that nobody refuses or returns and of which
and basing processes on teams rather than
individuals can respond greatly to even
individual performance. Reward and
when they have more than enough.
recognition systems are an important part of
However, Abosede and Adekunle(2012)
the change that is necessary for such a
recognize the problem with money as a
transformation to be effective. A thorough
reward in the sense of how it is distributed.
rethinking and restructuring of reward and
Often, financial rewards do not lead to the
recognition practices which are aligned with
outcome intended and so do not motivate
new organizational goals and culture will
action or encouragement. In this view,
give companies the focused energy they
Osamwonyi, Igbinomwanhia and Iyayi
need to succeed in challenging times. The
(2012) argue that the reasons for using
companies that use relevant compensation
nonfinancial rewards depend not on the
and rewards as strategic resource tools will
intrinsic perspective but on the fact that they
be able to realize the tremendous potential
comply with the principles of successful
of their employees working together. This
implementations of reward systems. As
requires the reorganization of incentive
such, non-financial rewards are preferred
programs to encourage new employee
over financial ones.
behaviours aimed at achieving team and
The importance of reward in the day-to-day organizational goals.
performance of employees' duties cannot be
overemphasized, especially when it comes 3. Methodology
to being rewarded for a job done. It is a well- The descriptive survey method was adopted
known fact that human performance of any in carrying out this study. This method is
sort is improved by increasing motivation. appropriate because the population is large
From the present study, it can be easily and it enables researchers to properly
inferred that workers’ reward package interpret findings. The descriptive research is
matters a lot and should be a concern for primarily concerned with describing, finding
both the employers and employees. From and interpreting data, to fully describe the
the review of several pieces of literature, the problem under focus as related to certain
findings showed that workers’ place great influencing factors. The design sought to
value on the different rewards given to them establish a relationship between the research
by their employers. Hence, when these variables (Cantet, 2011). Therefore, the
rewards are not given, workers tend to targeted population of this study consists of
express their displeasure through poor the academic and the non-academic staff of
performance and non-commitment to their Lagos State University (LASU). The sample
28
size is derived by using the simple 3, D = 2 and SD = 1 while the negative item
percentage method of 5%. It is calculated responses attract ratings from the least
thus: 5% X 2200 which is 110. positive response to the most positive
The simple random sampling technique response, that is, SD = 1, D = 2, U = 3, A =
was adopted in the selection of the sample 4 and SA = 5. A draft of the questionnaire
consisting of one hundred staff members was given to the researcher's supervisor
(both academic and non-academic) which and other experts in the field of education for
were selected across the various faculties content and construct assessments. The
and departments of the Lagos State corrections and suggestions made were
University, Ojo. used to improve the instrument. Hence, the
instrument is validated. Reliability of an
Both secondary and primary data were instrument is the ability of the instrument to
sourced. Data was sourced through the use consistently measure what it was intended
of a written questionnaire hand-delivered to to measure (Cantet, 2011). The instrument
the respondents. The questionnaire was was subjected to Crombach's Alpha
divided into two (2) sections: Section A and reliability test and it was found reliable at
Section B. While section A covers the 0.76. This instrument is reliable and its
respondent's biographic data, Section B validity is correct for the fact that the
covers the research variables in the specific questionnaires were examined and
objectives of the study which included compared with other similar questionnaires.
reward management, employee productivity, Using Pilot-Scale method, the questionnaire
employee's job satisfaction and the was pre-tested among a few individuals
challenges facing reward management. before being used on the rest of the
Data collection was done via the population to check for the reliability and
questionnaire method. The questionnaire validity of the questionnaire.
was structured with close-ended questions.
The questionnaire was personally 3.7 Method of Data Analysis
administered by the researcher to the Section A of the questionnaire was analyzed
respondents. The procedure enabled the using descriptive tables and simple
researcher to further explain some content percentages. The interpretation of each
of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was category of data was analyzed under each
distributed to respondents on working days. table.
Questionnaire copies were retrieved from Section B of the questionnaire which
respondents at closing hours between 4 pm contains the research statement was
and 5 pm. The fieldwork lasted for a week. analyzed using descriptive tables and simple
Essentially, it was a closed-ended design, in percentages. Also, these research
line with Likert-scaled techniques of rating statements that are related to the research
with weight allotted. Respondents were questionnaires and hypotheses were
required to indicate their extent of analyzed using the Chi-square.
agreement and disagreement as it related to 2
The Chi-square (x ) is a statistical tool which
the research statements. The five (5) point
is popularly used for testing hypothesis. In
Likert scale that was adopted in the design 2
the x distribution, if the calculated table is
of the research instrument was as follows:
greater than the table value, the null
SA for Strongly Agreed, A for Agreed, U for
hypothesis would be rejected and the
Undecided, D for Disagreed, and SD for
alternative hypothesis would be accepted. If
Strongly Disagreed.
on the other hand, the calculated value is
Concerning the coding for items relating to lesser than the table value, the null
the levels of agreements/ disagreements, hypothesis will be accepted and the
the positive item responses attracts ratings alternative hypothesis will be rejected.
from the most positive response to the least 2
The Chi-square (x ) formula is given as:
positive response, that is, SA = 5, A = 4, U = x2= ∑ (O-E)2
29 E
2
Whereas, x = Chi-square calculate The formula for calculating the Chi-square
2
O = Observed frequency calculated value (X )is as follows:
E= Expected frequency
∑=Summation
The expected frequency (E) is given as:
E= Total Frequency
X2=
Σ (O – E)2
E
Whereby Σ = Summation or Addition, O =
Number of Variables Observed Frequency, and E = Expected
On the Likert rating scale, each variable ahs Frequency. The E (Expected Frequency) is
number value. Therefore, strongly disagreed derived by dividing the total frequency by the
(SD) = 1, disagreed (D) =2, undecided (U) number of variables, which is 100/ 5 = 20.
=3, Agreed (A) =4, and strongly agreed (SA) While the O (Observed Frequency) is the
=5. data as they appear on the tables.
4. Data Presentation, Analysis and t
The X is derived by determining the Degree
Interpretation
of Freedom (DF) at a chosen Level of
This section examines the empirical aspect
Significance. The DF is derived as follows: a
of the research work: “The Effect of Reward
total number of variable minus 1, multiplied
Management System on Employee
by a total number of frequency minus 1.
Productivity in the Public Sector – A Study of
There are 5 variables in this research:
Lagos State University, Ojo”.The data
strongly disagreed, disagreed, undecided,
collected from members of Lagos State
agreed, and strongly agreed. And there are
University, Ojo, through the use of
two frequencies: observed frequency and
questionnaires and interviews were
expected frequency. Therefore, DF = (5 -1)
evaluated in the research study. The
X (2 – 1) = 4 DF.
analysis of data is outlined in this chapter
using the data analysis procedure earlier The Level of Significance chosen for this
mentioned in chapter three, that is, the study is 1 % or 0.01. With 0.01 Level of
frequency distribution table, simple Significance at 4 DF, the Xt at the Chi-
percentages, and Chi-square. Simple square distribution table is 13.28.
2
percentages were used to analyze the Decision Rule: If the X is greater than the
t
research questions, while Chi-square was X (13.28), the null hypothesis would be
used to test the hypotheses of the study to rejected and the alternative hypothesis
draw an inference. In this study, 112 would be accepted. If on the other hand, the
2 t
respondents were selected as the sample X is lesser than the X (13.28), the null
size of which 112 questionnaires were hypothesis would be accepted and the
distributed to them. 100 of the alternative hypothesis will be rejected.
questionnaires were successfully retrieved Hypothesis One
from the respondents. Ho: There is no relationship between the
4.1 Presentation and Analysis of Data reward management system and
According to Test of Hypotheses employees' morale in Lagos State University
In this section of the chapter, the researcher Hi: There is a positive relationship between
tested the hypotheses through some the reward management system and
selected research statements from the data employees' morale in Lagos State University
retrieved from the questionnaires The Observed Frequency data used in
administered and analyzed in the tables testing this hypothesis is derived from Table
above. And the hypotheses are analyzed 7, and they include: Strongly Disagreed (SD)
using Chi-square. as 18, Disagreed (D) as 18, Undecided (U)
The Chi-square calculated value (denoted as 11, Agreed (A) as 32 and Strongly
2
by X ) is compared against the table value Agreed (SA) as 27. Whereas, the Expected
t
(denoted by X ). Frequency (E) is 20 and it is the same for all
the variables.
30
2
Table 25: Chi-square Calculated Value (X ) for Hypothesis One
2 2
Variables O E O -E (O – E) (O – E)
E
SD 18 20 -2 4 0.2
D 12 20 -8 64 3.2
U 11 20 -9 81 4.05
A 32 20 12 144 7.2
SA 27 20 07 49 2.45
Total 100 100 0 466 17.1
Source: Field Survey, 2020
2
The calculated value (X ) is 17.1. And the effectiveness at Lagos State University
t
X is 13.28. HI: There is a significant difference between
2
Decision Rule: Since the X (17.1) is financial and non-financial reward
t
greater than the X (13.28). The null management and how they affect workers'
hypothesis is rejected and the alternative effectiveness at Lagos State University
hypothesis is accepted this implies that there
The Observed Frequency data used in
is a positive relationship between the reward
testing this hypothesis is derived from Table
management system and employees'
15, and they include: Strongly Disagreed
morale in Lagos State University.
(SD) as 16, Disagreed (D) as 17, Undecided
Hypothesis Two (U) as 08, Agreed (A) as 38 and Strongly
Ho: There is no significant difference Agreed (SA) as 21. Whereas the Expected
between financial and non-financial reward Frequency (E) is 20, and it is the same for all
management and how they affect workers' the variables.
2
Table 26: Chi-square Calculated Value (X ) for Hypothesis Two
2 2
E
SD 16 20 -4 16 0.8
D 17 20 -3 9 0.45
U 08 20 -12 144 7.2
A 38 20 18 324 16.2
SA 21 20 1 25 0.05
Total 100 100 0 482 24.7
2
The calculated value (X ) is 24.7. And the University.
t
X is 13.28. HI: Reward incentive positively affects
Decision Rule: Since the X2 (24.7) is employee performance at Lagos State
t
greater than the X (13.28), the null University.
hypothesis is rejected and the alternative
The Observed Frequency data used in
hypothesis is accepted. This implies that
testing this hypothesis is derived from Table
there is a significant difference between
20, and they include: Strongly Disagreed
financial and non-financial reward
(SD) as 13, Disagreed (D) as 11, Undecided
management and how they affect workers'
(U) as 14, Agreed (A) as 37 and Strongly
effectiveness at Lagos State University.
Agreed (SA) as 25. Whereas the Expected
Hypothesis Three Frequency (E) is 20, and it is the same for all
Ho: Reward incentive does not affect the variables.
employee performance at Lagos State
31
2
Table 27: Chi-square Calculated Value (X ) for Hypothesis Three
2 2
E
SD 13 20 -7 49 2.45
D 11 20 -9 81 4.05
U 14 20 -6 36 1.8
A 37 20 17 289 14.45
SA 25 20 5 25 1.25
Total 100 100 0 506 24
2 t
The calculated value (X ) is 24. And the X is employee training is not related to the
13.28. reward management system.
2
Decision Rule: Since the X (24) is greater
t A well-designed reward system goes hand-
than the X (13.28), the null hypothesis is
in-hand with a conducive working
rejected and the alternative hypothesis is
environment which improves on the health
accepted this implies that reward incentive
status of employees. A good reward
positively affects employee performance in
management system will be good for the
Lagos State University.
physical and mental wellbeing of employees.
4.4Discussion of Findings Employees' contribution to the
At the end of the study, the following were organizational goals and objectives is
the findings: enhanced through good reward systems.
The study revealed that there are more male Thus, employee productivity is greatly linked
employees in the organization than their to the reward management system.
female counterparts. There are more people The rate of industrial actions in any
that are married in the organization. Majority organization is highly reduced when good
of the staff are ordinary diploma holders. reward systems are put in place. Reward
There are more respondents in the management system is an ideal conflict
academic staff category as compared to the resolution mechanism in an organization.
other categories. Most workers have less Good reward modalities do not improve
than 5 years of working experience. employees’ punctuality to work. This implies
A wage and salary system that fairly that a good reward management system
rewards employees can boost their morale. may not prevent employee absenteeism and
Therefore, fairness and equity should be put truancy.
in place in the design and management of Financial and non-financial incentives can
the reward system. make employees more effective on the job.
Employees can be productive when an A good reward system does not play a
effective reward system is put in place. Their critical role in the rate of employee turnover.
ability to produce greater output is heavily Good compensation formula is critical to the
dependent on the system of rewarding their effective and efficient management of
service delivery. employee reward system. An efficient
Job security and employee commitment are reward management system is dependent
both possible outcomes of a good reward on the competence and skillfulness of those
system. Employees would likely hold on to in charge of human resources management.
their jobs and be loyal to the organization Among all types of rewards, monetary
when they are satisfied with the reward reward is ranked very high in motivating
management system. employees to greater performance.
An ideal reward cannot create room for Employee productivity can be enhanced
promotion and give employees the through a systematic and effective reward
motivation to learn new skills and abilities. management system.
This indicates that promotion on the job and Reward management system could be
made more effective and result oriented by
32
involving employees in decision making. An motivated towards high performance. The
effective reward management system can present level of LASU staff member's
make employees desire more motivation in the area under study will
responsibilities at work. continue to encourage job dissatisfaction,
There is a positive relationship between the low morale and premature departure from
reward management system and the school system and reduce classroom
employees' morale in Lagos state university. effectiveness. There is therefore the need to
There is a significant difference between set a reward programme in motion to
financial and non-financial reward enhance employees (LASU staff)
management and how they affect workers' performance at work.
effectiveness in Lagos state university.
Based on the findings of the study, the
Reward incentive positively affects
following recommendations were proffered:
employee performance in Lagos state
A well-articulated blueprint on employees
university.
reward and motivation should be developed
5. Conclusion and Recommendations and aggressively implemented. Employees
The importance of reward in the day-to-day promotion should be strictly based on the
performance and productivity of employees performance profile resulting from periodic
cannot be overemphasized, especially when performance audit and employee appraisal.
it comes to being rewarded for a job done. It Training and development of employees
is a well-known fact that human performance should be carried out with fair consideration
of any sort is improved by increasing to both academic and non-academic staff to
motivation (Qureshi & et al, 2010). From this ensure sound and peaceful organizational
study, it can be easily inferred that workers climate. Sporting activities and other social
reward package matters a lot and should be interactions such as periodic holiday
a concern of both the employers and services, annual get together should be
employees. The results obtained from the enshrined in the reward programme of the
hypotheses showed that workers' place institution.
great value on the different rewards given to There should be a provision of basic
them by their employers. Hence, when these infrastructure and the existing ones should
rewards are not given, workers tend to be be upgraded to create a more conducive
poorly motivated, thus expressing their working environment. The employees should
displeasure through poor performance and be carried along in the core decision-making
non-commitment to their job. It is therefore process through effective communication.
imperative for public sector organization to Funding of the university should be
consider the needs and feelings its improved to enable the institution to meet up
employees and not just overlook them in with her mandate.
order to safeguard industrial harmony, Management should improve the system of
because "a happy worker they say is a communication with their employees. There
productive worker". should be a free flow of information from top-
Furthermore, reward is the driving force that down vis-à-vis, and certain unnecessary
energizes a worker to show more bureaucratic bottlenecks should be ignored
commitment to work and to improve his or if the best must be achieved.
her productivity. These are in form of Management should improve on employee
incentives such as increased salary, reward system to improve the productivity of
transport and recreational facilities, free or employees in the organization, such as
subsidized medical services, regular and encouraging employees in both intrinsic and
prompt payment of salaries, loan to buy a extrinsic reward.
car as well as insurance schemes (Adelabu, Since good reward management is a key
2003). This is one of the paramount ways to determinant of job satisfaction, emphasis
ensure that members of staff are well should be on making it more effective to
33
employees by providing loans and other
In this study, the researcher only focuses on
schemes that uphold and sustain
employee performance in organizations.
employees' commitment and dedication to
Therefore, other effects and relationship
their jobs.
should be explored such as turnover,
Management should identify the types of an
motivation employee satisfaction and others.
incentive scheme that are most motivating to
These factors might also influence
employees. This should also be based on
employee's behaviour in the organizations.
individual differences and needs. This is
Furthermore, a more comprehensive study
because what may motivate one individual
can be extended to all private and public
may not necessarily motivate another. The
tertiary educational institutions to ensure that
incentives scheme should be feasible for the
better generalizable findings are achieved.
organization to implement. Organizations
Employees should be trained according to
should, therefore, try to balance material
the present content of the environment.
considerations with non-material
Management must be careful of the
reinforcements to maximize job satisfaction
following factors to increase employee
and employees' productivity. Management
motivation by redesigning a reward system.
should seek and obtain feedback on how
They should provide facilities to enable the
employees perceive incentives. Feedback
employees to enhance their motivation and
combined with appropriate incentive
job abilities. Management must intensify the
schemes will produce the strongest effect on
salary scheme for employees. It should be
job productivity. Lastly, management should
supported to upgrade their standard of living.
improve on the compensation formula of
Furthermore, the following non-monetary
employees by sending family members of
rewards also should be increased: holding
the employee for studies abroad on a
pay, bonus, pension benefits, overtime pay,
scholarship basis as well as taking steps to
and proper training and promotion should be
better the living standard of employees after
given to the staff of this institution in order to
their days of active services in the
make them satisfied with their job.
organizations through contributory pension
schemes.
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Satisfaction in Libraries and Information
35
JOB STRESS AND EMPLOYEES’ PERFORMANCE: EVIDENCE FROM
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN LAGOS, NIGERIA
1 2
* Simeon O. ANIFOWOSE & Michael A. AFOLAYAN,
Department of Business Administration,
Faculty of Social & Management Sciences
Anchor University, Ayobo, Lagos, Nigeria
*E-mail sanifowose@aul.edu.ng
E-mail mafolayan@aul.edu.ng
Mariam D. SHOGUNLE
Department of Business Administration and Management
School of Management and Business Studies
Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos Nigeria
*Corresponding author: sanifowose@aul.edu.ng
Abstract
The study examined how job stress is related to the performance of employees in selected
manufacturing industries in Lagos Nigeria. The following firms were used for the study: Cadbury
Nigeria Plc; Eko Supreme Resources; Nestle Nigeria Plc and Sunsorya Limited. The study
employed survey research design. The study total population consists of six hundred and forty-
seven (647) employees. A total of 160 questionnaires were distributed, out of which 145 of valid
questionnaire were retrieved, given a response rate of 91%. The study was based on 145
samples. Inferential statistics were used to analyze the data such as the Pearson Correlation. The
study revealed a negative relationship between environmental, occupational, personal stress and
employees’ performance; therefore the sampled organisations should ameliorate employees’
hardships as a result of the work-place stress militating against their performance. The study
recommended that the management should: Organise periodic stress management seminars for
their employees, to enable them to understand how to manage their stress level; collaborate with
the union to educate the employees to engage in stress-reducing sports and games during their
break period and in their houses while they are not on duty; set up counseling unit on social, stress
and other problem that are being experienced by the employees; offer career development
guidance programme and be interested in their employees' life objectives
Keywords: employees’ performance, environmental stress, job stress, occupational stress,
personal stress.
1. Introduction of stated objectives and their organizational

Researchers have found out that employees’ success.
performance is an important factor that
The quest for competition on daily basis, due
contributes to organizational success
to organizational changes among
(Gitongu, Kingi & Uzel, 2016; Bose, 2018).
manufacturing industries globally, has led to
Performance is the outcomes of the
high level of stress among employees, which
activities of employees, based on their
make them to work for long hours of
relevant inputs, to contribute to the
overtime causing them stress (Karunanithi &
achievement of their organisational
Ponnampalam, 2013; Murali, Basit, &
objectives (Muo, Abosede & Anifowose,
Hassan, 2017).Most of the employees in
2019). However Awadh, Gichinga and
organizations carry out stressful activities
Ahmed, (2015) believed that when there is
which affect their job performance. The
continuous presence of stress in a particular
negative effects of stress on employees are
job the stress may tend to undermine the
numerous.
potentials of the employees from
contributing substantially to the achievement
36
According to Selye (1976) stressors cause occupational stress and employee
strain, while strain eventually leads to stress. performance? (iii) how is personal stress
Physiological strain is mental in nature and and employees performance related? The
its effects are insomnia, depression, high objective of the study is to: (a) identify
blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases. whether environmental stress is related to
These outcomes of strain lead to stress that employees performance (b) assess whether
negatively affect employees’ performance in occupational stress is related to employees
organizations (Selye, 1976; Robbins & performance (c) investigate whether
Judge, 2013). It is therefore important personal stress is related to employees
according to Adjei and Amofa (2014) that performance. Three hypotheses were
organisations should address job stress, developed for testing in the study: (a) HO1:
because its elements are capable of Environmental stress is not related to
adversely affecting employees’ mental and employees’ performance. (b) HO2:
physical health. Occupational stress is not related to
employees’ performance. (c) HO3: Personal
1.1 Statement of the Problem stress is not related to employees’
In the work of Selye (1976) on stress, he performance.
identified that stressors lead to strain,
whilestrain leads to stress; stress causes 2. Review of Literature
physical and psychological outcomes such Employees Performance
as: high blood pressure, depression and Employees’ performance refers to how
heart problem, and that social stress occurs workers behave and carry out the jobs that
in the workplace. However Selye (1976) did are assigned to them. Employee
not address oganisational stress performance may be measured with certain
management initiative for employees. In the parameters, in order to determine efficiency
research of Prasad, Vaidya and Kumar and effectiveness in the workplace.
(2015) they identified stress-oriented factors Mohamed et al (2018) argued that the
that negatively affect employees’ elements of creativity and innovation make it
performance as: (a) absenteeism (b) poor important for employees at all levels to
work relations (c) reduced productivity (d) increase their performance. Anthony and
low morale and (e) apathy. However Prasad, Bhattacharyya (2010) came up with three
Vaidya and Kumar (2015) did not indicate classifications of performance monitoring
organisational stress reducing education for which are: (i) at the organisational level (ii) at
employees. Mustafa et al (2015) in their the process level and (iii) at the employee
study identified the causes of occupational work unit or level. Anthony and
stress to include working conditions such as: Bhattacharyya (2010) also identified seven
workload three dimensions: (a) quantitative dimensions through which employees’
workload or overload: (b) qualitative performance may be evaluated. They are:
workload: (c) under-load: and (d) extended (a) creativity (b) innovation (c) productivity
working hours.However, Mustafa et al (d) efficiency (e) effectiveness (f) profitability
(2015) did not state organizational and (g) competitiveness. These
programme to alleviate the stress being classifications and dimensions of Anthony
experienced by the employees. The study and Bhattacharyya (2010) will enable
will offer solutions to these enumerated appropriate assessment of employees’
problems. performance to be carried out in
organizations.
1.2 Study Questions, Objective and
Hypotheses Diamantidis and Chatzoglou (2019)
The study will answer the following identified the factors affecting employees’
questions: (i) how is environmental stress performance in organizations as:
and employees performance related? (ii) (i) Organisational environment-related
what is the relationship between factors: such as training, culture and
37
organizational climate (ii) Job-related within and outside the organizations (Awadh,
factors: such as job environment Gichinga & Ahmed, 2015; Sajuyigbe, Madu–
(iii) Employees-related factors: such as Igwe & Babalola, 2015). Expatiating on the
motivation, skill flexibility and adaptability. stages of stress experience, Selye (1976)
Diamantidis and Chatzoglou (2019) are of explained that when a person is
the view that the absence of these factors in encountered with any threat to one’s safety
the management of human resource in or well-being, one experiences a reaction
organizations is capable of impacting which is the first stage; the second stage is
negatively on employee performance. resistance, while the final stage is referred to
as exhaustion.
The human resource department of
manufacturing industries should focus on the Meharunisa (2019) described various factors
effective management of the employees that cause stress in the workplace as
through job satisfaction and motivation, in unwarranted distractions, pressures of the
order to encourage them to demonstrate work situation and the effort of the
positive attitudes that will lead to increased individuals to balance their professional
productivity, organizational citizenship demand with their personal lives. Hence
behaviours (OCBs) and to employees high stress results into physical, psychological
performance (Mohamed et al, 2018). On outcomes such as: high blood pressure,
employees’ performance Gitongu, Kingi, and depression and heart problem (Selye, 1976;
Uzel (2016) as well as Abosede, Eze & Greenberg & Baron, 1995). According to
Sowunmi (2018) recommended that Robbins and Judge (2013); Ismail et al
organizations should focus on providing (2015); Zafaret al, (2015), employees in
training and development for their stressful state will find it difficult to meet their
employees. Therefore, in addition to expected performance level, due to the
Gitongu, Kingi, and Uzel (2016) effect of stress resulting into their decreased
recommendation, manufacturing industries performance on the job and their inability to
should also consistently carry out periodic contribute maximally to the achievement of
stress management interventions which will their organisational objectives.
make employees understand how to
Environmental Stress, Occupational
manage their stress level, in order to enable
Stress and Personal Stress
them to concentrate on the achievement of
The conceptual framework articulated by
performance targets.
Prasad, Vaidya and Kumar (2015) in their
Job Stress work included environmental factors, job or
Job stress is a state of negative feelings or occupational factors and personal or
reactions resulting from perceived individual factors as part of the various
undesirable work conditions that pose a independent variables that predict
threat to an employee (Adjei & Amofa, 2014; employees’ performance, therefore the
Awadh, Gichinga & Ahmed, 2015). Stress is conceptual framework of Prasad, Vaidya
an increasing challenge in organizations and and Kumar (2015) is being adapted for the
often causes adverse effects on employees’ study. The justification for the adaption of
performance. Occupational stress is Prasad, Vaidya and Kumar (2015)
considered to be a harmful factor in the work conceptual framework is premised on
environment. Based on the work of Selye Greenberg and Baron (1995); Robbins and
(1976) on stress, he identified that stressors Judge (2013) opinions that environmental
lead to strain. Strain is defined as a form of stress factors and personal or individual
psychological and social stress that occurs stress factors are also prevalent in the
in the workplace, strain leads to stress. occupational setting, and that occupational
stress arises due to the demands of the
Stress is any demand either physical or environment that employees are exposed to
psychological in nature encountered both in the workplace. Stress is a condition in
38
which individuals are exposed to negatively related to performance of
opportunities, obstacles and desires, and employees working at an Agricultural
although the outcomes are extremely Institute in Telangana India as follows:
important, they cannot be ascertained (a) absenteeism (b) poor work relations
(Robbins & Judge, 2013). Occupational or (c) reduced productivity (d) low morale and
workplace stress from the observation of (e) apathy - which is the loss of interest in
Zafar et al (2015) and Mustafa et al (2015)is the job. In view of the causes and the
the change of employees’ physical or mental adverse effect of environmental stress,
state that poses challenge or threat to them. occupational stress and personal stress as
itemized, the management of stress by the
According to Mustafa et al (2015) the causes
organisations and the employees are
of occupational stress include environment
imperative.
and organizational climate. Some of the
causes of stress itemized by Mustafa et al On the management of stress by the
(2015) in their work are: (i) working organisations and the employees, Mustafaet
conditions. (ii) workload: workload is of three al (2015); and Bhargava and Trivedi (2018)
dimensions: (a) quantitative workload or are of the view that the interventions should
overload: This refers to an employee be both at organizational and individual
working more than his capacity levels. At the organizational level, the
(b) qualitative workload: This refers to an Institute of Safety and Health suggested
employee performing too difficult task some general guidelines on organizational
(c) under-load: This refers to an employee change to prevent occupational stress such
working below his capacity. (iii) extended as: (i) workload adjustment to employees
working hours: This is the working hours in abilities (ii) clearly defined role and
organisations that exceed the normal 40 responsibilities (iii) motivating job design to
hours per week observed internationally. suit employees (iv) encouragement of social
(iv) position in the workplace: An employee’s interactions among employees (v) allowing
position can cause stress. (v) financial employees to participate in decisions making
factors: inability of employees to settle their in respect of their tasks and how they
bills can increase stress levels. accomplished targets (vi) institute good
(vi) workplace conflict and bullying: Such as network communications in the workplace.
interpersonal conflict among employees. (vii) According to Mustafaet al (2015), at the level
sexual harassment: This is can cause stress of individuals, stress coping methods
to female employees. include: (a) deep breathing exercises
(c) physical activities (d) meditation and
In the research of Prasad, Vaidya and
(e) systematic relaxation exercise.
Kumar (2015) they found out that stress is
39
Conceptual Framework
Figure 1: The Relationship between
etween Stress Factors and Employees’ Performance
Source:: Prasad, Vaidya and Kumar (2015)
2.1 Theoretical Review will reduce the feelings of Helplessness

Greenberg and Baron (1995)) explained the among employees, which will afford them
Helplessness Reduction Theory developed the opportunity to have a voice in suggesting
by Greenberg (1986) and Falsey (1989), on the way decisions are made about their job
the changes in organisational structure and and their welfare. (b) Steps can be taken to
functions useful in preventing jobjob-related assure employees that performance
stress as follows: (a) Change can be through appraisal and the distribution of
decentralization, when authority
hority is spread organisational reward are fair, to the extent
throughout the organizational structure. This
40
that employees will perceive it as just and 3. Methodology
equitable. 3.1 Research Design Population and
Sample Size
The third change that will reduce employees
The study was based on survey design. The
stress according to Greenberg (1986) and
research design follows the practice of
Falsey (1989) Helplessness Reduction
Prasad, Vaidya and Kumar (2015);
Theory is (c) Organisational policies: These
Asamoah-Appiah and Aggrey-Fynn (2017).
should be written and disseminated through
All the six hundred and forty seven (647)
employees manuals and it should include
employees of: Cadbury Nigeria Plc; Eko
statements about sick leave, vacation, and
Supreme Resources; Nestle Nigeria Plc and
the ethically accepted behaviours expected
Sunsorya Limited, who are manufacturing
from employees. The policies should be
industries in Lagos Nigeria, were selected as
consistently followed in order to make it
the study population. Questionnaire was
effective in reducing employees stress;
used to elicit information from the
otherwise if they are not being followed they
respondents. The questionnaire was based
can increase stress rather than reduce it.
on the three-point Likert Scale of strongly
The implication of the first and second
agree 1 agree 2 and disagree3. 160
factors of the Greenberg (1986) and Falsey
questionnaires were distributed, out of which
(1989) Helplessness Reduction theory:
145 valid questionnaires were retrieved,
decentralization, performance appraisal and
given a response rate of 91%. The study
the distribution of organisational reward, to
was based on 145 samples. Descriptive
the study is that the implementation of these
statistics was used to analyze the data.
two structural and functional changes in
Pearson Correlation was used to test the
organizations will significantly reduce
hypotheses with the use of statistical
employees stress in manufacturing
packages for social sciences (SPSS).
industries. Equally the implication of the third
factor of the theory: organisational policies 4. Data Analysis and Results
will go a long way to eliminate some of the Data was analyzed using descriptive
ambiguities that can lead to stress in the statistics. Data presentation, interpretation
work setting. and analysis are as follows:
41
Data Presentation of Respondents Demographic Information
Table 1: The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents
Composition Frequency Percentage
%
Sex
(a) Male 89 61.4
(b) Female 56 38.6
Total 145 100.0
Age
(a) 21 - 25 Years 27 18.6
(b) 26 - 30 Years 93 64.1
(c) 31 - 35 Years 21 14.5
(d) 36 Years and above 4 2.8
Total 145 100.0
Marital Status
(a) Single 23 15.9
(b) Married 122 84.1
Total 145 100.0
Educational Qualification
(a) SSCE/GCE O/L 5 3.4
(b) ND/ GCE A/LEVEL 48 33.1
(c) HND/BSC 88 60.7
(d) POSTGRADUATE 4 2.8
Total 145 100.0
Length of service
(a) 1 - 5 Years 97 66.9
(b) 6 - 10 Years 48 33.1
Total 145 100.0
Source: Field Survey (2019)
4.1 Data Analysis of Respondents (18.6) were in the age bracket (21-25 years);
Demographic Information 93 (64.1) were in the age bracket (26-30
Demographic Information (Sex and Age years); 21 (14.5) were in the age bracket
Compositions) (31-35 years), while 4 (2.8) were in the age
bracket of (36 years and above). It is
Data Analysis of Respondents Sex
assumed that employees who are in the age
Composition
bracket of (26-30 years) were more in the
Analysis of Table 1 shows that out of the
sampled organizations
one hundred and forty five respondents 89
(61.4%) were male, while 56 (38.6%) were 4.2 Presentation of Data Analysis
female. It is implied that more male According to Research Questions
employees were interviewed than female Question 1: How is environmental stress
employees in the sampled organizations. and employees’ performance related?
Data Analysis of Respondents Age The question is meant to find out whether
Composition environmental stress and employees
Analysis of Table 1 shows that out of the performance are related.
one hundred and forty five respondents 27
42
Table 2: Respondents response
S/NO Statement Category Frequency Percentage
1. Environmental stress makes me to Strongly agree 76 52.4
spend long hours at work and make Agree 49 33.8
my external relationships to suffer Disagree 20 13.8
Total 145 100.0
2. Environmental stress creates Strongly agree 21 14.5
problems for me Agree 124 85.5
Disagree 0 0
Total 145 100.0
3. The physical environment of this Strongly agree 59 40.7
organization is not supportive to me Agree 86 59.3
Disagree 0 0
Total 145 100.0
4. Environmental stress makes work Strongly agree 33 22.8
assignments not to be fully Agree 112 77.2
understood Disagree 0 0
Total 145 100.0
5. Environmental stress makes me Strongly agree 75 51.7
bored with my job Agree 65 44.8
Disagree 5 3.4
Total 145 100.0
6. Environmental stress makes me Strongly agree 51 35.2
feel unsatisfied with my present job Agree 90 62.1
Disagree 4 2.7
Total 145 100.0
Source: Field Survey (2019)
Analysis of Table 2 in respect of their job, while 13.8% disagree. On

respondents response to statement No. 1 on respondents’ response to statement No. 6,
environmental stress, shows that 86.2% 97.3% strongly agreed and agreed that
strongly agreed and agreed that environmental stress makes them feel
environmental stress makes them to spend unsatisfied with their present job, while 2.7%
long hours at work and made their external disagree. In view of the fact that 86% and
relationships to suffer, while 13.8% disagree. above strongly agreed and agreed with the
On respondents’ response to statement No. six statements of the research question No.
2, 100% strongly agreed and agreed that 1, therefore the analysis of Table 2 indicates
environmental stress creates problems for that environmental stress is negatively
them. On respondents’ response to related to employees performance in the
statement No. 3, 100% strongly agreed and sampled organisations.
agreed that the physical environment of their
organization is not supportive to them. On Question 2: What is the relationship
respondents’ response to statement No. 4, between occupational stress and employee
100% strongly agreed and agreed that performance?
environmental stress makes their work The question is meant to find out the
assignments not to be fully understood. On relationship between occupational stress
respondents’ response to statement No. 5, and employee performance.
96.5% strongly agreed and agreed that
environmental stress makes them bored with
43
Table 3: Respondents response
1. Occupational stress makes me Strongly agree 35 24.1
uncomfortable to work with latest Agree 101 69.7
technologies in the organization Disagree 9 6.2
Total 145 100.0
2. Occupational stress makes me to Strongly agree 35 24.1
work long hours overtime and also Agree 96 66.2
on holidays Disagree 14 9.7
Total 145 100.0
experience excessive work Agree 99 68.3
pressure Disagree 0 0
Total 145 100.0
experience stress on my job Agree 98 67.6
Disagree 0 0
Total 145 100.0
5. My relationship with colleagues and Strongly agree 49 33.8
peers is smooth and friendly Agree 85 58.6
Disagree 11 7.6
Total 145 100.0
6. Occupational stress makes me Strongly agree 27 18.6
unable to get the necessary Agree 108 74.5
information to perform my job Disagree 10 6.9
effectively Total 145 100.0
Analysis of Table 3 in respect of 92.4% strongly agreed and agreed that their
respondents’ response to statement No. 1 relationship with colleagues and peers is
on occupational stress, shows that 93.8% smooth and friendly, while 7.6% disagree.
strongly agreed and agreed that On respondents’ response to statement No.
occupational stress makes them 6, 93.1% strongly agreed and agreed that
uncomfortable to work with latest occupational stress makes them unable to
technologies in their organization, while get the necessary information to perform
6.2% disagree. On respondents’ response to their job effectively, while 6.9% disagree. In
statement No. 2, 90.3% strongly agreed and view of the fact that 90% and above strongly
agreed that occupational stress makes them agreed and agreed with the six statements
to work long hours overtime and also on of the research question No. 2, therefore the
holidays, while 9.7% disagree. On analysis of Table 3 indicates that
respondents’ response to statement No. 3, occupational stress is negatively related to
100% strongly agreed and agreed that employees performance in the sampled
occupational stress makes them to organisations.
experience excessive work pressure. On
Question 3: How is personal stress and
respondents’ response to statement No. 4,
employees’ performance related?
100% strongly agreed and agreed that
The question is meant to find out whether
occupational stress makes them to
personal stress and employees performance
experience stress on their job. On
are related.
44
Table 4: Respondents Response
1. Personal stress makes me not to find Strongly 19 13.1
enjoyment in my work agree
Agree 122 84.1
Disagree 4 2.8
Total 145 100.0
2. Personal stress makes me not to be Strongly 66 45.5
satisfied with the recognition I receive agree
for my work Agree 75 51.7
Disagree 4 2.8
Total 145 100.0
satisfied with the chances of promotion agree
Agree 107 73.8
Disagree 4 2.8
Total 145 100.0
satisfied with the variety in my job agree
Agree 93 64.1
Disagree 14 9.7
Total 145 100.0
5. Personal stress makes me to feel that I strongly 35 24.1
am not being paid a fair wage for the agree
work I do Agree 101 69.7
Disagree 9 6.2
Total 145 100.0
satisfied with the benefits I receive agree
Agree 96 66.2
Disagree 14 9.7
Total 145 100.0
Analysis of Table 4 in respect of personal stress makes them to feel that they
respondents’ response to statement No. 1 are not being paid a fair wage for the work
on personal stress, shows that 97.2% they do, while 6.2% disagree. On
strongly agreed and agreed that personal respondents’ response to statement No. 6,
stress makes them not to find enjoyment in 90.3% strongly agreed and agreed that
their work, while 2.8% disagree. On personal stress makes them not to be
respondents’ response to statement No. 2, satisfied with the benefits they receive, while
97.2% strongly agreed and agreed that 9.7% disagree. In view of the fact that 90%
personal stress makes them not to be and above strongly agreed and agreed with
satisfied with the recognition they receive for the six statements of the research question
their work, while 2.8% disagree. On No. 3, therefore the analysis of Table 4
respondents’ response to statement No. 3, indicates that personal stress is negatively
97.2% strongly agreed and agreed that related to employees performance in the
personal stress makes them not to be sampled organisations.
satisfied with the chances of promotion,
4.3 Analysis of the Relationship among
while 2.8% disagree. On respondents’
Study Variables
response to statement No. 4, 90.3% strongly
Correlation coefficient is defined by Akoglu
agreed and agreed that personal stress
(2018) as a statistical analysis tool that is
makes them not to be satisfied with the
used to measure the degree of the
variety in their job, while 9.7% disagree. On
relationship between two variables. The
justification for the use of correlation
93.8% strongly agreed and agreed that
coefficient statistical tool is that the study is
45
based on the measurement of: (a) performance, in the selected manufacturing
environmental stress in relation to industries in Lagos Nigeria. The analysis of
employees’ performance (b) occupational the relationship among the study variables is
stress in relation to employees performance. shown in Table 5.1 - 5.3.
(c) personal stress in relation to employees
Table 5.1: Correlation among Study Variables

Variables Pearson
Correlation EPF
EPF Correlation Coefficient 1
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 145
EST Correlation Coefficient -0.431**
Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 145
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Predictors (constant): EST: Environmental Stress

Dependent: EPF: Employees Performance
Result of Test of Hypothesis 1 p<0.01) between environmental stress and

HO1: Environmental stress is not related to employees performance. Based on this
employees’ performance. result, the null hypothesis HO is therefore
rejected while alternative hypothesis HA that
Hypothesis 1 states that environmental
states environmental stress is related to
stress is not related to employees’
employees performance is accepted, and it
performance. This hypothesis was tested
is therefore concluded that environmental
using Pearson Correlation. The result of the
stress is negatively related to employees
empirical study in Table 5 shows that there
performance in the sampled organizations.
is a negative relationship (r = -0.431;

Variables Pearson
Correlation EPF

Sig. (2-tailed)
N 145
OST Correlation Coefficient -0.622**
N 145
Predictors (constant): OST: Occupational Stress,
Result of Test of Hypothesis 2 using Pearson Correlation. The result of the

HO2: Occupational stress is not related to empirical study in Table 5 shows that there
employees’ performance. is a negative relationship (r = -0.622;
p<0.01) between occupational stress and
Hypothesis 2 states that occupational employees performance. Based on this
stress is not related to employees’ result, the null hypothesis HO is therefore
performance. This hypothesis was tested rejected while alternative hypothesis HA that
46
states occupational stress is related to stress is negatively related to employees
employees performance is accepted, and it performance in the sampled organizations.
is therefore concluded that occupational

Variables Pearson
Correlation EPF

Sig. (2-tailed)
N 145
PST Correlation Coefficient -0.511**
N 145
Predictors (constant): PST: Personal Stress
Result of Test of Hypothesis 3 where they found out that job conditions,
HO3: Personal stress is not related to interpersonal relations, career development
employees’ performance. and advancement were the main stressors
having negative influence on employees
Hypothesis 3 states that personal stress is
working at Twifo Oil Palm Plantation Limited
not related to employees’ performance. This
in Ghana.
hypothesis was tested using Pearson
Correlation. The result of the empirical study 5. Conclusion
in Table 5 shows that there is a negative The frequent occurrence of stress was
relationship (r = -0.511; p<0.01) between related to manufacturing industries. The
personal stress and employees finding of the study reveals that
performance. Based on this result, the null environmental, occupational and personal
hypothesis HO is therefore rejected while stresses are negatively related to
alternative hypothesis HA that states employees’ performance in the sampled
personal stress is related to employees manufacturing industries. Hence the
performance is accepted, and it is therefore sampled organisations should ameliorate
concluded that personal stress is negatively employees’ hardship as a result of the stress
related to employees performance in the militating against them, in order to create
sampled organizations conducive work environment that will
enhance employees’ performance in
Findings
particular and the effectiveness of the
The study found out that environmental,
sampled organisations in general.
occupational and personal stresses are
negatively related to employees’ Recommendations
performance in the sampled manufacturing The study recommends that the
industries. This finding is consistent with the management of the sampled organisations
finding in the research of Prasad, Vaidya should:
and Kumar (2015) where they found that (i) Organise periodic stress management
stress is negatively related to the seminars for their employees to enable
performance of employees working at them understand how to manage their
International Agricultural Research Institute stress level.
in Telangana India. The finding is also (ii) Collaborate with the union to educate
consistent with the finding in the research of employees to engage in stress reducing
Asamoah-Appiah and Aggrey-Fynn (2017) sports and games, during their break
47
period and while not on duty in their (v) Should be interested in employees
houses achieving their personal life objectives
(iii) Set up guidance and counseling on
social, stress and other issues that are Future Research Focus
being experienced by the employees. The research is limited because of its focus
(iv) Offers career development programmes, on Manufacturing Industries; future research
that will enable employees to identify can be carried out on job stress and
what to anchor their careers on employees performance in other private
sector organizations.
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49
DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF A HAPPINESS SCALE AMONG AFRICANS: A
PRELIMINARY STUDY
AWOSOLA Rasaq Kayode
Ambrose Alli University
PMB 14 Ekpoma
rawosola@yahoo.co.uk; rasaq.awosola@aauekpoma.edu.ng
07032074265, 08159641280
&
IDEMUDIA Erhabor Sunday
Northwest University (Mafikeng Campus), South Africa
erhabor.idemudia@nwu.ac.za; sundayidemudia@yahoo.com
Abstract
The paper described the development and standardisation of a happiness scale among Africans.
Although there are scales measuring happiness none was developed in Africa. It is a known fact
that happiness has cultural colouration; hence, this paper was in response to a call for a culturally
specific happiness scale. A mixed-method approach was adopted, with focus group discussions
held to generate items for the proposed happiness scale. Quantitative method was also used to
test the ability of the scale to measure happiness. 456 participants from different regions of Africa
took part in the study. Exploratory factor analysis was used to eliminate items that were not reliable
from the proposed scale. Thirty items were left on the scale for further analyses in the next phase
of the research. Cronbach alpha of .93 was obtained for the proposed scale. It was concluded that
the scale is culturally relevant as well as suitable for use among Africans.
Keywords: Happiness, Africans, Reliability, Culture, Development
Introduction relevant in another culture. Therefore, a

Happiness is seen as a cognitive culturally specific measure will be required.
assessment that someone’s life is
Lau, Cummins and McPherson (2005)
progressing in a positive sense, a constant
contend that there are a lot of scales for
search for meaning and purpose in life as
measuring subjective wellbeing; nearly all
well as frequent positive and infrequent
were from the developed nations. This
negative emotions (Seligman, 2011).
according to them casts serious doubt on
Happiness is a vague construct which is
their cross-cultural validity and limits their
very difficult to define by scholars (Porter,
ability to serve as comparative tools. The
2011); because happiness is a culturally
above statements imply that the definition of
constructed concept, bounded and defined
happiness is not generic (Hervas &
(Hervas & Vazquez, 2013; Moghnie &
Vazquez, 2013; Moghnie & Kazarian, 2011).
Kazarian, 2011). The thoughts people have
Furthermore, there are cultural values that
which result from their socialisation and life
Africans hold in high regard which are
experiences determine their perception of
related to happiness (Ibem & Amole, 2013;
happiness as well as their emotions
Rodriguez-Mosquera & Imada, 2013). In the
(Moghnie & Kazarian, 2011). Therefore, it
same view, Mahadea (2013) opines that life
would be a slip to generalise the use of a
events such as marriage, health, parenthood
scale that was developed in one cultural
and nature of work predict happiness better
setting to another cultural setting (Uchida,
than income among South Africans. The
Norasakkunkit & Kitayama, 2004).
researcher concludes that happiness can be
Furthermore, Moghnie and Kazarian (2011)
achieved vis a vis religion, education,
assert that a scale used in measuring
friendship and family relationships. In the
happiness in one culture may not be
same vein, Joshanloo (2013) states that
50
different belief domains like cultural, Research Method
religious and superstitious beliefs may affect Phase I: Development of happiness scale
a person's responses to subjective wellbeing Participants in the Study
measures. The target population for this research were
Africans who reside in the continent and
Besides, Wierzbicka (2009) opines that
expressed their willingness to partake in any
happiness is fraught with cultural
stage of the project. A total number of 456
assumptions. The implication of this is that
African adults took part in the study which is
the definition of happiness is culturally
still ongoing. The following is the breakdown:
relative. From the above, there is a call to
4 Focus Group Discussions were conducted
construct an instrument that would assess
with an average of 12 persons in attendance
happiness among Africans which would
at each session of the FGDs, which was the
integrate all the factors or values that they
first stage of the research. While 408
regarded as fundamentals to happiness.
Africans were engaged in stage two which is
The main aim of this study is to construct
called pilot study.
and standardise an indigenous happiness
scale that would take cognizance of the Socio-Demographic Characteristics of
belief, principles, practice, norms, and Participants
traditions of Africans. The development and Sex distribution of the 48 participants that
standardisation of this scale would also be in participated in the first phase of the study
accordance with Suh and Oishi’s (2004) shows that 10 (20.8%) were females while
assertion that the field of study into 38 (79.2%) were males. Their average age
subjective wellbeing needs to focus on was 33.5; the least age was 20 years while
neglected cultures like Arab countries and the highest age of the participants was 57
sub-Sahara Africa. years. Each of the four geographical zones
of Africa was represented at this phase of
the research.
Table1: Showing the Demographic Variables of the Participants at Stage One of the
Research
Stages Demographic Variable Frequency Percentage
SEX: Male 38 79.2%
ITEM GENERATION STAGE
Female 10 20.8%
Nationality: Nigerians 16 33%
Ghanaians 5 20.8%
Sudanese 2 4.2%
Eritreans 2 4.2%
Malawians 2 4.2%
Kenyans 2 4.2%
DR Congolese 2 4.2%
South Africans 5 20.8%
Tanzanians 2 4.2%
Source: Field Survey 2017
Subsequently, 408 participants participated from their spouses and 34(8.3%) did not
in the second phase of the research, 204 indicate their marital status. The ethnic
(50.0%) were males, 175 (42.9 %) were affiliation distribution shows that 115(28.2%)
females while 29 (7.1%) did not fill their sex. were Ashanti, 72(17.6%) were Ga,
101 (24.8%) were single, 245 (60.0%) were 47(11.5%) were Ewe, 25(6.1%) were Ahafo,
married, 3(0.7%) were cohabiting, 15(3.7%) 4(1%) were Vogar, 4(1%) were Kokomba,
were divorced, 10(2.5%) were separated 25(6.1%) were Fanti, 7(1.7%) were
51
Bamleke, 4(1%) were Kpelle, 11(2.7%) were in the West Africa sub-region. This is
Bimbila, 14(3.4%) were Aigbe, 4(1%) were because the 2010 population census shows
Dagoma and 76(18.6%) did not fill ethnic that some of these countries have more of
affiliation space. 351(86%) were Ghanaians, their citizens residing in Nigeria than others.
9(2.2%) were Togolese, 2(0.49%) were from The implication of the above is that an equal
Cameroon. 3(0.74%) were from Sierra- number of participants may not be possible,
Leone, 6(1.5%) were from Liberia and 6 thus the need for a proportional sampling
were from the Benin Republic. While 31 did technique which offered the prospect for
not fill their nationality. Religious affiliation selection based on the population of West
showed that 248(60.8%) were Christians, Africans residing in Nigeria.
112(27.5%) were Muslims, 2(0.5%) said
Scale Development Procedures
they were free thinkers, 1(0.2%) indicated
The guidelines for scale development as set
Africa traditional religion. While 45(11%) did
by Clark and Watson (1995), Gerbing and
not indicate their religious affiliation.
Anderson (1998), and adopted by Ojedokun
Sampling Techniques (2015) were followed. Although they
Stratified random sampling and systematic suggested various steps, what is common to
random sampling methods were adopted in all these guidelines is that they explained the
choosing the participants at the sessions of same procedures with different terms. For
the FGDs. Stratified random sampling was instance, Ojedokun (2015) highlighted 5
used for the reason that Africa was divided steps of scale development. These are item
into four blocks; these are North Africa, West generation, item selection, content validity
Africa, East & Central Africa and Southern through item checking, review of item pool
Africa. Each of these blocks was considered by experts and pilot testing. Cohen and
as a stratum and the researcher chose the Swerdlik (2002) adopted 5 steps which are
participants from these strata so that no test conceptualisation, test construction, pilot
block was left out at each session of the study, item analysis and test revision. The
FGDs. In choosing the participants, the steps adopted by Ojedokun (2015) were
researcher adopted a systematic random adapted and grouped into two stages as
sampling method by writing “YES” and “NO” outlined by Gerbing and Anderson (1998).
on pieces of papers which were folded. Stage one consists of item generation, item
These pieces of paper were equal to the selection, face validity, content validity
volunteers who had shown interest in the through experts’ judgement and stage 2
study. Volunteers who picked “YES” were comprises pilot testing or field testing.
considered as participants in the FGDs.
Step one: Item generation
Purposive sampling and proportional The first step was the review of the literature
sampling techniques were adopted in on item generation and development. This
choosing the participants in the pilot study helped to determine the methods that were
which is the second phase of the study. A used in generating items for the existing
purposive sampling method was adopted to instruments on happiness. This allowed the
select the West Africa sub-region; the choice researchers the prospect of ensuring that
of this region was based on the premise that the proposed items cover all the beliefs,
West Africa as the highest number of people thoughts, values, and practices of Africans
residing in Nigeria (National Population with regards to happiness. Afterwards,
Commission, 2010). Again, the block Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were held
comprises many nations with different and this exercise was considered necessary
orientations that provide the prospect of to get a lot of items for the proposed scale.
testing the scale before the main study. Four FGDs were organised within two
months. Forty-Eight participants who were
A proportional sampling technique was used randomly selected participated in this
to select the participants from the countries
52
exercise with approximately 12 persons per Step 5: Pilot Study (The second stage.)
session Studies in social sciences make use of pilot
study before the main study, for the reason
Step 2: Item selection
that it plays a significant role in research
Information and opinions gathered at the
(Baker, 1994). Therefore, a pilot study was
FGDs were synchronised together to form
conceived for this research to serve these
statements. Tally was used in order to avoid
purposes:
repetition. A total of 71 items were compiled
for the happiness scale. Firstly, to pre-test the newly developed
instrument, that is, the proposed Happiness
Step 3: Face validity
scale. Secondly, to test the study
After the compilation of the proposed items,
procedures like methods of distributing and
another series of FGDs were conducted.
retrieving the questionnaires. It was also
The goal was to present the compiled items
used to determine the resources (human
to the participants to ascertain whether
and capital) needed for the research and this
those items reflected their thoughts and the
helped to make sufficient groundwork to
discussion they had at the previous
have successful research. It was also used
meetings on happiness. The E-mail
to examine many aspects of the instrument
addresses of the South Africa participants’
such as language, the relevance of the items
were collected and the compiled items were
to the concept, clarity, and feasibility of the
mailed to them. Almost all the participants
items in assessing happiness. Thirdly, to
replied that the items reflected the
discover realistic issues that may be
discussions that were held. This was used to
stumbled upon in the main study. This gave
achieve the face validity for the proposed
the prospect of evaluating whether the
happiness scale.
research protocols are realistic and
Step 4: Content validity workable.
The 71 items that were compiled for the
Scholars such as Clark and Watson (1995)
happiness scale were typed out and given to
have recommended a large and
four University teachers. They were
heterogeneous sample for the pre-test stage
contacted to help look at the structure and
of scale development. They suggest that at
technicality of the items of the proposed
least 300 respondents would be an ideal
happiness scale. After their scrutiny, the
number at this phase. Yaro (1964) sampling
items were reduced from 71 items to 48
technique formula was employed to
items. To further build up the content validity
calculate the number of participants needed
of the proposed scale, the remaining 48
from 744,734. This figure is the total number
items were given to another five University
of West Africans residing in Nigeria (National
Lecturers who are Psychologists to rank
Population Commission, 2010). Nigerians
each item on the scale with a response
were excluded from the above figure, though
guide of "Suitable" and "Not Suitable". Items
Nigeria is a member of West Africa sub-
that had a rating of less than three as
region. Yaro formula is given as thus:
"Suitable" were deleted from the proposed
n= N
scale because such items were considered 2
1+N(e)
weak or not valid. At the end of this stage,
Where n= sample size
42 items were left on the happiness scale.
N=Target Population
This means that 29 items from the
1= constant
happiness scale were deleted because they
e= (0.05) level of significant
were not technically or structurally good to
Substituting the figure into the
assess the concept. Also, they did not meet
formula, we have
the criterion of three out of five experts'
n= 744,734
rating. 2
1+ 744,734(0.05)
53
744734 Twelve of these questionnaires were not
1+744734(0.0025) properly filled and they were discarded.
n= 744734
Data analysis
1+1861.84
Data retrieved from 408 respondents were
n= 744734
analysed using the Statistical Product
1862.84
Solution Services (SPSS) version 20.
n= 399.78 (Approximately 400
will be recommended as sample Results and Discussion
size) Responses to the 42 items presented as a
In a study of this kind, there is a high questionnaire where respondents showed
probability of having respondents who may the degree of their conscious actions and
not fill their questionnaires correctly. Then thoughts on a 5-point Likert response guide
the researcher made allowance for ranging from strongly agree = 5 to strongly
questionnaires that would not be filled disagree =1. All the responses were
correctly. The formula for the adjustment is: subjected to a reliability test. This can be
obtained through numerous methods, e.g.
n test retest method, split half reliability, and
1-f internal consistency (alpha coefficient).
Where n is the estimated figure from Yaro Cronbach alpha coefficient is a commonly
formula: 1= constant and f = is the % of the used method in selecting items of a scale
people that would not fill the questionnaire (Clark & Watson, 2003). Therefore, a scale
correctly. is said to be reliable if items in the scale are
n= 400 = 400 = 445 highly correlated, which means the items are
1-f 1-0.1 0.9 assessing similar concept (DeVellis, 2011).
To be able to select 445 participants out of Researchers such as Clark and Watson
744,734; the researcher applied another (1985), Nunnally (1978), Machin and Sankey
formula which is the actual number of people (2008), and Hair, Black, Babin, and
from each of the West Africa Countries Anderson (2010) suggested different
staying in Nigeria (n) divided by the total acceptable levels of coefficient alpha for
number of all West Africans residing in newly developed scale. For example,
Nigeria (N) multiply by 445 which is the Nunnally (1978), Clark and Watson (1985)
required number of participants for the pilot suggested an estimate of 0.80 above
study. At the end of the calculation, constitutes a reliable measure while Machin
countries that have less than 1 were and Sankey (2008) and Hair, et al. (2010)
eliminated from the number of countries to proposed an estimate of 0.70 and above as
be used for the pilot study. Ghana, Liberia, an acceptable measure of reliability. The
Sierra Leone, Benin Republic, Togo, and items on the scale displayed a high internal
Cameroon satisfied the above criterion. consistency of 0.93, which shows that the
items of the scale are measuring similar
A cross-sectional survey design was
concept.
employed in distributing the questionnaires
to the 450 respondents in Lagos, Abuja, and Moreover, the internal consistency was also
Ibadan. Research assistants who were assessed by calculating item-total
recruited as well as trained administered correlations, which is the correlation of each
these questionnaires. These research item in the scale with the summated scale
assistants were able to get the consent of score. Items with correlation coefficient
the prospective respondents because they which is less than 0.40 were deleted from
are from the same country with the the scale; because those items did not meet
respondents. It took 6 weeks to administer the minimum convergent validity ratio
these questionnaires and 420 (Stewart, Hays & Ware, 1998; Westaway &
questionnaires were collected from the field. Myburgh, 2007). The item's total correlation
54
was used to examine the validity of the scale between factors and observed methods.
items as stated by Edwards (1957), using Kaise-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling
the minimum content validity ratio of 0.40 as adequacy test and Bartlett’s test of sphericity
determined by Lawshe (1975). At the end of were used to test whether the correlation
these procedures, six items (items 4, 13, 20, matrix was suitable to generate a factor
28, 30, and 35) did not meet 0.40 criterion structure and not by chance. The KMO value
and were then deleted from the scale. is 0.91 which is well above the minimum
value of 0.5, which was recommended by
Factor analysis was applied to test the
Kaiser (1974) as an acceptable level.
remaining 42 items using the extraction
Besides, Bartlett's measure tests the null
method. The aim of using principal
hypothesis that the original correlational
component analysis was to get rid of
matrix is an identity matrix. The Chi-square
defective items from the scale (Tronsmoen,
of Bartlett's test of sphericity is (6753.04;
2008). The varimax rotation method was
P<.000), which shows that a factor structure
used in this study because it helped in
exists in the data. The results show that the
calculating the number of common factors
correlation matrix was not only an identity
affecting a set of measures and it is also
matrix rather it was good for factor analysis.
used to show the level of the relationship
Table 2: Showing Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin and Bartlett’s Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.91
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 6753.04
Df 861
Sig. .000
The responses obtained from these 42 items of overestimating the number of factors; the
were subjected to Principal Component exploratory factor analysis resulted in a 10-
Analysis (PCA) to determine the factor factors solution which accounted for a 59.7%
structure of the scale; the aim is to extract variation in the items of the scale. The table
the factor structure in the scale. There are below shows eigenvalues of 11.75 (26
various methods of extracting and retaining items), 2.48 (3 items), 1.24 (1 item); this
the number of factor from data. The first one implies that the scale tilted to a uni-
is the Kaiser 1 rule, which is extracting the dimension. The rest of the factors had no
number of factors with Eigenvalue greater items loaded on them that passed the
than 1. The Kaiser 1 rule has the likelihood criterion level of 0.5.
Table 3: Showing Factor Loading and Eigenvalues of HLSS (Happiness Subscale)
Initial Eigenvalues
Component Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 11.753 27.982 27.982
2 2.477 5.898 33.881
3 1.739 4.139 38.020
4 1.634 3.890 41.910
5 1.477 3.516 45.426
6 1.433 3.412 48.838
7 1.236 2.944 51.781
8 1.186 2.823 54.605
9 1.137 2.708 57.313
10 1.008 2.400 59.712
55
Due to the problem associated with Kaiser 1 bend or breakpoint in the data where the
rule, alternative test for extraction and curve flattens out. Therefore, the number of
retention of the factor was evolved. The data points above the break is considered
scree test entails checking the graph of the the number of a factor in the data.
eigenvalues and look out for the natural
Diagram 1 showing Scree Test Graph with data Points of Factor Structure
KEY: X-axis: Eigenvalue value

Y-axis: Items in the subscale
The Gradient of the Graph: Shows the data points
The scree plot depicts two factors loading Conclusion

this further supported the fact that factor Althoughscholars have agreed that there is a
loadings concentrated on a single factor. paucity of research on happiness in Arab
Despite the discrepancy between Kaiser 1 and sub-Sahara countries (Pflug, 2009;
rule and scree plot factor loading, a scholar Ibem & Amole, 2013; Botha & Booysen,
such as Raubenheimer (2004) affirms that 2013), this attempt to develop an indigenous
exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is the most happiness scale for Africans would pave
appropriate analysis for structural validity of way for researches among them. It would
a scale because researchers have direct also contribute to cross-cultural comparisons
access to the total pattern of loadings and it of happiness. It would also afford Africans
is also sensitive to error in factor loading. who are interested in happiness research to
Also, Gerbing and Hamilton (1996) assert be able to tell their stories in an African way.
that the use of EFA is seen as a precursor to The reliability thus established affirms that
subsequent analysis of factors in the the wordings of the items as well as the
validation of a scale. Thirty items were left language are satisfactory; the respondents
for the happiness scale which was believed perceived no ambiguity. Nevertheless, the
to have item convergent validity and useful process of standardisation of this scale is
for interpreting scores. still on-going; so far so good the scale is
culturally relevant and suitable for use
among Africans.
56
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58
ASSESSMENT OF PRINT MEDIA REPORTAGE OF THE MENACE OF CULTISM IN
NIGERIAN SOCIETIES: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE PUNCH AND NIGERIAN
TRIBUNE NEWSPAPERS FROM JANUARY-JUNE, 2019
By
OJO Titiloye Oyeyinka PhD
Department of Mass Communication,
Kola Daisi University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
Ojo.titiloye@yahoo.com
07037953524
AYOBOLU Yetunde O. PhD
yetundeayobolu@gmail.com
OYEWO Ayanfeoluwa Oluwatosin PhD
Kola Daisi University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria,
ayfoyewo@gmail.com
and
OYENIRAN Stella Titilope M.sc.
stitoguns@gmail.com
Abstract
Cultism is a pathogenic and virulent social vice is incessantly connected to various purported
criminal activities sprang from political and socio-economic needs and frustration which are now
endemic in Nigerian society. It is one of the causes of recent social eruptions and violent actions
that have impaired Nigerian youths’ moral and cultural integration. Based on the foregoing, this
study carried out a content analysis of the print media reportage of cultism activities in Nigerian
societies with a special interest in The Punch and Nigerian Tribune Newspapers. The study
employed quantitative content analysis with a coding sheet as an instrument for data collection.
Coding exercise was conducted on a total of 362 editions of the two selected newspapers, 181
each, published from January to June 2019. The data generated from the coding exercise were
analyzed using the Statistical Products and Services Solution (SPSS) version 21. The hypothesis
was tested based on the pre-set level of significance of 0.05 Leveries test of homogeneity and
equal variances. The study found out that during the period under consideration, a total of 63
straight news stories were identified in the selected newspapers out of which Nigerian Tribune
published more of the stories. The two newspapers predominantly published cultism stories in their
inner pages and treated most of them as major headlines in the inner pages. Also, there was
evidence of variation in the allocation of space which was higher in The Punch than in Nigerian
Tribune. Finally, there was no difference in the direction of reportage of cultism stories between the
selected newspapers. However, the test of hypothesis corroborates these findings. The study
concluded that the two newspapers predominantly reported the news stories to condemn the
menace of cultism but not as pronounced as the effects on the entire Nigerian societies. The two
selected newspapers failed to constantly use cultism stories neither as headlines or back pages
stories considering the huge damage incurred on the entire societies. The paper recommended
that Nigerian Mass media should be more proactive in the reportage of the menace of cultism in
Nigerian societies. Also, the government should officially use Mass media recommendations on
measures to curb the cultism problems in Nigerian societies. Also, the government should make
cultism a moribund venture by strengthening law(s) against the scourge for effective management
59
and control system of the crime. Finally, moral education should be enforced in every stage of
Nigerian societies.
Keywords: Print media, Menace of cultism, Nigerian societies, Selected Newspapers, Content
analysis, Assessment
Words count: 386
1. Introduction numerous measures employed to curb the

Society is described as a large group of menace by government, media and people
people who decide to live together by have to a large extent resulted in futility. It is
sharing some laws, traditions and customs. based on the aforementioned that this study
Sometimes, these shared norms and tends to carry out a content analysis
principles of togetherness are shattered due assessment of the print media reportage of
to some societal unforeseen and abnormal cultism activities in Nigerian societies with a
events such as cultism. The prevalence and special focus on The Punch and Nigerian
the spread of cultism in Nigerian societies Tribune Newspapers respectively.
despite several efforts from both government The broad objective is to assess the print
and people to curb the malaise is a serious media reportage of cultism events between
concern for different segments of the January and June 2019 with a special
Nigerian society. Raufu (1997) observed that interest in the punch and Nigerian Tribune.
the problem of secret cult with its associated Specifically, the study sought to:
problems like killings, ritualism, extortion, i. Determine the frequency of the
maiming, rape, hooliganism, armed robbery, coverage of the menace of cultism in the
cybercrime, political thuggery and other selected newspapers.
social vices have permanently imprinted the ii. Ascertain the prominence given to the
issue in the minds of average Nigerians. reportage of the menace of cultism in
Cultism emerged as a result of socially the selected newspapers.
unacceptable behaviours of media explosion iii. Examine the depth of reportage given to
via importation of foreign culture, the internet stories about the menace of cultism in
and junk Magazine contents which the selected newspapers.
overwhelmed Nigerian youths and pushed iv. Determine the direction of reportage of
them into being preys to all these mentioned stories about the menace of cultism in
social effects (Anaele, 2013). Cultism, as a the selected newspapers.
pathogenic and virulent social vice, is
In line with the research objectives the
frequently linked to many purported crime
following hypotheses were formulated:
syndicates, which sprang from social needs
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the
and frustration which are nevertheless
prominence given to the coverage of the
endemic in human society. Cultism is the
menace of cultism between the selected
cause of the current social eruption,
newspapers
aggressive behaviours and violent actions
that affect the moral and cultural
depth of reportage given to stories about the
development of Nigerian youths. Although
cultism has posed some security threats on
newspapers.
the survival of Nigerian societies, the Mass
media, particularly the print media, have not
direction of reportage of stories about the
dissipated their Gate-keeping role as the
Fourth Estate of the realm that has the
newspapers.
professional instincts to report cultism
events as they unfold as well as exposing 2. Review of Literature
the culprits for prosecution. The escalated Scholars from different relevant disciplines
nature of cult-related violence shows that such as Sociology, Anthropology,
60
Psychology, History and others have given spiritual protection from their ancestors
cultism different definitions. For this paper, conducted rituals.
we shall attempt to mention a few of them.
Nigerian tertiary institutions were not left out
Lannap and Rimfa (2008) define cultism as
of the spate of cultism, in 1952, Wole
an association, whether registered or not,
Soyinka, Ralph Opara, Olumuyiwa Awe,
that use secret signs, oath, rites or symbols
Pious Olegbe, Olu Agunloye, Daigh
formed to promote the interest of members
Imokhuede and Tubi Tunji floated the
and support one another under any
Seadog Fraternity otherwise known as
circumstances. Marshal (1984) views cultism
Pirates. The idea behind the formation was
as a small religious sect whose beliefs are
both patriotic and altruistic but not cultism
typically secretive, esoteric and
motivated (Hamzat, 2011). According to the
individualistic. Girigiri and Okoh (2007)
scholar, the main objective was to find a
observe that cultism is a group of people
lasting solution to the problem of tribalism
whose meetings are held secretly but use
and elitism. Today, Nigerian tertiary
symbols and oaths. Ogunbameru (1997)
institutions are witnessing more than 45
sees cultism as a secret group or
secret cults who are elaborate and
organization whose activities are kept away
sophisticatedly equipped, few of them are
from the knowledge of others. Anele (2006)
Amazons, Vikings, Buccaneer, Mafia,
contends that cultism has to do with the
Dragons, Black axe and Eye Fraternity
extreme form of devotion to a particular
(Adeola, 1997). Adewale (2005), notes that
cause or principle which often makes its
female secret cult counterparts are Temple
activities appear esoteric in the eyes of the
of Eden, Figrates, Barracudas, Daughter of
initiated. According to Omudu (2014),
Jezebel and others. Currently, in Nigeria,
cultism is a small group of people that is not
there is the proliferation of cult activities in
a part of the larger society but accepted by
and outside tertiary institutions and by
many people as extreme and dangerous.
extension in Nigerian societies majorly
Cultism could be traced to the Adamic age
among Nigerian youths.
when a drift of loyalty from God to the
serpent by man happened. The serpent The presence of cultism is making life
became a demi-god which Adam and Eve unbearable and unsafe for Nigerians. The
submitted their loyalty to in the Garden of notoriety of cultism has not only endangered
Eden. the orderly sustenance and progressive
continuity of societal peaceful co-existence
The word 'cult' is derived from the Latin word
but has eaten deep like a cankerworm into
'Cultus' meaning 'Worship'. 'Cult' is owed to
the principles of unity, equity, transparency
Deities or Temples, Shrines or Churches,
and peaceful co-existence of the Nigerian
therefore, a cult is embodied in rituals and
societies. Nowadays, several nefarious acts
ceremonies. Its presence is made in votive
are being carried out by cult groups which
offering at votive sites. It identifies a pattern
are against the societal norms and values
of ritual behaviours and attitudes (Hanor &
such as armed robbery, ritual killings,
Aondoakura, 2019). According to Hamzat
hooliganism, cybercrime, political thuggery,
(2011), secret cults have always been in
murder, rape, prostitution, drug addiction
existence in many parts of Nigeria, among
and a host of others (Muyiwa, 2004).
them are the Ekpe Secret Cult among Efiks,
Ogboni Secret Cult commonly found among Causes of Cultism in Nigeria
Yoruba, Ekirie Secret Cult in Delta, Owegbe Different reasons have been presented as
Cult among the Edo people. Adeola (1997) the cause of cultism involvement. Rotimi
observes that secret societies have been in (2010) notes that lack of moral academic
existence prior to pre-colonialization when a culture, absence of intellectual debates and
group of people with the aim of looking for other socio-economic factors. Mezibobi, Nok
and Nwosu (2012) attest to the fact that
61
family as a powerful socialization agent Anache (2013) avers that a number of
plays a central role in promoting cultism. The institutional and environmental factors
scholars observed that parents who are explained the rise in cultism such as the
members of cultism groups often initiate general atmosphere of deprivation,
their matured children. Investigation hopelessness, frustration, injustice and
revealed that sons and daughters of hardship brought upon people by the socio-
privileged and highly placed individuals in economic system. This has been further
the society are strong members of secret aggravated by a civilian autocracy which
societies due to their buoyant financial base resulted in the decay of national morality and
coupled with the ability to finance the cultism social values. Issa (2012) attested to this
activities. Some ignorant ones thought fact by suggesting that cultism in Nigerian
becoming a member would solve their societies has become a celebrated
immediate financial problems by having a phenomenon among the political class who
rapport with the influential members of their equally happen to be in charge of the
groups (Olufemi, 1997). Another school of nation's wealth.
thought argued that adolescents without
Prevalence Effects of Cultism in Nigeria
freedom of association where they reside
The effects of cultism in Nigerian societies
tend to use the advantage of new places to
are numerous but few critical ones are to be
freely associate and identify themselves with
discussed in this paper. Cultism has
cultism (Omudu, 2014).
constituted a major threat to Nigerian
Akinfolarin (2003) attested to the fact that societies and institutions of higher learning.
adolescents usually break the total reliance It encourages murder, terrorism, Kidnapping
and contact with his or her parents and shift rape, hooliganism, prostitution, moral ruin,
to the newly acquired group, such peer and sexual harassment, amongst others.
influence is one of the reasons youths join Cultism activities have turned every place
cultism. According to Ogunbameru (1997), into the devil nest and instead of peace,
the eroding societal values and moral there are tales of brutality, assault, horror,
decadence experiencing in Nigerian sorrow, intimidations, torture and murder
societies are major reasons for cultism (Opaluwah, 2009). Morality seems to have
negativity. The scholar explained that the degenerated while the rule of law has been
Nigerian societies have provided an relegated to zero degrees. Peace is
environment that is conducive for all forms of adversely affected whenever there is a cult
crimes among which is the menace of invitation which usually leads to loss of lives
cultism. Mghekem (2004) contends that and properties.
Nigerian societies have replaced honour
Jamiu (2008) notes that the young ones who
with dishonour as a standard attitude.
are to be tomorrow's leaders have fallen
Today’s youths have imbibed immoral
victims of trigger happy cultists. According to
values instead of moral values. All these
Hanior (2014), drugs are vital tools on which
could be linked to the general state of
cult members depend on to enable them to
normlessness existing in Nigerian societies.
perform their dastardly acts. They always
Hamzat (2011) states that economic
rely on illicit drugs such as Indian hemp,
recession in the country encourages
Heroin, Cocaine, Tramadol and other
corruption and cultism, thereby, eroded
dangerous drugs. The effect of all these is
financial, political and educational sanity in
that the drugs turn users into societal misfits
Nigerian societies. It is obvious today that
physical and spiritually. No wonder their
political chieftains propagated cultism and
attitudes are a clear signal of drug addiction
use cult members for political reprisals,
(Omudu, 2014).
snatching of ballot boxes and the elimination
of political opponents.
62
Theoretical Framework process of the cognitive appraisal to the
For this study, we shall attempt to discuss media messages concerning their fear and
the cultism phenomenon through the recommended motivation towards protecting
Development Media Theory and The the audience(s) against a particular social
Protection Motivation Theory. vice. These cognitive appraisal processes
then determine the amount of attitude
The Development Media Theory
change. This means that when the audience
The Development Media Theory was
members receive a fear appeal, they weigh
propounded by Dennis McQuail in 1987. The
it in their minds and if the noxiousness of the
theory assumed that the media should
event is not in tandem with the
accept and help in carrying out the special
recommended actions of the media, then the
development tasks of national integration,
recommended actions are not adequate for
socio-economic modernization, promotion of
the audience members to act in accordance
literacy and cultural creativity. According to
to it. Therefore, attitude change is not likely
Folarin (2002), the theory has already
but if the cognitive process of the news
provided bearing for the concepts of
contents is inadequate, then attitude change
development journalism. The scholar
is realizable. However, Rogers assumed that
observed that nothing should shield media
attitude change to media message is said to
from social responsibility of reporting
be a function of the amount of protection
societal happenings. McQuail (1987)
motivation arousal by the cognitive appraisal
contends that the media must accept and
that the audience members go through.
carry out positive development functions in
line with the nationally established policy. He 3. Methodology
opines that the media should give priority in This study is a content analysis type
their contents to national culture and because it is designed to content analyze
languages. The theory established that the the selected newspapers' news contents
media and other media workers have a within the duration of the scope of the study.
responsibility as well as freedom in their Coding guide was adopted as an instrument
information gathering and dissemination for the analysis of news contents. It is
tasks. In other words, the theory is relevant designed to guide coding activities in
to the study because it ensures that the academic research that aims to
media have the freedom to disseminate comparatively analyze straight news
news contents that can facilitate change of reportage of the menace of cultism in the
attitude and behaviours towards a particular Nigerian Print media with special focus on
social vice such as cultism. However, this The Punch and Nigerian Tribune
social responsibility of the media must be Newspapers. Coding exercise was
carried out in line with professional ethical conducted on a total of 362 editions of the
conducts and government policy. two selected newspapers -181 each-
The Protection Motivation Theory published from January to June 2019. The
The proponent of this theory was R.W. data generated from the coding exercise
Roger in 1975. Though the theory was were subjected to analysis with the aid of
developed as an alternative to Janis's Statistical Products and Service Solution
curvilinear theory that has its focal point on (SPSS) version 2.1. The results of the
attitude change. The protection motivation analysis were utilized to answer the
theory has three major elements: the research questions, test the hypothesis and
magnitude of the horribleness of a depicted ensure the achievement of the study's
event, the probability of that event's objectives. The literature review of this study
occurrence and the efficacy of a was sourced from secondary sources such
recommended response to the media as library materials, journals, internet,
message. The theory established that each newspapers, magazines and desk study.
mentioned component brings about a
63
4. Data analysis, Results and Presentation of Results
Interpretation In this subsection, results of content analysis
This section entails reports of the field of the selected newspapers – Nigerian
research conducted in this study. It presents Tribune and The Punch - are presented and
data generated from field research, analyzes interpreted. The presentation begins with the
and interprets them in a way that leads to samples studied - number of newspapers
the attainment of the objectives earlier set in analyzed – and this is followed by the
the study. This section presents results analysis of data to answer research
emanating from the content analysis of the questions and test hypotheses.
selected newspapers and discusses the
Data Analysis to Answer Research
findings in a way to show the extent to which
Questions
the results have achieved the stated
Research Objective 1: To determine the
objectives, answered the research questions
frequency of the coverage of the menace of
and tested the hypotheses.
cultism in the selected newspapers.
Table 8.1: Frequency of News Stories Reportage

Freq. Percent%
Nigerian Tribune 26 41.3
The Punch 37 58.7
Total 63 100.0
Source: Field study, 2020
During the period under consideration, which each of them during the first half of the year.
is between January and June 2019, a total This may be due to the low occurrence of
of 63 straight news stories were identified in incidents of cultism in the country during the
the selected newspapers – Nigerian Tribune period. Thus, the first research question can
and The Punch - as published about the be answered that there was generally a low
menace of cultism. Out of the total, The frequency of the coverage of the menace of
Punch published more of the stories (n=37, cultism in the selected newspapers but the
58.7%) than Nigerian Tribune (n=26, frequency was higher in The Punch than
41.3%). This implies that The Punch Nigerian Tribune.
newspaper covered the menace of cultism
Research Objective 2: To ascertain the
more than Nigerian Tribune newspaper;
prominence given to the reportage of the
although, on the average, each of the two
menace of cultism in the selected
newspapers recorded low coverage of the
newspapers.
menace in all the 181 editions published in
Table 8.2: Cross Tabulation of Placement of News Stories

Placement of News Story Total
Inner Page Back Page Front Page
Nigerian 22(84.6%) 1(3.8%) 3(11.5%) 26(99.9%)
Newspaper Title Tribune
The Punch 34(91.9%) 0 3(8.1%) 37(100%)
Total 56(88.9%) 1(1.6%) 6(9.5) 63(100%)
Source: Field Study, 2020
64
Table 8.3: Cross Tabulation of News Stories’ Headline Status
News Headline Status Total
Major Average Minor
Headline Headline Headline
Nigerian 22(84.6%) 4(15.4%) 0 26(100%)
The Punch 14(37.8%) 17(45.9%) 6(16.2) 37(99.9%)
Total 36(57.1%) 21(33.3%) 6(9.5%) 63(99.9%)
Source: Field Study, 2020
Two parameters were considered in relation stories as major headlines on its pages
to the prominence given to news stories in (n=22, 84.6%) while The Punch treated most
this study – placement of stories on the of the stories as average headlines on the
newspaper pages and status of news pages they were published (n=17, 45.9%).
headlines. Table 4.2 presents data relating In total, the two newspapers treated most of
to the placement of news stories on the the stories as major headlines on the pages.
pages of the selected newspapers. Findings By implication, the selected newspapers
in this regard showed that the two gave low prominence to news reportage of
newspapers predominantly published stories the menace of cultism during the period
about the menace of cultism in their inner under review, though Nigerian Tribune
pages (n=56, 88.9%), while each adopted treated them more prominently than The
the same pattern of coverage. A total of six Punch in terms of headline status.
news stories, three each, made the front
Research Objective 3: To examine the
pages of the newspapers while Nigerian
depth of reportage given to stories about the
Tribune reported only one on its back page.
As regards the status of the news headlines,
newspapers.
The Nigerian Tribune treated most of its
Table 8.4: Cross Tabulation of Length of News Stories

Length of News Story Total
Minor Average Major
story story story
Nigerian 23(88.5%) 3(11.5%) 0 26(100%)
The Punch 14(37.8%) 20(54%) 3(8.2%) 37(100%)
Total 37(58.7%) 23(36.5%) 3(4.8%) 63(100%)
Table 8.5: Cross Tabulation of Depth News Stories’ Sources

Depth of News Sources Total
Single News Dual News Multiple
Source Sources News
Sources
Nigerian 13(50%) 8(30.8%) 5(19.2%) 26(100%)
The Punch 20(54%) 2(5.4%) 15(40.5%) 37(99.9%)
Total 33(52.5%) 10(15.8%) 20(31.7%) 63(100%)
In order to determine the depth of coverage stories and the depth of news sources were
of the menace of cultism in the selected considered. As shown in Table 4.4, the two
newspapers, the length of the reported newspapers mostly reported the menace of
65
cultism as minor stories (n=37, 58.7%). Comparatively, the stories that were
Comparatively, The Punch allocated more attributed to multiple sources were higher in
space to the reported cases than Nigerian The Punch (n=15, 40.5%) than in Nigerian
Tribune, the former treated three of the Tribune (n=5, 19.2%). From the foregoing, it
stories as major stories on the pages and can be deduced that most of the reported
more than half (n=20, 54%) as average stories in the selected newspapers were
stories than spanned between three and five given the low depth of coverage but The
columns. The Nigerian Tribune reported Punch reported more of its stories in greater
most of its stories as minor stories on the depth by allocating more space and utilizing
pages (n=23, 88.5%), thereby giving less multiple news sources than the Nigerian
depth to the coverage than The Punch. As Tribune.
regards the depth of news sources, more
Research Objective 4: To determine the
than half of the news stories were attributed
direction of reportage of stories about the
to single sources, mainly eyewitnesses,
followed by those attributed to multiple news
newspapers.
sources – eyewitnesses, security agencies,
government officials and victims.
Table 8.6: Cross Tabulation of Angle of Story Reportage

The angle of News Reportage Total
Pro- Pro- Pro- Anti- Pro- Neutral
victim security governmen cultists cultists
agencies t
Nigerian 7(26.9%) 2(7.7%) 7(26.9%) 5(19.2%) 0 5(19.2%) 26
Newspaper Tribune
Title The 8(21.6%) 7(18.9%) 1(2.7%) 11(29.7% 0 10(27%) 37
Punch )
Total 15(23.8%) 9(14.3%) 8(11.1%) 16(25.4%) 3(4.8%) 15(23.8% 63
Table 8.7: Cross Tabulation of Focus of Story Reportage

The focus of News Story Total
Clashes, Efforts of Release of
initiations, security the victim(s),
Abduction of agencies Ritualism
the victim(s)
Nigerian 17(65.4%) 7(26.9%) 2(7.7%) 26(100%)
The Punch 21(56.7) 14(37.8%) 2(5.4%) 37(100%)
Total 38(60.4%) 21(33.3%) 4(6.3%) 63(100%)
The Angle from which the news stories were accounted for the highest percentage in the
reported and the subject focus of the stories two newspapers (60.4%). Comparatively,
were considered as parameters of the the two newspapers adopted a similar angle
direction of coverage in this study. Data in by mostly condemning perpetrators, with
Table 4.6 show that stories reported from stories in The Punch accounting for a higher
the angle of condemnation of cultism percentage (29.7%) than those in Nigerian
perpetrators accounted for the highest Tribune. As regards the focus of reportage,
percentage (n=16, 25.4%) followed by those the two newspapers predominantly reported
in support for the victims of cultism (n=15, cultism incidents from the focus of incessant
23.8%). Also, abduction and killing of victims clashes, initiation of members, abductions
66
and killings of victims (n=38, 60.4%) initiations, destruction of lives, properties
followed by efforts of security agencies to and abduction of victims.
tackle the menace (n=21, 33.3%).
Decision Rule
Comparatively, the incidents were mostly
The pre-set level of significance for this
reported from similar focuses in the two
study is 0.05. The null hypotheses assume
selected newspapers – Clashes, initiations,
that there is no difference between the
abduction and killings of victims. However,
variables under consideration. If the P-value
Nigerian Tribune newspaper accounted for a
(that is, the significance or the probability
higher percentage of stories reported from
value) exceeds the pre-set level of
the focus of clashes, initiations, abduction
significance (that is p > 0.05), the null
and killings (65%) while The Punch focused
hypothesis will be accepted; but if the P-
more on the efforts of security agencies to
value is less than or equal to 0.05 (p ≤ 0.05),
curb lashes, dispersion of group initiations
then the null hypothesis will be rejected.
and secure release of victims more than
Nigerian Tribune. The implication of the Test of Hypotheses
foregoing is that the selected newspapers Hypothesis 1: There is no significant
reported stories about the menace of cultism difference in the prominence given to the
from the same angle of condemning the act coverage of the menace of cultism between
and focusing on regular clashes, group the selected newspapers.
Table 8.8: Group Statistics for Independent Samples Test for Significant Difference in Story
Prominence
Newspaper Title N Mean Std. Std. Error Mean
Deviation
News Story Prominence Nigerian Tribune 26 1.1923 .37622 .07378
Index The Punch 37 1.4730 .35249 .05795
Table 4.9: Independent Samples Test for Significant Difference in Story Prominence
Levene's t-test for Equality of Means
Test for
Equality of
Variances
F Sig. T df Sig. Mean Std. 95% Confidence
(2- Diff. Error Interval of the
tailed) Dif. Difference
Lower Upper
Equal .170 .682 -3.026 61 .004 -.28067 .09274 -.46611 -.09522
variances
News Story assumed
Prominence Equal -2.992 51.696 .004 -.28067 .09382 -.46895 -.09238
Index variances
not
assumed
Tables 4.8 and 4.9 contain results of hypothesis is hereby accepted. This is
independent samples test for a significant because the probability value is greater than
difference in the prominence given to news the pre-set level of significance
stories about the menace of cultism between (p=0.682>0.05 Levene’s test of
the two selected newspapers. The analysis homogeneity, equal variances assumed).
in Table 4.9, which is to test the first This implies that there is no significant
hypothesis in this study, shows that the difference in the prominence given to news
67
stories about the menace of cultism between Hypothesis 2: There is no significant
the selected newspapers. difference in the depth of coverage given to
stories about the menace of cultism between
the selected newspapers.
Table 8.10: Group Statistics for Independent Samples Test for Significant Difference in Story
Depth
Newspaper Title N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Depth of Coverage The Nation 26 1.3846 .38230 .07498
Index The Guardian 37 1.7838 .53412 .08781
Table 8.11: Independent Samples Test for Independent Samples Test for Significant
Difference in Story Depth
Test for
Equality of
Variances
F Sig. T df Sig. Mean Std. 95% Confidence
(2- Differen Error Interval of the
taile ce Differen Difference
d) ce Lower Upper
Equal 4.302 .042 -3.265 61 .002 -.39917 .12226 -.64365 -.15468
variances
Depth of assumed
Coverage Equal -3.457 60.965 .001 -.39917 .11546 -.63005 -.16828
Index variances
not
assumed
Tables 4.10 and 4.11 contain results of independent samples test for a significant difference
in the depth given to the coverage of news stories about the menace of cultism between the
two selected newspapers. The data in Table 4.11 are meant to test the second hypothesis.
Results of the analysis show that the hypothesis is hereby rejected. This is because the
probability value is less than the pre-set level of significance (p=0.042<0.05 Levene’s test of
homogeneity, equal variances assumed). There is thus a significant difference in the depth of
coverage given to news stories about the menace of cultism between the selected
newspapers.
Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the direction of coverage of stories about

the menace of cultism between the selected newspapers.
Table 8.12: Group Statistics for Independent Samples Test for Significant Difference in
Direction of Coverage
Newspaper Title N Mean Std. Std. Error
Deviation Mean
Direction of Coverage Nigerian Tribune 26 3.4808 1.29214 .25341
Index The Punch 37 3.7162 1.42176 .23374
68
Table 8.13: Independent Samples Test for Significant Difference in Direction of Coverage
Test for
Equality of
Variances
F Sig. T Df Sig. Mean Std. 95% Confidence
(2- Differen Error Interval of the
tailed) ce Differen Difference
ce Lower Upper
Equal .877 .353 -.672 61 .504 -.23545 .35062 -.93656 .46567
variances
The
assumed
direction of
Equal -.683 56.988 .497 -.23545 .34474 -.92579 .45489
Coverage
variances
Index
not
assumed
Tables 8.12 and 8.13 contain results of answer the research questions and test the
independent samples test for a significant hypotheses, the essence of which is to
difference in the direction of coverage of ensure the objectives of this study are
news stories about the menace of cultism achieved.
between the two selected newspapers. The
The first objective of this study was to
data in Table 8.13 are meant to test
determine the frequency of the coverage of
hypothesis 3 in this study. Results of the
the menace of cultism in the selected
analysis show that hypothesis 3 is hereby
newspapers. To achieve this objective, the
accepted since the probability value is
first research question was set: What is the
greater than the pre-set level of significance
frequency of the coverage of the menace of
(p=0.353>0.05 Levene’s test of
cultism in the selected newspapers?
homogeneity, equal variances assumed).
Findings that answered this research
This implies that there is no significant
question showed that during the period
difference in the direction of coverage of
under consideration, a total of 63 straight
stories about the menace of cultism between
news stories were identified in the selected
the selected newspapers.
newspapers – The Nation and The Punch
Discussion of Findings out of which Nigerian Tribune published
A total of four objectives, four research more of the stories (n=37, 58.7%) than The
questions and three hypotheses were set to Nation (n=26, 41.3%). On the average, each
achieve the aim of this study. The study, of the two newspapers recorded low
which is focused on the comparative coverage of the menace of cultism in all the
analysis of the reportage of the menace of 181 editions published in each of them
cultism in Nigeria: a case study of Nigerian during the first half of the year. This may be
Tribune and The Punch newspaper, adopted due to the low occurrence of incidents of
the quantitative content analysis to achieve cultism in the country during the period.
its central aim as well as its specific Thus, the first objective of this study has
objectives. Coding exercise was conducted been achieved as the first research question
on a total of 362 editions of the two was answered that there was generally low
newspapers – 181 each – published from frequency of the coverage of the menace of
January to June 2019. The data generated cultism in the selected newspapers.
from the coding exercise were subjected to
The second objective of the study was to
analysis with the aid of Statistical Products
ascertain the prominence given to the
and Services Solution (SPSS) version 21.
reportage of the menace of cultism in the
The results of the analysis were used to
69
selected newspapers. To achieve this was higher in The Punch than in the
objective, research question 2, which Nigerian Tribune, and in the depth of news
inquired about the prominence given to the sources, in which The Punch used more of
stories and hypothesis 1, which presumed multiple news sources than the Nigerian
no significant difference in the prominence Tribune.
given to the stories were set respectively.
The last objective of this study was to
Findings in relation to research question 2
determine the direction of reportage of
showed that the two newspapers
cultism stories in the selected newspapers.
predominantly published stories about the
To this end research question 4 – 'what is
menace of cultism in their inner pages and
the direction of reportage of cultism stories
they treated most of the stories as major
in the selected newspapers?' was asked.
headlines on the inner pages. Thus, the
Also, the last hypothesis – 'there is no
selected newspapers gave low prominence
significant difference in the direction of
to news reportage of the menace of cultism
reportage of cultism stories between the
during the period under review. Results of
selected newspapers' – was presumed.
the test of the first hypothesis showed that
Findings, as regards the research question,
there was no significant difference in the
showed that stories reported from the angle
prominence given to news stories, thus,
of condemnation of the acts of cultism
affirmed the results that answered the
accounted for the highest percentage
research question as regards prominence,
followed by those in support for the victims
using the parameters of story placement on
of cultism in the two newspapers. As regards
newspaper pages and the status of news
the focus of reportage, the two newspapers
headlines.
predominantly reported cultism incidents
Objective 3 of the study was to examine the from the focus of abduction of victims
depth of coverage given to stories about the followed by efforts of security agencies to
menace of cultism in the selected tackle the menace. As regards the test of the
newspapers. In order to achieve this last hypothesis, findings showed that there
objective, research question 3 –‘What is the was no significant difference in the direction
depth of coverage given to stories about the of coverage of stories about the menace of
menace of cultism in the selected cultism between the selected newspapers.
newspapers?’ - and hypothesis 2 - There is This confirmed the earlier findings that the
no significant difference in the depth of two newspapers predominantly reported the
coverage given to stories about the menace stories to condemn the menace of cultism
of cultism between the selected newspapers’ and focused on clashes, initiations abduction
– were set respectively. Findings in relation and killings of victims. Finally, the four
to research question 3 showed that objectives earlier set in this study have been
comparatively, The Punch allocated more achieved through data gathering and
space to the reported cases than Nigerian analysis. The results of the analysis have
Tribune. As regards the depth of news answered the research questions and tested
sources, the reported stories that were the three hypotheses – two of which were
attributed to multiple sources were higher in accepted but one rejected.
The Punch than in Nigerian Tribune. Results
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
of the test of hypothesis 2 showed that there
This study established that Nigerian
was a significant difference in the depth of
societies were predisposed to cultism by the
coverage given to news stories about the
home influence, peer pressures, socio-
economic situation, thirst for power and
newspapers. The data in the test of
others. Nigerian cultist activities were linked
hypothesis confirmed those that answered
to sexual harassment, armed robbery,
the research question as evident in the
prostitution, hooliganism ritual killings and
variation in the allocation of space, which
other heinous acts. The study discovered
70
that cultism in Nigerian societies is real and the cultism stories neither as headlines or
urgent solution is, therefore, needed to be back page stories considering the gravity of
taken by the Government, Institutions and damages incurred on the entire Nigerian
Nigerians at large to curb the menace. societies.
Although numerous distractions and factors
In line with the research findings, the
are militating against effective cult
following recommendations were made:
management. Concerned authorities must
1. Nigerian Mass media should be more
step actions in coming up with relevant
proactive in the reportage of the menace
measures to combat the malaise of cultism
of cultism in Nigerian societies. In other
since its effects have permeated the entire
words, headlines, middle and back page
structure of the Nigerian societies. In
stories are sacrosanct on daily basis.
schools, places of work, homes, worship
2. The government should officially use the
centres, community arenas and
Mass media recommendations on
neighbourhoods, virtually, everyone is a
measures to curb the menace of cultism
potential victim of cultism. Nevertheless, the
in Nigerian societies.
truth should not be vitiated that cultism has
3. The government should make cultism a
done more harm than good to the entire
moribund venture by strengthening
Nigerian societies.
law(s) against cultism for effective
Based on this study findings, it was deduced management and control system of the
that the two selected newspapers were crime.
concurrently reporting stories of cultism but 4. Moral education should be enforced in
not as pronounced as the effects on the every stage of Nigerian societies.
entire Nigerian societies. Though the Punch Religious leaders should consistently
newspaper did more reportage of the cultism preach morality in their various centres
stories than the Nigerian Tribune, the two of worship.
selected newspapers failed to constantly use
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72
IMPULSE BUYING: IMPLICATIONS AND COPING STRATEGIES OF NEO-
PENTECOSTAL CHURCHES' WOMEN IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA
ADENUGA Ademolu Oluwaseun
Department of Sociology, Hallmark University, Ogun State

adenugaademolu@gmail.com
OGUNYEMI Segilola Yewande
Department of Sociology, OlabisiOnabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State
adenugaademolu@gmail.com
and
OYEKANMI Abiodun Abdullahi
Department of Political Science, Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ogun State
Oyekanmiabdullahi655@gmail.com
Abstract
Impulse buying has been largely attributed to women in most studies undertaken but very few
studies have focused on Neo-Pentecostal churches for the discourse in the southwest region of
Nigeria. Hence, this study examined the impulse buying attitude of women of Neo-Pentecostal
churches in Southwest Nigeria; identified the items commonly purchased; investigated reasons for
the prevalence of impulse buying; examined the implication of impulse buying behaviour; and
identified the coping strategies adopted by the women of Neo-Pentecostal churches in Southwest
Nigeria that engaged in impulse purchases. Theoretical and methodological triangulation was
adopted for the study. The study was anchored on Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs and
Albert Bandura's social learning theory. The study was conducted in five Neo-Pentecostal
churches (CAC, DAYSTAR, MFM, RCCG, and Winners' Chapel) in the six southwest states of
Nigeria. Purposive sampling technique was adopted for the study which encompassed 746
respondents and 15 interviewees for the quantitative and qualitative survey respectively. Data
were gathered through questionnaires and in-depth interviews and were analysed using SPSS and
content analysis respectively. The study revealed that all the study population engaged in impulse
buying; the items commonly purchased were clothes, bags, shoes, cosmetics and ornaments;
reasons attributed to impulse buying include orientation to life, self-esteem, materialistic mentality,
workplace culture and general mentality; the implications were both beneficial and harmful; and to
curb the prevalence of impulse buying respondents resorted to financial management and proper
planning prior to purchasing. The study recommended that impulse buying is harmful and
implicating but can be managed with proper planning.
Keywords: Coping strategies, Impulse Buying, Neo-Pentecostal Churches, Southwest Nigeria and
Women
1. Introduction the challenge in most previous studies

People buy goods for different reasons all examined rather the motivations and
over the world. When goods are bought consequences of the impulse purchase on
without prior knowledge and prior planning the purchaser. This is because impulse
to have such a transaction can be described buying is a phenomenon that is perceived
as impulse buying. Moreover, an impulsive and understood differently by individuals and
purchase can also be described as a it has several unprecedented consequences
consumers' response towards low-cost on the buyer which may be psychological,
product offerings (Harmancıoğlu, Finney, & economical and emotional. There are
Joseph, 2009). Impulse purchase is several internal and external factors which
common among people of different strata, are likely to stimulate the occasion of
class or groups within the society (Peck & consumer’s impulse buying. According to
Childers, 2006). Impulse buying is often not Piron (2009), internal factors include mood
73
and desire while external factors are impulse buying behaviour but these have not
described by visual attractions which stem captured the experiences of women in
from street hawking, merchandising, window Nigerian Neo-Pentecostal churches.
display and promotional signage.
Meanwhile, there is a general notion that
Verplanken, Herabadi, Perry, & Silvera women are easily attracted by what they see
(2005) gave a model on the classification of and perceive as well as people’s opinion
purchases as planned or impulse. Their about a product (Hadjali, Salimi, Nazari, &
findings revealed that buying behaviour can Ardestani, 2012). These have been
be planned, unplanned or impulse. Planned attributed to their increased involvement in
purchases are those that involve the buyer impulse buying than their male counterparts.
searching with a rational decision after As a result, this research is partly an attempt
having information about the product while to unravel the causes of impulsive buying
unplanned purchases refer to all shopping among women. Also, there are variances in
decisions made without any advance or prior the materials purchased amongst women.
planning. However, impulse buying is There is a general impression that women
distinguished from the unplanned buying are more likely to be materialistic and as a
because impulse buying involves quick result, could be more prone to impulsive
decision making. In addition to buying buying than their male counterparts and this
unplanned, an impulse purchase also may come with certain consequences. As a
involves experiencing a sudden, strong, and result, this study also aims to identify the
irresistible urge to buy what one did not plan common items that propel women on their
for. This study attempts to focus on the choice, location and motivations for
impulse buying behaviours among Neo- purchase in Southwest Nigeria.
Pentecostal churches' women in the
southwest region of Nigeria. The general objective of the study is to
examine the impulse buying attitude of
Previous studies have identified the women of Neo-Pentecostal churches in
prevalence of impulse buying behaviour of Southwest Nigeria, while the specific
people from different locations and socio- objectives are to:
economic backgrounds in normal economic i. Identify the items commonly purchased
conditions (Verplanken, Herabadi, Perry, & by women of Neo-Pentecostal churches
Silvera, 2005; Peck & Childers, 2006; in Southwest Nigeria;
Harmancıoğlu, Finney, & Joseph, 2009). ii. Investigate the reasons for the
These studies have dwelled on other socio- prevalence of impulse buying among
demographic classes mostly adopting either women of Neo-Pentecostal churches in
qualitative or quantitative methods. Hence, Southwest Nigeria;
there is a need to focus on Nigerian iii. Examine the implication of impulse
women’s motive for engaging in impulse buying behaviour on the women of Neo-
purchases using the combination of Pentecostal churches in Southwest
qualitative and quantitative instruments Nigeria; and
because previous studies have proven that iv. Identify the coping strategies adopted by
women purchase significantly more than the women of Neo-Pentecostal churches
men (Hadjali, Salimi, Nazari, & Ardestani, in Southwest Nigeria that engaged in
2012; Coley & Burgess, 2003). In Nigeria, impulse purchases.
women are known to be caretakers and very This study solely focused on the women of
important characters in the household. This the selected Neo-Pentecostal churches in
is because they offer care, support and Southwest Nigeria that claimed to have
upbringing of the children and are often engaged in impulse purchases in the past
saddled with household domestic one year. The study will be limited to the
responsibilities (Obasan, 2000). Studies women of selected Neo-Pentecostal
have also been conducted on women’s churches in Southwest Nigeria who
74
participated in the online survey. This study Such, however, depends on the individuals
is important to understand the buying who want to make the purchase.
behaviours of women across different fields
Theoretical Framework
and socio-economic variances in Southwest
Motivation Theory (Abraham Maslow's
Nigeria that engaged in impulse purchases
Hierarchy of Needs)
in their various vicinities. It will also provide
Abraham Maslow (1954) developed the
explanations of their experiences and the
hierarchy of needs model to provide
coping strategies adopted in these
understanding based on human motivation.
situations. This study will help to understand
Human needs are categorized into five
women's scale of preference for purchase
major groups in hierarchical order. The
as well as the factors that motivate women
hierarchy can be divided into the basis of
to spend money. This study will be of benefit
satisfying human needs. These are:
to gender and family experts and academic
i. Physiological needs: These are
guardians to understand the existing social
biological requirements for human
realities of women impulses on purchases.
survival. The first level contains
2. Literature Review physiological needs such as water,
Concept of Impulse Buying sleep, food, air, shelter, sex, warmth,
There is no universally accepted definition and cloth. If these needs are not
for impulse buying but because it is a satisfied, the human body cannot
concept that is commonly exhibited by function optimally. Maslow considered
human beings in several social groups and the physiological needs as the most
situations they find themselves, it is important as other needs become
important to have an understanding of the secondary until these needs are met.
concept. Hence, impulse buying can be ii. Safety needs: These involve the
defined as the spontaneous or sudden protection from elements, security,
desire to buy something and when order, law, stability and freedom from
compared to more comparative approaches fear.
to decision making, is considered emotional, iii. Love and belongingness needs: This
reactive, and prone to own with diminished group involves the need for
regard for the consequence (Verplanken, interpersonal relationships which further
Herabadi, Perry, & Silvera, 2005). It can also motivates human behaviour. This
be referred to as buying of goods without encompasses friendship, intimacy, trust,
planning to do so in advance, as a result of a acceptance, receiving and giving
sudden instinct. It also means an unplanned affection and love. Affiliation as a result
decision to buy a product or service, made of being a part of a group (family, friends
just before a purchase. Anyone who and workplace).
engages in such is usually referred to as an iv. Esteem needs: Maslow classified this
impulse buyer or impulse purchaser. into two categories: Esteem for one’s
self (dignity, achievement, mastery, and
Universally, people engage in impulse independence) and the desire for
purchases and this is not limited to any reputation or respect from others (status
socio-demographic limitations such as and prestige).
religion, gender, income, age, marital status, v. Self-actualization needs: At this stage,
level of education and the likes. Impulse individuals work towards seeking
buying, according to Thakor & Prajapati personal growth and peak experiences.
(2012), is usually attracted by the spur of the In application to the study, Abraham
moment, unplanned decision to buy, made Maslow’s motivation theory explains that
before a purchase. This is because findings people have motivation before engaging in
revealed that most impulsive purchases are impulse buying. Although these motivations
premised on the feelings and emotions of vary and are usually a function of the socio-
the social actors involved (Njoku, 2015).
75
economic class and the psychological experiences, memory representation and
preference of the individual. The theory is reconstruction, cognitively-based
critiqued for being more psychological than motivation, emotion activation, psycho-
sociological. Hence, the need for the biologic functioning and the ease and skill
adoption of a sociological theory to explain to which these are employed to deal with
the behavioural aspect of impulse buying. everyday life experiences (Bandura, 1977).
The learner has the power to influence their
Social Learning Theory
own learning in new situations by
Social learning theory is based on the idea
controlling the environment around them
that individuals learn from their interactions
whether that environment is imposed,
with others in a social context (Bandura,
selected or constructed (Bandura, 1977).
1977). Separately, by observing the
In application to impulse buying, Social
behaviours of others, people develop similar
Learning Theory explains that the act of
behaviours (Adenuga, Ogunyemi, &
involvement in impulse buying most
Omojufehinsi, 2018). New concepts of social
especially is motivated by the influence of
learning are being formed as new trends in
the third party. Within the church, women
patterns of interactions emerge.
are likely to purchase or desire to acquire
According to social learning theory, people material items such as shoes, bags, clothes
learn by: and cosmetics because their colleagues
i. Observing what other people do. also use them. Social Learning Theory
ii. Considering the apparent consequences explains that impulse buying behaviours are
experienced by those people. learned indirectly by observation and by
iii. Rehearsing what might happen in their dwelling in an environment where people
own lives if they follow other peoples’ who regularly indulge in it live. The
behaviours. weakness of the theory lies in its
iv. Taking action by trying the behaviour overemphasis in justifying an individual's
themselves. motivation for engaging in a certain
v. Comparing their experiences with what behaviour rather than a group of people
happened to other people. which Sociology mainly focuses. Since
vi. Confirming their belief in the new actions are learned and transferred, the
behaviour. theory gave little or no explanation on how
social change can occur.
There are three key components to
Bandura's social learning theory: 3. Methodology
observational learning, imitation, and The study was carried out in five Neo-
behaviour modelling (Bruner, 1990; Wood, Pentecostal churches (Christ Apostolic
Bruner, & Ross, 1976). Bandura’s social Church, Daystar Christian Centre, Mountain
learning theory is based on the idea that of Fire and Miracles Ministries, Redeemed
observational learning involves the fact that Christian Church of God and Living Faith
humans often cannot learn for themselves Church also known as Winners’ Chapel) in
(Adenuga, Ogunyemi, & Omojufehinsi, the six Southwest states in Nigeria. The
2018). study adopted the purposive sampling
An alternative theory which is not strictly technique to select the respondents from the
constructivist or behaviourist is Bandura’s selected churches. The inclusion criteria
Social Learning Theory. This theory were that the respondents were females,
combines behaviouristic reinforcement married and still have spouse, educated with
theory and cognitive psychology to describe at least SSCE, have been attending any of
the learning process in individuals. Bandura the selected churches for at least two years,
emphasizes the personal or self-system have impulse buying behaviours and
which controls learning by influencing social voluntarily participate in the survey. 746
processes, schematic processing of samples were drawn from five Neo-
76
Pentecostal churches as identified and HND/B.Sc. (49.3%) and Postgraduate
characterised by Adenuga & Ogunyemi qualifications (7.8%). On church
(2017) and the distribution was: CAC (83), denomination, respondents attended CAC
DAYSTAR (91), MFM (142), RCCG (241), (11.2%), DAYSTAR (12.2%), MFM (19%),
and Winners’ Chapel (189). Data were RCCG (32.3%) and Winners Chapel
gathered through primary and secondary (25.3%). Also, on states of residence in
sources. The primary data was gathered southwest Nigeria, the data showed that the
with copies of the questionnaire via Google respondents resided in Ekiti (11.7%), Lagos
form, which was sent to the women's (31.1%), Ogun (26.3%), Ondo (10.5%),
churches' social media platform and in-depth Osun (6.6%) and Oyo (13.9%) which
interviews which were conducted for 15 showed that majority of the respondents
purposively selected women; 3 from each of (57.4%) were from Lagos and Ogun states.
the five churches who demonstrated The study also revealed that on
mastery of the subject matter in the respondents’ occupation, respondents were
quantitative survey across the six states categorized as unemployed/out-of-work
through Zoom application while secondary (24.4%), traders (16.8%), artisans (9.7%),
data were adopted from existing literature. self-employed (16%), public sector
Data were transcribed and analysed through employees (9.2%) and private sector
SPSS and content analysis. employees (23.9%). Data showed that
respondents’ sources of income include:
4. Results and Discussion
salary (33.1%), business proceeds (24.9%),
Table 1 showed the socio-demographic
spousal support (17.7%), family and friends’
characteristics of the respondents. The
aid (6.2%) and others (18.1%). According to
study showed that 746 respondents
the quantitative survey, respondents’
participated in the quantitative survey. The
monthly income was categorized as follows:
gender distribution of the respondents for
No salary (24.4%), below N20, 000 (9.1%),
the quantitative study indicated that all the
N20, 001 – N40, 000 (25.3%), N40, 001 –
respondents were females and were
N60, 000 (29.8%), N60, 001 – N80, 000
married. On respondents’ educational level,
(3.9%), N80, 001 - N100, 000 (5.6%) and
the study revealed that respondents had
1.9% earned above N100, 000.
SSCE (19.3%), Dip/NCE (23.6%),
77
Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents for quantitative survey
Educational Level Denomination State of residence
Freq % Freq % Freq %
SSCE 144 19.3 CAC 83 11.2 Ekiti 87 11.7
ND/NCE 176 23.6 DAYSTAR 91 12.2 Lagos 232 31.1
HND/B.Sc. 368 49.3 MFM 142 19 Ogun 196 26.5
Postgraduate 58 7.8 RCCG 241 32.3 Ondo 78 10.5
Total 746 100 WINNERS 189 25.3 Osun 49 6.6
Total 746 100 Oyo 104 13.9
Total 746 100
Occupation Sources of Income Monthly Income
Freq % Freq % Freq %
Unemployed/ 182 24.4 Salary 247 33.1 None 182 24.4
Out-of-work
Trader 126 16.8 Business 186 24.9 Below N20, 000 68 9.1
Proceeds
Artisan 72 9.7 Spousal 132 17.7 N20001–N40 000 189 25.3
support
Self- 119 16 Family and 46 6.2 N40001–N60, 000 222 29.8
employed friends
Public sector 69 9.2 Others 135 18.1 N60001–N80, 000 29 3.9
employees
Private sector 178 23.9 Total 746 100 N80001–N100, 000 42 5.6
employees
Total 746 100 Above N100, 000 14 1.9
Total 746 100
Source: Fieldwork (2020)
Table 2 showed the socio-demographic Oyo (1) and Ekiti (1). Findings showed that
characteristics of the interviewees. The age on respondents’ occupation, most of the
distribution revealed that the respondents participants were private sector employees
were between the ages of 28 years and 43 (5), others were: traders (3), public sector
years. This is because the study was employees (2), unemployed/out-of-work (2),
streamlined to women who were youth self-employed (2) and artisan (1). On
leaders. On interviewees’ denominations, respondents’ sources of income, data
there was equal representation in the revealed that these sources were: salary (7)
selected Neo-Pentecostal churches as three and business proceeds (6) while the rest
representatives were picked at random. The had little or no means. Also, on monthly
educational level of the interviewees showed income, data showed that interviewees
that they had SSCE (2), National Diploma below N20, 000 (1), N20, 001 – N40, 000
(1), NCE (1), HND (2), Bachelor’s degree (3), N40, 001 – N60, 000 (5), N60, 001 –
(6), Master’s degree (2) and PhD (1). On the N80, 000 (2) and 3 earned above N100, 000
state of residence, the interviewees resided while one of the participants had no stable
in Lagos (5), Ogun (4), Osun (2), Ondo (2), source of income.
78
Table2: Socio-Demographic characteristics of the Interviewees
SN Age Denominatio Educational State of Occupation Source of Monthly Income
n Level Residence Income
1 42yrs CAC SSCE Ekiti Out-of-work None None
2 38yrs CAC NCE Osun Self- Business N40001–N60, 000
employed Proceeds
3 37yrs CAC HND Ondo Trader Business N20001–N40 000
Proceeds
4 29yrs DAYSTAR B.Sc. Lagos Private Salary N40001–N60, 000
Sector
Employee
5 36yrs DAYSTAR PhD Lagos Public Salary Above N100, 000
Sector
Employee
6 33yrs DAYSTAR M.Sc. Lagos Private Salary N60001–N80, 000
Sector
Employee
7 28yrs MFM B.Sc. Ogun Private Salary N60001–N80, 000
Sector
Employee
8 32yrs MFM B.Sc. Lagos Self Business N40001–N60, 000
Employed Proceeds
9 32yrs MFM HND Ogun Artisan Business N20001–N40 000
Proceeds
10 43yrs RCCG ND Oyo Unemployed Others Below N20, 000
11 29yrs RCCG SSCE Lagos Trader Business N40001–N60, 000
Proceeds
12 35yrs RCCG B.Sc. Ondo Public Salary Above N100, 000
Sector
Employee
13 38yrs WINNERS M.Sc. Osun Private Salary Above N100, 000
Sector
Employee
14 29yrs WINNERS B.Sc. Ogun Trader Business N20001–N40 000
Proceeds
15 34yrs WINNERS B.Sc. Ogun Private Salary N40001–N60, 000
Sector
Employee
79
Items commonly purchased on impulse by

women in Neo-Pentecostal
Neo Pentecostal churches’ in
Southwest Nigeria Clothings
90 Bags
Shoes
80 84.6
81.5
Cosmetics
70
69.9
66.6 Decoration and
60
ornaments
58.3 57.2 Fancy footwears and
56
50 shoes
46.8 Kitchen Utensils and
40 43.8 Gadgets
38.4 Phone and Assesories
30 34.5 37 34.7
32.5
28.2 Pillow, blanket and
20 duvet
Underwears
10
Toiletories
0
Source: Authors (2020)
Items that are commonly purchased by can’t spend on my bedroom, room,
women of Neo-Pentecostal
Pentecostal churches’ in kitchen and living room.
Southwest Nigeria IDI/38years/DAYSTAR/PhD/Lagos
Data revealed that all the respondents Another respondent also stated that:
engaged in impulse buying. Although, there It is normal for me to buy new
are dynamics in the items most of the shoes, clothes and bags if I see
respondents buy. The bar chart presents the them. I am easily attracted to
items commonly purchased and these fancy things too, especially, if
include
lude clothing (84.6%), bags (34.5%), they are very colourful and
shoes (69.9%), cosmetics (46.8%), house attractive.
decoration, ornaments and room IDI/35years/RCCG/B.Sc./Ondo
accessories (28.2%), fancy footwear and
Reasons for the prevalence of impulse
shoes (37%), kitchen utensils and gadgets
buying among women of Neo-
Neo
(58.3%), phone and phone accessories
Pentecostal churches’ in Southwest
(34.7%), fancy pillow, blanke
blanket and duvet
Nigeria
(32.5%), underwear such as pants, bras,
The study identified reasons for the
tights, leggings, etc (66.6%), toiletries
prevalence of impulse buying among women
(57.2%), groceries (81.5%), deodorants
of Neo-Pentecostal
Pentecostal churches in Southwest
(38.4%), foodstuff (43.8%), others (56%)
Nigeria. These include lucky bargain (82%),
such as cream, make-up up kits, hair
pleasure (11.9%), discount (78.6%), product
attachments, fancy hat, fancy scarf,
scarcity (49.2%), peer influence (46.6%),
wristwatch, etc.
trending product (66.9%), promo and
These claims substantiated by the
advertisement (62.1%), public opinion
comments of the interviewees:
(72.3%), the newness of the product
I love interior materials so much,
(62.7%), branding, packaging and
there is no amount of money I
attractiveness of product (87.9%) and
80
addiction to shopping (13.3%). This result majority of the respondents 69.9% claimed
was also corroborated by the interviewees in they engage in impulse purchasing always,
the qualitative study: 28.2% stated that they engage in impulse
I buy things I don’t plan to buy buying occasionally while 1.9% claimed they
most times and there are always buy on impulse on rare occasion. This was
reasons why I do that. It is mostly captured in the views below:
because they are mostly not Impulse buying is very common
available when I have my money among working-class women. I
and deliberately want to buy them. know I do it a lot and that is why I
So I just grab the opportunity always hold extra cash and my
when I have the money on me to ATM card in case I see what I
buy what I crave for. want to buy. I cannot be suffering
IDI/28years/MFM/B.Sc./Ogun myself if I see what I like and
there is money to buy it.
Another respondent also expressed that:
IDI/34years/WINNERS/B.Sc./Ogun
Most times I buy what I don’t plan
to buy and I have friends who also Another respondent said:
do the same. I do impulse buying There is a female employee in my
mostly when I have just gotten place of work that does not engage
money from my business. in impulse buying. Although I can't
IDI/38years/CAC/NCE/Osun compare what is in my account with
Similarly, a respondent stated that: everybody, I can say that impulse
Once I watch TV and my phone buying is what everyone does every
and see new wardrobe items, I day. Majority of the women do it,
begin to experience goosebumps. either a Christian or not. If you go to
I make my order immediately and the restaurants, stores, market or
I get the delivery. I don't even even in the neighbourhood, you will
think twice before paying for see many people shopping for some
whatever I like. things, it is because their friends are
IDI/33years/DAYSTAR/M.Sc./Lagos shopping or they see new or cheap
and attractive products around.
Another similar view revealed that:
IDI/35years/RCCG/B.Sc./Ondo
As a young woman with growing
female children, this is the best Implicit from above is that women engage in
time to invest in my wardrobe. impulse buying for various reasons. These
How will I look good if I don't have include lucky bargain, pleasure, discount,
good clothes, shoes, bags and eat product scarcity, peer influence, trending
good food? In fact, I also dress my product, promo and advertisement, public
room like a Queen because life is opinion, the newness of product, branding,
too short to suffer. packaging and attractiveness of product and
IDI/29years/RCCG/SSCE/Lagos addiction to shopping. The findings also
Similarly, another respondent also said that: revealed that the vast majority of the
I love buying braids because my respondents engaged in impulse buying
hair is not long enough. Apart based on their orientation to life, self-
from shoes, bags and clothes that esteem, materialistic mentality, workplace
I buy, I can't joke with braids, culture and general mentality about the
makeup kits and deodorants. I quest to purchase things as a result of being
love been neat and looking good a woman.
always for myself.
IDI/29years/DAYSTAR/B.Sc./Lagos
On how frequent the respondents engaged
in impulse buying, findings revealed that
81
The implication of impulse buying easily pissed off by any sight of
behaviour on the women of Neo- inferiority. So the moment I realize
Pentecostal churches in Southwest that what I shopped for is inferior or
Nigeria lacks my expected qualities like this,
Data revealed that there are several I will throw it away immediately or
implications of impulse buying on the women just abandon it somewhere. I don’t
of Neo-Pentecostal churches’ in Southwest give such out. And that doesn’t stop
Nigeria. These were captured in the me from buying on impulse at any
comments of the interviewees as follows: other time. As long as it meets my
As for me, I can't say about others, taste.
impulse buying has helped me to IDI/36years/DAYSTAR/PhD/Lagos
possess several items I may have
From the above, the implications of impulse
been unlucky to have. Although,
buying on the women of Neo-Pentecostal
some end up being inferior at least I
churches in Southwest Nigeria were
have a picture of what I wanted.
categorized as positive and negative. The
IDI/38years/WINNERS/M.Sc./Osun
positive implications of impulse buying on
Another respondent said: the women are explorations of new
It often gets me broke and sometimes I inventions and products, the addition of an
end up not buying as much as desired element of surprise, access to possessing
budget items for the money I have used. desired products, etc. The negative
IDI/32years/MFM/B.Sc./Ogun implications of impulse buying on the women
A respondent stated: include financial challenges such as
Impulse buying has brought both joy brokenness and debt, increased
and sorrow to me. Sometimes, I am wastefulness, regrets, purchase of inferior
very lucky to get good and beautiful items, spousal conflicts, diversion from
items such as shoes, bags, braids, original financial budgets, loss of interest in
grade one wears, kitchen utensils the purchased items due to changing taste
and some other things and these and fashion, etc.
items have been gotten cheaper Coping strategies adopted by the women
than I would have spent if I was to of Neo-Pentecostal churches in
go out looking for them but the Southwest Nigeria that engaged in
challenge most times is that my Impulse Buying
husband hates it when I buy things Data revealed that the respondents have
outside our family budget, so we adopted some strategies to cope with their
have a quarrel on that. Also, there impulse buying behaviours. These were
are a few times I have been identified in the open-ended question in the
indebted to some persons in the questionnaire. The responses include
market because I bought items my planning of purchases (66.9%), involvement
money could not instantly and in thrift and cooperative schemes to pay for
completely pay for. Sometimes, I debt (13.4%), reduction of shopping and
regret especially if it is not frequency in markets (38.7%), monitoring of
eventually worth it and a few times, I urges (4.8%), reduction of impulse
just look away. purchases in the evening and on the road
IDI/38years/CAC/NCE/Osun (17.7%), shopping with list and estimates
Another interviewee revealed that: (23.9%) and others (28.1%). These were
I am a very classy person. I choose supported by the interviewees:
my things carefully and I love to add It is really not easy trying to stop
astonishing things to my wardrobe, impulse buying but I just have to
kitchen and my bathroom. I am plan what to buy and stipulate the
amount around it so that I don't
82
overspend. The moment I observed intentionally shopping with list and
that I have passed my boundary, estimates.
owe ileti to lo niyen (that means it's
Discussion of Findings
time to go home)
The first objective revealed that the items
IDI/29years/WINNERS/B.Sc./Ogun
commonly purchased by women of Neo-
Similarly, another respondent revealed that: Pentecostal churches’ in Southwest Nigeria
One of the major reasons I am include clothes, bags, shoes, cosmetics,
always enticed to buying on impulse house decoration, ornaments and room
is because my shop is along with accessories, fancy footwears and shoes,
the market. So I tend to see a lot of kitchen utensils and gadgets, phone and
enticing things. What I am doing to phone accessories, fancy pillow, blanket and
deal with that is I always ask myself duvet, underwear such as pants, bra, tights,
if I truly need what I am buying and leggings, toiletries, groceries, deodorants,
if I have enough money to buy some foodstuff and others items such as cream,
other things needed after buying make-up kits, hair attachments, fancy hat,
these things. I have also joined a fancy scarf, wristwatch, etc. This finding is in
cooperative society to help me to consonance with Njoku (2015) whose study
take care of the possible debts I focused on female academic staff in
may have incurred from my Northeast Nigeria that women are prone to
unavoidable frivolities the purchase of material items, most
IDI/32years/MFM/B.Sc./Ogun importantly, household and fashionable
goods.
Also, a respondent expressed that:
I have stopped holding plenty of Implicit from objective two which
cash or going about with my ATM investigated the reasons for the prevalence
card. May God help me in Jesus of impulse buying among women of Neo-
name. Pentecostal churches’ in Southwest Nigeria
IDI/42years/CAC/SSCE/Ekiti is that the vast majority of the respondents
engaged in impulse buying based on their
Another comment revealed that:
orientation to life, self-esteem, materialistic
It is not a very easy thing to do but
mentality, workplace culture and general
with commitment and with a
mentality about the quest to purchase things
deliberate desire to stop it, one can.
as a result of being a woman. The study
The only thing I have been doing of
negated the findings of Choi (2016) who
late is to monitor my urges. When I
stated that the motivation to engage in
see that what I am planning to buy
impulse buying is purely psychological and
is not too pressing, I will drop it.
not attached to extraneous and socially
IDI/37years/CAC/HND/Ondo
oriented forces as identified in the study.
From findings, the study revealed that the Meanwhile, it was supported by Zhang &
coping strategies adopted by the women of Wang (2010) who expressed that socio-
Neo-Pentecostal churches in Southwest cultural background and one’s current
Nigeria to cope with their impulse buying environment plays huge roles in determining
behaviours are deliberate planning of the extent to which one is prone to impulse
purchases, involvement in financial buying.
management through thrift and cooperative On objective three, which examined the
schemes, reducing the rate of shopping, implications of impulse buying on the women
reducing frequency and time spent in of Neo-Pentecostal churches in Southwest
markets and grocery stores, conscious Nigeria. The study revealed that the
efforts to monitor the urge to buy products implications were both positive (explorations
on impulse, restricting the urge to make of new inventions and products, addition of
roadside and rush hour purchases and an element of surprise, access to
83
possessing desired products) and negative estimates. These findings support the
(brokenness and debt, increased findings of Njoku (2015) about the measures
wastefulness, regrets, purchase of inferior to consider to reduce women’s addiction to
items, spousal conflicts, diversion from impulse buying in Nigeria.
original financial budgets, loss of interest in
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
the purchased items due to changing taste
The study concludes that impulse buying is
and fashion). This supports the perspectives
prevalent among women of Neo-Pentecostal
of Patel, Burns, Dhingra, Tarver, Kohrt, &
churches in Southwest Nigeria and they
Lund (2018) that impulse buying results into
commonly purchase material items such as
the feeling of fulfilment when the product
clothes, bags, shoes, cosmetics, ornaments,
matches intention and satisfies desired
fancy items and utensils which are useful for
expectations but results often lead to the
their body, wardrobe and household. The
feeling of guilt when after the spending it
study also concluded that the reasons
malfunctions or appears inferior. However,
attributed for the prevalence of impulse
Ekeng, Lifu, & Asinya (2012) established
buying include orientation to life, self-
that there is a positive relationship between
esteem, materialistic mentality, workplace
impulse buying, brokenness and family
culture and general mentality about the
conflict but stated that only adolescents
quest to purchase things as a result of being
could be too frivolous with spendings and
a woman. The study concluded that the
experience psychological breakdown if their
implications were both beneficial and
sources of income become inconsistent.
harmful to the women of Neo-Pentecostal
The fourth objective found out that the churches in Southwest Nigeria, and that to
coping strategies adopted by the women of curb the prevalence of impulse buying
Neo-Pentecostal churches in Southwest respondents resorted to financial
Nigeria to cope with their impulse buying management and proper planning prior to
behaviours include deliberate planning of purchasing and taking care of existing debts
purchases, involvement in financial through thrift and cooperative societies,
management through thrift and cooperative cautioning excessive shopping and time
schemes, reducing the rate of shopping, spent in markets. The study then
reducing frequency and time spent in recommended that impulse buying can be
markets and grocery stores, conscious harmful and implicating but there should be
efforts to monitor the urge to buy products proper planning before engaging in
on impulse, restricting the urge to make purchases because impulse buying has
roadside and rush hour purchases and more negative consequences than its
intentionally shopping with list and benefits.
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85
AN OVERVIEW OF HETEROGENEITY, GOVERNANCE, AND INSECURITY IN NIGERIAN
SOCIETIES
OMOTAJO Julia Arit
Department of General Studies,
The Polytechnic, Ibadan
&
BODE-OKUNADE Abiodun Sekinat
Department of General Studies,
The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Abstract
The state of security in Nigeria today leaves much to be desired. An overview of the insecurity
situation, in magnitude and intensity, reveals a significant increase over time and a diversification
of the forms of insecurity in Nigeria. Public opinion in sectors of the country has it that
heterogeneity is the basic cause of insecurity in Nigeria. This paper puts this opinion in scale,
examining the weight of societal heterogeneity vis-a-vis grotesque governance as a factor in the
determination of the level of insecurity in Nigeria. Within the framework of Durkheim and Synders’
theories on governance and heterogeneous societies, and using the method of review of contents
of published articles in dailies, combined with descriptive statistical analysis, the paper
demonstrates that the Nigerian nation is not insecure because of heterogeneity, but because of
governmental ineptitude and absence of political will to create deterrents in the society. It
recommends good governance, rule of law, state policing, restructuring and rural development as
first-line actions to curb insecurity.
Keywords: Heterogeneity, Governance, Insecurity
Word count: 168
Heterogeneity, Governance and local governments for cattle grazing, had a

Insecurity in Nigerian Societies covert intention to settle people of a given
1. Introduction ethnic origin in all nooks and crannies of the
In the past one and a half decades, the land. This carried with it some implications
Nigerian nation has witnessed for heterogeneity to the culture and religion
unprecedented insecurity challenges. From of the local populations.
the activities of armed robbers, assassins,
Against the backdrop of governmental failure
kidnappers, ritual murderers to those of
in punishing the criminals, who in the cloak
ethnic militants, insurgents, marauding
of herdsmen, perpetrated killings in sectors
herdsmen and now armed bandits, the list
of the nation in the last half-decade, the
goes. While some of these crimes have
policy was suspected and the government
always been in Nigeria, the volume has
was figured as a likely accomplice in the
phenomenally increased in recent times
insecurity quagmire plaguing the land. Many
such that concerns of surviving citizens are
believed that allowing RUGA settlements will
raised about their lives and properties.
bring potential enemies to the backyard of
A worrisome part of the said concern has to each ethnic group. Besides, given the spate
do with the role of government in of religious violence afore experienced in the
heightening the wave of insecurity in Nigeria. nation, it is believed that the nation's
Recently the government attempted to diversity breeds violence and the nation is
introduce the RUGA policy but was better off with each group staying in its
vehemently opposed in sectors of the nation natural domain. Hence, southern Nigerians
that it had to suspend the policy. It was resisted the policy.
believed by many that the policy which But the question arises as to whether
aimed to apportion parcels of land in all the heterogeneity is culpable for the insecurity
86
problems in Nigeria or government is to be chronic threats of death, hunger, disease
blamed. This research seeks to unravel the and repression.
place of heterogeneity and poor governance
The Commission on Human Security (2003)
in fueling insecurity in Nigeria. The work
extends the concept to embody that which
believes that carrying out targeted efforts at
ensures fulfilment. To the body, human
solving insecurity is paramount to achieving
security is the ‘protection of important
the desired results, hence it queries the
aspects of human lives in a way that would
weight of heterogeneity in masterminding
enhance human freedoms and fulfilment.
insecurity as against that of poor
That means human security must guarantee
governance. The justification for the study is
the freedom to take appropriate actions
that, knowing the problem, will inform
aimed at personal self-fulfilment without any
targeted efforts at finding solutions. Citizens
form of hindrance. It is freedom from threat
need not resist policies that may be innocent
(Adegbami, 2013).
of some phenomenon after all.
From the socio-political perspective,
The two hypotheses tested in the study
Williams (2008) claims that security involves
include:
the capacity to pursue cherished political
1. There is no relationship between
and social ambitions (without inhibition).
heterogeneity and insecurity in Nigeria.
That is, security is socio-political and without
2. Insecurity is not significantly related to
security, there can be no political stability
poor governance in Nigeria.
and consequently, social activities will be a
The general objective is to guide policy that chaos. Palme (1992) established a
will minimize insecurity, but the specific connection between security and survival.
objective is to evaluate the significance of He argues that security is ‘a basic condition
poor governance and heterogeneity as for the survival of human beings’. Hence,
factors causing insecurity in Nigeria. Within without security, survival must take place
the framework of the theories on governance through unethical means because survival is
and heterogeneous societies by Durkheim a natural instinct.
(1956:70) and Synder (2004), and using the
Nwagboso (2012) argues that security ‘is a
method of review of contents of dailies and
concept commonly associated with the
commentaries, and combining it with
alleviation of threats to the survival of
descriptive statistical analysis of primarily
individuals or groups. That security may not
sourced data, the paper assesses the
be the absence of threats but the ability to
activities of the government in Nigeria and
respond to those threats with the appropriate
demonstrates that the government needs to
skill and expertise. It is the ‘laid down
sit up and face governance squarely to
procedures toward the protection of persons
minimize insecurity in Nigeria.
and property against hostile persons’ (Akin,
2. Review of Related Literature 2008). It is a situation whereby a conducive
The concept of security has evoked varying atmosphere is created within which people
postulations from different scholars. To Otto in the state can go about their normal daily
and Ukpere (2012), security relates to the activities without threat to either their lives or
presence of peace, safety, happiness and properties. Thus, it encompasses all
the protection of human and physical approaches toward safeguarding human as
resources or the absence of crisis. In the well as material resources in the state
view of the United Nations Development against all forms of aggression or violent
Programme (1994), human security is conduct.
‘protection from hidden and hurtful To Omoyibo and Akpomera (2012), the only
disruptions in the daily activities, at homes, condition for the maintenance of peace and
offices or communities’. It is the state of security is upholding law and order. By this,
being safe from danger or protection from the state could be secured against low-level
87
civil disorder, crime, organized violence, or The inflow of foreigners also increasingly
armed insurgency. heterogenizes the population bringing
strange ideas, cultures, behaviours, some of
By extension of the above, insecurity is the
which are largely incompatible with what the
state of being subject to danger or injury. It
host communities were used to.
is the anxiety that isexperienced when one
feels vulnerable and open to danger Theoretical Framework
(Advance English Dictionary). It is the A society can be said to be man’s
absence of security. environment, habitat or where he lives.
Insecurity exists in forms and dimensions. Technically, a society consists not only of
Adegbami (2013) lists the forms of insecurity the physical environment but also other
in Nigeria to include political assassinations; individuals with whom a man interacts. In
rancour among political leaders even within Ottaway’s words, it is ‘the whole range of
the same party; and rancour between the social relationships’ existing between ‘a
ruling party and the opposition. Others definite population living somewhere’
include oil bunkering, militancy, kidnapping, (Ottaway, 1962:2). Stewart and Glynn
unwholesome political ambition, religious (1979:9) add that society is 'an organization
extremism, unemployment fear and distrust of people or other forms of life living within a
of government, insurgence, and ethnic territory, persisting through generations and
violence. Presently, the forms have been relatively independent of other societies'.
extended to include marauding Fulani
One of the parameters of classifying a
Herdsmen, who are constantly clashing with
society is the variety of people that inhabit it.
farmers and killing people in the process and
On this parameter, societies are classified
armed banditry which holds sway in Zamfara
as either homogeneous or heterogeneous. It
State and its neighbourhood.
is homogeneous when they consist of
Each form of insecurity has its reasons for people of the same or relatively similar
existence. The causes of insecurity in origin, ethnicity, language, customs, norms
Nigeria include the desire to actualize ethnic and patterns of life and behaviour. It is
agenda which gives birth to menacing heterogeneous when the people dwelling
groups like MEND, MASSOB, OPC, Arewa, therein have different languages, customs,
and so on; the prevalence of corrupt norms and their patterns of behaviour are
leadership; the oppression of the citizens by strikingly different (Stewart and Glynn,
corrupt leaders using looted money; the 1979:9). A society is a kind of community (or
training of thugs and hooligans as foot part of it) whose members have become
soldiers by politicians and later dumping socially conscious of their mode of life, and
them after elections, forcing them to turn to are united by a common set of aims and
robbery or other crimes as a means of values (Ottaway, 1962:2). Durkheim
survival (Ezemonye, 2011). (1956:70) notes that a society can survive
only if there exists among its members, a
According to Williams (2015), a major cause
sufficient degree of homogeneity and that
of insecurity in Nigeria is the Porosity of the
education perpetuates and reinforces this by
nation’s borders which allows the free flow of
beginning the essential similarities that
migrants from other countries into Nigeria. In
collective life demands.’
the process, criminals enter the country
without checks, illegal armed groups also Heterogeneity comes largely as a result of
come along, such that there is the nature and migration. For any meaningful
proliferation of arms and ammunition in the progress to be achieved in a heterogeneous
country. The government of the federation society, governance must be purposeful and
once said that the rampaging herdsmen in transparent (Synder, 2004). This is the
the nation are foreigners, yet it fails to stem general belief of the liberal school of politics.
the tide of their inflow and sinister character. They see this as what will secure and
88
sustain the co-operation and will of the approximately 56% of its workforce (the
people of the society. working population). In this land, 23.1% of
The theories of cultural relativism espoused the total population is unemployed; 20.21%
by Payne and Nassar (2006) agree that is underemployed; and youth unemployment
democracy is a product of cultural practices is a whopping 55.4% (National Bureau of
of the people. By this, western democracies Statistics, 2019). In this same nation,
are differentiated from others. For them, Consumer price index, a variation of the
unlike western democracies which belief in inflation rate is 13.37%, and the real inflation
the sanctity of life, the sovereignty of the rate is 15.3%; the prices of key products like
people, political participation and civil the PMS (Premium Motor Spirit) is N145,
liberties as central to democracy and Exchange rate N360 to the dollar and so on
governance. African countries in particular (2016 estimate). The population growth rate
hardly practice theirs the same way. These is 2.44% and the youth dependency ratio is
theorists also note that Islamic states do not a whopping 82.6% (CIA World Factbook).
separate religion from secular authority. The implications of the above statistics are
Most Islamic countries view democratic a) the productive base of the economy is not
rights and freedom within the broader diversified b) Whereas the population is
context of Islamic beliefs and customs. Also growing fast, unemployment is on the
in Africa, democracy is practised through the increase. Fewer hands are working and
patron-client system, with the rich elites more mouths exist to be fed. c) The cost of
being the patron and deciding on who holds living is high and jobless people without
what position in their democracy. It is a close bailouts from the government can be difficult
democratic space to the detriment of the to control.
poor masses (Payne and Nassar, 2006).
In 2017, life expectancy at birth was 53.9
Following the close democratic space,
years but today it has dwindled given the
unconventional democratic practices result,
prevalence of 'cheap deaths' from the
giving birth to such acts as civil
insecurity situation in the nation. Human
disobedience, violence and other means of
Development Index shows that life
seeking democratic relevance.
expectancy, which has been on the increase
Based on the above information on since 2005, reaching 53.9 years in 2017,
functional societies, we examine the case of has today dwindled reaching 49.1 years in
Nigeria, a heterogeneous nation where there 2019. Today, Nigeria ranks 152 out of 188
exists several societies with clear identities countries compared based on HDI.
and cultural varieties.
Based on this ranking and many other
Overview of the Nigerian Economy
observed statistics, Nigeria is considered a
Nigeria is a vast African land which in July
'failing' economy by journalists (Obilo, 2019;
2016 was said to harbour 186 million people
Maestro, 2019). The economy delved into a
(CIA World Factbook). Today the number is
recession in the third quarter of 2016 and
over 200 million originating from diverse
the third quarter of 2018, it was said to have
cultures and ethnic backgrounds. The
come out of it, but the effect of the recession
economy is mono-cultural, depending largely
is not abating on the average citizen. Table
on revenue from sales of crude oil for its
1 below shows the trend of human
existence. Agriculture is said to be the
development index in the nation.
mainstay of the economy as it employs
Table 1: Trend of Nigeria’s HDI: 2005 – 2019
Yr 200 200 200 200 200 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201
5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9
H 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4
DI 34 44 48 53 57 62 67 71 24 27 30 32 01 91
Source: Human Development Report (Various Issues).
89
st
With so many people unemployed and the autonomy until the 21 century. Refusing to
cost of living being so high, it would take integrate deeper, perhaps because of the
serious efforts by security agencies to deter categorical differences in the way each does
citizens from criminal activities. More so, its things. The colonial era began in earnest
th
when corrupt politicians abound, displaying in the early 20 century, when Britain
the proceeds of corruption in ostentatious consolidated its rule over Nigeria. In 1914,
living with few or none of them made to pay Luggard merged the protectorates of the
for their misdeeds, the government appears north and south Nigeria to form what we
unserious in the fight against corruption and today call Nigeria.
development of the nation.
In 1960, Nigeria became independent of
Today, the government, seeking a solution British rule but its key characteristics and the
to the problem of herdsmen-farmers' crises variegated population was retained. Nigeria
proposed the creation of Ruga settlement for is characterised by diverse cultures,
the herders in all the states of the federation. numerous languages, different religions,
While the idea of Ruga may not be wrong, diverse traditional/political practices,
some have come to believe that it carries different ways of dealing with different
underneath the desire to settle Fulani people situations; with some capable of killing
drawn not only from Nigeria but all West others to advance the course of their
Africa in Nigerian communities. They are of interests. This multi-ethnic nature poses
a different culture and religion. The huge challenges to nation-building
communities will be expected to integrate particularly in relation to language use and
them and dwell in harmony and peace with trust for others.
them despite their historical and religious
The differences in religious practices among
differences and in particular, their gun-
major ethnic groups seem the most
wielding tendencies. This is like forcing iron
intractable. Although the constitution labels
and clay to mix.
Nigeria a secular state and so allows for
Heterogeneity and Nigeria freedom of worship, in practice, some
Heterogeneity has to do with the multiplicity religions assume superiority over others and
of races, ethnic groups, religions, cultural seek to quell or eliminate others, giving birth
and traditional practices of members of a to a greater part of the feelings of distrust
given population. The dominant thought and insecurity in the nation.
informing this enquiry is that it breeds ill
Insecurity in Nigeria: An Analysis
feelings and hatred among members of the
‘30 killed in triple suicide bombings on
society such that it generates insecurity.
Sunday’; ‘Thousands Displaced by Boko
One thing that breeds the feelings of
Haram in Nigeria Protest over food'; '353
insecurity is what has been learnt from
killed, 60 kidnapped in violent attacks across
history, about the mode of behaviour of the
Nigeria in June'; 'Gunmen kill six villagers in
people one finds oneself relating with or
the north. The list is unending! These are the
having to relate with because he is a
kind of headlines that have greeted
resident in one's community or society.
Nigerians daily in the last decade. The
On Nigeria, Stock (2011) opined that the above headlines were in Punch newspapers
area that is now Nigeria was formerly home of 17/6/19 and 28/6/2019; Premium Times of
to ethnically based kingdoms and tribal July 1, 2019, and News24.com respectively.
communities before it became a European
Ewetan and Urhie (2014) presented the
colony. Despite exposure to Europeans
following figures of documented crimes
since the 16th century, the petty kingdoms
committed in Nigeria:
and communities have maintained their
90
Table 2: Documented crimes from 2000-2008.
Year Theft Armed Robbery Kidnapping Assassination Fraud
2000 29127 1877 243 1255 7927
2001 40796 2809 349 2120 10234
2002 35231 3889 337 2117 9134
2003 33124 3497 410 2136 9508
2004 37289 3142 349 2550 9532
2005 46111 2074 798 2074 9580
2006 41901 2863 372 2000 6395
2007 21082 2327 277 2007 5860
Source: Ewetan, O.O and Urhie, E (2014)
The table above is not presented here documented. The table below supplies
because it is current, but to show that the information on the magnitude of carnage
listed crimes have been a part of Nigeria done by just one form of insecurity, the Boko
over the years and that the magnitude of the Haram, on human lives in the different states
crimes is relatively significant. Information to of the federation. It is dehumanizing to note
update the table was not readily available. that in a single attack, as many as 300 lives
th
As observed by Ewetan and Urhie (2014), could be destroyed (see entry for 13 March
not all such crimes committed are 2018) when the nation is not at war.
Table 3. Attacks by Boko Haram Sect in Nigeria
S/N Date of State Location of Attack Impact
Attack
1 July 27, Yobe Attack on Potiskum, Yobe State Divisional 4 people killed
2009 Headquarters.
2 March 13, Plateau Another sect operation in the northern part 300 people
2018 of Jos, Plateau State. killed
3 Oct. 1 Abuja Explosions near the Eagle Square, Abuja. 12 people killed
2010 and many
injured
4 Dec. 24, Plateau A bomb attack, in Barkin Ladi, Jos, Plateau 8 people killed
2010 State.
5 Dec, 31, Abuja Explosions in Mogadishu Mammy Market, 10 people killed
2010 Abuja.
6 Jan. 21, Borno Attack on the Borno State governorship 7 people killed
2011 candidate of All Nigeria Peoples Party
(ANPP), for the 2011 election, Alhaji Modu
Gubio.
7 Mar. 2, Kadun Boko Haram killed policemen attached to 2 people killed
2011 a the Residence of Mustapha Sandamu at
Rigasa
8 Mar. 30, Yobe A bomb planted by Boko Haram in 1 injured
2011 Damaturu, Yobe State exploded and injured
police officer.
9 April 8, Niger Bomb at INEC office in Suleja 8 people killed
2011
Source: Achumba et al. (2013) quoted in Ewetan and Urhie (2014)
In more recent years, Boko Haram carnage rampaging herdsmen, whom many see as a
has dwindled in magnitude but more new coinage for disbanded or escapee Boko
attention is now on the activities of Haram warriors. Their activities leave behind
91
lamentations and tears over the wastages, doing in his house, how they were acquired,
rape and massive destruction of properties and whether what has been returned is
and lives wherever they go. They move everything he got. Premium Times of
around unleashing carnage from state to Ogudipe (2019) writes on this exclusive
state and states like Enugu, Benue, Plateau, arms scandal, ‘Amosun Yet to Account for
Taraba and Yobe have tasted the bitter pills 780 Bullets says police’. To the chagrin of
of these herdsmen. In Ondo and Oyo states, all, the government has glossed over this
they have been fingered as responsible for issue with nothing done.
the ongoing kidnappings in the states. In
3. Methodology
states like Zamfara, Kaduna, Kano, and
Two hypotheses were specified for this
Sokoto, the activities of arm-wielding bandits
study. They include:
hold sway. The report here is that illegal
1. There is no relationship between
mining operation is what has given birth to
heterogeneity and insecurity in Nigeria
the carnage.
2. Insecurity is not significantly related to
Adejumo Kabir (2019) attempted a cross- poor governance in Nigeria.
sectional analysis of violent attacks and
To test the first hypothesis, the method of
deaths in June 2019. In the analysis, the 5
study adopted is descriptive statistics with
most violent states were listed as Bornu -
primary data collected using a structured
116 deaths, Zamfara-94 deaths and 20
questionnaire. The questionnaire was
kidnaps; Niger – 70 deaths; Sokoto- 25
served to a sample of 150 residents of
deaths; Plateau – 18 and Taraba – 13, in
Oluyole local government (an area densely
that order. On kidnapping, in June, the list in
populated by indigenes of diverse ethnic
order of magnitude is Zamfara, Ekiti,
groups in Nigeria). The sample for the study
Katsina, Rivers, Oyo, and Plateau.
was purposively selected to include those
In the newspaper review segment of Fresh with at least first school leaving certificate.
(105.9) FM of 2nd July 2019, the analyst, Of the 150 questionnaires issued, twelve
Emma Jimoh, declares that Nigeria is now were not returned, three were damaged, and
regarded as a land of 'cheap deaths' as 135 were properly filled and returned with
these crimes occur and sometimes no one guidance from field research workers. Of this
feels duty-bound to address the situation 135, Eighty (59%) were Moslems while 55
with a view to putting a lasting stop to it. (41%) were Christians, but all were youths
aged between 21 and 28 years old. Four
The questions one asks in the face of the
questions -5, 9, 10 and 13- were used to
above are given these kinds of occurrences,
understand the thought of respondents on
what size of foreign direct investments can
heterogeneity and insecurity. The first
Nigeria attract? What amount can Nigeria
question: Do you like violence as an
possibly make from tourism? How many
individual? The second question: Do you
Nigerians living abroad will wish to return?
feel bad when you have things to do with
How many citizens resident in the country
neighbours who are not from your tribe or
are still able to go about their businesses,
religion? The third question: Does your
without any fear of molestation, harassment,
religion advises violence against non-
kidnap, assassination, murder, bomb blast
adherents? The fourth question: In the era of
or herdsmen/bandits attack?
an election, can you do anything against
There is also the problem of the proliferation those who are not from your place without
of arms. Recently, the former governor of inducement? The Likert scale used weighed
Ogun State, before leaving office, quickly responses on the five-point base, namely
submitted some arms and ammunitions to Strongly agreed (SA), Agreed (A),
the commissioner of Police in the state. Undecided (U), Disagreed (D), Strongly
People questioned what the arms were Disagreed (SD).
92
4. Findings and Discussions

Summary of the results are presented on the table below:
Question SA % A % U % D % SD % Total
1 0 0 5 3.7 20 14.8 37 27.4 73 54 135
2 7 5.1 30 22.2 32 23.7 35 25.9 31 22.9 135
3 11 8.1 26 19.3 33 24.4 32 23.7 33 24.4 135
4 5 3.7 11 8.1 32 23.7 31 22.9 56 41.5 135
Total 23 4.3 72 13.3 117 21.7 135 25 193 35.7 540
Source: Authors’ compilation
From the above table, it could be deduced summarise that heterogeneity is not the
that nobody loves violence, for the love of it. cause of insecurity in Nigeria.
54% of the respondents strongly disagreed
The second hypothesis is: Insecurity in
to the question of love of violence. On
Nigeria is not significantly related to poor
question two, 4 which concerns
governance. To assess this, three questions
discrimination and hatred for others, 72.5%
were included in the questionnaire, namely:
were positively disposed to non-
1. The high cost of living in the face of
discrimination. On the impact of religion on
unemployment/underemployment is
their disposition towards others, 47.7%
provocative of violence.
disagreed that religion teaches them
2. Increase in electricity tariff rates and
violence against non-adherents but 27.4%
petroleum product prices are incentives
agreed that based on religious fanaticism,
for radicalism.
they can go violent. On politics and poverty
3. The inability of the government to bring
without inducement, a whopping 64.4% will
crime suspects and corrupt politicians to
not fight for politicians from their ethnic
book is an argument in your decision
group. That means it takes inducements in
function to commit a crime or be corrupt.
money and other forms to secure people to
fight at elections. On the whole, we can
These were questions 6, 11 and 12 respectively. The same scale was used for the answers
and the summary of the results are presented below:
Questions SA % A % U % D % SD % Total %
1 42 31.1 35 25.9 26 19.3 21 15.5 11 8.1 100
2 47 34.8 38 34.8 21 15.5 19 14.1 10 7.4 100
3 51 37.7 42 31.1 21 15.5 15 11.1 6 4.4 100
Total 140 (34.6) 115 (28.3) 68 (16.8) 55 (13.6) 27 (6.7) (405)(100%)
Source: Authors’ Compilation
The table above shows that about 42 people electricity and petroleum product prices
constituting 31.1% of the respondents could engender strife. A negligible 21.6%
strongly agreed that high cost of living in the either disagreed or strongly disagreed with
face of unemployment or underemployment that. Finally, approximately 68.8% either
is provocative of violence; another 25.9% strongly agreed or just agreed that inability
also agreed to make it a total of 57%. It is a of the government to bring crime suspects
paltry 8.1% that strongly disagreed, and corrupt politicians to book is an
believing that no matter what, they cannot argument in their decision function to commit
engage in criminality. 69.4% either strongly a crime or be corrupt. A paltry 4.4% strongly
agreed or just agreed that hike in tariffs on disagreed with that position and another
93
11.1% ordinarily disagreed. Based on these endorsing insecurity and this is true of the
three questions, 52.9% as against 19.3% Nigerian government of today. This position
agree that government activities (or is supported by the result of the opinion poll
inactivity) form a strong argument in the reported by a Nigerian daily and discussed
decision function of individuals to turn to by Emma Jimoh in the newspaper review
nd
criminals and so become objects of segment of Fresh (105.9) FM of 2 July
insecurity to others. 2019. The poll sampled the opinion of
Nigerians on the worst-performing
Discussion
administration in Nigeria, and 100%
Firstly, the paper finds out that heterogeneity
Nigerians voted for the present
is not a significant argument in the insecurity
administration. Little wonder then that
function in Nigeria. It only shows up when
insecurity is excessive in this era in Nigeria.
money-bag politicians rise to achieve their
We also find that with lack of political will by
scavenging agenda that they flag their ill-
the government to police the country’s
gotten wealth to induce voracious people to
borders, easy access is offered to
fight for them along religious or ethnic lines.
miscreants to penetrate the borders. This is
Under normal circumstances, people from all
an anomaly.
sectors are capable of dwelling together in
peace and working together to boost the 5. Conclusion and Recommendations
economy. Given a levelled playground, with The security situation in the country requires
the government enforcing law, peace and urgent attention and since the primary role of
order is achievable. This position was true of government is to provide this infrastructure,
Nigeria of precolonial and immediate post- the government must rise to the expectation
colonial years. Even in an area like Enugu, to preserve Nigeria from collapse.
Benue, Jos and almost all the parts of the
We recommend good governance and
south Fulani herdsmen were co-existing with
actions to discourage criminality in all
farmers but today the story is different, but
sectors of the economy. Rule of law is a
not without government and elite class
must if insecurity is to be checked. It should
politicians' complicity.
apply to both the rich and the poor and in all
From the above finding, it is true that RUGA, situations. There should be punishment for
by the government, is not a policy that could all offenders as such offenders (unhooked)
further heterogenize Nigeria. It may help constitute agents of further insecurity in the
homogenize the polity. It does not have future.
serious implications for the country's The government should have the foresight
insecurity. If the government will rise to the and be proactive in dealing with security
expectation of doing its part, Nigeria would issues. Adopting modern methods of
be better with RUGA. intelligence gathering and deployment of
The paper also found out that ineptitude and advanced technology in managing insecurity
inefficiency of government are instrumental will be an added advantage. The motivation
to insecurity in the country. When the of security personnel; and training and
government lacks the initiative to mob up its retraining of same are ingredients in the
idle resources, especially labour, to boost journey to 'security for all by the year 2020.
production and stabilize prices and when it State policing, an act in which control of
keeps extorting money from its citizens by Police is left in the hands of the local
way of increased taxes, high tariffs of public population with the state government being
services like electricity and fuel without a in charge, is sure to reduce the burden of
commensurate provision of infrastructure policing on the federal government, which
and lastly when it is incapable of manning its today seems overwhelmed by the insecurity
borders, arresting and punishing miscreants situation in Nigeria.
for offences committed, it is doubtless overly
94
The state policing policy recommended development and enhance policing and
above will even work better in the context of provision of security.
a restructured Nigeria. Restructuring is,
We recommend the development of all rural
therefore, a necessity. By restructuring, we
areas to discourage undue internal migration
mean a situation in which the nation is
as a first-line action to curb future insecurity.
returned to the former structure with three
Rural development will ensure better
regions which the British left Nigeria. Using
mobilization of idle resources and increased
that structure and allowing each region to
productivity.
grow at its pace will speed up regional
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Challenges in Nigeria and the Implications Jimoh, E. (2019). News Analysis, Fresh FM,
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Sustainable Development, 4(2), 79-99.
of 5/7/2019
Adejumo, K. (2019). 353 killed, 60 kidnapped
National Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Social
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96
AN OVERVIEW OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIAN ECONOMY
1
YUSUF Modupe Ololade
2
ASUNMO Motunrayo Risikat
3
ADEKOYA Opeyemi Jonathan
4
ODULATE Lucia
5
ALESHINLOYE Ibrahim Babatunde
1,5,
Department of Economics,
Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, Noforija-Epe, Nigeria
2,
Department of Home Economics,
3,
Department of Business Education,
4,
Department of Agricultural Education,
Abstract
This paper explains the concept of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on the
development of the Nigerian economy with highlights on the merits of ICT in economic
advancement as well as recommendations geared towards harnessing ICT for the overall
development of the country. It is now widely accepted that Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) have an important role in national development, much of this state is due to the
lack of clarity on how ICT is perceived in this context. ICT is fast becoming the largest distribution
platform for providing public and private facilities and services to millions of people. The value of
information and accumulated knowledge within the country is therefore a strong point for national
economic growth. In this paper, we attempt to further clarify how ICT is perceived for development
and its impact on the nation.
Keywords: Development, Economy, GSM, Information, Technology
Introduction human exercises and one of the territories of

Information and communication technology monetary exercises in which this impact is
(ICT) offers the guarantee on a very basic most showed is the education sector. The
level changing the lives of a great part of the education sector is one of the critical sectors
total populace. In its different structures, ICT of the economy which makes invaluable
influences a considerable lot of the contributions to the pace of economic growth
procedures of government and business, and development of nations (Ajayi, 2003;
how people live, work and connect, and the Madueme, 2010). However, this study seeks
nature of the regular built environment. The to examine the impact of Information and
development of internationally comparable Communication Technology (ICT) on the
ICT statistics is essential for governments to development of the Nigerian economy. Most
be able to adequately design, implement, developing nations including Nigeria have
monitor and evaluate ICT policies embarked on various reforms that foster the
(Madueme, 2010). use of ICTs in their economies. These
reforms tend to yield little or minimal benefits
Information and Communication Technology
to economic growth and development,
(ICT) has now been acknowledged as one of
especially when compared with the
the principle main thrust behind authoritative
developed countries of the world.
intensity in the present-day business
Technological advancement is known to
condition. By and by, ICT is having a
impact the fast rate of economic
sensational effect on practically all regions of
development. In Nigeria, policy on adoption
97
of Information and Communication Technological advancement has truly
Technologies was initiated in 1999, when improved in Nigeria as of late. For instance,
the civilian regime came into power of Nigeria's digital mobile network has
government. The operations of the licensed developed altogether since the three
telecommunication service providers in the organizations granted the Global System for
country have created some well-felt Mobile Communications (GSM) working
macroeconomic effects in terms of job permits were issued in January 2001, while
creation, faster delivery services, reduced their tasks started in August that year.
transport costs, greater security and higher
The Fundamental Roles of ICT
national output (Emmanuel and Adebayo,
Unbound from the structures of the PTT
2011). Much has changed in the ongoing
days, ICT has become the foundation of
technological phase in the country. In the
every section of every economy in the world
1980s, "Universal access" was an objective,
including Nigeria. Kramer (2007) explicitly
however, not the reality of "Post, Telephone,
inferred that Information and communication
and Telegraph" administrations (PTTs). The
technologies (ICT) have been able to:
PTTs involving a significant part of the ICT
• Reduce transaction costs and thereby
segment of their days were land-line based,
improve productivity;
and to a huge degree, government-
• Offer immediate connectivity – voice
possessed and consolidated administrations
data, visual- improving efficiency,
were costly, and in many pieces of the
transparency, and accuracy;
world, they had decayed to the point where
• Substitute for other, more expensive
the quality could be portrayed as terrible if it
means of communicating and
had ever been great. Information organized
transacting, such as physical travel;
ability was non-existent. Mechanical
• Increase choice in the market place and
development, in the business field, was
provide access to otherwise unavailable
moderate, particularly during the PPT time
goods and services;
frame days.
• Widen the geographic scope of potential
Nonetheless, ICT has been perceived as the markets; and
motor for development and a wellspring of • Channel knowledge and information of
vitality for the growth and development of all kinds.
any nation, particularly an underdeveloped The World Bank surveys of approximately
nation. These nations are engaging masses 50 developing countries suggest that "firms
through IT as it can demonstrate to be a that use ICT see faster sales growth, higher
successful alternate way to larger amounts productivity, and faster employment growth".
of value in the developing Global Digital Table 1 and Figure 1 relate the access
Networked Information Economy. Nigerians have to some subset of ICTs.
Table 1. Access to Information communication technology by Nigerians.

S/N INDICATOR PERCENTAGE
1 Individual access to mobile telephones 63.9%
2 Individual ownership of mobile handsets 43.6%
3 Household ownership of mobile telephones 59%
4 Access to fixed telephony 0.4%
5 Access to computers 4.5%
6 Television access 67.6%
7 Radio access 41.2%
8 Ownership of radio 41.2%
9 Internet access 6.5%
10 Broadband penetration 6.1%
98
Figure 1: Access to ICT sources by Nigerians

The attributes listed above are also critical in process different kinds of information (audio,
expanding individual economic opportunity; video, text, and data), and facilitate different
enabling people to enhance their knowledge forms of communications among human
and skills to identify, apply and qualify for agents, and among information systems.
better-paying jobs; use their disposable Duncombe et al. (1999) simplify the
income wisely; manage their businesses definition by describing ICTs as an
efficiently, and tap into broader markets for "electronic means of capturing, processing,
their goods and services. storing, and disseminating information".
Theoretically, two Schools of Thought
Review of Literature
explain the relationship between
The Conceptual and Theoretical
telecommunications and development.
Framework
These are the Technophilic and
ICTs are embedded in networks and
Technophobic views. The Technophiles
services that affect the local and global
believe that ICTs positively impact on
accumulation and flows of public and private
development. This perspective argues that
information. According to the United Nations
in the various communities and sectors of
Economic Commission for Africa (1999),
the economy, ICTs will expand productivity,
ICTs cover Internet service provisions,
improve employment opportunities, and
telecommunications and information
upgrade the quality of work in many
technology equipment and services, media
occupations. Moreover, ICT will offer many
and broadcasting, libraries and
opportunities for small-scale, independent,
documentation centres, commercial
and decentralised forms of production.
information providers, network-based
Regarding developing countries,
information services, and other related
technophiles envision that technology will
information and communication activities.
aid developing countries to leapfrog stages
The Commission admits the definition as
of development (Castells, 1999; Mansell &
being quite expansive. It is not uncommon to
Wehn, 1998; Nulens & Van Audenhove,
find definitions of ICTs that are synonymous
1998). On the other hand, the technophobes
with those of information technology (IT).
regard ICTs as having negative effects on
Drew and Foster (1994) defined IT as a
development and widening the information
group of technologies that are
gap between the rich and the poor, the
revolutionising the handling of information. It
literate and the illiterate. While admitting that
is taken to embody a convergence of
ICTs could have profound changes in
interest between electronics, computing and
society, Van Dijk (1999) believes that
communication. Chowdhury (2000) posited
applications of ICTs and their transformative
that ICTs encompass technologies that can
99
nature have been greatly exaggerated. ICTs 1. What is the role of Information
may destroy more jobs than they create; the Communication Technology in
gap between the rich and the poor may governance?
widen. Mansell (1999) saw the huge capital 2. Is the government doing enough to
investments required on ICTs as diverting empower her people through ICT?
resources from other sectors of the economy In Nigeria, many government agencies are
that could have greater development now using websites to provide information
impacts. On the economic level, this on the activities of the government. Today,
perspective forecasts a perpetuation of the the people of Nigeria can go to the internet
capitalist mode of production, with further and get any information they want. Jobs,
managerial control over the means of contracts, and government activities are
production. In most countries, it foresees posted to websites for public knowledge.
massive job displacement and 'de-skilling'. This has greatly improved productivity,
thereby making the economy of Nigeria high.
Merit of ICT to Nigeria’s Economy
Nigerians can now ask questions about
Nigeria, like the rest of the world, recognized
public issues and make their views known to
the globalization and significance of
the government. Therefore, E-Government
information and communication technology
must be customer-driven and services-
(ICT) to meet the growing demands of work,
oriented, meeting the needs of citizens and
business, production and services in
improving the quality of life while the
different sectors of the economy. Such ICT
government should understand ICT and their
tools include computers, multimedia
implication to government and society at
equipment, assistive technology devices for
large (Isizoh et al, 2013).
exceptional individuals and other
technological gadgets (Williams Emeka, Employment Opportunities
2011). Some of the advantages/merits of The use of ICT to bring new employment for
ICT to the Nigeria Economy include the youths and migrant workers has also given
following: the opportunity to develop new ideas in the
technology via the education system,
E-Health and M-Health (ICT Health)
training facilities and affordable access to
ICT in Healthcare is powerful in monitoring
computers. In this way, youths have an
the outbreak and spread of disease,
opportunity to be self-employed, and they
disseminating health information about
are exposed to entrepreneurship through the
health-promoting and disease-preventing,
use of information and communication
training and long-distance support to health
technology. The demand of technology is
care practitioners. E-Health is defined as the
seen to be a reality in creating employment
use of ICT in the provision of health care
opportunity for young people, where the
services. This means ICT can be used in
youths will show their interest and creativity
various health care functions such as
in software applications, bioengineering,
clinical, educational, research and
digital media, and mobile applications, which
administrative regardless of geographical
will attract young people's creativity. Social
settings (Abolade & Durosinmi, 2018). M-
interactions through the use of information
Health (Mobile Health) extends the efficiency
and communication technology will help
and accuracy of the already available health
reliable and creative business ideas in the
systems through the use of electronic
next one to three years so that they can
devices such as PDAs and mobile telephone
respond more effectively in all aspects of
networks to improve functions (such as
learning needed, and to document the best
reporting procedure) of the health systems.
information and communication technology
Electronic Governance practices among the youths for future
The questions that usually come to mind benefit.
include:
100
E-Business and Services in Nigeria Citizen (G2C) and Government to Business
Doing business online has emerged as a (G2B) models.
practice in Nigeria. Though the industry is in
The introduction of the cashless policy and
the nascent stage, it has shown tremendous
other payment initiatives have seen many
potential over the last few years, especially
Nigerians utilizing digital payment methods
after competitive growth in the banking
for their transactions. Figure 2 highlights the
sector. The growing young, educated and
steady growth in the value of mobile
technology-friendly population has
payment transactions, while the value of
contributed largely to growing trends of e-
mobile, POS and internet transactions
business in the country.
combined, has traditionally been much less
Popular E-Commerce models Business to
than the value of cheque
Business (B2B), Business to Customer
transactions. Figure 3 indicates that cheque
(B2C) and Customer to Customer (C2C) are
transactions are falling in value, while ATM
adopted by many Small and Medium
and other payment transactions are rising in
Enterprises (SMEs) as a growth strategy for
value. Again, this highlights a growing
their business. Similarly, public service
preference for electronic payment
innovations are also driven by Government
transactions.
to Government (G2G), Government to
Figure 2: Digital cashless transactions (Source: Central Bank of Nigeria CBN Statistics
NITDA2015).
Figure 3: Value of payment transactions (Source: Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) Statistics
NITDA 2015).
101
ICT in Education (E-Learning) d. Data sets, irrespective of size can be
ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for stored and retrieved when needed.
extending educational opportunities, both e. Researchers in different locations can
formal and non-formal, to previously collaborate more easily, etc.
underserved constituencies, scattered and New instructional techniques that use ICTs
rural populations, groups traditionally provide a different modality of instruments.
excluded from education due to cultural or For the student, ICT use allows for
social reasons such as ethnic minorities, increased individualization of learning. ICT
girls and women, persons with disabilities, application and use have proven beneficial
and the elderly, as well as all others who for in improving Nigeria's educational system
reasons of cost or because of time and giving students a better education
constraints are unable to enrol on campus (Ajayi, 2004; Adoni, 2010; NITDA, 2015 and
(Fakunle & Ayodele, 2017). Some of the GITD, 2015).
importance of E-learning to the country are:
ICT in Economic Development
 Access to Remote Learning Resources
The economic growth of any nation is tied to
 Evaluative Learning
its ability to expand productivity. ICTs can
 Active Learning
increase productivity, that is, to create a
 Creative Learning
more cost-effective output with the same or
 Collaborative Learning less input. Wealth generation is increasingly
 Integrative Learning closely tied to the capacity to add value
 Evaluative Learning using ICT products and services. The value
It is imperative that ICT applications run of information and accumulated knowledge
through the entire gamut of the educational within developing countries is an important
research process (Nwabueze, 2011). The aspect of their future growth potential. Only
advocacy for the indispensability of ICT in very few developing countries have
educational research can be further succeeded in narrowing the development
strengthened by the following argument that 'gap' by harnessing the production or use of
tends to underscore the values derivable ICTs to their development goals (Abolade &
from applying ICT in educational research, Durosinmi, 2019). These technologies do
viz: not offer a magic potion that can be
a. It reduced the time and cost of expected to provide a cure for the sick, to
conducting an educational investigation. prevent environmental degradation, or to
b. Data sets and library resources can be create jobs. However, if these technologies
shared by institutions in different can be combined with domestic and external
locations. human resources, they can be instrumental
c. Educational researchers have easy in achieving major changes in the
access to current literature materials. organization of industrial activity and the
conduct of everyday life.
102
Some highlights of the Roles and objective of ICT to the economic development of the
country(Nagy Hanna 2003)
Conclusion and Recommendations era, it is possible to move in a parallel

ICTs can aid sustainable economic direction and not necessarily follow
development when used appropriately, with sequential development. But this would
the full participation of all stakeholders, require national efforts in human capacity
especially in developing economies. The building.
intrinsic value of ICTs lies not in easing
There are some factors, however, militating
communications and information, but in
against the smooth development of ICTs in
enabling growth and development. In a
Nigeria. These include erratic power supply,
country like Nigeria, where a vast section of
illiteracy, cultural barriers, lack of computer
the population is below the poverty line,
skills and technological know-how,
ICTs offer a chance to empower the
inadequate access to computers and
residents and transform them into more
computer networks as a result of the digital
productive human capital.
divide, and high cost of internet access. The
Traditionally, a nation moves through three government should, therefore, fine-tune its
stages of economic development, from policies given these lapses to bridge any
agriculture to manufacturing and then to existing gaps between the economy and the
services. However, in the current information rest of the world.
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benefits and challenges of e-health
103
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104
ECONOMICS TEACHERS’ KNOWLEDGE AND ATTITUDE OF SUSTAINABLE
EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT IN OGUN STATE
YUSUF Modupe O
Department of Economics,
Micheal Otedola College of Primary Education, Noforija-Epe, Lagos State, Nigeria
TORIOLA Anu Keshiro
Department of ECONOMICS,
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria
OYEWOLE Sule Adegboyega
Micheal Otedola College of Primary Education, Noforija-Epe, Lagos State
SAULA Dele Taiwo
Correspondence: Tel: 234-8131356349 E-mail:taiwosauladele@gmail.com
&
NWABUISI Olanrewaju Florence
Abstract
This study examined the knowledge and attitude of senior secondary school economics teachers
to the concepts of education for economic sustainability in Ogun State. The study used a sample
of sixty (60) randomly selected senior secondary school economics teachers from the population
of all public secondary schools in Ijebu North Local Government Area of Ogun State. The result
showed that teachers have the right attitude towards education for economic sustainability. The
study also found that teachers have sufficient knowledge of education for economic sustainability.
It was recommended that the educational system from the elementary level in its entire curriculum
planning elements should be redesigned and also that the objectives, teaching and instruction
methods, textbooks contents and evaluation, should be redirected towards sustainability with an
emphasis on its social and environmental aspects equally.
Keywords: Teacher, Education, Sustainable Development, Knowledge, Attitude

Word Count: 131
1. Introduction as a fundamental human right (Nnokami &

The most important issue in our time is how Sulei, 2017). Education for sustainable
to sustain our planet's resources while development means including key
developing wealth and well-being for a sustainable development issues into
growing population. This monumental task teaching and learning; for example, climate
has been defined in the concept of change, disaster risk reduction, biodiversity,
sustainable development (SD). The United poverty reduction, and sustainable
Nations (1987) recognized education as a consumption. It also requires participatory
basic component of human development. It teaching and learning methods that motivate
is the single most important means for and empower learners to change their
empowerment and sustained improvement behaviour and take action for sustainable
in all wellbeing indicators. The important role development. Education for Sustainable
of education to human living is connected to Development consequently promotes
the reason why international human right competencies like critical thinking, imagining
bodies across the world consider education future scenarios and making decisions in a
105
collaborative way” (UNESCO, 2015). It aims sustainable development education in Ogun
to help people to develop the attitudes, skills State. The study makes effort to provide
and knowledge to make informed decisions answers to the following pertinent questions:
for the benefit of themselves and others, Is there any significant difference in the
now and in the future, and to act upon these knowledge of teachers of education for
decisions. economic sustainability according to their
attitude? Is there any significant difference in
Teachers are an indispensable tool for
the knowledge of teachers of education for
sustainable and national development so
economic sustainability according to their
much that the Millennium Development
sex? Is there any significant difference in the
Goals (MDGs) two and three and the recent
knowledge of teachers of education for
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
economic sustainability according to their
three and four with focus on education and
years of experience? Is there any significant
wellbeing cannot be realized except with the
difference in the knowledge of teachers of
aid of teachers. It is in the realization of this
education for economic sustainability
fact that teachers' education occupies a
according to their age? This study will
position of prominence in the educational
provide some important empirical
enterprise (Nnokami & Sulei, 2017). A
justifications for policies aimed at achieving
teacher, according to Shiundu and
sustainable development through enhanced
Omulando (1992), is the most important
teachers knowledge and attitude.
person in teaching who sees that
educational programmes are successfully 2. Literature Review
implemented by organizing and managing Teaching is an activity, a unique
the learning experiences and environments. professional, rational and human activity in
Due to their central role in the enterprise of which one creatively and imaginatively uses
education, teachers at all levels require himself/herself and his/her knowledge to
effective and sufficient education to be able promote the learning and welfare of others
to adequately carry out their roles and (Hough & Duncan, 1997). Teacher
responsibilities. More also, the attitude education is ostensibly designed, developed
towards behaviour is the positive or negative and administered to produce school
evaluation of the individual in achieving a teachers for the established system of
specific behaviour of interest (Ajzen, 2005). education (Kafu, 2003). Teacher education,
At every level, people who go to school look however, is the pre-service and in-service
up to the teachers for the acquisition of the teacher preparations were students of
necessary skills to enable them to become teaching seek to develop knowledge and
what they want to be (Nnokami and Sulei, skills of teaching and to learn how to
2017). Thus, students often evaluate the competently apply these in practice
teachers’ personal qualities, their (Loughran, 2006). On the other end,
educational qualities and professional sustainable development is a vision of
competence which are rewarding to the development that encompasses populations,
learners (Onuoha, 2005). animal and plant species, ecosystems,
natural resources and integrates concerns
In this present dispensation, specific
such as the fight against poverty, gender
knowledge is required from teachers who
equality, human rights, education for all,
are involved in designing and implementing
health, human security, intercultural
social, economic and environmental
dialogue, etc. (Adams, 2006). Education for
concerns in school. However, most teachers
sustainable development aims to help
in Nigeria lack specific knowledge required
people to develop the attitudes, skills and
in the implementation of these issues in
knowledge to make informed decisions for
school (Adawiah & Esa, 2012). Against this
the benefit of themselves and others, now
background, this study examines economics
and in the future, and to act upon these
teachers’ knowledge and attitude on
106
decisions. According to different points of of awareness and understanding of
view and literature accumulated, education traditional environmental concepts and
for sustainable development contains within sustainable development concepts among
it the concept of the essential needs of the pre-service teachers. Results of the study
world's poor, to which overriding priority showed that pre-service teachers have a low
should be given; as well as the concept of level of awareness and understanding of
limitations imposed on the environment's concepts central to sustainable development
ability to meet present and the future needs compared to traditional environmental
(Hola, 2009). concepts. In another study, Özgü (2017)
investigated pre-service science teachers’
Looking at theories on teachers role in
sustainable environmental education
national development, the functionalist
attitudes and the factors affecting them in
theory of education, believed that society
terms of some variables (gender and grade
like the human body has particular organs
level). The results revealed that sustainable
with specific functions. In the body, lungs
environmental education attitudes frequency
take oxygen, the heart pumps blood; veins
of the pre-service teachers is at the medium
carry blood, etc. interdependently. Any kind
level. It was also found that the sustainable
of malfunction in one of these will affect the
environmental education attitudes of the pre-
whole system's harmony. Similarly,
service teachers do not vary significantly by
education as a social institution and part of
gender; yet, they were found to be varying
the social organism, for example, is
significantly depending on the grade level
connected in various ways to the economy,
variable. In a similar vein, Arisi (2013)
the family, and the political and religious
explored the example of the strategy
systems. It has its functions to perform
suggested and adopted by UNESCO's
within an organized whole. In other words,
research of the use of education, social
working in harmony and for specific
studies education as a means to sustainable
functions to perform in "perfect whole" is
development in Western societies. The
central to this approach (Majoribank, 1985).
study found that social studies education
In this regard, the knowledge that will be
which is embedded in the culture and values
included in the curriculum is justifiable and
of a society can bring about sustainable
legitimate only if it is a part of a common
development in any society, including that of
culture, that is, it must work towards
Africa, with Nigeria inclusive. Similarly,
solidarity and integration rather than
Mahat, Hashim, Nayan, Saleh and Norkhaidi
pluralism and differentiation. In another
(2018) examined the levels of education
perspective, a group of intellectuals from the
food sustainable development (ESD)
Frankfurt School presented Critical Theory
knowledge among students in secondary
and Marxist and neo-Marxist theoreticians
schools according to zones in Malaysia by
which appropriated the concept of "critical
using GIS mapping. The study results
perspectives" in the field of education (Pinar
showed that in general the levels of
and Bowers, 1992). Critical theory is
sustainable development education
distinguished from traditional mainstream
knowledge of secondary school students in
social science through its multidisciplinary
all zones were high for ESD content
perspectives and its attempts to develop a
knowledge while moderate for environmental
dialectical and material social theory
education knowledge and health knowledge.
(Kellner, 1989). Critical theories have three
Meanwhile, the GIS map indicates that the
major concerns: mapping injustices in
levels of knowledge among students
education, tracing those injustices to their
seemed high in the north zone, central zone
source, seeking and proposing remedies to
and east Malaysia zone; at moderate levels
those injustices (Gibson, 1986).
in the south zone; and low in the east coast
In an empirical analysis, Karpudewan, Ismail zone. Shaukat (2016) assessed the impact
and Mohamed (2015) investigated the level of demographic variables on prospective
107
teachers’ attitudes towards the social and accommodate the sample of the population
environmental aspects of sustainable under study. The questionnaire was made
development. Results indicate that male up of three sections: sections A, B, and C.
prospective teachers held significantly more Section A of the questionnaire present
positive attitudes towards both the questions on the respondents' demographic
environmental and social aspects of information among which include gender,
sustainable development than did female age, marital status, and level, among others.
teachers. Younger respondents having a Section B of the questionnaire presents the
science background are associated with respondents' knowledge, while section C
significantly more positive attitudes on both captures the attitude of teachers to
sub-scales. Respondents have significantly education for economic sustainability. The
more positive attitudes if they have attended instrument for data collection in the study
a specific course on education for was presented for expert evaluation for
sustainable development in the teacher’s approval with a view of ensuring that the
education program than those who did not questionnaire items are adequate and valid
have an awareness of such seminars and enough to elicit information. The test-retest
workshops. method was deployed to determine the
reliability of the instrument by administering
3. Methodology
the questionnaire to a sample of twenty (20)
This study follows a descriptive quantitative
respondents which will not be part of the
research design using a self-structured
main study. The Cronbach’s alpha obtained
design questionnaire based on a case study.
was very high which confirmed how reliable
The study population comprises all
the research instrument is. Data collected on
secondary school teachers in Ijebu North
the demographic features of the subjects
Local Government of Ogun State. The study
were presented in a contingency table and
population is further delimited to only public
subsequently interpreted respectively. Data
secondary school teachers in the three
generated based on the hypotheses were
major communities in the local government
analyzed using the descriptive statistics
area comprising Ago-Iwoye, Oru-Awa and
such as the mean and standard deviation.
Ijebu-Igbo. The purposive sampling
The result of the analysis is facilitated using
technique was used to select four secondary
the SPSS (Statistical Package for Social and
schools from each of the three communities
Management Sciences).
in the local government comprising Oru-
Awa, Ijebu-Igbo and Ago-Iwoye. Out of the 4. Results, Discussion, Conclusion and
total number of teachers, twenty (20) Recommendations
teachers were selected from each In the study, sixty (60) questionnaires were
secondary school which will make a total administered to the respondents but fifty-
sample size of sixty (60) teachers. nine (59) questionnaires were retrieved and
filled correctly. The retrieved questionnaires
This study used a self-structured close-
were used in the analysis.
ended questionnaire which was designed to
4.1 Demographic Data Analysis
Table 1: Distribution of the Respondents by Age
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Below 30 28 47.5 47.5 47.5
31-40 17 28.8 28.8 76.3
41 and above 14 23.7 23.7 100.0
Total 59 100.0 100.0
Source: Authors, Field Survey, 2019
108
Table 1 revealed that 47.5% of the between thirty-one and forty years while the
respondents are below the age of thirty remaining 23.7% are forty-one years and
years, 28.8% of the respondents are above.
Table 2: Distribution of the Respondents by Gender
Cumulative
Valid Female 22 37.2 37.2 37.2
Male 37 62.8 62.8 100.0
Total 59 100.0 100.0
In Table 2, 37.2% of the respondents are

female, while the remaining 62.8% of the
participants are male.
Table 3: Distribution of the Respondents by Marital Status

Cumulative
Valid Single 84 60.4 60.4 60.4
Married 55 39.6 39.6 100.0
Total 59 100.0 100.0
Table 3 showed that 60.4% of the
respondents are in SS 1 while the remaining
39.6% are in SS 2.
Table 4: Distribution of the Respondents by Work experience Work experience

Cumulative
Valid 1-5yrs 14 23.7 23.7 23.7
6-10 yrs 25 42.4 42.4 42.4.
11yrs and
20 33.9 33.9 100.0
above
Total 59 100.0 100.0
Table 4 showed that 23.7% of the between six to ten years of experience while
respondents have between one to five years the remaining 33.9% have eleven years and
experience, 42.4% of the respondents have above years of experience.
Table 5: Distribution of the Respondents by Qualification

Cumulative
Valid OND/NCE 4 6.8 6.8 60.4
HND/B.Sc 45 76.3 76.3 83.1
M.Sc and above 10 16.9 16.9 100.0
Total 59 100.0 100.0
Table 5 showed that 6.8% of the HND/MSC qualification while the remaining
respondents have OND/NCE, 76.8% have 16.9% have MSC and above qualification.
109
Table 6: Distribution of the Respondents by Religion
Cumulative
Valid Christianity 62 44.6 44.6 44.6
Islamic 77 55.4 55.4 100.0
Total 59 100.0 100.0
In Table 6, 44.6% of the respondents are
Christian, while the remaining 55.4% of the
participants are Muslim.
4.2 Empirical Results
4.2.1 Research Hypothesis One
Table 6: Mean of Perceptions of Teachers Knowledge on Education for Economic
Sustainability
Descriptive Statistics
Std. Remarks
N Mean Deviation
One of the key indicators of economic Accepted
performance is GDP 59 4.2518 .43562
National income is the total monetary value of all

final good and services produced by the citizen of 59 4.3525 .47948 Accepted
an economy within or abroad.
Unemployment is a state in which every
individual who is qualified able and willing to work Accepted
59 4.2014 .60409
at the prevailing or market wage rate could not
find a suitably or commensurate paid job
The unemployment rate is the ratio of the
employed labour force to the unemployed labour 59 4.3525 .47948 Accepted
force
Wages are the reward of four labour 59 3.8489 .48024 Accepted
The higher the wages, the higher the labour Accepted
59 4.3022 .56021
productivity
The labour force is made up of individuals who Accepted
are at least 16 years old and either currently 59 4.0000 .31851
employed or actively seeking employment
Personal income is income after tax 59 3.6475 1.06909 Accepted
The higher, the income, the higher the Accepted
59 3.9568 .66888
consumption and savings
when there is an increase in income, there will be Accepted
59 4.3022 .56021
the same amount increase in consumption
Table 6 indicates that the mean of the items the labour productivity; the higher the
on the perception of teachers' knowledge of income, the higher the consumption and
education for economic sustainability savings and also that when there is an
number 1 to 10 is above the mean increase in income, there will be the same
benchmark of 3.00. This, however, indicates amount of increase in consumption among
that the majority of the teachers agreed that other items raised. This result indicates that
one of the key indicators of economic teachers have sufficient knowledge of
performance is GDP. Wages are the reward education for economic sustainability.
for labour, the higher the wages, the higher
110
4.2.2 Research Hypothesis Two
Table 6: Mean of Perceptions of Teachers Attitude to Education for Economic Sustainability
Descriptive Statistics
Std. Remarks
N Mean Deviation
The rate of unemployment in Nigeria is low
59 1.3022 .56021
Accepted
Labour in Nigeria is adequately rewarded
59 2.0000 .31851
Accepted
People who are willing and able to work can easily
find a job in Nigeria 59 2.6475 1.06909 Accepted
The minimum wage rate of workers in Nigeria is Accepted

59 1.9568 .66888
low
The amount of tax payable on the income of an Accepted
59 2.3022 .56021
individual is well utilized by the government
In Nigeria, the number of the unemployed labour Accepted
force is higher than the employed labour force 59 1.3022 .46085
Majority of workers in Nigeria are under-employed 59 2.6978 .96049 Accepted

The labour force frequently result to strike actions Accepted
after a disagreement 59 2.6978 1.31686
The government usually owe workers salary in Accepted

Nigeria 59 2.2950 .45768
Workers will work more effectively if the wage rate Accepted

59 2.1439 .35224
is high
Valid N (listwise) 59
Table 6 indicates that the items numbered 1 indicates that majority of the teachers
to 10 is below the mean benchmark of 3.00. agreed that one of the key indicators of
This, however, indicates that majority of the economic performance is GDP, wages are
teachers do not agree that the rate of the reward for labour. The higher the wages,
unemployment in Nigeria is low, labour in the higher the labour productivity; the higher
Nigeria is adequately rewarded, people who the income, the higher the consumption and
are willing and able to work can easily find savings and also that when there is an
jobs in Nigeria, the minimum wage rate of increase in income, there will be the same
workers in Nigeria is low, the amount of tax amount increase in consumption among
payable on the income of an individual is other items raised. The analysis of the
well utilized by the government and also that research hypothesis two showed that
majority of workers in Nigeria are majority of the teachers do not agree that
underemployed, among other items raised. the rate of unemployment in Nigeria is low,
This result indicates that teachers have the labour in Nigeria is adequately rewarded,
right attitude to education for economic people who are willing and able to work can
sustainability. easily find a job in Nigeria, the minimum
wage rate of workers in Nigeria is low, the
4.3 Discussion of Findings
amount of tax payable on the income of an
The analysis of the estimated result was
individual is well utilized by the government
carried using descriptive statistics such as
and also that majority of workers in Nigeria
the mean and standard deviation. The result
of the analysis of research hypothesis one
111
are underemployed among other items sub-scales. Respondents have significantly
raised. more positive attitudes if they have attended
It was evident from the result that teachers a specific course on education for
have the right attitude to education for sustainable development in the teacher
economic sustainability. The study also education program than those who did not
shows that teachers have sufficient have awareness of such seminars and
knowledge of education for economic workshops.
sustainability. The result was supported by
4.4Conclusion and Recommendations
the study conducted by Mahat, Hashim,
The study concluded that teachers have the
Nayan, Saleh and Norkhaidi (2018) on the
right attitude towards education for
levels of education for sustainable
economic sustainability. The study also
development (ESD) knowledge among
shows that teachers have sufficient
students in secondary schools according to
knowledge of education for economic
zones in Malaysia by using GIS mapping.
sustainability. The following
The study results showed that in general the
recommendations have been made based
levels of sustainable development education
on the findings of the study:
knowledge of secondary school students in
1. To promote students' knowledge and
all zones were high for ESD content
attitude in this area, redesigning our
knowledge while moderate for environmental
educational system from the elementary
education knowledge and health knowledge.
level in its entire curriculum planning
The result was also in line with the findings elements is a necessity.
of Shaukat (2016) on the impact of 2. The objectives, teaching and
demographic variables on prospective instructional methods, textbooks' content
teachers’ attitudes towards the social and and evaluation should be redirected
environmental aspects of sustainable towards sustainability with an emphasis
development. Results indicate that male on its social and environmental aspects
prospective teachers held significantly more equally.
positive attitudes towards both the 3. There is a need for introducing the
environmental and social aspects of course of sustainable development in
sustainable development than did female the teacher education programme to
teachers. Younger respondents and having develop positive attitudes of prospective
a science background are associated with teachers.
significantly more positive attitudes on both
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113
EMPLOYEES’ EVALUATION AND BANKS’ PERFORMANCE: EVIDENCE FROM
SELECTED BANKS AT IJEBU-ODE, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
1
WAHAB Nurudeen Opeyemi
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria
Email: nurudeenolabisi3@gmail.com
2
KOLAWOLE Ibukun O. (PhD)
Department of Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management
Lagos State University, Ojo
3
OYEWOLE Adeola Abosede
Centre for Entrepreneurship Development
Yaba College of Technology
P.M.B. 2011, Yaba, Lagos.
E-mail: damfun_bose@yahoo.com
&
4
EZE Benneth Uchenna (PhD)
Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele, Ogun State, Nigeria
Email: beneze7@gmail.com
Abstract
This study examines the effect of employees’ evaluation on banks’ performance, using survey
research design, through the administration of structured questionnaires on some employees of
some selected banks in Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State. The result revealed that employee evaluation
significantly affect banks' performance with a coefficient and probability value of (β1 = 0.648, p <
0.05). This indicated that an increase in employee evaluation activities will enhance banks’
performance. The coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.175 indicated that only 17.5% variation or
change in banks’ performance in the banking sector is attributable to employee evaluation and the
remaining 82.5% are due to other factors not captured in the model. The coefficient value showed
that a unit change in employee evaluation activities will lead to 0.648 change in banks’
performance. The F-statistics of (21.698, P< 0.05) revealed that the variable specified fit the
model. It can, therefore, be concluded that employees’ evaluation is an important determinant of
banks’ performance. Therefore, it is recommended that banks should employ suitable employees’
evaluation practices, as it tends to enhance banks overall performance.
Keywords: Bank, Employees’ Evaluation, Performance

JEL Classification: M5, M12, M51, M54
1. Introduction place in practice and research (Iqbala,

Employees’ evaluation is considered one of Akbarb, Budhwarc & Shahd, 2019; Abosede,
the most versatile and important human Eze & Sowunmi, 2018; Eze, Olatunji & Aina,
resource activities that are employed in 2018; Mellahi, Frynas, & Collings, 2016).
assisting and developing the overall
Jacobs, Kafry, and Zedeck (1980)
performance of the workers by management
developed a technique for determining the
(Jabeen, 2011). It is perceived as a tool to
effectiveness of employee evaluation
meet new challenges in the organization
systems, which consists of three main
(Armstrong, 2006). In recent years, studies
measurement criteria, i.e., utilization
on employee motivation, career prospects,
(purposefulness), qualitative (fairness), and
commitment and knowledge about the
quantitative (accuracy).There has been
effectiveness of organizational employee
attention on this system from some
evaluation systems has gained a prominent
114
performance appraisal literature (Iqbala, performance of an employee. The act of
Akbarb, Budhwarc & Shahd, 2019)despite documenting the performance of employees
its important role in performance appraisal provides a foundation for promotion and pay
practices and some outstanding research in increase and it is also important to motivate
this discipline (Mellahi, Frynas, & Collings, employees in other to enhance their
2016), employee evaluation has been an performance and to recognize the extent to
evading aspiration for organizations (Chiang which they have contributed positively to the
& Birtch, 2010; Kallio, Tienari, & Hyvonen, objective of the organization.
2016; Karkoulian, Assaker, & Hallak, 2016).
Employees are seen as the main and
Employee evaluation assists organisations versatile assets of any organization. They
to find out the needs of employees, and play a key role in accomplishing the set
suggest whether there is a need for goals and objectives of an organization and
additional training for improving current job without their human input, no organization
performance. Deficiencies in performance can achieve its set objectives. Thus, their
may be due to inadequate knowledge or role cannot be underestimated (Chukwudi,
skills. The effect of employees’ evaluation Chijioke, & Chigozie, 2018). As a result of
practices on the performance of banks this, equipping these exceptional assets
appears to be inconclusive. Going by the through evaluation and effective training
premises above, it is necessary to examine becomes essential to maximise job
the link between employees’ evaluation performance. The employee evaluation is a
banks’ performance. Therefore, the objective process that is geared towards enabling
of this study is to examine the effect of both the individual and the organization to
employees’ evaluation on banks’ examine and evaluate the performance of
performance. specified objectives over a period, and this
process can be formal or informal (McCourt
In line with the objective of the study, the & Derek, 2013).
hypothesis below will be tested: The purposes of evaluating employees can
H1: Employees’ evaluation significantly be categorised into two: developmental and
affects banks’ performance administrative purposes (Iqbala, et al.,
2. Review of Related Literature 2019). The developmental purposes of
Employee evaluation is an organized employee evaluation include providing
process of evaluating the performance of the performance response, identifying individual
staff of an organization and to appreciate the strengths or weaknesses, identifying
ability of a person for more growth and individual performance, identification of goal,
development (Prachi, 2018). An employee evaluating achievement, identifying
evaluation (EE), also otherwise called individual training needs, determining
performance assessment, development organisational training needs, improving
discussion, or performance appraisal is a communication and allowing employees to
process by which the job performance of an discuss concerns. On the other hand, the
employee is being collated and evaluated. It administrative purposes of employee
is a part of the career development process evaluation include but not limited to
and consists of the traditional way of identifying poor performance, recognizing
reviewing the performance of an employee candidates for promotion, determining
within an organization (Chukwudi, Chijioke, transfers and assignments, layoffs decision,
& Chigozie, 2018). According to Muchinsky validating selection criteria, and meeting
(2013), employee evaluation is the legal requirements.
combination of two critical elements of an The evaluation can be conducted once,
organization which are oral and written that twice or more in a given period mostly on
the management of an organization uses to yearly basis. The mode and ways of
appraise and evaluate the independent evaluation will be determined by the
115
organizations based on the availability of employee should be trained, retrained,
resources and what needs to be evaluated promoted or sacked.
with regards to the organisation's objectives.
Expectancy theory, was propounded by
The primary objective of every organisation Vroom (1964), also known as the valence,
is to maximize profit and this objective is not instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory.
different from the one of banks, and this Vroom realized that an employee's
profitability is a result which arises from the performance is based on individual-level
effectiveness of management and most factors, such as personality, skills,
favourable operation of resources at its knowledge, experiences, and abilities. The
disposal (Chukwudi, Chijioke, & Chigozie, theory postulates that, even though
2018); thus, leading to increase in return on individuals may have different sets of goals,
capital employed. The management of any they can be motivated if they believe that
firm should be able to identify its strength there is a positive correlation between effort
and weakness, as well as make use of and performance and that favourable
opportunities and tackle threats if it is performance will result in a desirable reward.
determined to make profits. A bank is said to Expectancy theory suggests that employees
be 'profitable' if it can accumulate financial have different expectations and levels of
benefits from the resources invested in the confidence about what they are capable of
operational activities (Chukwudi, Chijioke, & doing and management must discover what
Chigozie, 2018). resources, training or supervision
employees’ need. Whereas, instrumentality
Theoretical Review means the perception of employees as to
The theories underpinning this study are whether they will get what they desire, even
appraisal theory and expectancy theory. The if it has been promised by a manager
appraisal theory is a well-known theory in (Vroom, 1964).
the fields of communication and psychology, The expectancy theory provides the basis
which test effect and emotions. In history, for the relationship between the
the most basic ideology dates back to some administrative purpose of employee
of the most notable philosophers such as evaluation and rewards (Chiang & Birtch,
Aristotle, Plato, Stoics, Spinoza and Hume, 2010) since it postulates that if employees
and even early German psychologist, are rewarded following their performance,
Stumpf (Reisenzein &Schönpflug, 1992). their motivation increases; hence, they take
This theory has expanded over the years, interest in organizational activities.
with major inputs from some scholars: 3. Methodology
Magda Arnold and Richard Lazarus, This section indicates various methods and
amongst others who have contributed to techniques used by the researcher during
appraisal theory (Scherer, Schorr, & gathering relevant information from the field.
Johnstone, 2001). Appraisal theory It also describes the methods and
postulates that emotions are extracted from techniques used. That is research design,
our evaluations (appraisals) of events that target population, sample design, data
collection procedures and data analysis.To
cause specific reactions in different people.
carry out a sound and robust analyses, and
Appraisal of a situation causes an emotional
arriving at a reasonable conclusion, the
or a reaction that is going to be based on
survey research design was adopted. This is
that appraisal.
due to the fact that the nature of the study
The important aspect of the appraisal theory requires basic contact(s) between the
is that it accounts for individual variances of researcher and the respondents for data
emotional reactions to the same event collection. The gathering of data was
(Pervin & John, 1999). Appraisal theory is through a well-structured questionnaire.
highly relevant to employees' evaluation, as
The population of the study comprises of all
evaluation outcome usually determines if an employees of the selected deposit money
banks in Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria.
116
The population of the study comprises the respondents which include gender, age,
employees in the selected deposits money educational qualification, occupational
banks which are Access Bank, Diamond status, and marital status while the technical
Bank, Eco Bank, First Bank of Nigeria data, however, consist of questions based
(FBN), First Continental Monument Banks on the research questions and research
(FCMB), Guaranty Trust Bank (GTB), Skye hypotheses.
Bank, United Bank of Africa (UBA), Wema
The adapted questionnaire was assessed by
Bank and Zenith Bank. A sample size of one
three academics at Olabisi Onabanjo
hundred and forty-nine (149) respondents
University; they assessed the instrument on
was purposively selected from the selected
two scales (relevant and not relevant).
banks' branches. This was obtainedfrom the
Thereafter, the content validity index formula
different selected deposit money banks by
was employed and a CVI value of 0.81 was
the use of random sampling technique. The
obtained, which was adjudged valid.
sampling procedure used in selecting the
Furthermore, to enhance the validity of the
employees was simple random techniques
instrument, a pre-testing was conducted on
to avoid a deliberate selection of a particular
ten employees of Guaranty Trust Bank and
employee and also to give all employee
FCMB at Olabisi Onabanjo University. This
equal chance of been selected.
is to ensure that the respondents for the pilot
The researcher made use of a well- study have similar characteristics with the
structured questionnaire adapted from the target population. The reason behind pre-
study of Gberevbie (2012), which is the main testing was to assess the clarity of the
instrument administered for the primary data instrument items so that those items found
and it is designed to cover demographic to be inadequate in measuring the variables
data, as well as technical data. The were either discarded or modified to improve
demographic data consist of questions the quality of the research instrument thus
based on the personal characteristics of the increasing its validity.
Table 1: Result for Reliability Statistics Number of Items Cronbach’s Alpha

Constructs
Employees’ Evaluation (EE) 5 .803
Performance (PERF) 7 .791
Reliability analysis EE represents Employees Evaluation
According to the Nunally (1978), the α is constant
reliability of the scale requires the value of β1 is the coefficient of the
Cronbach's alpha to be equal or greater than estimator
0.7, the value equal or greater than 0.69 is β1 > 0
adjudged consistent. To check the reliability µis the error term
of the scale and internal consistency of the The a priori expectation is such that
questionnaires, the study uses the employees’ evaluation is expected to
Cronbach's Alpha coefficients to determine positively affect Nigerian Banks’
the internal consistency of the variables. performance, hence, the parameters of
employees’ evaluation should have a
Model Specification
positive sign.
The model used in this study is a regression,
which is stated as follow: To test the hypothesis, the ordinary least
The model is specified as follows; square regression analysis method was
adopted to test the effect of the independent
PERF = α + β1 EEi + µ variable (employees’ evaluation) on the
dependent variable (banks’ performance)
Where:
with the aid of SPSS 23. The formulated
PERF represent Performance
117
hypothesis was tested at 5% level of performance. One hundred and forty-nine
forty
significance. (149) questionnaires were administered on
the respondents. However,, only one
4. Results and Discussion
hundred and four (104) representing 69.7%
This section presents the analysi
analysis and
of the respondents were returned and used
interprets the data collected
d on the effect of
for the analysis.
employees’ evaluation on banks’
Analysis of Demographic Data

Fig 4.1.1 Gender of Respondents
70 60.2
60
50
39.8
40 Female
30 Male
20
10
0
Male Female
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey (2018)

Fig 4.1.1 shows that majority of the shows that the study involves both genders
respondent representing 60.2% sampled in to negate the effect of gender bias. This
the study were male, while the remaining shows that male and female services are
39.8% were female.. The response is needed in the banking industry.
skewed more to the male gender and its
Fig 4.1.2: Age distribution of the respondents

resp
45.0
42.2
40.0
35.0
31.3
30.0
25.0 22.9 Above 45 years
20.0 36-45 years
15.0 26-35 years
10.0 Between 16-25
25 years
5.0 3.6
0.0
Between 26-35
35 years 36-45 years Above 45
16-25 years years
118
Fig 4.1.2 shows that 22.9% of the ages
ges of 36 and 45 years and only 3.6% of
respondents that took part in the study were them were 45 years and above. It shows
between the ages of 16 and 25 years, 42.2% that the study involves all relevant age
of them were between the ages of 26 and 35 groups to establish its robustness.
years, 31.3% of them were between the
Fig 4.1.3: Marital Status of Respondents
70 63.9
60
50
Divorced
40 33.7
Married
30
Single
20
10 2.4
0
Single Married Divorced

Fig 4.1.3 shows ws that 33.7% of the of them were married, while the remaining
respondents in the study were single, 63.9% 2.4% were divorced.
Fig 4.1.4: Educational Level of the respondents
60
55.4
50
40
31.3 Msc/MBA
30
HND/Bsc
20
OND/NCE
10 2.4
10.8 SSCE
0
SSCE
OND/NCE
HND/Bsc
Msc/MBA
Fig 4.1.4 shows that 2.4% of th the respondents indicated their highest level as
respondents indicated their educational level OND, 55.4% of the respondents indicated
as O’level (SSCE), 31.3% of the their highest level as HND/Bsc, and the
119
remaining 10.8% of the respondents This is an indication that most of the

indicated their highest level as Msc/MBA. respondents are educated.
Fig 4.1.5: Job-status

status of the respondents
59
60
50
41
40
Contract
30
Permanent
20
10
0
Permanent contract

Fig 4.1.5 shows that 41% of the respondents job status as contract staff. This is an
indicated their job status as perm
permanent staff indication that most of the respondents
and 59% of the respondent indicated their focused on this study are contract staff.
Fig 4.1.6: Length of Service of respondents
60
54.2
50
40
31.3 1-5
5 years
30 6-10
10 years
11-15
15 years
20 Above 15 years
12
10
2.4
0
1-5 years 6-10
10 years 11-15 years 15 years

Fig 4.1.6 shows that 31.3% of the in their bank for 6 to 10 years, 12% of the
respondents had served for between 1 and 5 respondents had served in their bank for 11
years, 54.2% of the respondents had served to 15 years and only 2.4% of the
120
respondents
ndents had served in their bank for indicates that most of the respondents had
more than 15 years. This implies that the vast knowledge which could be relied upon
majority of the respondents had served in for this study.
their banks for a considerable period which
Fig 4.1.7: Service Department of the respondents
50
45
40 47
35 Others
30 Engineering
25 Teller
20 Operation
20.5 19.3
15 Bus. Dev.
10
5 10.8
2.4
0
Bus. Dev. Operation Teller Engineering Others

Fig 4.1.7 shows that 20.5% of the questionnaire. This implies that majority of
respondents were serving in the business the respondents are serving in the operation
development area of their bank, 47% of the department of the banking industry.
respondents were in operation depa
department
4.2 Hypotheses Testing
of their bank, 19.3% of the respondents
4.2.1 Hypothesis 1
were in the teller, 2.4% of the respondents
H1: Employees’ evaluation significantly
were engineers serving in the banks, and
affects banks’ performance
the remaining 10.8% of the respondents
were in other departments not stated in the
Table 4.2.1:Regression
Regression result (Dependent variable – Performance)
Independent Variable(s) Coefficient T-statistics P-Value
Value
Constant 17.961 11.389 0.000
Employee Evaluation 0.648 4.658 0.000
F-Statistics = 21.698 (0.000) R-Square = 0.175, Adj R--Square =
0.167
The result on table 4.2.1 .1 revealed

re that only 17.5% variation or change in banks’
employee evaluation significantly affects performance in the banking sector is
banks' performance with a coefficient and attributable to employee evaluation and the
probability value of (β1 = 0.648, p < 0.05). remaining 82.5% are due to other factors not
This indicated that an increase in captured in the model. The coefficient value
v
employee’s evaluation activities will enhance showed that a unit change in employee
banks’ performance. The coefficients
coefficien of evaluation activities will lead to 0.648
2
determination (R ) of 0.175 indicated that change in banks’ performance. The F- F
121
statistics of (21.698, P< 0.05) revealed that largely determined by strategic human
the variable specified fit the model well. resource management practice. Hassan
The model thus: (2016) equally found that human resource
PERF = α+β1EE practices such as compensation, career
PERF = 17.961+β10.648 planning, performance appraisal, training,
and employee involvement have a positive
Discussion of Findings impact on employee’s performance.
The objective of this study is to examine the
effect of employees’ evaluation on banks’ 5. Conclusion and Recommendations
performance. Using regression technique, The findings revealed that an improvement
the findings show that employees’ evaluation in banks employees’ evaluation practices will
significantly affects banks’ performance. enhance banks’ performance. It can,
This conforms to the studies of Hamid, therefore, be concluded that employees’
Maheen, Cheem and Yaseen (2017), evaluation is an important determinant of
Ezeanokwasa (2014) as well as Gidado, banks’ performance. Therefore, it is
Kusairi & Muhamad (2014) who found that recommended that banks should employ
employee development enhances suitable employees’ evaluation practices, as
organisational performance. It is also it tends to enhance the banks’ overall
consistent with the study by Ojo (2011) who performance.
discovered that corporate performance is
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123
CHANNEL OF DISTRIBUTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE: EVIDENCE
FROM SELECTED CONFECTIONARY BUSINESSES IN OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
1
ADEGBITE Ganiu Adewale
2
SABITU Owotutu Olalekan
3
ADENIRAN Ademola
1,2&3
Ogun State Institute of Technology, Igbesa, Nigeria.
Abstract
The study examined the effects of the channels of distribution on organisational performance with
a focus on some selected confectionary businesses. The descriptive research design was adopted
in this study to analyse the samples got from 84 respondents who were selected using the
stratified sampling method using administered questionnaires as a tool for primary data collection.
The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics in the form of tables and inferential
statistics in the form of analysis of variance and regression analysis with a significance level of 0.5
to test the hypothesis, using statistical package for social science (SPSS) version 21. The
population of the study was 105 people which included staff of Butterkrust bakery, Paraclete
bakery and Pizza, and pastries. Primary investigation revealed that the distributive channel is an
agility ploy for increasing market control, the cost of intermediaries and hoarding of goods which
reduces the organizational performance. Distribution channel improves the sales of products and
customer satisfaction. The study, therefore, recommended that confectionary products that
deteriorate easily should adopt distributive channel as it hastens sales. Feedback about
customers' satisfaction should be put in place to address the needs of customers. The centralized
negotiating power should be put in place by engaging experts in the field of marketing or
purchasing.
Keywords: Customers’ Satisfaction, Distribution channel, Organisation Performance
1. Introduction In other words, the channel of distribution

One of the most important factors to put into can be regarded as the route through which
serious consideration when products are the product is distributed from the producer
being produced in the distribution of such to the final consumer. It is noteworthy to say
products which ensures that it gets to the that the distribution channel of organisations
final consumers irrespective of their varies and to cover areas/markets not yet
geographical location. And this is the reason served and underserved by current efforts to
it is often said that the process of production improve market potentials and market share,
is never complete until the products get to break bulks, provision of credit facilities,
the final users. Hence, distribution can be storage, transportation, etc., it is very
referred to as a promotional tool for important to note that the management of
planning, implementing and controlling of the organisations are faced with daunting
physical flow of materials, final goods and challenges of making marketing channel
related information from point of origin to decisions and a keen look at the major
point of consumption to meet customer's strategy of the marketing of a product, price,
requirements at a profit. Andri (2015) promotion and distribution, one will discover
describes the channel of distribution as a that distribution is one strategic factor that
vehicle for viewing and marketing can help to achieve a competitive advantage
organisation in its external aspect and for over competitors (Obaji, 2011). It is,
bridging physical and non-physical gaps therefore, very important to know that, apart
which exist in moving of goods from the from the influence of the distribution channel
producer to consumer through the exchange on the marketing capacity of an
process including the determination of price.
124
organisation, distribution can also affect 2. Review of Literature
organisational performance. Components and Definitions of
In other words, the testimony of a good and Distribution
strategic distribution of a company’s goods Kloter & Armstrong (2001) described
is reflected in the performance index of such distribution as the process of planning,
a company. Effective and efficient implementing and controlling the physical
distribution is expected to help drive the flow of materials, final goods and related
overall performance of an organisation in information from the point of origin to the
terms of profitability, market shares, growth points of consumption to meet customer
and so on. Hence, Gary (1999) posits that requirements at a profit. In their words,
firm performance is a subjective measure of Schewe and Smith (1980) explained that
how well a firm can use assets from its distribution is the physical movement of
primary mode of business and generate products to the ultimate consumers.
revenues. Organisations perform various Production is not complete until goods reach
activities to accomplish their organizational the final consumers and products are
objectives and these continuous successful worthless until they are made available to
activities are used to quantify and ascertain those who need them. It is this process of
the level of performance and for making goods available to those that need
management to make informed decisions on them that gives rise to the distribution basis
where, if needed, within the processes to in marketing strategy. Achison (2001)
initiate actions to improve performance asserted that distribution is the process of
(Andri, 2015). According to Keating (2010), getting products and services from the
organisational performance encompasses producer to consumers or users, when and
three specific areas of firm outcomes: where they are needed. It provides time,
(a) financial performance (profits, return on place, possession utility and the transfer of
assets, return on investment, etc.) ownership. Revzan (1971) posited that
(b) Product market performance (sales, distribution is a managerial battlefield in
market share, etc.) (c) Shareholder return which marketing strategies and tactics either
(total shareholder return, economic value- succeed or fail. It is imperative to do a
added, etc.). thorough study of the available alternatives
before choosing one. This is because the
The distribution channels help in increasing
distribution system is a key external
organizational performance as they boost
resource which normally takes years to build
sales of a firm’s productivity. They help in
and cannot be easily changed.
getting goods to the end-user at the right
time. They provide valuable information to Channels of Distribution
end-users and grant credit facilities to them. It is very important to note that goods and
The intermediaries also provide customers' services can only get to the consumers
feedback to the organization which will help through a reliable and efficient channel of
during the production process and help to distribution. Hence, channels of distribution
achieve the objective of customers’ can be described as systems of marketing
satisfaction. institution through which goods and services
In line with the research objectives, the are transferred channel the original
following hypotheses were formulated: producers to the ultimate consumers.
H01: Distributive channel is not an agility Osuagwu and Emola (1998) view the
ploy for increasing market control. channels of distribution to be series of
H02: Cost of intermediaries does not reduce marketing institutions through which title to
organizational performance. or control of a product, service or idea is
H03: Hoarding of goods does not lead to low transferred from the producer to customer,
productivity. clients or business users. Kotler &
Armstrong (2001) view it as a set of
125
interdependent organization involved in the Sahay (2009) reason thata business
process of making a product or service organisation’s operating efficiency depends
available for use or consumption by the on how well the distribution nodes and
consumer. strategies are structured and organised.
They posit that the distribution process
The Role of Distribution Channel in
allows the smooth flow of information,
Marketing
products and services at the best prices,
Distribution channel ensures that finished
which promotes the competitive edge to the
products get into the hands of the final
firm. On the other hand, poor distribution
consumers as at when needed through an
processes spread an array of distractions
effective means of transportation as well as
and dissatisfaction across the supply chain
the middlemen who handle the goods. It
and ultimately customers.
helps to move goods and services from one
place to another (place utility). It brings Effective distribution practices minimize
goods or services to the consumer when he costs, ensuring that benefits such as
wants them (time utility).They bring goods or increased sales and profits are gained. This
services to the consumer in convenient improves firm performance since channel
shape unit and package (convenience distribution in supply management is said to
value).It makes it possible for the consumer ensure prompt response to the flow of
to get goods or services at a price he is market place information, provide valuable
willing to pay by providing conditions which data for the distribution systems like
bring satisfaction couple with pride of customers’ orders, customers’ need for
ownership (possession value) to consumers. information, etc. Nnolim (2003: 15) says
that the distribution system in Nigeria i.e. the
The desired objective is to perform these
general set-up to channel the product of
services or functions at the lowest possible
labour and capital to both intermediate and
cost with the greatest possible efficiency to
final consumer can best be described as
serve the consumer better. If one
haphazard, long-winded and generally
manufacturer, supplier or seller does not
inefficient.
seek to do this a competitor will outwit him.
The channel chosen, whether directly from On the other hand, poor distribution spread
the producer's factory or point of an array of distractions and dissatisfaction
manufacturing to the consumer or through across the supply chain and ultimately
functional and merchant middlemen, has a customers. As regards the hoarding of
great deal to do with the destination reached goods, distribution channel reduces
by the goods, the cost at which they reach organization performance in terms of
this destination, the utility, value and profitability, sales revenue and customer's
satisfaction derived by the consumer from satisfaction as goods will not get to the end-
the goods. The choice of channels will also users at the right time. The cost associated
determine the type of coverage obtained by with having a distribution channel like
a seller and the kind of services provided to delivery and discount also harms
both the seller and consumer in the process organisation performance. The longer the
of transferring both the physical goods and distribution channel, the less profit a
the ownership of the goods from producer to manufacturer might get from a sale because
consumer. each intermediary charges for its services.
Organizational Performance and 3. Methodology
Distribution Channel This study is based on descriptive research
Product distribution is a critical process of design with a selected number of
the supply chain, and it links the entire firm confectionery businesses because the whole
with its outbound supplies and market in population cannot be efficiently studied;
general. Khan, Bakkappa, Bhimaraya and
126
therefore, the sample size was analysed for
The sample size of 84 was determined using
the whole population. The data for this study
the Taro Yamani model as stated below
were obtained from primary sources. The
Formula 1
primary data was obtained through the
n = [N/(1+N〖(e)〗^2 )]
administration of questionnaires to
respondents. However, it should be noted
4. Result and Discussions
that the review of related pieces of literature
The method used in the presentation of data
which include other research works, the
was a simple percentage method of tabular
publications in journals and textbook were
presentation. A statistical non-parametric
also used.
test called Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
The target population for this research work was used because it measures or tests three
consists of a total of 105 workers of selected or more independent means. However, for
confectionery businesses in Abeokuta south this study regression analysis was employed
(40 in Butterkrust bakery, 15 in Paraclete for reasonable analysis to be ascertained
bakery and 50 in Pizza and Pastries plc.). through the use of statistical package for
The convenience sampling method was social science (SPSS) version 21.
used to select the firms that form the bases
Test of Hypothesis
of the study. The stratified sampling method
Hypothesis one
was used to determine the number of
H0: Distributive channel is not an agility ploy
samples to be selected per confectionary
for increasing market control.
after which the random sampling method
was used to select the samples.
Table 1: ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F Sig
Regression 154.189 1 154.189 22.895.00b
Residual 552.228 62 6.734
Total 706.417 83
a. Dependent Variable: Increasing Market Control
b. Predictors: (Constant), Distributive Channel as an agility ploy
Source: Researcher's fieldwork (2020)
Decision: If F-value is equal or greater than distributive channel is an agility ploy for
"Sig" value, we reject Null and accept the increasing market control
alternative hypothesis. Since the F-value is
Hypothesis two
greater than "Sig" value (22.895>0.00), we
H0: Cost of intermediaries does not reduce
reject the null hypothesis and accept
organizational performance.
alternative hypothesis which stated that
Table 2: ANOVA
Regression 150.312 1 150.312 32.68.00b
Residual 384.355 62 4.687
Total 535.667 83
a. Dependent Variable: Reduction in organizational performance
b. Predictors: (Constant), Cost of intermediaries
Decision: If F-value is equal or greater than alternative hypothesis. Since the F-value is
"Sig" value, we reject Null and accept the greater than "Sig" value (32.68>0.00), we
127
reject the null hypothesis and accept an Hypothesis three:
alternative hypothesis which stated that the H0: Hoarding of goods does not lead to low
cost of intermediaries reduce organizational productivity.
performance
Table 3: ANOVA
Regression 90.273 1 90.273 29.204 .00b
Residual 253.477 82 3.91
Total 343.750 83
a. Dependent Variable: Low Productivity
b. Predictors: (Constant), Hoarding of goods
Decision: If F-value is equal or greater than their product. Involvement of wholesalers

"Sig" value, we reject Null and accept the down to retailers improves social relations,
alternative hypothesis. Since the F-value is advertisement, etc., which in turn promotes
greater than "Sig" value (29.204>0.00), we sales of the business.
reject the null hypothesis and accept an
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
alternative hypothesis which stated that
Based on the objectives of the research
hoarding of goods leads to low productivity.
study, it can be concluded that the cost of
Summary of Findings intermediaries, distributive channel, and
The study revealed that the distributive hoarding of goods affect customer
channel is an agility ploy for increasing satisfaction, sales of confectionery products,
market control. This implies that the level of productivity, organizational
distributive channel for most confectionery performance and market control. It was
businesses is a strategy by which they gain concluded that though the cost of incurring
increased market share as well as market distribution channel is high, it is a viable tool
control. This result was determined by the to reach customers at the grassroots; also, it
analysis made earlier indicating a is a means of advertisement and sales
relationship between distributive channel promotion which can increase customer
and market control. satisfaction and the profitability of the
business.
The study revealed that the cost of
The study also concluded that hoarding of
intermediaries (wholesalers and retailers)
goods reduces organizational productivity
reduces organizational performance. This is
and this affects customer’s preference which
drawn on the basis that if the cost is high by
can result in loss of the customer. The
these intermediaries, cost minimization will
implication of this is low sales revenue,
be low, hence reducing other essential
profitability, performance, etc.
activities and performance within the
business realm. The following recommendations are useful
tips that can be used by most confectionery
The study found out that hoarding of goods
business to gain a competitive edge in the
(artificial scarcity) leads to low productivity.
market place:
This result reveals that when there is an
Feedback about customer’s satisfaction
intensity of holding goods without
should be put in place. This would make
corresponding sales, there is a likelihood of
such organizations adjust to the needs of
production activities to be slowed down.
their customers and this, in turn, will gain the
The study revealed that the involvement of heart of most confectionery products that
the distribution channel used by deteriorate easily (e.g. bread). This should
confectionery businesses improves sales of
128
be done through the distribution channel to The presence of artificial scarcity (Hoarding)
hasten the sales of such items. should be minimal so as not to lose
Centralized negotiating power should be put customers.
in place; this can be done by engaging an The customer’s priority should be in the
expert in the field of marketing or mindset of the business.
purchasing.
Reference
Achison C. B. (2001). Industrial Marketing Osuagwu. L. & Emola, V. (1998).
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Andri G. (2015). Distribution channels Strategies and Cases. 2nd ed.
management in a different region. Malthouse Press Ltd.
American Journal of Economics, Nnolim, D.A. (2003). Organization and
Finance and Management.1 (2), 92-96. structure of distribution channels for
Arif Khan K., Bakkappa B., Bhimaraya. A. agricultural outputs in Nigeria. Journal of
Metri & Sahay, B. S. (2009). Impact of Marketing Management: The enviable
agile supply chains’ delivery practices on millennium journal.
firms’ performance: cluster analysis and Obaji R.N. (2011). The effects of channels of
validation. I Supply and chain distribution on Nigerian product sales
management: An International Journal, International Business & Economics
14(1), 41-48. Research Journal, 10(2)
Gary L. F. (1999). Organizing and managing Revzan D. A. (1971).The evaluation of
channels of distribution. Journal of the channel effectiveness William G. M. Jnr.
Academy of Marketing Science. 27 & David L. W. ed. Marketing Channels;
Keating (2010). Distribution channels: a system of viewpoint Home wood III.
Understanding and management Schewe, D. C. & Smith, R. M.
channels to market. Journal of Product (1980).Marketing Concepts and
and Brand Management.19(4). Application, Mc Graw. Hill, Bk Company.
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Prentice – Hall Inc.
129
STANDUP COMEDY IN NIGERIA: EVOLUTIONAND PROSPECTS OF A PERFORMANCE
GENRE
OYETORO Hafiz Adebimpe
Department of Theatre Arts
Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Oto/Ijanikin, Lagos State.
adabapata4@gmail.com
08033124329
Abstract
Stand-up Comedy, an offshoot of the dramatic genre, is a recent form of entertainment in Nigeria
which is presently making waves. Over the years, Stand-up comedy has shown a lot of prospects
and opportunities for its practitioners by taking the centre space within the Nigerian entertainment
industry. Stand-up Comedyin Nigeria has a long-standing history and it has, from the time of its
evolution, passed through different phases and metamorphosis. This paper traces the evolution of
StandUp Comedy from Comedy as a genre. It then examines the development of the performance
art form in Nigeria to the mega multi-million business that it is now. It also discusses the
practitioners who turned the genre into the money making instrument of today by looking at the
evolution of stand-up comedians like Ali Baba. The paper, then, interrogates the prospects of this
art form and its contribution to the Nigerian economy. It concludes by explaining that there are
many more opportunities inherent in StandUp Comedy in Nigeria.
Key words: Stand Up Comedy, Comedy, Theatre, Performance, Performance arts
Introduction entertainment in Nigeria, though with a long-

Stand-up Comedy as a performing arts standing history, being an offshoot of the
genre is one in which artistes use their vocal dramatic genre comedy; stand-up comedy
apparatus and, in some cases, their bodies, has been a form prevalent in various
often in relation to other objects, to convey countries of the world.
artistic expressions. It differs from visual arts
Comedy itself is an age long phenomenon
and it is an outlet of human expression that
inherent in all human cultures. Comedy
is usually influenced by culture and in turn
initially was regarded as an art for the follies
affects culture. Performing Arts as an artistic
and the lowly ones, and so it had a lowly
form includes, but is not limited to, acting,
and awkward beginning. Umukoro (2012,
dance, and music, acrobatics, busking,
online) explains that comedy had a lowly
stand-up comedy, juggling, magic, marching
start and was initially rated as the inferior
arts, jazz, opera, storytelling and a host of
cousin of tragedy, citing Aristotle, he
others. Performing arts find expression in
observes that tragedy portrays men better
dramatic genres like Tragedy, Comedy, and
than they are in real life, while comedy
Tragicomedy. Other sub-genres through
portrays them as worse. Stand-up Comedy
which the performing arts have found and
had existed for a very long time as an
still find expression include but not limited to
integral part of comedy genre, but was not
Satire, Burlesque, Farce, Melodrama, Mime,
recognised for a very long time, especially in
Parody, Slapstick and Sitcom. The fact is
Nigeria, until about three decades ago,
that these various art forms have attracted
when it took the Entertainment industry by
significant academic attention. Acting as
surprise by taking the centre space of the
performing arts, for instance, has had
industry with a large audience base which
remarkable discussions, analysis, as well as
include the elite class for its different group
academic reviews from structural, stylistic
life performances. From its incursion into
and contextual perspectives. Stand-up
the entertainment, Stand-up Comedy with
Comedy has not been so lucky as to have
very rich historical background shows that it
such academic studies. As a recent form of
130
possesses a lot of prospects for its extent is also applicable to the concept of
practitioners and for the entertainment Stand-up Comedy. Peacock (2015, online)
industry. Meanwhile, there is dearth of focuses on the potential of semiotics as
research and academic works on how it used in theatre and performance studies as
evolved and transformed into its present a model for analysing how meaning is
enviable status, leaving a knowledge. This interpreted in Stand-up Comedy. Focusing
paper, therefore, explores and examines the on an example of the work of Joan Rivers,
evolution, the challenges facing the art form Peacock employs strategies and models
and the prospects of Stand-up Comedy as a drawn from Tadeusz Kowzan and Patrice
performing art genre in Nigeria. Pavis to explore how Stand-up Comedy can
be read through the lens of semiotics. He
Evolution of Standup Comedy
considers the challenges presented by the
Stand-up Comedy comes from comedy and
simultaneously diachronic, synchronic and
it is an age long phenomenon inherent in all
polysemic nature of stand-up performance
human cultures. Bates (1906, p.27) avers
and evaluates the semiotic tools available to
that “…it arose from the phallic processions
the spectators.
of the Greeks, as did tragedy from the
dithyramb”. This explanation by all Umukoro (2012, online) attempts a concise
standards, is a Eurocentric perception as historical overview of the genre of comedy
this form of art can equally be traced to the from the time of Aristophanes in classical
prehistoric human societies and exists in Greece to modern times, highlighting the
various forms in other countries of the world. concepts of laughter, wit, and humour. He
In the words of Otto (2001, p.233): further peeps, briefly too, into the history of
The court jester is a universal Stand-up Comedy tracing it to the music
th
phenomenon. He crops up in every halls of the 18 century and tradition of
th
court worth its salt in Medieval and popular entertainment of 19 century in
Renaissance Europe, in China, United Kingdom. He then discusses its
India, Japan, Russia, America and development from amateur stage to the
African society. A cavalcade of professional stage in Nigeria. The duo of
jesters tumbled across centuries Sharon and Lynn (2001, p.165), in their
and continents and one circle the article titled “It’s About Expecting the
globe tracing their footsteps. Unexpected: Live Stand-up Comedy from
Otto further opines that court jesters were the Audiences Perspective”, discuss Stand-
among the ritual clowns of Africa whose up Comedy within the context of the
clownish performances included mocking, audiences’ perspective. They significantly
corrective and unrestrained disordered tricks discuss Stand-up Comedy as it appeals to
a fact Ogunbiyi (1981, p.85) confirmed when the audience and as the stimulation of the
he pointed out that“court jesting was a audience for its patronage. They evolve
significant lifestyle of the old Oyo Empire”. major themes such as respecting the stand-
up comedians, expecting the unexpected,
Comedy as a dramatic genre is a lighter
proximity and intimacy, opportunity for
form of drama when compared with tragedy
interaction and sharing the comic
and it aims primarily to amuse and ends
experience, among others. Another scholar,
happily. Bates (1906, p.27) emphasised that
Jason Rutter (1997, online) highlights and
Plato gives a definition of comedy that
discusses inter alia, the interaction of Stand-
embraces all other forms of comic
up Comedy and sociology, the content and
expressions when he said “Comedy is the
context of humour theory, audience
generic name for all exhibitions which tend
research and laughter and the role of
to excite laughter”. The study of comedy as
laughter in Stand-up Comedy. In the
a dramatic genre has generated a lot of
Nigerian setting, Ayakoroma (2003, p.12)
academic studies. This is to a significant
131
chronicles the factors catalytic to the given to the evolution, growth, structure,
evolution of Stand-up Comedy in Nigeria. He content and its performance aesthetics. It is
highlights and discusses the potentials of noteworthy that recently Nwankwo (2014,
Stand-up Comedy within the context of p.14) and Idowu (2017, p.28) researched
enhancing life theatre in Nigeria. Stand-up Comedy as a New Form of Live
Theatre in Nigeria.
Furthermore, focusing on the prominence of
Stand-up Comedy in the society, Rao (2001, Rao (2011, p.3) avers that Plato’s definition
p.12) sees Stand-up Comedy as the reveals the nature of Stand-up Comedy as
presentation of an intentionally comedic an art form and as such deserves to be
performance by a lone performer on a stage given a more detailed attention in
in front of an audience. As prominent as scholarship. This unfortunately has not been
Stand-up Comedy is, Rao argues that there so, particularly in Nigeria despite having
is still a relative lack of scholarship about it, taken the centre stage in the mainstream of
compared to other performance styles like the entertainment industry. The dearth of
music. According to him, this negligence attention can be traced to the wrong
may have to do with the lack of recognition impression that classifies Stand-up Comedy
that Stand-up Comedy receives as a as an infinitesimal aspect of performance. In
traditional “art form” addition, there has been an age long
prejudicial impression that Stand-up
Within the Nigerian context, Stand-up
Comedy is foolish, clownish and its
Comedy is the most recent of all the popular
practitioners are buffoons, amusing
dramatic entertainment. First, it was the
hangers-on who stir the society with their
Alarinjo theatre, from where artistes
comic pranks and jokes. The bid to correct,
migrated to celluloid. Consequent upon the
fill the gap and situate Stand-up Comedy in
financial and technical demand and the
the right perspective births this paper.
inability of the Nigerian proponents to meet
this demand because of Babangida’s SAP Defining Stand-up Comedy
(Structural Adjustment Programme), the Elsewhere, it was being argued that Stand-
celluloid gave way to a home video which up Comedy has no specific definition and it
necessitated a boost in popular culture. The is also difficult to define in terms of features,
commercial success of the home video forms and identification. However, few
propelled the inspiration of Stand-up scholars who have made attempt in defining
Comedy in Nigeria, the forerunner of which the concept of Stand-up Comedy agree on
is Atunyota Alleluya Akpobome popularly the performance nature of the comic genre
known as Ali Baba. As a performance genre, (see for example Mc Ilvenny et al. (1993),
Stand-up Comedy has earned itself a Rutter (2000, 1997), Greenbaum (1999),
vintage point in Nigeria’s popular culture Mesropova (2003), Yus (2004), Glick (2007),
industry. It trends on television, radio, audio Scarpetta & Spagnolli (2009), and Adetunji
devices, stage; across religious institutions (2013). Sjobohm (2008, p.4) explains that
and on social media. It has turned out to be “Stand-up Comedy is a confusing term to
an empowering tool for Nigeria youths and explain, particularly since there is
fetched Nigeria international recognition and uniqueness in every stand-up act derived
acknowledgment. Despite the volume of from the personality and particularities of
academic patronage that the various forms each performer”. Ian (2008, p.153) attempts
of the performing arts have had, there is a a definition of Stand-up Comedy as:
vacuum. The fastest growing, most a form of talk. It implies a context
economically empowering form of comedy that allows for reaction,
called Stand-up Comedy has suffered participation, and engagement on
academic apathy, particularly in Nigeria. the part of those to whom the stand-
Little or no academic attention has been up comedian is speaking. When it is
132
mediated through broadcasting and stage and tells jokes and stories that make
recording, an audience present to the audience laugh. Stand-up Comedy has
the performer is included in that also been described as a genre of
mediation. However heavily one performance in the form of pop culture, a
sided, it is nevertheless a dialogic social fabric which flourishes on the
form, performed not to but with an “production and consumption” of “humorous
audience. utterances”(see Filani 2015, p.42).
It is also obvious that there are creative
In the same vein, Adekunle (2017) asserts
connections and interactions between the
that Stand-up Comedy seems to be “an over
audience and stand-up comedian. A fact
exaggerated expression of socio-cultural
which Lesley (2011, p.198) opines when he
realities that show the societal foibles and
says that there is an existence of that
vices.” He further stresses that Stand-up
physical and most gratifying manifestation of
Comedy’s economic and cultural
both intra-audience and performer/audience
convergence as well as its divergence are
relations in Stand-Up comedy. This
always woven round environmental reality of
relationship is facilitated through laughter as
individuals and communal experiences.
a stimuli response to comic performance of
Stand-up Comedy is often performed in
the stand-up comedian. Lesley further
comedy clubs, bars, nightclubs, neo-
buttresses his assertion from the point of
burlesques, colleges, and theatres. Outside
view of comedian Mike Nichols who he
of live performance, stand-up is often
quoted as saying “stand-up is the only kind
distributed commercially via television, DVD,
of creative life in which the work and the
CD and the internet. The feedback of the
reward come at exactly the same moment.
audience is instant and crucial for the
In every other kind of work, even the theatre,
comedian's act. Audience expects a stand-
the reward comes at least some time later.
up comic to provide a steady stream of
Mostly, it comes months, or even years,
laughs, and a performer is always under
later or not at all”. Furthering Stand-Up
pressure to deliver. A Stand-up Comedy
comedy’s definition, Nwankwo (2014, p.48)
show may involve only one comedian or
defines it essentially as the type of
feature a "headline" or a "showcase" format.
performance wherein an artist mounts the
A headline format typically features an
stage to entertain people with jocular
opening act known as a host, Compère
narratives, song renditions, mimicry and
(UK), or Master of ceremonies (MC), who
sundry forms of amusement, primarily to
usually warms up the crowd, interacts with
induce laughter. Rao (2011, p.4) buttressing
the audience members, makes
this definition opines that the performance of
announcements, and introduces the other
what is known as Stand-up Comedy –
performers. This is followed by one or two
defined simply, if reductively, is the
"middle" or "featured" acts, who perform 15
presentation of an intentionally comedic
to 20-minute sets, followed by a headliner
performance by a lone performer on a stage
who performs for longer. The "showcase"
in front of an audience – and it is an
format consists of several acts that perform
important part of today’s entertainment and
for roughly equal lengths of time, typical in
media world. This definition captures the
smaller clubs such as the Comedy Cellar, or
performance element embedded in Stand-
Jongleurs, or at large events where the
up Comedy. It emphasises the singularity of
billing of several names allows for a larger
the artist involved. As such, Stand-up
venue than the individual comedians.
Comedy is a comedy in which the artiste,
who is called the stand-up comedian, stands Evolution of Stand-up Comedy
on stage and interacts directly with the Auslander (2004, p.107) tracing the
audience. As a performer, a stand-up development of Stand-Up Comedy points
comedian entertains his audience alone on out that Stand-up Comedy is said to have
133
been a long-standing tradition in the United been in existence in Africa generally and of
States. It is also proclaimed that the Jewish course, Nigeria in particular, as it was in the
Americans were the first to be identified with other parts of the world. It is believed that
it before the African American followed suit the art of Stand-up Comedy started with the
in the early 60s. Generally, in discussing the ancient Egyptian court Jesters who used to
origin of performing arts, European concepts entertain Egyptian Pharaohs. Ogunbiyi’s
especially the Greek traditions are always assertion could be stronger as historians
used as the yardstick with which performing have proved that civilization started from
art experience is mentioned. However, Egypt. The first accounts of performing arts
scholars believe that Stand-up Comedy is among the Yoruba people was highlighted in
older than the American account. For the work of Adedeji (1981, p.221) titled
instance, Southworth (1998, p.89)posits that Alarinjo. The Traditional Yoruba Travelling
the art of Stand-up Comedy started during Theatre in which historical emphases were
the medieval and renaissance eras under placed on the king’s order through which the
the name of the court Jester or fool, who ghost mummers were brought to court and
was according to history an entertainer placed in the charge of Ologbo (Ologbin).
during these eras. Jester was said to be According to this historic perspective,
employed by the household of the monarch Adedeji posited that the ghost mummers
to entertain members and guest of the royal who have been scaring the emissaries of
family. This Jester however was also a Alaafin Ogbolu, who ascended to the throne
peripatetic entertainer who performs outside at Oyo Igboho about 1590, were
the royal court as the time went on. They incorporated as a group of court
usually entertain the audience by bringing entertainers; later living in a special building
into play appropriate utilization of broad within the Aafin to entertain the king and
multiplicity of artistic potential and dexterity. provide comic relief. The above historical
Some of them include storytelling, music, explanation and narrative ordeal of
songs, and jokes, among others. He further traditional Yoruba travelling theatre provided
submits that as far back as the 14th and 16th by Adedeji (1981, p.222) elicits the classical
centuries, the balatros, who were the origin of Stand-up Comedy before the
professional jester of the Ancient Romans, advent of the British colonialists in Nigeria.
had been practicing the art of Stand-up Eventually, the aforementioned narrative
Comedy to entertain the wealthy and the event of Alarinjo travelling theatre (so called
th
royal family. Also, in the 17 century, the because they were itinerant performers
royal court of the English royal family use to which after some time added magic into
employ an entertainer who they tagged their acts) in post independent Nigeria
professional fools to entertain them. developed into the full-fledged professionals
According to him, a jester named Will with the likes of Hubert Ogunde, Duro
Sommes was employed by King Henry VIII Ladipo, Afolayan Adeyemi (Ade Love) as
of England to entertain him and his royal well as Ojo Ladipo, Moses Olaiya popularly
guests. Furthermore, Archibald Armstrong, known as (baba Sala) and the rest.
Jeffery Hudson, and Muckle John were Adekunle avers that the artistic professional
reputable jesters employed to entertain output of Hubert Ogunde and his
guests during the reign of James VI of contemporaries became a great “potent form
Scotland and Charles 1 respectively. of social criticism and colourful medium of
cultural exhibition in Nigeria”. Unfortunately,
However, it is worthy of note that performing
as a result of socio-political and economic
arts without the exclusion of Stand-up
challenges, the institution of Alarinjo
Comedy is as old as man. Consequently, it
travelling theatre declined leaving an artistic
is not out of order for one to agree with
vacuum in Nigerian entertainment industry.
Ogunbiyi (1981, p.85) that various dramatic
However, the vacuum in the travelling
genres which include Stand-up Comedy had
134
theatre industry was later filled by the Development of Stand-up Comedy in
existence and emergence of Stand-up Nigeria
Comedy. The Humour industry, of which Stand-up
Comedy is an important aspect and perhaps
Idowu (2017, p.28) thereby opined on the
one with prospects is unarguably, is a
basis of this fact that “the arrival of Stand-up
thriving and vast industry within Nigerian
Comedy into the theatrical stage has
entertainment. Laughter has been part of
compensated for a truly sad loss for those
man’s existence from the very beginning. It
who have been disheartened by the
is a by-product of the state of being happy.
persistent decline of Nigerian theatrical
When man laughs, he expresses the feeling
tradition.’’ It is worthy of note to state that
or emotions of happiness, gladness,
Stand-up Comedy did not emerge without its
excitement, approval, encouragement and
various constellation of circumstances. For
acceptance. However, laughter from any of
example, the artistic experience started to
the aforementioned is a reaction to
come to limelight through Masters of
situations that may be humorous, hilarious,
Ceremony (M.C.) such as John Chukwu,
amusing, funny and comical. Whenever
Tony St. Iyke, Femi Jarett, Bisi Olatilo, Femi
humour is evoked, it fosters good
Segun, Funsho Alabi, Tunji Shotimirin and
relationships which results in favour and
Bashiru Adisa (Baba Gboin), Gbenga
acceptance to mention but a few. Man, at
Adeboye (Alabefe), Toba Opaleye and
the early stage of his civilization recognized
others in Yoruba language and a host of
the roles laughter play in inter and intra-
others in Nigeria. These are professional
personal relationships. This may be the
Masters of Ceremony with creative
reason societies even during pre-historic
potentials and outstanding funny jokes at the
age kept the services of clown and Jesters,
many social events Nigerians are known for.
especially in royal courts. Olatunde (2017)
In the early 90s, Opa Williams, foreseeing
explains this further when he expounds that:
artistic and commodification potential of
Prehistoric societies, both in Africa
Stand-up Comedy, created a program etitled
and without, have been observed to
Night of a Thousand Laughs. This provided
feature jesters and clowns, who,
a timely platform for stand-up comedians to
operating proto-professionally
showcase and develop their performances’
performed before their patrons, for
dexterities. Ali Baba, being a versatile
irregular income. Moreover, if it is
outstanding stand up performer, resourceful
true that man, in different societies,
and visionary took the bull by the horn and
has been earning a degree of living
developed Stand-up Comedy into an extra-
through acts of jesting and clowning,
ordinary brand in Nigeria. This artistic
Africa, indeed Nigerian pre-colonial
development might have influenced a
societies cannot be an exception.
scholar like Onyerionwu (2007, online) when
Particularly, given that a humour-
she opines that:
free society is yet to be discovered
But today as we have come to see,
(p.26).
the only artistic medium that has
undisputedly inherited these and It should be noted that most societies made
more laudable responsibilities of the their jesters. This is because it was the
theatre tradition is Stand-up society that provided the need for their
Comedy. It is perhaps to the credit services. In inter-society relationship,
of many characteristics which both emissaries were often sent by societies to
genres share that an overlap free represent and to present their idea to
transition has been guaranteed. another society in the situation of
First, like the core dramatic theatre, celebrations especially. Societies often
Stand-up Comedy is essentially a chose spokespersons with special oratory
stage art.
135
skills which most time includes ability to state of the theatre, ranging from
infuse comic especially. Most especially, lack of facilities, government support
spokespersons with good sense of humour and funding as well as negative
were chosen by communities to be anchor audience attitude to the profession,
men during festivals, celebrations and other and the state of insecurity.
special communal events. Their acts can be By the early years of 1900s, from this crop
categorized as Stand-up Comedy. These of royal clowns and court Jesters emerged
spoke persons often infuse elements of the company of professional jesters who
humour, comic and exaggerated acts that traveled from one village to another to
evoke laughter from the townspeople. Royal secure the services of patrons in exchange
figures also engage the services of these for rewards. This was the time ‘the travelling
people when stressed or tensed. It was not Theatre’ was thriving in Nigeria. Olatunde
out of place therefore to find some of these (2017, p.26) avers that “the period of
spokespersons who gradually tend towards 1960/70s witnessed the emergence of the
becoming more of professional Jesters kept first generation of professional comedians.
in the royal courts. These Jesters, along the The likes of Moses Olaiya [Baba Sala],
line started enjoying gifts from the Usman Baba Pategi [Samanja], James Iroha
monarchs. The affluent and those well-off [Gringory], Chika Okpala [Zebrudaya],
also began to engage the services of these Sunday Omobolanle [Papiluwe/Aluwe],
clowns in exchange for material gifts like Afolabi Afolayan [Jagua], Kayode Olaiya
clothes, beads and other valuables.Olatunde [Aderupoko], Tajudeen Gbadamosi [Jacob],
(2017, p.27) explains this further: and Papa Lolo [Ayo Ogunshina] fall within
Many times, the spokespersons this generation of comedians.”
accordingly received gifts from the
Pioneers of Nigeria’s Comedy Industry
villagers as a form of appreciation. It
This first generation of professional
was not strange ultimately that they
comedians prepared the ground for what
increasingly got invitations from their
today is known as Stand-up Comedy in
patrons to perform as comperes,
Nigeria. Stand-up Comedy no doubt is an
dishing out rib-cracking jokes, any
offshoot of comedy. Performance acts in
time such patrons could afford to
the comedy genre, most time in the early
host them at private ceremonies.
days, took the form of comic acting, and
However, it must be stated here that the
some people had worked assiduously,
rewards the court clowns got were nothing
consciously and unconsciously to lay the
close to being enough to cater for their
foundation for the rise of the comedy
needs. One reason may be because of
industry in the country and then, the birth of
inconsistent and insufficient earnings as well
Stand-up Comedy towards becoming a
the fact that the status of a professional
formal career path. The list of these people
formal recognition had not ascribed to the
includes, but not limited to, people like
art of Stand-up Comedy as at then. This
Moses Adejumo popularly known as Baba
can be said to be the case of many pre-
Sala who popularized comedy with his
colonial societies in Nigeria. This trend
establishment of Alawada group in 1965
continued even till the early post-colonial
after a short career in music. His stock
period in Nigeria. Ayakoroma (2013, online)
character was made popular with his
states the challenges facing Nigerian
oversized and lense-less eyeglasses,
professional theatre which includes Stand
oversized trouser and bow-tie. His
Up Comedy:
accomplishment in the comedy industry
Professional theatre practice in
started with his group winning the contest
Nigeria has, over the years, suffered
organized by the then Western Nigeria
serious neglect. Many reasons have
Television after which their comedy
been adduced for this comatose
136
sketches were aired on the same station. and their other colleagues such as Ayoks
This show no doubt contributed immensely Arisekola, Jaguar, Giringori and others are
to the development of the Nigeria’s comedy basically comic dramatists, their works
industry. The foundation for Stand-up paved way for the evolvement and
Comedy was laid when he took his comic development of what is now known as
acts to stage for performances which served Stand-up Comedy in Nigeria. Their works
as models for Stand-up Comedy at a later attracted attention to comedy as a genre of
time. performance, making it more acceptable.
This acceptability no doubt endeared the
Another pioneer of Nigeria’s comedy
minds of other performers and Nigerian
industry is Sunday Omobolanle popularly
audience to comedy, as well as Stand-up
known as ‘PapiLuwe’ who popularized his
Comedy.
comic acts with ‘Awadakeri-keri’ group in the
80’s alongside with ‘Oga Bello’ (Adebayo However, this generation was demoralized
Salami) and others. When he ventured into as there was no commensurate income for
comedy, he decided to adopt a brand their level of feats and sacrifices. What kept
peculiar to the people from his Oyo State them going was the passion they had for
Ilora hometown where people wear layers of their acts. This was the reason most of
cloths to show off, thus, ‘PapiLuwe’ wore them still engaged in extra vocations to
layers of rags and painted his teeth with ink. argument their insufficient income. For
Another Comic actor was born on 22nd instance, even after Moses Olaiya had
August, 1958 in Lagos Island. He began established himself as a popular comedian,
comedy professionally when he featured in he was doing extra job as sanitation Janitor.
‘Erin Keke’, a soap opera which was on air Another demoralizing factor for this first
in 1972. In 1979, Baba Suwe wrote and generation of Professional Comedians was
produced on stage, a comedy play titled the social status given to them by the
‘Baba Omugo’. His comic role in a film, society of the same people who enjoyed
‘OmoLasan’ shot him into limelight in the their arts. This could be said of the theatre
90s. Baba Suwe’s comic acts were popular practitioners of that period. The general
with the people with his stock character opinion of the people then was that theatre
characterized by his ‘sokoto’, a Yoruba and indeed comedy was for the unserious,
name for trouser tied with very big fetcher- the uneducated and ‘never-do-wells’. With
robe with unusual and exaggerated make- this perception notwithstanding, the society
up. His distinguished comic role in “IruEsin”, on the other hand appreciated them for
a film produced by OlaiyaIgwe in 1997 providing good distraction away from the
provided a comic relief in the tragic film. serious socio-economic and political issues
‘Baba Suwe’ after that produced comedy of the country, especially, when things
films which were well accepted by the began to nose dive in the eighties and early
people. nineties, it was baffling why they did not
commensurate their efforts with adequate
The list of pioneers in the Nigeria comedy
rewards and good social status. When
industry will definitely be deficient without
technology brought Television program to
mentioning the likes of ‘Papa Lolo’, ‘Jacob’
Nigeria, and later, the home video, the act of
and ‘Aderupoko’ who featured in different
comedy got a boost. More numbers of these
stage and screen comedy series and films in
comedians that are famous and popular with
the 80s and gave the people reasons to
the people swelled up. But still,
laugh. Aside from the comic acting, these
economically, the lives of these comedians
set of comedians stood out with their
were not affected. This trend must have
musical comedy acts which involved comic
been in the consciousness of the next
musical sampling. It is pertinent to note here
generation of professional comedians who
that though the aforementioned practitioners
strategically repackaged the act of comedy,
137
making it compelling and pushed it to the Philosophy graduate of the then Bendel
society who was now favourably disposed to State University, Gbenga Adeyinka read
this new generation of comedians, the English Studies at Unilag as well as Kofi
generation of stand-up comedians. Olatunde who studied Chemistry from the same
(2017, p.27) explains that this generation institution to mention just a few.
could be termed as the second generation of
In contrast to previous generations, this
comedians which list is almost endless.
high-income earnings reflected in the
Few names out of the list include Yibo
lifestyles of this generation of stand-up
Koko, Babatunde Omidina [Baba Suwe],
Comedians. Most of them have fleet of
Tony St Iyke, Agoma, John Chukwu, Jude
exotic cars, buildings at choice areas and
Edesiri Onakpoma (Away Away), Sam Loco
investments that can be valued at millions of
Efe, Mazi Mperempe, Gbenga Adeboye,
naira. Confirming this fact, Ayakoroma
Mohammed Danjuma, Alam Blow, Atunyota
(2013, online) opines that the stand-up
Alleluya Akpobome [Ali Baba], Francis
comedians of this generation in discussion
Agoda [I Go Die], Bunmi Davies, Basorge
have greatly benefitted a lot from Stand-up
Tariah Junior, Julius Agwu, Nkem Owoh
Comedy industry through “financial rewards
[Osofia], Bolaji Amusan [Latin], Okechukwu
from numerous international engagements,
Onyegbule [Okey Bakassi], Bright Okpocha
as well as revenues from ticket sales for
[Basket Mouth, Ayo Makun [AY], Godwin
shows, sales of comedy CDs, event
Komone [Gordons], and Tunde Adewale
compère and endorsements”. In supporting
[Tee A].
this, Ayakoroma (2013, online) quoted
This generation of stand-up comedians Abiola Odutola (2013) saying “once
enjoyed large fan base and patronage with regarded as a pastime of the unserious and
commensurate large income. This the uneducated, has transformed into a big
generation made people realize they were to business, turning its practitioners into
be paid handsomely to laugh, to enjoy their millionaires and throwing up a huge industry
humour, and because their jokes were real with several direct employment opportunities
time rib-cracking and very compelling, the and support services”. The financial boom
society was lured into paying to be amused. and social recognition this generation of
Unlike the previous generations of stand-up comedians enjoyed was as a result
comedians, this particular generation was of the efforts of the Pioneer of Stand-up
handsomely paid, sometimes even in hard Comedy, Atunyota Alleluya Akpobome (Ali
currencies. They initiated individual and Baba). Ayakoroma (2013, online) states
group shows where people that matter in the that “Today, it is generally agreed that it is
society were attracted to watch at Ali Baba that gave comedy “the beautiful
considerable high amount of money. From face” it wears in Nigeria. He became the first
observation, it was discovered that the list of comedian to be well paid in the country,
ticket to watch such show was N5, 000 for driving a Monster Truck, with a personalized
regular, while VIP goes for about N50, 000- plate number, “Ali Baba 1,” and a Dodge
N100, 000, not to talk of the table for Ram, acquired as showbiz apparatus,
multiple people. Many of them stage shows registered as, “Ali Baba 2”.
abroad, especially in the United Kingdom,
America and South Africa where they earn However, credit must be given to Opa
hard currencies. This is most likely so Williams who created a veritable platform
because of the repackaging and rebranding that projected this crop of comedians and
of the acts of comedy by this generation. which popularized comedy through his
This is made possible because the show, the maiden comedy show held in the
generation can boast of graduates in the country in 1995 where he brought together
majority. For instance, Atunyota Alleluya several Comedians to do different acts. The
Akporobome (Ali Baba) is a Religious and show, Night of a Thousand Laughs,
138
attracted the crème de la crème of the (2017, online), was quoted saying, “some
society. This platform developed these people have stopped me and told me, my
comedians and made full professionals out son is in the university, when he graduates I
of them. Credit must also be given to the want him to become a comedian”. This
hosts of the different Television shows that generation emerged at a time when social
gave these comedians the regular media was becoming popular with it turning
opportunity to project their acts and brands. out to be a very formidable and unarguably
Television Programs like “Friday Night Live”, cheapest medium of promotion and
Charley Boy Show hosted by Charles projection. The third generation no doubt
Oputa, the son of the Late popular Justice maximized its use. In actual fact, many of
Oputa, and “Night Train” hosted by the ace them had made their sudden incursion into
broadcaster, Bisi Olatilo on NTA readily the industry through the social media without
come to mind. Many radio stations and print any prior appearance on any platform in the
media also help project the stand-up conventional electronic and print media.
comedians and their acts. Worthy to be Typical of this are stand-up comedians like
mentioned is the pioneering efforts of Ali the teenage girl - Emmanuela, ‘WoliArole’,
Baba in repositioning Stand-up Comedy in ‘Broda Shaggi’, ‘WoliAgba’ to mention but a
Nigeria. As a front-liner in the Stand-up few. This generation is also credited with
Comedy, he worked assiduously to attract the incursion of comedy in the religious
recognition to Stand-up Comedy and worked places, especially Pentecostal or new
towards putting on ground structures that generation churches. Most major events in
will regulate comedy as a profession and these churches are always anchored by
making sure it attracts commensurate comedians.
rewards. Worthy to be mentioned was the
Prospects
three billboards he erected at three strategic
From all indications, Stand-up Comedy has
locations in Lagos with the message “Ali
come to stay for good and it has grown to
Baba - Being funny is a serious business.” It
become a recognized genre of comedy, and
was learnt he was paying a sum of
no doubt has grown over the years to
N150,000 for each of the billboards every
become a distinct industry within the Nigeria
year.
entertainment industry with its styles and
Consequently, due to his unquantifiable aesthetics attracting recognition and
contributions towards the social recognition commensurate rewards courtesy of the
and commercial boom towards Stand-up efforts of the pioneers in the field. Like other
Comedy in Nigeria, as well as other reasons theatre forms, stand-up comedy is an
relating to the growth of Stand-up Comedy inimitable and dynamic art form that finds its
industry, it is convenient to say that the bearing virtually in all human experiences. It
second generation of comedians in Nigeria, is pertinent to note that the inimitability and
the stand-up comedians, is Ali Baba’s dynamism of stand-up comedy as an art
Generation. This crop of comedians cum form cannot be overemphasised. This is
stand-up comedians is an offshoot of the because of its indispensability in almost all
second generation and according to human endeavour and live experiences. No
Olatunde (2017, p.27), is referred to as the wonder, stand-up comedy as a profession
‘third generation’. These comedians promises to stand the test of time with its
emerged at a time when comedy was numerous opportunities for its practitioners.
already enjoying patronage and One of the major opportunities that are
commensurate rewards. Aside this, Stand- embedded in Stand-up Comedy is that it
up Comedy has been ascribed a full makes the practitioners productive
professional status and practitioners good entrepreneurs. Edward (2018, p.28)
social status. For instance, in an interview explains that, “Stand-up comedy is one art
with Esther Ijalana, according to Adeyinka
139
form that opens up to entrepreneurial process in one way or the other, consciously
potentials as it fits into a wide range of social or unconsciously, directly or indirectly,
events and performances”. In Nigeria today, formally or informally. The fact still remains
the Stand-up Comedy has made most of its that the society as a whole needs
practitioners such as Ali Baba, Ayo Makun psychological stability to survive.
(A.Y), Bunmi Davis and Opa Williams Nwachukwu (2019, online) asserts that “It’s
prominent entrepreneurs. These important to take care of your mental health
professionals and some others are still and to remain positive. Some people may
creating, developing, packaging and turn to therapy, and that does a lot of good
marketing products that cuts across and for a lot of people, but I’m going to offer an
relevant to the existence as well as alternative to therapy that’s much easier to
development of Nigeria economy. They are get a hold of and way better for your wallet:
also breeding, budding young Stand-up Stand-up Comedy”. Stand-up comedy
comedians and transmitting the act provides one of the most essential
entrepreneurship into them: a process which ingredients of happiness-laughter. Laughter
makes the future of Stand-up comedy in in-turn makes people “feel a million times
Nigeria very bright. better”. Hence, as long as people seek for
happiness and emotional stability, Stand-up
Moreover, Stand-up Comedy as a dynamic
comedy will continue to be relevant
form of entertainment has over the years
especially in Nigeria where according to
created a veritable platform whereby its
Edward (2018, p.28) “untold economic
practitioner have been moulded in the area
hardship and myriads of security challenges
of creating and developing content for
have put the citizens in consistent
private and public organisations. This tool is
depressed living conditions which in turn,
an ongoing practice. Edward (2018, p.27),
have resulted in mental and emotional
asserts that “the business of stand-up
disorders”. It therefore means that each
comedy involves creating stories taking into
Stand-up comedy practitioner in Nigeria in
cognizance the elements of logic,
Edward’s view “has at his disposal a
chronology and coherence”. Developing
lucrative career in psychotherapy with
content and curriculum for public or private
psychological jokes as his major tool”.
institutions, organisations or business
conglomerate involves high level of Furthermore, Stand-up Comedy has proved
creativity, intellectual acumen and to be a veritable medium of socialization.
knowledge versatility which are embedded Human beings generally are social animals
on Stand-up Comedy. Little wonder Stand- who use various mediums, platforms and
up comedians are one of the most sort-after forums to get socialised. During the process,
practitioners when it comes to content relationships are established, fences are
development. For instance, Edward (2018) mended, opinions and experiences are
mentioned that “only recently, Ali Baba was shared, socio-economic burdens are lifted
mandated to design special courses on and almost everybody involved in the
comedy for the Lagos State University. Like process get themselves emotionally lifted
Ali Baba, other comedians can make a living and inspired. Most societies today especially
from designing and developing contents for in Nigeria need the platform that will make
brands and institutions”. the process of socialisation possible so as to
surmount the economic, political, social and
Furthermore, recently stand-up comedy has
emotional challenges. Stand-up Comedy
been recognised and acknowledged for its
stands the test of time as far as socialisation
most effective therapeutic values. For
is concerned which also in-turn provides a
individuals within the society to be mentally
bright future for its practitioners.
balanced and emotionally stable, he/she
needs to go through some therapeutic
140
Again, Stand-up Comedy stands out when it This is an indication that Stand-up comedy
comes to mobilization and awareness is a fertile field blessed with milk and honey.
campaign. These days, in most societies of
In addition, International bodies, business
the world, vices of various kinds and
conglomerates, Telecom companies,
categories are outrageously on the increase.
various cooperate organisations and other
There is a need to save societies all over the
private and governmental parastatals and
world from the scourge of these vices. This
agencies in Nigeria have now seen Stand-
is where the relevance of Stand-up Comedy
up comedy as a veritable means of
comes to play. Edward (2018, p.28) asserts
promoting their products, services, brands,
that, “Stand-up comics especially in Nigeria
and policies. And so, Stand-up comedians
have a stable market in the business of
have now been contracted as Ambassadors,
mass mobilisation since the country is
Brand face, Advertising models, Promoters
grappling with myriads of social, political,
and Mobiliser. For instance, Ali Baba is a
religious and economic problems that call for
brand ambassador of Remi Martins, Hafiz
consistent mobilisation of the masses
Oyetoro (Saka) is MTN’s ambassador.
through public awareness campaigns and
Confirming this, Edward (2018, p.29) avers
rallies”. There is no gainsaying that politics
that, “Basket Mouth, AY, Gordons, Bovi,
and leadership especially is a democratic
Funny Bone, Buchi, Akpororo, Francis
system of governance in most society of the
Odega and Dan D’ Humorous, among many
world today. The existence of politics in
others, have landed millions of naira brand
human society therefore has also given
ambassadorial contracts with notable
credence to the fundamental need for
communication companies, such as, Mobile
Stand-up Comedy in all societies not only as
Telecommunication Network (MTN),
jesters as they were being used in the royal
Globacom and Airtel... It is believed that
court in those days but also for political
their endorsements run into huge amounts
activities such as campaigns, election and
compared to their artist fees in normal
collections or gathering of public opinion
comedy shows and other social events”. The
which is a crucial aspect of the feedback
implication of this is that as long as the
process in politics. Nigerian politicians have
political and economic spheres of the
now found it crucial to employ the comic and
society continue to grow and there are
humorous abilities of Stand-up comedians to
competitions within the business world, the
facilitate and promote their campaigns and
services of Stand-up comedy and its
political manifestoes, sometimes as orators
practitioners will continue to be relevant.
or as campaign agents. They have also
found Stand-up Comedy practitioners to be Conclusion
a reliable source of hearing the “truth” about In this paper, an attempt has been made to
the opinion of the people about their trace the evolution and historical
government. Edward (2018, p.29) opines development of Stand-up Comedy in
that, “Ali Baba’s profound sense of humour Nigeria. In addition, the prospect of Stand-
took him to the Nigerian seat of power up comedy as a career has also been
where he mingled with the political class to critically looked into. One can safely assert
the extent that he became associated with that Stand-up comedy has gone beyond the
the leadership train of Olusegun Obasanjo... ordinary art of making people laugh. It has
much later, Okey Bakassi, Michael become a significant industry worth billions
Ogbolosingha, Uche Ogbuagu and Gbenga of dollars around the world: a situation which
Adeyinka, among others comedians gained has made the dramatic genre a lucrative
political appointments as Special Advisers profession for its practitioners. It is,
on Culture, Tourism and Entertainment, therefore, expected of the Stand-up Comedy
respectively, mainly on account of their practitioners to widen their horizon, look
professional leanings as stand-up comics”. beyond their noses, and utilize the essential
141
social economic potentials embedded in they take the issue of updating their
Stand-up comedy as well as responding knowledge, effective research, and the
creatively to Economic, Social, Political, acquisition of essential current skills in the
Cultural and Psychological situations of their industry seriously, the sky is not even the
various communities. If the comedians are limit. This is because, it is now glaring that
committed, dedicated, hardworking and Stand-up comedy is a fertile land blessed
disciplined enough with their profession, if with milk and honey waiting to be tilled.
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CREATIVE WRITING AS A TOOL TOWARDS NUDGING NIGERIA TO DEVELOPMENT:
AN OVERVIEW
ADEDINA Femi (PhD)
Department of Theatre Arts,
Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education,
Kilometre 30, Badagry Expressway,
Oto/Ijanikin, Lagos.
Phone: +2349021252631
E-Mail: femimuchi@gmail.com
Abstract
Development and growth is a sine qua non for any nation. An underdeveloped nation reflects
crime, poverty, infrastructural deficits, collapsing education structures, inadequate health facilities
and health professionals in her service, brain drain, high level insecurity and breakdown of her
security architecture and depressing economic indices. The Nigerian nation as at now reflects all
the above in spite of the abundant natural and human resources the nation is endowed with. There
had been so many attempts and strategies formulated towards kick starting the comatose Nigerian
economy to that of a developed economy over the years. These efforts had been in vain. The
recent example of the economy going into recession in 2016 and crawling out of it in 2018; with
increase in kidnapping, menace of herdsmen and farmers clashes and general insecurity; coupled
with high unemployment of the highest demographic group in the nation- the youth- show the fact
that the country still have a long way to go before becoming a developed economy. This paper
suggests a solution that can serve as part of other solutions towards battling Nigeria’s
underdevelopment. The paper suggests Creative Writing as a tool towards nudging Nigeria to
development. Creative Writing through its productions and products like novels, poems, plays,
nonfictional works, film scripts and media scripts can be directed towards behaviour modification
and mind changing activities directed to individuals within the nation. When Creative Writing
becomes a viable part of Nigeria’s education, exponents of this knowledge area will be able to
produce creative works that will not only explore but also examine the causes of Nigeria’s
underdevelopment but also suggest measures and means of making Nigeria a developed
economy. The strategy toward using creative writing as a tool for economic development is
interrogated in this paper and suggestions are made on the steps to take to achieve this aim.
Keywords: creative writing, development, Nigeria, panacea, poverty, underdevelopment
Introduction attract staff from all over the world and the
The development and growth of a nation is building of her institutions will not be in
shown through many factors and indices. In disrepair. Above all, there will be adequate
order for a nation to be termed developed, security and such a nation will not be battling
there will be good infrastructure in with centrifugal forces trying to break it
transportation that are of standard and are apart. Her exports will not mono export and
well maintained – good roads, good will be more than imports. Her national
waterways and water transportation, currency will not be in a spiraling race of
standard airports and world standard devaluation to a ridiculous level and her
railways. There will be no infrastructural banking loan interests will not be reaching
deficits in housing, power and such a for the sky. There will be manageable
nation’s telecommunications will not only be unemployment and underemployment rate
world standard but also have state of the art and her youths would be interested and
equipment that will guard against call involved in ethical jobs and will be
dropping and the vagaries of weather. Her adequately employed and remunerated.
educational institutions will be well funded, Instead of brain drain and hemorrhaging of
144
skilled professionals to better environment were hot cakes all over the world. A period
and climes, world standard professionals when our secondary schools were full of
from all over the world will come into such Scots, Irish, Indians, Pakistanis, Canadians
country to practice. and other foreign nationals as teachers and
our universities had the best from the world
The country above all will invest in research
teaching in them. A time when Malaysia,
and development in futuristic areas of
Indonesia, Ghana, and Singapore were well
knowledge like robotics, artificial intelligence
behind us in development indices and a time
and space studies. Her Internet penetration
when we gave Malaysia oil palm seedlings
and usage will be high and she will likely
from our NIFOR to develop her oil palm
have a strong National Information Highway
industry. A country where we now import oil
Backbone that works. This does not discuss
palm products from nowadays. Our textile
her explorations of space and launching of
factories were all working and employed the
satellites into space for peaceful purposes.
largest number of workers. When we place
Her political system will be matured with
this golden era beside our present condition
good governance, reduction of poverty and
and situation, we are forced to ask why?
minimal corruption within her system
Where did we go wrong? And Why are we in
coupled with a high rate of ease of business
the position we find ourselves now? The
and high foreign investment in her economy.
answer is in right steps we did not take, and
Such a developed country will also have a
wrong steps we took as a nation and these
sizeable and growing external reserves and
led us into underdevelopment. This paper is
one that can fund imports for many years
not about a guilt trip or a recount of our
along with full budget implementation, no
woes. It is about looking at the causes of our
budget deficits and a low debt to GDP rate.
underdevelopment and exploring how we
The country may have diverse ethnic
can use creative writing as one of the tools
groups, many religions but she would have
in combatting our underdevelopment. The
been able to overcome her divisive
questions at this point include: What is
tendencies and also run a viable and
underdevelopment? What is development?
outstanding federalism. There are countries
and What is Creative Writing?
like the country painted above such as New
Zealand, Switzerland, UAE, Germany, A matter of definitions
Norway, Sweden and others. Underdevelopment is the opposite of
development. Development when used in
Nigeria is not a developed country and the
this paper will be taken to mean national
indices point to this. Nigeria is grossly
development. There have been many
underdeveloped and even among her peers
definitions and interesting debates about
who got independence at the same time she
development in Africa and by association
got independence, she is the laggard.
Nigeria. Some of the contributions to this
Nigeria has not always been like this. In the
debate were made by Rodney (1972),
60s and early 70s, the country was in her
Harrison (1985), Nussbaum and Sen (1993),
golden age with the four regions raking in
Diamond (1997), Agbakoba (1998), Landes
money from agricultural products,
(1999), Harrison and Huntington (2000), Sen
groundnuts in the North, cocoa in the West,
(2000), Oguejiofor (2001), Nussbaum
oil palm in the East and rubber in the Mid-
(2001), Mkandawire (2001), Agbakoba
West. It was the time one Head of State
(2003), Njoku (2004), Sachs (2005),
quipped that our problem is not money, but
Diamond (2005), Willis (2005), Meredith
how to spend it. A period when our teaching
(2006), Meyns and Musamba (2010), Drèze
hospitals like UCH, ABUTH and others were
and Sen (2013), and so on. One of the main
Mecca for health tourism and where the best
agreements from the definitions and debate
specialists in the world came to learn and
is that development could be termed
practice and the products of these hospitals
national development as distinct from
145
personal development, organisational Reasons for Nigeria’s underdevelopment:
development or any other type of Are these reasons applicable?
development. National development, Knowledge of what is national development
therefore, can be described as the overall confirms that in most African countries, and
development or a collective socio-economic especially Nigeria, we cannot say we have
and political advancement of a country or national development. Many reasons have
nation. The concept, national development, been given for this state of affairs. Some of
depicts an unending process of qualitative the post- independence development
and quantitative transformation in the theories adduced various reasons for African
capacity of a state to organize the process of and by association Nigeria’s
production and distribution of material underdevelopment on the basis of factors
benefits of society in a manner that sustains such as geography- climate and
improvement in the wellbeing of its individual environment (Diamond, 1977, Sachs, 2000),
members in order to enhance their capacity historical experiences- slavery, colonialism
to realize their full potentials, in furtherance and neocolonialism (Rodney, 1972,
of the positive transformation and Oguejiofor, 2001), culture (Weber, 1930,
sustenance of their society and humanity at Harrison and Huntington, 2000 and Stark,
large (Onuoha, 2013). It encompasses (2005) and the structure of contemporary
some variables including political, International trade (structures that create
economical and social. Political variables of and sustain dependency, globalisation, the
national development include the level of effect of the arrangement of International
political stability, free and fairness of the trade on the underdevelopment of weak
electoral process, representativeness of countries). Obi Ezekwesili, in a 2013 lecture,
political institutions, and respect for human however debunked these reasons as not
rights. Economically, some yardstick like the being responsible for Nigeria’s
gross national product, nature of income underdevelopment. On the question of
distribution, and pattern of resource geography and the tropical zone, which
management can be used to measure a Nigeria is located, she countered that
nation’s economic development while social economic research has shown that
element looks at gender equality, social ‘geographical location has not prevented
justice, and living standard of the citizens, other countries with similar conditions from
including access to social services like breaking through’. To those who points to
water, education, electricity, and roads. Nigeria’s population as the cause of her
Indeed, national development is the ability of underdevelopment, she retorted that ‘China
a country or countries to improve the social and India are bigger than Nigeria, yet in the
welfare of the people such as providing last thirty and twenty years, the two have
social amenities like quality education, grown double digit and continue to outgrow
potable water, infrastructural facilities, the rest of the world’. On the question of
medical care, and so on (Abimbola & culture being responsible, she explained that
Adesote, 2012). Taking our cue from European countries with different cultures –
Abimbola and Adesote, we can say that Protestant and Catholic alike have grown
national development entails producing rich. There are others who point to Nigeria’s
more and better food to eat, healthier and multiethnic nationalities as being
happier individuals, better living responsible, Ezekwesili pointed to United
accommodation, improved transportation States of America as a nation with more
and communications system, sound disparate ethnic nationalities than Nigeria
education and enlightenment among the yet it leads the global economy. India is
populace, and generally, more money another nation with diverse ethnic groups
floating around (Biereenu-Nnabugu & but which is developing. To those who
Odigbo, 2017). traced our underdevelopment to the adverse
146
effect of colonialism, Ezekwesili drew their These last adjectives are so
attention to the fact that Singapore, sweeping, and may “seem” unfair.
Malaysia, India and even China were Yet, available facts show that the
conquered and dominated by colonialists but “set of development choices” we
they have continued to develop themselves. have made have consistently
She questioned the state of Nigeria’s resulted to one thing: “we have been
development and wondered that: left behind many times over by
Again, how did this happen? What every one of” the countries that
happened to Nigeria? Why did we used to be our par on the
get left behind? How did these development ladder (South Korea,
nations- like Singapore, South Singapore, Malaysia, Chile, Brazil,
Korea, Chile, Malaysia and Brazil and a few others) (Ezekwesili, 2013:
who were Nigeria’s peers at p. 4). (Ajah, 2014, p.539).
independence- become productively
This means that the problem of Nigeria’s
wealthy over the last fifty years
underdevelopment could be traced to
while Nigeria stagnated?” (pp. 4-5).
Nigerians leaders’ and followers’ mental
She, however, took a stand that it was perception. Our thinking about our
Nigeria’s ‘resource wealth’ that tragically ourselves, our relationships as members of
reduced Nigeria to a parable of prodigality the same nation and our nation has been
and self-inflicted failure’. This stance of hers responsible for where we have found
is not true because there are many nations ourselves today because “we are the agents
that have used their resource wealth to who chose and will continue to choose what
develop their people. In this category, we happens in our societies and with our
have Norway, UAE, Kuwait and Saudi resources” (Ajah, 2014, p.536). The
Arabia to mention a few. The questions then questions at this point are: What can we do
are: What is wrong with Nigeria and why are to change this mental attitude and bring
we so underdeveloped and tottering towards about a behaviour modification mode in our
becoming a failed state? Why is it that more country? How do we change our mental
than half the population of a country that penury and bring about a virile mental
earned nearly one trillion dollars in oil perception that will bring an end to our self
revenue since the Oloibiri discovery of crude centred, selfish and container mentality
oil would continue to wallow in poverty? To about self, others within the nation and the
answer these questions, this paper will nation itself? A process of mental
agree with the postulation that: reorientation needs to be put in place in
it is only Nigerians who are capable Nigeria and one main tool among others that
of determining the direction and the can achieve this is creative writing. What is
nature of the improvement of their creative writing and how can it achieve this
wellbeing. To make this possible, aim is the kernel of this paper’s next section.
Nigerians need to abandon the
selfish and irresponsible behaviours Utilizing Creative writing as a panacea in
that define the actions of majority of combatting Nigeria’s underdevelopment
the people in all works of live - Narrative as a concept has been defined
scholars, businessmen, teachers, (Genette, 1982; Prince, 1999; Abbot, 2002;
politicians, youths-who lived from Ricoeur, 1981; Brooks, 1984; Onega and
1959 (when the agreement was Landa, 1996; Bal, 2004 and Ryan, 2007).
finalized to make Nigeria an One main agreement of all the definitions is
independent state) to 2014 (when that narrative is about telling. As Ryan
the evidence in all spheres of life posited, “narrative is about problem solving,
and meaning, jointly indicate that conflict, interpersonal relations, human
most of us are selfish and cowards). experience and temporality of existence”
147
(Ryan, 2007, p.24). As Baker pointed out, Creative writing rests on narratives and its
telling or narrative is coloured by the teller’s main tool is narratives. The question is, has
bias, beliefs, background and experiences. Nigerian narratives been truthful about the
Narratives are descriptions of reality: events, nation and her people? If we assess
a society’s or individual’s history, a society’s Nigerian creative writing, we will say, “yes,
or individual’s physical structure, behaviours they have been truthful.” In books after
and so on. The meanings of human books by reputable Nigerian writers, creative
existence are coded in stories because writing in their hands have shown the true
human beings are embedded in stories picture of the nation and there are many
(Ajah, 2013, p.537). As Carr (2003) posits, examples- Soyinka’s – Dance of the Forest,
living means being always caught in stories. Kongi’s Harvest, Opera Wonyonsi, Achebe’s
If these stories are not actually (or better – Man of the People, Anthills of the
truthfully recounted), they call for recounting. Savannah, There was a Country, Osofisan’s
A point another scholar extended when he – Yungba Yungba and the Dance Contest,
states that: Esu and the Vagabond Minstrels, the many
we tell stories because in the last books about the Nigerian Civil war like
analysis human lives need and merit Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and the
being narrated, after all time situation in the Niger Delta with works like
becomes human to the extent that it Yerima’s Hard Ground, Little Drops and
is articulated through a narrative EsiabaIrobi’s Hangman also Dies. This is not
mode. We come into the world to say that we do not have books by
already surrounded with narratives. hagiographers or those who want to bend
Our identities develop, are given the history of the events in their favour like
meaning, and are expressed in Obasanjo’s My Command, but there are
narratives (Ricoeur, 2003, p169). others that counter such narratives.
Omotosho’s ust Before Dawn and others do
Narratives disclose human actions and
bring out the truth of history. In addition to
identity (values, preferences and choices) of
the books, there had been films, media
the who of these actions and the disclosure
productions like 76, Black November, 93
of the who of history is of utmost importance
Days and many others that depicted the true
because of what (Ricoeur, 2003, p. 186)
Nigerian picture and the embedded stories
described as a “hanging debt to represent
that made us who we are. We can therefore
life”. You either pay the debt by falsifying life
say that Nigerian creative writers through
or wrongly present it or present it as it is. To
their creative works have been trying since
present correctly is to present the truth about
pre-independence to give us a true image of
life. It is to make life meaningful; to increase
ourselves and our nation but like Ajah,
the possibilities of improving the well-being
(2013) pointed out earlier, we have been
of those who are living (Ajah, 2013, p. 538).
“selfish and cowardly” because we do not
To deny life or present life falsely, means to
want to accept the pictures in the mirror. We
ignore life and its quest to be constantly
rejected the pictures and follow the false
improved. As Ajah points out:
narratives and stories fed us by pseudo
to deny the facts about a self or a
leaders parading as leaders and dealers that
people is to willingly engage in
we call leaders in Nigeria. The question then
baseless, false and therefore
is: How can we combat the falsehoods and
useless assessments. Such
evolve the true realities of our experiences
assessments would definitely lead
as Nigerians? The answer is in the field of
to useless results. The
creative writing.
consequence is stagnation, lack of
improvement, in fact, Creative writing through its products and
underdevelopment, as defines productions can bring about a positive
Nigeria. (Ajah, 2013, p.538) mental reorientation. It can also bring mental
148
and behaviour modification of Nigerians. The and give suggestions towards averting
production of true depictions of Nigerian problems before they happen. Chinua
conditions in an Agenda Setting manner, Achebe warned the pre 1966 politicians
through books- fiction and non -fiction, about military coup and it happened
Nigerian films and Nigerian media content immediately the book Man of the People
will go a long way in making us aware of the came out.
realities of our nation and the falsehood of
Challenges of utilizing Creative writing in
those ruling us. This, in a way, may awaken
Nigeria’s development
us to the cause of our underdevelopment.
However, there are many challenges against
As we consume more of our creative works,
the achievement of this objective. The
we become aware of our realities as a nation
challenges include the high level of illiteracy
and as individuals within the nation.
and low level of education. As Obe (2012)
Nigeria’s underdevelopment can be points out:
improved on through creative writing in a If you ask me, I will just do
host of ways. These include economic, everything on education. Right now,
mental orientation, image branding, writers’ the type of emphasis we give on
contribution to the nation as the nation’s education is not impactful in my own
conscience, and the creation of an mind. That is because nobody goes
alternative culture and narrative to our back to the basic idea- if you
present negative culture and narratives. In educate your you, you have good
the economic field, creative writing products roads, you have good hospitals, you
and productions – books, films, media have good everything. In fact,
contents can contribute to the nation’s GDP. efficiency will be entrenched.
The 20 top grossing films in Nollywood Efficiency is related to punctuality,
contributed a sum of 3.4 Billion in a 4-year all those good virtues-punctuality,
period – 2014-2018 (Wikipedia, 2019). In crime-free society and so on- are
addition, they can also reduce related to education. Why would
unemployment through the number of somebody want to be a suicide
people that can be employed in the Creative bomber? Why would somebody
and Culture Industries, which is the futuristic want to kill him or herself? Because
Orange Economy (Buitrago & Duque, 2013). he or she is not educated, he or she
The mental orientation of some Nigerians in thought that is the end of the world.
the position of authority is that of acquiring No, he or she is not able to see the
and stealing the country blind. There are no other side of the story.
differences between the military or the
In order to have a positive turn around in our
civilian leaders. The tragedy is that these
development theory, we need to focus on
have followers and they are supporting
education. This means funding education
them. Creative writing can be used in mental
adequately, providing adequate educational
re-orientation through various creative
infrastructure and also providing the main
works. The recent King of Boys film by Kemi
educational tools like books, equipment and
Adetiba through its content gave a lesson of
other inputs. To provide books- creative,
karma and how they are payments for evil
fiction, non-fiction and other materials- we
deeds and the shenanigans that are part of
need creative writers and writers. This brings
Nigerian politics with its symbiotic
us to the second challenge. The dearth of
relationships with the underworld. So also,
writers and creative writers in Nigeria is a
the same in Taxi Driver. Through thematic
great challenge. Although, if we compare the
content, creative writing productions can
number of writers- creative or otherwise to
over a period of time make people to
other African writers, we will come to a
change. The fact that writers are visionaries
conclusion that there are more writers in
made it possible for them to warn the nation
149
Nigeria. However, if we extrapolate the usually critical of their leaders and will be
number of writers to Nigeria’s population, the able to bring in new ideas, creativity and
number of writers that we have are not innovation into the development story. We
enough. This creates the need to integrate need more readers to change Nigeria’s
creative writing into our educational system development narratives and creating more
from primary to tertiary levels. Many other readers through reading campaign is the
nations have done so (Myers, (1993); DfE, way to go. To have more readers, however,
2014; Flood, 2015; and IES-NCES, 2017). you need more writers who will produce
The dearth of creative writing in our what the readers will read. Most developed
curriculum is a great challenge towards nations have high percentage of educated
giving each Nigerian child and adult a broad citizens; Nigeria cannot be an exception if
based introduction to creative writing. If she wants to be developed.
creative writing is part of our curriculum, the
Apart from books, other creative writing
tendency to produce more creative writers
products such as films, media products –
will be high. In addition, majority of Nigerians
traditional, old and new media- need to be
will have ideas about creative writing and
improved on and produced. The challenges
this will prepare them to be more aware of
facing Nigerian Film industry are many
creative writing products and productions.
despite its contribution to Nigeria’s economy.
Another challenge is the state of publishing In 2016, Nollywood Industry contributed
in Nigeria presently. Is it a coincidence that 2.3% (239 Billion Naira) to Nigeria’s GDP
the Nigerian golden age of 60s and 70s was (PwC, 2017). There is the need to build
commensurate with the golden age of upon the Nigerian Film Policy and the
Nigerian publishing when books were funding plan being proposed by CBN for
published greatly in Nigeria and those not Nollywood practitioners need to be managed
available were imported? Is it also a wonder in a way that the money will reach the true
that this same period was when Nigerian practitioners rather only the connected few
education was at its peak? Since the or pseudo film makers. Government should
incursion of the Military into Nigeria’s reduce import levies on film inputs so that
political space and their bastardization of Nollywood standard can be improved and
education, has Nigerian publishing not gone help in making her products world standard.
comatose to the extend that it is easier to Also, there should be a frontal war on piracy
get Nigerian works outside the country than so that creative workers will reap the fruits of
inside and what Nigerian publishers publish their labour. When more films are made,
now are only trade books? To ameliorate there will be more film scriptwriters and
this situation, we have to remove duties on many will be creative writers. The issue of
publishing inputs, allow zero duty on training in order to expand the capacity of
imported books and thereby feed our book Nollywood in producing skilled workers
hungry educational institutions so that should also be looked into.
education can rise again and creative writing
Conclusion
can flourish once more. This in a way will
This paper attempts a review of Nigeria’s
help us to tell our stories by ourselves rather
underdevelopment and controverted the
than being fed our stories by foreigners. The
various reasons people adduced for the
challenge of reading is also there. There is
underdevelopment. It discusses the faulty
the belief that Nigerians do not read. To
nature of present Nigerian narratives and
combat this, there is the need to institute a
suggests that there is the need to change
vigorous reading campaign in our schools-
those narratives. It then explains that since
from primary to the university. Reading
the core element of creative writing is
minds produce leaders and enlightened
narrative, creative writing could be used as a
citizens who can be critical about what is
tool in bringing about the new narratives.
going on in their country. Readers are
150
The paper also gave various examples of Nigeria which include its position in the
how Nigerian creative writings have reflected educational curriculum, the question of
the inadequacies of the Nigerian society piracy as it affects creative works and the
through examples drawn from books and dearth of economic means in fueling
films. It also highlights the contributions of development of Nigerian films coupled with
creative writing products and productions to the flip flop that has become emblematic of
Nigerian economy giving examples of the Governments’ cultural policies and
contributions of films to the National GDP. interventions in creative writing issues. It
The paper then lists and discusses some of then makes suggestions towards contending
the challenges facing creative writing in with these challenges.
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152
CORPORATE REPUTATION MANAGEMENT AND THE NIGERIAN TERTIARY
INSTITUTIONS: ASSESSMENT OF STAKEHOLDERS' PERCEPTION OF CORPORATE
IMAGE OF LAGOS STATE UNIVERSITY (LASU) BETWEEN 2007 AND 2017
OJO Titiloye Oyeyinka Ph.D
KolaDaisi University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
Ojo.titiloye@yahoo.com, 07037953524
&
ONAOPEPO Ibrahim Bamidele
Public Relations Practitioner and Media Consultant,
Ijebu-ode, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Bamideleop488@gmail.com, 08167236022
Abstract
Studies have proven that corporate reputation management is key to the corporate environment
globally. However, much of these researches on the importance of corporate reputation
management has been largely narrowed towards the industrial and commercial sectors with limited
research on its impact in the educational sector, particularly in the developing world. Moreover,
most educational institutes in developing countries are characterized by factors of brand eroders
and persistent negative reputations. Hence, this study aimed to unearth the use of corporate
reputation management in the educational sector and its impact on Nigerian higher institutions of
learning with a focus on Lagos State University. The research adopted a qualitative method in its
methodology with the use of LASU’s strategic documents as part of vital data utilized for this study
analysis. Other study designs are In-depth Interview and Focus Group Discussion. The structured
interview and focus group discussion guides were used as instruments for data collection from the
selected internal and external stakeholders’ representatives. The study was anchored on
Perception Theory under the theoretical framework. The data obtained were analyzed thematically
and the data revealed the role that the corporate reputation management played in revamping the
corporate image and reputation of the selected university according to stakeholders’ perceptions.
The study found out that maladministration, selfish interest, incessant school fees increment,
regular rioting and strike actions constituted the institution’s eroders. It revealed that both the
internal and external stakeholders had negative perceptions for the selected institution and this
eventually brought down the corporate image of the university within the stipulated periods. In
bringing the institution back to normalcy, the paper established that it embarked on certain
strategies such as intensive good media relations, the reversal of school tuition fees, adjustment of
Vice-Chancellor’s Office Policy, Dialogue and inclusive governance of the university. It
recommends that policymakers should minimize their interventions into the internal running of
Nigerian universities. Secondly, corporate reputation and image should not be handled with kid
gloves by Nigerian educational institutions because it could lead to shattered corporate image and
reputation. Thirdly, both internal and external stakeholders should always embrace dialogue as a
vital tool for amicable settlement of stakeholders’ disagreements. Conclusively, modern corporate
communicators need to know how to apply different communication strategies to facilitate effective
corporate rapports and co-operations among different stakeholders.
Keywords: Corporate Reputation, Corporate Image, Educational Institutions, Management,
Stakeholders, Perception
Words count: 380
1. Introduction According to Zulhamri (2009), (as cited in

Reputable organizations protect their Guru, Sanjeevaraja & Parashivamurthy,
corporate images by maintaining high 2013), the image alone is not enough to
standards of practice no matter what the build a favourable reputation. Organizations,
circumstances (Riel Fombrun, 2006). particularly, in the capitalist system are
153
increasingly taking an active interest and Such negative perception ultimately
also spending a lot on the corporate image damages our tertiary institutions' reputation
(Nkwocha, 2016; Tejuoso, 2011), mainly and consequently affect their academic
because effective management of corporate excellent image and performance. Based on
image increases the chances of peoples' the foregoing, the aim, therefore, is to do a
goodwill and guarantees good corporate study on the corporate reputation
reputation. Cabral (2012), and Porterorter management on the Nigerian tertiary
and Kramer (2006), in the same vein, denote institutions with a special interest in the
that it is the corporate reputation that gives assessment of stakeholders’ perception of
an organization competitive edge that sets it the corporate image of Lagos State
apart from other competing firms (Gerald & University (LASU) between the periods of
Elinga, 2016). Gotsi and Wilson (2001) 2007-2017.
argued that corporate reputation
Research questions:
management has over the years become a
1. Are the factors that constitute brand
key business driver in organisations globally.
eroders responsible for the diminishing
Furthermore, the research by the 154 Global
corporate image of Lagos State
Institutes for Research & Education (2013)
University?
reveals that reputation management has
2. What is the nature of stakeholders'
become a new way of life, especially in the
perceptions of the university's corporate
age of economic liberalization. However,
image?
while corporate reputation management has
3. What are the consequences of the
recorded significant achievements on
stakeholders' perceptions of the
business sustainability, there appears to be
corporate image of the selected
a gap in terms of its implementation and
university?
significance in the educational sector,
4. To what extent has the Public Relations
particularly in most developing countries.
Unit been a viable tool for crisis and
Ajala (2005) also alludes to the limitations in
corporate reputation management?
terms of research on corporate reputation
management in the 154 educational sectors. 2. Literature Review
This is although on a global scale and In recent time, scholars have argued that the
among developing countries, Nigeria has concept of perception depends on the
recorded series of activities of tertiary different perspective from which individuals
institutions image eroders such as students' look at it. The word perception does not
related crisis, maladministration, have a unified and static definition, hence
recalibration of the academic calendar, the various definitions or points of view.
outdated and below standard academic
facilities, and overcrowding of lecture halls. Perception builds sequentially, as
These have often led to a great deal of occurrences of various events called stimuli
negative media coverage and persistent to happen continuously in the human
negative stakeholders' perception. Ajala environment and stimulate human sense
(2005) views the recent events on Nigeria organs. According to Ojo (2017), these
campuses as a setback to the tranquillity of stimuli arrest and are acceptable by human
the academic environment enjoyed in the sense organs and are instantly converted
past in this country (Ajala, 2005). Moreover, into sensation and later concerted to the
yearly, a large number of students go sensitive part of the brain. Consequently, the
abroad for ‘quality’ higher education from brain processes and interprets the sensation
different developing countries like Nigeria to understand what the stimuli are, and the
and spent a huge amount of money outside resultant product of the processed stimulus
the country (Akareem & Hossain, 2016). becomes perception.
154
Perception is an intellectual process of establish a mutual relationship with them, so
transforming sensory stimuli into meaningful that the objective of such institution can be
information. Arens, Weigold, & Anens (2018) achieved, these include all parties that are
defined perception as the way people sense, directly affected by the success or failure of
interpret and comprehend various stimuli in an educational system, as well as those
personalized manners. Perception is the indirectly affected (Roundy, 2018).
process of interpreting something that we
Perception patterns vary from individual to
see or hear in our mind and use it later to
individual across stages of the process,
judge and give a verdict on a situation,
attention, comprehension and recall.
person, and group, amongst others. Same is
Tejuoso (2011) posits that "the awareness,
the view of Cherry (2019) that the process of
perception and attitude held by
knowing things through the senses and the
organization's various stakeholders vary in
interpretation of stimulus and taking action
intensity". Hence, perception according to
thereof is known as perception. Hence,
him is the interpretation of happening in the
perception requires the function of one or
human environment that determine the
some of the sense organs to react to
expected reactions. He emphasized the
stimulus and to be processed through the
presence of stakeholder's interest as more
brain for clear interpretation. Perception is
relevant to the concept of perception, with
more of a cognitive reaction, a process
the existence of a particular interest
which requires adequate discerning of the
anticipated by an individual. This opens the
recognized stimuli through the sense
mind of such an individual to the
organs. Accurately, that which happens to a
expectations and things that can
sane minded person. Lambert (2014) notes
spontaneously trigger the conscience of
that perception as a "mental state or
these individuals either as expected or
experience in which subjects take" (Orlandi,
against the will of the perceiver. The
2015). Webster (2010) defines it as the
individual makes perception exists; such is
process of being aware of recognizing and
the idea of Lambert (2014) that the
understanding a stimulus, a message, an
existence of "perception makes one a
issue, event or a personality based on which
perceiver". Orlandi (2015) observes that as a
an opinion or attitude is formed about a
perceiver, we are public and visible actors.
phenomenon.
More importantly, he refers to perception as
Stakeholders and Perception something present and real.
Within the purview of this study,
Corporate Images and Corporate
stakeholders are a group of people without
Reputation: The Thin Line
whose support the organization would cease
The view of people towards the corporate
to exist. The business dictionary (Web,
image and corporate reputation are mostly
2018) defined stakeholders as "a person,
considered alike. Nkwocha (2016) sees the
group, or organization that has interest or
elementary stage of corporate
concern in an organization, stakeholders can
communication management as a period
affect or be affected by the organization's
when "image" and "reputation" mean the
actions, objectives and policies. From the
same thing and are used almost
educational point of view, great schools
interchangeably as synonyms. This does not
partnership, Nellie Mae Education
leave out scholars and authors amid
Foundation & the Education Writers
matchmaking of image and reputation.
Association (2014) posit that the term
However, it can be argued that there are
stakeholder typically refers to “anyone who
some intrinsic differences in these two
invested in the welfare and success of an
corporate communication terminologies, with
institution of learning and its students".
reactions from many scholars that have
Educational institutes, therefore, try and
argued in recent studies that corporate
identify with the set of publics, ready to
155
reputation should not be used
The 1980s was a period that image
interchangeably with the corporate image
management extended to paying special
(Nkwocha, 2016). For better clarification, this
attention to information factors and other
study discussed the two concepts separately
potentials to impact image, scholars' identify
and their relevance to modern days
the communication practices as one that
institutional management.
receives measures in term of planning. Ajala
Corporate image: An Overview (2005) emphasizes that corporate image has
Corporate image is an important aspect of gone beyond the visual identity expressed
corporate communication management. It is by graphics, symbols, logo,and trademark,
an aspect of the organizational or amongst others, that the contemporary
institutional programme that is concerned practices of image management have
with doing everything possible to make encompassed the physical identification and
organization or institution receives goodwill mental perception. Meaning that how well
from its purported public (stakeholders) and people know an institution is highly
strengthening the relationship between the correlated with how well they regard it.
parties so that success can be achieved. Jefkins (1988) explains further that many
Beneke (2011) contends that higher things contribute to the corporate image
education across the globe is experiencing such as the way “the organization or
rapid expansion and growth. It must be institution is seen to behave (good or bad),
noted that tertiary institutions are under or how its management is seen to behave
pressure to obtain funds as alluded to publicly, the performance of its products or
before. Everywhere, the byword in the services or the performance of its quoted
higher education sector is competition: share price" (Ajala, 2005).The latest phase
competition for students, faculty, staff, of corporate image management is the
research dollars, and donors, among an modern practices which emphasized on the
endless list (Woyo et al., 2014). There is a peculiarities of image-making in both
need for tertiary institutions to find the good physical and cognitive manner, present
face of the public by making the corporate corporate image management is considered
image management a best tool to utilize. the most professionally practice popular in
The beginning of image management as a the 1990s. The term as widely used by
tool of organizational communication method practitioners signify the impression that
can be traced to the 1950s with practices people have of an institution of learning or
focusing on organization symbols and organizations. This perception is often
colours, exterior, interior, uniforms, logotype qualified by such evaluative adjectives as
layout, advertising as the major image good, poor, positive, or negative. The
factors (Petra's & Ingrida, 2007). emphasis from Rein, Kolta and Stoller
(1987) claimed that well-knowingness is
According to Petra Orzekauskas & Ingrida required for organization and institution to
Simazine (2007), image management is gain the desired objectives. This is referring
characterized by the following notion: to the publicity aspect of image creation.
i. The image was considered to be Nugarate (1999), a renowned public relation
created and shaped just in the direct professional of the 21st century, described
meeting with an organization. the corporate image as the publicity that is
ii. Emotional factors impact on image created and sustained presenting
creation, while the impact of formal and information about an organization
informal communication factors are (Orzekauskas et al, 2007). Corporate
germane to image-making. images and stakeholders perceptions are
iii. And lastly, the potential to manage two sides of a coin, meaning that
image systematically and purposefully stakeholders are subjected to the various
was not researched. shapes, institutions, and corporate image
156
take and the interpretation also determines that reflect the position and respect of the
the organization's corporation images. given object, person, social group, product,
Tejuoso (2011), in the same vein, sees the organization, a higher institution of learning
corporate image from the relationship and host of others. According to Kewell
between the stakeholders and the (2007), Positive corporate reputation is an
organization. He opines that corporate important driver of a successful
image is the perception that different organizational relationship with our clients,
audiences have about an organization and who may have a significant impact on the
institution of learning which usually results business of a company. Also, the reputation
from the audience' interpretation of the cues of an organization allows the company to
presented by it. Organizations, without rise above and differentiate from the
leaving out tertiary institutions, have competition in their geographical area. And
understood that the genesis to humanly supported by Hanson (2005), who referred
goodwill as continued to work on a section of to reputation as the most important asset of
the corporate image with an effort to identity any organization. The reputation of a
management to influence the image held company can gradually increase or
about it. As Bernstein (1984) & Cornelissen decrease depending on how much the
(2000) revealed that image does not exist in organization deals with the public, how
the institutions or organizations but in those present it is in the media, depending on
that perceive the institution (Tejuoso, vendors, employees and other stakeholders.
2011).Sustainable image is at all times It is important to build a reputation and
desirable (ibid). For an image to be constantly think about it because if it is once
sustained, Tejuoso (2011) states that the damaged, it is extremely difficult to restore
cues upon which the image is fashioned (Ruso et al, 2012). According to Kauskas
must be based on reality. and Smaiziene (2007), the concept of
reputation "expresses one seeking to be not
Concept of reputation just visible but trustworthy and believable
Reputation is defined by the advanced among all stakeholders (Dalton, 2005).
learning dictionary (7th ed. 2010) is "the Nwokocha (2016) suggested that reputation
opinion that people have about somebody or is a highly prized possession or asset that
something based on what happened in the make an individual, organisation,
past: to earn or to establish or build a government or higher institution of learning
reputation, to have a good or bad reputation" to stand out, to shine or excel in the public
(Nkwocha, 2016). The New Lexicon eye, and is usually earned, not bought with
Webster's dictionary of the English language money or grabbed with propaganda or
(1995) defines "reputation" as a noun which sloganeering.
refers to "the general opinion held by people
about the merits or demerits of a person or Corporate reputation
thing or organization and the good name of Efforts to get a holistic and one
a person or thing earned through merit and comprehensive definition of the concept of
distinction". Mark Ware summation of corporate reputation has been a concern for
reputation is justified on the group’s record, a long time, as many scholars have
the judgement or experience of third parties, attempted various definitions on this domain
and the views they form about our activities from various perspectives, however, most of
and the actions of our employees. Our it, according to Nwokocha (2016), are
reputation is not the result of what we say considered non-comprehensive enough.
about our aspirations. Our reputation is the Hence, for this study, the researcher
result of how we all deal with real-life considered some of the definition that is
situations (David, 2009).Reputation is a set relevant to the research study.
of assumptions, beliefs, ideas and images
157
As the corporate image is understood to be successful educational institutions (Gilbert et
a signal that arrests the attention of a al., 2018; Mustapha & Andrews, 2017; Woyo
concerned public. Corporate reputation is a et al., 2014; David R., 2009; and Ajala V.,
way to maintain the relationship and sustain 2005). The results of several studies have
it. According to Palli et al., (2009), David R., revealed that reputation contributes greatly
(2009) and Cornut et al., (2012), corporate to an organization’s market value. In the
reputation is the sum of the different images study of Higher Expectations (2007), the
of an organization or the number of identities report has it that the factors most frequently
an individual has accumulated at a given cited as being used for choosing or declining
period that helps form an opinion about an a university, showed reputation as the third
organization (Gilbert Ansoglenang et al., factor after the course/departmental
2018). Tejuoso (2011) defined corporate considerations, and location (attractive or
reputation as "a deeper set of images", that convenient). Roberts and Thompson's
is, it takes more effort to manage and (2007) research on parents' preference for
sustain the corporate reputation of an the selection and consideration of schools
institution of learning with the various threat revealed that the choice of a less reputable
it is exposed to. Kumar (1999) defines university would be more widely accepted by
corporate reputation as the overall parents if the course offers something
perception held by the organization's key unique, thus, course reputation could over-
stakeholders such as employees, ride concerns about university reputation.
customers’ media, host communities, The value of a good corporate reputation is
bankers, creditors suppliers and even undeniable and confers substantial benefits
competitors (Nwokoha, 2016).Corporate to organizations. To manage corporate
reputation is the methodological, systematic reputation, institutions of higher education
and continuous communication between an need with align their corporate identity and
organisation and its stakeholders. Nakra corporate image (Mustapha158I., &
(2000) defined corporate reputation Andrews158A., 2017), this has contributed
management as a method or systematic greatly to the successful running of higher
approach by which an organization fosters institutions in the developed countries.
and sustains a good name and engenders
Theoretical framework
constructive feedback from its stakeholders
Perception Theory
that will enable it to achieve its strategic and
The theory adopted for this work is the
financial objectives. Furthermore, Fombrun
perception theory which was propounded by
and Rindova, (2001) and Feldman et al.,
Berenson and Steiner (1994). The theory
(2014) considered corporate reputation
assumed that marketing communicators
management as a set of strategies that
want audiences (stakeholders) to pay
organisations develop and employ to cope
attention to their messages, learn the
with stakeholder expectations, manage the
contents of the messages being passed
interpretations that those stakeholders make
across by the media to the audience(s) and
and foster favourable regard (David Roberts,
make appropriate changes in attitudes, or
2009).
produce the desired behavioural response
Corporate Reputation Management and through the patronization of the services
Tertiary Institutions offered. Berenson and Steiner (1994) state
Despite too many pieces of literature that perception theory must be applied
establishing the complexity of corporate effectively to achieve the desired consumer
reputation management failing in behavioural response and sustainable
educational sector, several studies have customer patronage. Hence, administrators
shown a strong synergy between good of tertiary institutions and corporate
corporate reputation and serious-minded communicators should relate with their
158
stakeholders to achieve the desired goals because they will enable the researcher to
based on the perception process which are meet up with the objectives of the study and
the selective exposure, selective attention, to answer questions relating to the
selective retention and selective perception relationship between the variables under
(Ojo & Adedayo, 2017) postulated that discussion. In this study, the researcher
different individuals can react to the same limited its scope mainly to the selected
corporate brand message in different ways. internal stakeholders' representatives from
The relevance of the perception theory can the enormous publics of the university which
be measure from Severin and Tankard are the university's Public Relations Officer
(2001), three selective perception processes (PRO), chairman Senior Staff Association of
that have come into play in today's Nigeria Universities (SSANU), chairman
marketing communication and modern Academic Staff Union of Universities
corporate reputation management. The (ASUU), chairman Non-Academic Staff
proposition states that the way both external Union of Universities (NASU), chairman
and internal audience(s) perceived a National Association of Academic
situation determine their reactions toward Technologist (NAAT), and current Students
the circumstance(s). This permeates that Union SU president of Lagos State
organization’s activities usually determine University's Alumni President. The focus
the kind of reputation and image it will group discussants comprise final year
portray in the public. students (400 level and 300 level students)
across the study university with at least
3. Methodology twelve (12) in a session. At the end of the
This study adopts the qualitative research collection of data, data were analyzed
method using Interviews and Focus Group thematically.
Discussion as research designs. The
interview method is described as one of the 4. Findings
supplementary tools for data gathering and The two categories of the study participants,
is a form of an oral questionnaire. It is a the interviewees and the focus group
face-to-face interaction where a person discussants from among the university
administers structured questions to a stakeholders revealed useful information
member of a sample. Instead of writing the that helped to give answers to the key
interviewee gives the required information questions that are critical for the
verbally in a face to face relationship (Ifidom, achievement of the stated study objectives.
2007). Focus group discussion, according to They agreed on some issues and in some
Babies (2001), is probably the best method cases, the participants differ in their
available to the researcher who is interested responses. This is as a result of differences
in collecting original data for describing a in perception.
population too large to observe directly. It
Research Question One: What are the
involves an in-depth discussion with
factors that constitute brand eroders who are
strategically selected participants in a
responsible for the diminishing corporate
conducive environment in other to allow the
image of Lagos state university?
researcher to gain an insight into the issue
under discussion. Focus Group Discussion Administrative issues
make use of a trained moderator who Major participants' views of the two groups
moderates the activities of the participants revealed that the institution was embattled
and directs them to the objectives of the with maladministration of different forms
study. Most times, the researcher make specifically between 2007-2017, with
available a recorder for recording of the responses pointing to cases that began with
proceedings. The selection of the two the move against the second term struggle
research designs is relevant to this study of the then Vice-Chancellor of the institution.
159
The shared views of the respondents, to know what befell the institution.
particularly the interviewees unveiled that Also, selfish interest took over the
maladministration is a strongly negative entire affairs in the institution to the
factor when it comes to higher institutions' extent that it affected the
corporate image and reputation. They were appointments of Vice-Chancellors.
all of the opinions that the institution "The changing from one vice-
administration malady began with Prof. chancellor to another was as a result
Hussein's second term ambition. As stated of the plot between the internal staff
below: both academic and non-academic
Prof. Hussein came in as the Vice- staff due to some certain benefits that
Chancellor of LASU in the year were been denied like the issue of
2005; in a bid to struggle for the promotion".
second term, he had problems with
the university to the extent that he Economic and Political Influence
was forced to resign. The deputy Economy and political influence steered up
vice-chancellor took over as the the institution at the wake of school fees
Acting Vice-Chancellor, Prof. increment, obviously, in almost all the
Olatunji, who spent six months, then interviews conducted with the institution's
Prof. Obafuwa took over between stakeholders. This is considered as the
2011 and 2015 and it was a very major factor of crisis in LASU. This is one of
turbulent time because he was the reasons why the university experienced
ready to commercialize the strikes on countless occasions. Responses
university, and this gave us a lot of gathered from the interviewees and
problems because the university discussants show that:
community especially the Union The issue of tuition fee increment by
resisted that particular move. the former Lagos state governor,
Fashola, lingered for about three
Only one interviewed respondent aired a
years from 2011 to 2014. This led to
contrary notion that the desired
dissatisfaction from staff, students,
administration began with the emergence of
and parents, among others, that
Prof. Fagbohu as the institution's vice-
resulted in changing the atmosphere
chancellor.
in the school community. A
All the vice-chancellors including the
respondent said that as parents, they
sitting V.C. have failed us because
are not able to send all of their
none of them is ready to act in line
children to school.
with the institutional rule of law.
One of the respondents blamed the
Selfish Interest
institution’s fees increment on external
Interviewees 3 and 5 made special mention
influence:
of their opinion that if stakeholders can
Let me come back to the two times
maintain a high level of sincerity on matters
when we had a crisis. Around 2008
concerning the university, there is a high
and 2009, when we had that crisis in
tendency that things will move well and the
the university, we had a visiting
perceived corporate reputation is likely to be
panel that came into the university
positive in the sense that:
to try and solve the problems, but,
Virtually everybody gets to fight for
unfortunately, they also added
their interest. The stakeholders as at
theirs. However, they resolved so
that time be it at the level of the
many issues and they made some
students Union, academic staff, or
kind of recommendations. One of
non-academic staff unions, solely
the recommendations was that
fought for their interest not wanting
school fees should be increased.
160
The school fees were increased university and this led to the collapse of
from #25000 to #195,000 (faculty of some departments.
art) and more than #200,000 (for "It also resulted in planning to
some faculties), which is more than eliminate some departments like the
four hundred percent (400%) and department of Arabic, CRS,
that led to another crisis. mathematics and the likes, because
Also, when the Lagos state the ratio of the students to the
government in their wisdom lecturers did not have a meaningful
increased the school fees by over match.
four hundred percent, which people
could not afford. This caused some Rioting
kind of negative image for the In all the interviews with the school’s
university. The second school fee stakeholders, all identified riots as one of the
crisis heat almost all the students, ills in LASU. One participant mentioned that
particularly the new set, the rioting was synonymous to the image of the
dissatisfaction led to the blockages institution to the extent that “if there are
of the Badagry expressway and clashes in LASU, Ojo, Iyanaba, Alaba and
OjoIba new site, Iseri expresses an environs, rumours would have spread wide
event that lasted for more than an that the LASU students have started again
hour and disrupted commercial as emphasized by a respondent."
activities and people's movement.
Incessant Strike Actions
The governor heard about this and
Everybody who has gone through our public-
gave a directive to the police and
funded university system suffered varying
other security personnel to
degrees of academic disruptions that
intervene. This, however, was a
negatively affected life during and after
counter fight between the police
school. The participants mentioned
force and the protesting students,
incessant strike as one of the major image
with both parties staging their
eroders of the Lagos state university and
weapons to set boundaries."
specified that it is almost at the end of every
Another participant mentioned that at first
disagreement encountered by the school's
the university staff tend to support the ideas,
stakeholders and strike is always the next
but along the line, they compromised as the
line of action. It has been a strategy used to
agreement between them and the state
reduce the tempo of pressure on an
government was not fulfil by their employer.
occasional basis. A respondent sees the
"Along the line, the nonacademic
issue of the institution's incessant strike as
staff Union NASU supported the
something that is not good for the image of
students in the struggle. The move
the university: You can imagine a university
was interpreted to be the struggle
that goes on strike on yearly basis, so what
for selfish interest because the
do you think will be the perception of the
government had failed to pay them
people, at a time people don't even want to
in line with the promise made to
come to LASU. However, the focus group
support the idea of tuition
respondents maintained the same ground on
increment."
the area of certificate, cultism and incessant
The response of 2 participants pointed out
unrest.
that one of the negative impacts of the
school fee increment on the institution was Research Question Two: What is the
that students considered the school fee as nature of the stakeholders' perceptions on
too outrageous. The institution had a low the university's corporate image?
intake with some departments having less
down five students. Lecturers left the
161
Negative perception committee did their very best; they
The responses of the two categories of solved many issues but they also
respondents corroborated on some nature of added their own because they
what the internal stakeholders' perceptions advised that the school fees should
are on wrong or negative perception be increased by over four hundred
percent. I could recall that in 2007,
The nature of stakeholders’ perceptions
2009, and 2015 respectively, there
about Lagos state university between the
were crises and they were majorly
two groups of respondents is both good and
staff Union crises instigated either at
bad, negative and positive respectively.
the local or national level.”
Negative in the sense that sometimes
Even in the turbulence times of the
between the study periods, the institution
institution, there were still some good things
experienced turbulences of many forms that
that happened to the university as explained
damaged the corporate image and
by a respondent:
reputation of LASU from both internal and
And looking at it from the landmark
external stakeholders. The perception is
achievement, the university cannot
situational in the sense that not all of us
be left out, the positive is that some
enjoy the same thing at the same time,
of our faculties are doing well; our
meaning that to some people it is sweet and
staff, for instance, we are about
to some, it is a sour situation. Many other
three or four academic staff who
external factors affect the internal
joined other universities to become
stakeholders apart from the internal factors.
vice-chancellors, some registrars,
We are having issues as far as LASU is
and our students who left the shores
concerned, you see the teachers and
of this country and are doing well.
students making efforts, within the
A majority from among the participants see
mentioned period there is a crisis, the exit of
the perceptions taking good shape with the
professor lands brought Fagbohun still the
emergence of the present Vice-Chancellor
story has not changed up till now, this
Prof. Fagbohun as the administration that
situation compared LASU situation with that
has come to help to correct and revamping
of a vehicle having a beautiful body with a
the image of Lagos state university.
bad engine.
After various crisis experienced by
Along the line we have some crisis that the university in 2007, 2009, and
wasn't good for the system and also rub off 2015 respectively, but after these
on the image of the university, there are periods especially in the Advent of
some kinds of perceptions that almost this new administration we are
extended to giving negative thought about having it better than before. The gap
the certificate we issue to our students in is incomparable in terms of human
LASU, at a time, people did not want to and nonhuman resources, values,
come to LASU culture, attitude, students, staff, and
management and our way of doing
Responses from the majority of respondents things have changed.
stated that the crisis-driven issues over the For about three to four years now,
university lingered majorly between 2009 the image of the university has been
and 2015. The respondents said, soaring higher and higher and thus,
“around 2008 or 2007, the second has attracted so many benefactors
term interest of the then vice- to the university.
chancellor, a situation which brought Notwithstanding, the discussants mentioned
the internal and external incessant clashes between the university
stakeholders together in other to management and the members of staff
find a solution to the crisis, the
162
unions as the cause of students overstay on the increment pending the time the
campus. refund comes from the government,
the disappointment met resulted into
Research Question Three: What are the
a crisis.
attendance consequences of the ways the
stakeholders perceive the corporate image Valueless Certificate
of the selected institution? The analysis of one of the interviewee and
majority of the focus group participants
The aftermath of the image eroders infers that the outcome of all that has
embattled by the university specifically from befallen the institution within the crisis-driven
2007-2015, particularly before the advent of period has resulted into making employers
Prof. Fagbohun's administration can be of labour to developed negative perceptions
understood from the following angles: over the certificates issued by the institution.
implications received from both internal and Notions of employers of labour about the
external publics, the study will also divide university have caused the university
the consequences into views before 2015 graduates to suffer rejection in the labour
and after the resumption of this present market compared to their counterparts from
administration. other tertiary institutions. This led to people
Zero Motivation having some kind of negative perception
Responses of the interview respondents about the certificates issued by the
proved that part of the maladministration that institution.
rocked the institution was an act of staff zero
Low Students subscription
motivation which usually resulted in
The case of low students subscription to
disagreement between the school authority
LASU according to the interviewees were a
and the staff unions. The issue of salary
combination of factors of university image
increment by 15% proposed by the state
eroders ranging from the incessant strike,
government brought about the faceoff
hike in tuition fees, rioting, delay of
between the university authority and the staff
certificate, cultism, gangsterism among
unions, as the latter saw the institution as
others, are some of the identified reasons
having enough resources to cater for the
mentioned by the collective respondents as
staff but showed no care to the staff's
the cause for the low interest of potential
welfare. Also, another way that the institution
students of the university choice received by
authority failed to motivate the staff of the
LASU within the crisis period. This
university was in 2015, when Prof.
consequence was also mentioned by the
Obafunwa refused to promote staff as at
focus group discussants as what led to the
when due. The conclusion of the
intention of wanting to scrap some
respondents on the welfare’s package of the
departments and courses in the institution
university authority was faulted by the
during the crisis period.
participants and the majority of the
university's staff characterized this as a zero Research Question Four: To what extent
motivation, at a point some staffs were has the Public Relations unit been a viable
willing to LASU if a better offer comes. tool for crisis and Corporate Reputation
What led to the crisis in the year Management?
2009 was as a result of multiple
The Focus Group discussants and the
issues, majorly, when the then
interviewees were asked about their
government of Lagos state
appreciation of the role that Public Relations
increases salary by fifteen percent
plays in revamping the corporate image of
(15%) and the members of staff
the institution.
were anxious as they know that the
Each of the interviewees and the participant
university has enough to cater for
was of the view that corporate reputation
163
played a vital role in creating a peaceful of Art of the university, Baba
atmosphere and putting normalcy into the Keshinton was the one who donated
selected university. the LASU Radio Station. So many
things are coming into the university
Corporate image and brand management.
because there is peace.
Lagos state university has been identified
with decadence rubbing on the corporate Good Media Relations and spontaneous
image and reputation that has resulted into publication
receiving negative perception from her Good Media Relations is another mentioned
stakeholders within the period of study, strategy by the two groups- Focus Group
however, data gathered from both Discussants and the Interviewees as means
participants of the interview and focus group to resolves the different cases of crises that
discussants established that the Public rear their gory heads on the corporate image
Relations Unit of the university has done a and reputation of the institution. The
lot to resolve problems affecting the university regularly supplies information to
corporate perceptions of the university using members of staff through various broadcast
various corporate communication tools as stations to help maintain cordial relations on
yardsticks to revamp the institution and one hand with media men and the other with
making it the number one choice state the society. This was one of the groups’
university in Nigeria for the admission members’ response…One thing we also do
seekers. The participants of the focus group and still doing from our end was to ensure
and the interviewees unanimously agreed the sustainability of a robust relationship with
that the rebranding of the university will the media. And what we started doing now is
smoothen her relationship with investors, that we try to manage it, talk to the media
donors, philanthropist, employers of labours and let them see the good side of the
and others. One of the discussants submits university. Aside from the traditional ways of
that... sending bulletin across to all staffs, a
LASU has become a brand that respondent put it that the other way of
everyone wants to associate with, disseminating information is through the
different stakeholders, banks, tremendous help of the new media...New
manufacturing companies already media has been helped tremendously. You
coming to partner with LASU. And see, what we have done is that we have
also stated further that... leveraged on the various new media
The perception has changed platforms such as Facebook, Twitter,
drastically, people and parents now Instagram, blogs, WhatsApp in which vital
visit LASU for their children’s events of the university are showcased. Now
education. If you go online, you will the university has more than three
begin to see positive WhatsApp groups with 266 members and
commendations, positive things more. Even for the students, we have our
about LASU unlike before. One of Facebook page that we use to send
the interviewees further explained information to the students and they get all
that...And to confirm to you, one of the information as at when due.
the things that have been happening
Response from one of the participants
is that we now have benefactors,
emphasized that...”Symbiosis relationship
people willing to donate to the
between the Public Relations Department of
university. When you go out now,
the university and the school of
you see Charlton Halinter’ one
communication has assisted a lot.”
hundred capacity, the former Lagos
state governor Asiwaju Bola Tinubu The participants unanimously acknowledged
has donated a building to the faculty the undisputable achievement of the
164
publications which has helped to present the in other to send their wards to LASU, and
university well to the society and enhanced many who sold their properties with the
the goodwill of the institution with her publics anticipation that the tuition fee will be
through these in-house publications that are reduced, however, met disappointment as
weekly and monthly reports of the the government was strong-headed over the
university's activities, university prospectus, matter. The participants and the discussants
and the annual info magazine among others. both agreed that things began to fall into
As revealed by a respondent that…We also places for the university with the reversal of
have LASU info. magazine, we have done the tuition fees to what it was before.
the third edition since the new administration Emphasis was given that the university was
came on board, it is one of the things that able to revamp her image on this issue not
we have also done to ensure that we only on the reversal of the tuition fee but the
circulate all we are doing to all stakeholders ability to refund the excesses back to the
both within and outside the university. concerns students.
Dialogue and inclusive governance Adjustment of Vice-Chancellors' Tenure
The interviewees and the Focus Group Policy
Discussants agreed that among the key Another remedy believed by the participants
strategies that can be identified with the employed by the institution to manage the
administration of Prof. Fagbohun is the crisis at hand and against future time
principle of "collective bargaining” as an problem of leadership of the institution is the
approach to resolving the institutional one-term Vice-Chancellor tenure policy. As
issues. The Vice-Chancellor allows for free explained by one of the respondents…Now
entry of any concerns party into his office to the problem is almost half solved, because
discuss or negotiate so that all parties can in the university now, it is only a single
reach an understanding position on any tenure of five (5) years so they do not
issue that concern the university. The envisage that I want a second tenure, so you
dialogue exercises are not limited to the are not supposed to go for second time. The
university staffs alone, it also respondents collectively maintained the
accommodated the students to voice their same view in almost all the themes used to
position. I will say kudos to the resolve the university looming situation, like
administration of the present Vice- motivation, regular updates, and reversal of
Chancellor, Prof. Lanre Fagbohun for being tuition fees and on the adjustment of vice-
able to put every unit of the institution into chancellors' tenure policy.
the system where everybody now sees
himself/herself to be involved in the 5. Conclusion and Recommendations
institution's decision. The study investigated the sustainability of
the corporate reputation and image of Lagos
Reversal of tuition fees State University (LASU) with a strong focus
The participants revealed that things began on factors that constituted brand eroders
to be falling apart for the university with the which are responsible for the type of image
pronouncement of the tuition fees increment LASU had between 2007 and 2017, these
by over 400 percent. The plan to price identified factors determined the kinds of
education beyond the reach of the poor relationship the university received from her
rocked the institution for about 3 years with stakeholders on the different occasions. The
many problems surfaced as a result of this study established that all the participants
action. Prospective students see the revealed that occurrences of
university's tuition fee as unaffordable, some maladministration in the university system
of the students dropped out at the point of ignited different forms of crisis. Majorly, the
entry despite gaining admission, many study discovered that insincerity was
parents resulted into selling their properties paraded in the ways those at the helm of
165
affairs of the university related with members stakeholders which eventually stabilized the
of staffs and the generality of the students normal activities of the institution.
between 2007 and 2015. Thus, this factor
In line with the research findings, the
coupled with other mentioned ones
following recommendations were made:
responsible for incessant clashes between
1. Policymakers should minimize their
the management and staff members of the
interventions into the internal running of
selected university. The study found out that
Nigerian tertiary institutions.
the horrible situation had gone a long way in
2. Corporate reputation and image should
smearing the hard-earned image and
not be handled with kid gloves by
reputation of the institution before adequate
Nigerian educational institutions,
measures were taken to put the university
contrary to this could lead to shattered
on track administratively, politically and
corporate reputation and image.
academically. Also, the study revealed the
3. Both internal and external stakeholders
efficacy of the University Public Relations
should always embrace dialogue as a
Department which came up with effective
vital tool for amicable settlement of
programmes that later enhance a cordial
stakeholders’ disagreements.
relationship among the internal and external
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168
WORKLIFE BALANCE AND EMPLOYEES JOB COMMITMENT: EVIDENCE FROM
SELECTED BANKS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA
1
SHOLESI Olayinka Yusuf
Department of Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management,
2
Erigbe Patience A. PhD
Mountain Top University
3
DAVID Folashade Grace
Centre for Entrepreneurship Development,
&
4
ADEBAYO Adegboye PhD
Department of Accounting,
Hallmark University
Corresponding Email: contactyinkasho@yahoo.com
Abstract
The inability of banks in Nigeria to implement work-life balance initiative or policies is affecting
employees’ job commitment. This study examined work-life balance as a predictor of employees’
job commitment in the banking industry. The study adopted the survey research method and
purposive sampling technique was used. The population of the study was one hundred and sixty
employees, using Krejie and Morgann sample size determination formula, a sample size of one
hundred and thirteen (113) was derived. One hundred and thirteen (113) copies of the
questionnaire were administered but ninety-two (92) copies were duly completed and twenty-one
(21) copies were not usable. Three hypotheses were tested using ordinary least square to test the
hypotheses with the aid of SPSS (24.0) version. The result revealed that a significant relationship
exists between work-life balance, affective, continuance, and normative commitment respectively.
The P values of the three hypotheses tested were less than 0.05 levels of significances. The three
null hypotheses were rejected and the alternative hypotheses accepted. The study recommended
that organizations should adopt appropriate work-life balance initiatives or policies and implement
them to enhance employee job commitment.
Keywords: Affective commitment, Continuance commitment, Employee job commitment and
Normative commitment
1. Introduction phenomenon experienced by overloaded

In today’s organization, increasing employees. The concept of work-life balance
globalization, technological advancement, has been advocated for prime inclusion in
and competition are some of the factors the workplace, particularly in the banking
responsible for the pressure put on industry in Nigeria (Oludayo, Falola Ahaka &
employees in the world of work. In recent Fatogun, 2018). Work-life balance is
time, there has been an upsurge in the concerned with people having a measure of
pressures that work has on the family as control over where, when, and how they
well as the life of employees (Mmakwe & work. This inclusion expects that it will
Ukoha, 2018). According to Woodward ensure the employee’s wellbeing and job
(2007), these factors have changed the commitment, and improve organizational
nature and intensity of working life during the productivity.
last few decades and raised a new
169
Today, work-life balance has become an to examine the effect of work-life balance on
increasingly pervasive concern to both employee’s job commitment as well as
employers and employees of most suggest ways in which organizations can
organizations as it involves the incidence of assist employees to achieve better work-life
fulfilment in all areas of a person’s life. balance and improve their job commitment
Work-life balance primarily deals with an and well being.
employee’s ability to properly prioritize
The inability of banks in Nigeria to
between work and his or her lifestyle,
implement work-life balance policies is
emotional life, health and family life. It hasa
affecting an employee’s job commitment.
great link with the employee’s job
Lack of time usage policies, such as work
commitment, productivity and performance
flexibility, high work pressures and long
(Chiekezie, Nzewi, Emejulu & Chukwujama,
working hours reduces employee job
2016). Where there is a proper balance
commitment. Epic (2011) opined that the
between work and life, employees tend to
Nigerian banking sector is known for its long
put in their best efforts at work, because
hour culture and high workload for
they are happy and their families are happy.
employees. This has probably resulted in a
Attaining equality between work and life is a reduction in job commitment of employees in
test for all employees, particularly working the banking industry, which is affecting
parents. It constitutes a challenge because organizational performance.
where employees are unable to achieve
Previous studies (Ukoha, 2018; Oludayo,
their desired work-life balance, their job
Falola, Ahaka and Fatogu, and 2018; Hasan
commitment and performance reduce.
& Suteng, 2017) have been carried out to
According to laggard and Francis (2004),
investigate the relationship between work-
several factors have been identified by
life balance, performance, and job
various researchers as factors which affect
satisfaction, but little has been done to
employee’s work-life balance. Some of these
examine the effect of work-life balance on
factors are workloads, work-life conflict,
employee job commitment because if the
weekend work and irregular work hours.
employees are not committed, it will be
This trend has affected the banking sector,
difficult for them to perform.
especially as the banking sector has
become more competitive. Commercial The increasing conflict between work and
banks in Nigeria are famous for their long home responsibilities has made some
hours of culture and workload for employees employees not to be able to think straight
which results in the neglect of other areas of and get focused on the job. At the same
life. According to Gruzwacz and Carlson time, the dynamic nature of the work
(2007), the importance of work-family environment has prompted managers to
balance whether implicit or explicit, to the place a higher expectation on the
organizations and employees cannot be employees. Thus, in their quest to meet up
ignored. This is because when employees with the target of the banks, their personal
struggle to balance their work and family life is affected adversely. It is against this
lives, their family and work will be negatively background that this study raises the
affected. The challenges of integrating work following research questions and hypothesis
and family life are therefore part of everyday on work-life balance as a predictor of
reality for the majority of Nigerian working employees’ job commitment in the banking
families. This study is therefore aimed at industry
investigating the work-life practices in the
Nigeria banking industry. It attempts to gain The main objective is to examine work-life
a better understanding of the experiences balance as a predictor of employees’ job
and expectations of employees in an attempt commitment. Specific objectives are to:
170
i. Examine the effect of work-place between an individual and his / her role
support on affective commitment; partners in the work and family domains.
ii. Investigate the effect of work- Furthermore, Maxwell (2005) posits that
interference with personal life on work-life balance is about adjusting working
continuance commitment; and patterns regardless of age, race, or gender
iii. Evaluate the effect of personal-life so that everyone can find a rhythm to help
interference with work on normative combine work with their other responsibilities
commitment. or aspirations. This definition addresses the
work-life balance issue today as concerning
Research Hypotheses
each and every one of us and is not only
Ho1: Work-place support has no significant
limited to women. The issue has become
effect on affective commitment.
universal. Also, the nature of work-life
Ho2: Work-interference with personal life
balance does not only concern working
has no significant effect on
fewer hours, it has become more multi-
continuance commitment.
faceted. It can be stated to include the
Ho3: Personal-life interference with work
following issues according to Maxwell
has no significant effect on normative
(2005):
commitment.
• How long people work (flexibility in the
2. Literature review number of hours worked)
Arising from the changes in the workplace • When people work (flexibility in the
over the years, it became imperative for a arrangement of hours)
balance between an employee’s work and • Where people work (flexibility in the
personal life. According to De Bruin and place of work)
Dupuis (2004), the significance of managing
The Irish national framework committee for
an employee's work-life balance has
work-life balance policy views work-life
spanned over 20 years. Hosie, Forster and
balance as work balance between an
Servatus (2004) opine that the kind of jobs
individual’s work and their life outside work.
available today have become very complex
The point here is that the worker has certain
and the employee is subjected to untold
control over his working time. Working time
pressure to meet is a target in the shortest
means any period during which the
time possible.
individual is working, is at the employer’s
Foley (2007) sees work-life balance as the disposal and is carrying out activities or
extent to which employees perceived they duties assigned to him by the employer.
are experiencing positive relationship, According to David (2009), working time is
between their work and family roles. however not limited simply to the hours of 8
According to Clarke Koch and Hill (2004), (eight) to 5 (five) that one is officially
work-life balance is generally associated expected to work, but includes the time
with an equilibrium between the amount of spent commuting between work and home.
time and effort somebody devotes to work Work-life balance is achieved when an
and personal activities to maintain an overall individual’s right to a fulfilled life inside and
sense of harmony to life. Kalliath and outside paid work is accepted and respected
Brough (2008) define work-life balance as as the norms to the mutual benefits of the
the individual perception that work and non- individual, business and society (the work
work activities are compatible and promote foundation 2005).
growth in accordance with an individual's
Voydanoff (2008) posits that work-life
current life priorities. Also, Grzywacz and
balance is the global assessment that works
Carlson (2007) define work-life balance as
and family resources are sufficient to meet
the accomplishment of role-related
work and family demands such that
expectations that are negotiated and shared
participation is effective in both demands.
171
dependent care challenges or personal
Categories of work-life balance
health concerns of the employee.
initiatives/policies
iii. Dependent care initiatives, benefits are
(Decieri, Holmes, Aboott and Petit (2005)
often provided in the hope that conflicts
and Decieri and Bardoel (2009) identified the
between family and work would be
following work-life balance initiatives.
reduced. The essence of dependent
i. Time usage policies – According to Den
care initiatives is to provide opportunities
Dulk (2001), employees gain more
for employees that have caregiving roles
control over time through flexible time
to concentrate on executing their work
initiatives or even by virtue of exploring
roles while been assisted with the care
flexibility in terms of when or where they
of giving activities. The dependent care
work from. This enables them to balance
initiatives include.
family care, personal and other non-
• On-site child care – It enables
work responsibilities.Flexible work hours
employers to develop plans that
and ability to work on an individually set
align with work demands with the
schedule are consistently rated as the
time that can provide for all shifts
most valuable options provided by
with a capacity to adjust to varying
employers. Time usage policies include
demands on the employees
Flextime, Telecommuting, Job sharing,
Friedman (2001).
Paid vacation, etc.
• Off-site child care is often hinged on
• Flextime (flextime) is an
referral services and may be
arrangement whereby an employee
supported by a provision of such –
opts for the time to begin and finish
services or better still subsidized by
his/her work.
the employer.
• Telecommuting provides the
• Eldercare initiatives offer assistance
employee with an opportunity to
by virtue of consultation and referral
perform his/ her work roles from a
services and where possible
satellite office or from home.
subsidies to help defray the cost of
• Job sharing, according to Morgan
engaging elder caregivers in the old
and Tucker (1991), is an
peoples home.
arrangement where two or more
employees are made responsible for Informal support policies (counselling
handling what was originally a single and welfare initiatives)
full-time job. Informal support policies have been
• Paid vacation is an arrangement considered a crucial variable for ensuring
where employees are given partial the integration of work and non-work
or full financial support for vacations responsibilities as well as performance
to allow for the principle of management (Eze, Olatunji, Aina, 2018).). It
ergonomics to be at play. covers the variable for counselling and
ii. Work leave programmes – parental wellness as espoused in the operation of
leave is official permission given to this study. According to Allen (2001) and
employees with child care giving Kinnumen, Amuno, Geints and Dikker
responsibilities. Female employees (2005), research outcomes reveal greater
oftentimes benefit more from this leave contribution towards work-life balance by
programme, where maternity leave informal support than the formal support.
allows a nursing mother to be away from Cobb (1976) opined that informal support
work for months paid family and medical finds a greater expression. A more general
leave rates with an officially granted concept of social support views social
leave of absence from work to attend to support as the information leading a subject
to believe that he is cared for and loved, that
he is esteemed and valued and that he
172
belongs to a network of communication and further stated that continuance commitment
mutual obligation. of employees is based on their commitment
because they need to do so. Therefore,
Employee’s Job Commitment continuance commitment is the instrumental
The construct of employees’ commitment attachment to the organization based on
has been conceptualized in a variety of individual’s association assessment of
ways. The bulk of research related to economic benefit gained (Beck and Wilson,
organizational commitment can be viewed in 2000). Normative commitment is a feeling of
terms of attitudinal versus behavioural obligation to continue employment (Meyer &
conceptualizations. Organizational Allen, 1991). This normative component is
commitment is an important aspect of viewed as the commitment employees
management literature. It refers to the state consider morally right to stay in the
in which people sense loyalty with their company, regardless of the satisfaction
respective organization, align themselves derived from the organization over time.
with organizational goals and value it Therefore, briefly put, commitment reflects in
(Lambert, Hogan, & Griffin, 2007; Fang, the forms of an employee’s intention to stay
2001). or leave the organization, though it may be
moderated with factors like opportunities
According to Porter, Steers, Mowday and
available outside and normative pressure to
Boulian (1974), commitment is the relative
stay on the job (Hassan, 2002).
strength of an individual’s identification with
an involvement in a particular organization. Therefore, Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993)
They indicated that commitment has three submitted that common to the three types of
components. These components are an commitment, is the view that commitment is
employee’s belief in and acceptance of the a psychological state that characterizes the
organizational goals and values; his / her employee’s relationship with the
willingness to work towards accomplishing organization. Employees with strong
the organization's goals; his/ her strong affective commitment remain with an
desire to continue as an organization organization because they want to, those
member. Meyer and Allen (1991) discussed with a strong continuance commitment
three components of organizational remain because they have to and those with
commitment namely: affective, continuance, a strong normative commitment remain
and normative. According to them, because they feel they ought to stay.
organizational members who are affectively
Lambert, Hogan and Griffin (2007) refer to
committed to the workplace continues to
organizational commitment as the state in
work for the organization because they want
which the employees’ with a sense of loyalty
to. Therefore, affective commitment is the
to their respective organizations align
employee’s emotional attachment to,
themselves with organizational goals and
identification with and involvement in the
values.
organization. Beck and Wilson (2000) stated
that employees that are committed to the Theoretical Review
organization on the affective level because The theories reviewed include:
they view the personal employment i The spillover theory – by Guest (2002)
relationship have been congruent to the ii. Interrole conflict theory – by
goals and values of the organization. Greenhouse and Beutell (1985)
In defining continuance commitment, Meyer Spillover Theory

and Allen (1991) looked at the calculative The spillover theory emphasizes a process
effect of the individual’s perception of whereby experiences in one role affect
weighing of costs and risk associated with experiences in the other, rendering the roles
leaving the current organization. They more alike. It postulates that the conditions
173
under which a spillover between the work role. Thus, many of the expectations often
microsystem and the family microsystem turned failed expectations where an
occurs. It can either be positive or negative. individual has multiple roles to meet. The
If work and family interactions are rigidly roles will inevitably conflict and emerge as
structured in time and space, then spillovers role ambiguity (Goode, 1960) or inter role
in terms of time, energy and behaviour are conflict as opined by (Kahn et al., 1964).
negative. When flexibility occurs, it enables
In a study conducted by Friendman and
individuals to integrate and overlap work and
Greenhaus (2000) that work and family are
family responsibilities in time and space
both allies and enemies in the sense that
which leads to positive spillover and this is
both resources and emotions can be shared
instrumental in achieving a healthy work-life
across the two domains and they can also
balance. According to Guest (2002), the
be depleted by an overbearing responsibility.
determinants of work-life balance are
located in the work and home contexts. The study reviewed two theories that are
There are two interpretations of spillover (a) relevant to this research work but the
the positive association between life and spillover theory was adopted to provide
work satisfaction and life and work values. explanatory framework because the spillover
(b) transference in the entirety of skills and theory stipulates that experience in one role
behaviours between domains, such as when affects experience in the other, which could
fatigue from work is experienced at home or be negative or positive. It is positive when
when family demands interfere with work there is a positive association between life
demands. and work satisfaction, life and work values
and negative when fatigue from work is
Interrole conflict theory
experienced at home or when family
Interrole conflict theory refers to what occurs
demands interfere with work demands.
when meeting the demands in one domain
makes it difficult to meet the demands in the 3. Methodology
other domain. This has also been termed In view of the nature and scope of this study,
opposition or incompatibility theory. The this research is limited to Polaris bank
work-life balance research has been greatly branches in Ikotun, Akowonjo and Egbe of
dominated by the role theory. The theory Lagos State and Zenith Bank branches at
proposes that organizations (i.e. work and Alaba and Lagos State University Ojo
family instructions) may be regarded as role respectively.
systems where the relationship between
individuals are sustained by expectations The study adopted the survey research
that have been developed by roles (Kahn, method. Data were collected through
Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal, 1964). questionnaire administration. The research
A role can be referred to as a set of activities instrument was adapted from Rashidabanu
or behaviours that others expect an and Duraipandian (2014). The questionnaire
individual to execute (Kahn et al, 1964). It is was formatted on a 4 point Likert scale while
assumed in the role theory that both work the purposive sampling technique was used.
and non-work institutions demand varied The validity of the research instrument was
roles, each of which places great ascertained by experts in measurement and
responsibility on the individual. These evaluation from the department of
varying responsibilities in the two life psychology and the department of industrial
domains often contend for a set amount of relations and human resource management.
time, physical energy and psychological The instrument was pilot tested using test
resources (Small & Riley, 1990). re-test method and the reliability co-efficient
Inter role conflict occurs when there are of 0.75 was obtained. The population of the
contradicting expectations within a particular study consisted of Polaris branches at Egbe
174
(25), Ikotun(50), Akowonjo(40) and Zenith questionnaire were administered with the
Bank branches at Lagos State University help of their employees. One hundred and
and Alaba respectively which comprise 45 thirteen (113) copies of the questionnaire
employees, making the total number, one were administrated, ninety-two (92) were
hundred and sixty (160). A sample size of dully completed and returned while twenty-
one hundred and thirteen (113) was derived one (21) were not usable. Ordinary least
using Krejie and Morgan sample size square was used in analyzing data with the
determination technique. The copies of the aid of SPSS (24.0) version.
4 Results and Discussion
Table one: Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Std. Error of
Square the Estimate
a
1 .204 .042 .031 1.00335
a. Predictors: (Constant), WLB
The result shows that there is a linear support and affective commitment. The R2
relationship of .204(20.4%) between work – (.042) shows that 4.2& of the variation in
place support and affective commitment affective commitment is brought about by
which further reveals that there is weak or work – place support.
mild relationship between work-place
.
a
ANOVA
Model Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
b
Regression 3.950 1 3.950 3.923 .021
1 Residual 90.605 90 1.007
Total 94.554 91
a. Dependent Variable: AFFCOM
b. Predictors: (Constant), WLB
a
Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized T Sig.
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 3.734 .551 6.781 .000
1
WLB -.323 .163 -.204 -1.981 .021
a. Dependent Variable: AFFCOM
This indicates the statistical significance of predicts the outcome variable. The B –
the regression model that was run. Here P < Value (0.323) shows that for every 1 – unit
0.05 which indicates that overall the increase in the predictor variable the
regression model statistically significantly dependent variable will decrease by 0.323
Table two
MODEL SUMMARY
Square the Estimate
1 .120a .014 .011 1.10788
175
The result shows that there is a linear personal life and continuance commitment.
2
relationship of 0.120 (12%) between work – The R (.014) shows that 1.4% of the
interference with personal life and variation in continuance commitment is
continuance commitment which further brought about by work – interference with
reveals that there is a weak or mild personal life.
relationship between work-interference with
a
ANOVA
Squares
b
Regression .012 1 .012 .010 .01
1 Residual 110.466 90 1.227
Total 110.478 91
a. Dependent Variable: CONCOM
Coefficientsa
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 2.745 .608 4.515 .000
1
WLB .018 .180 .010 .099 .01
a. Dependent Variable: CONCOM
This indicates the statistical significance of the regression on model that was run. Here P < 0.05 which
indicates that overall the regression model statistically significantly predicts the outcome variable. The B
– Value (0.018) shows that for every 1 – unit increase in the predictor variable the dependent variable
will increase by 0.018.
Table 3: Model Summary

Square the Estimate
a
1 .125 .016 .005 .88542
The result shows that there is a linear between personal-life interference with work
relationship of 0.125 (12.5%) between and normative commitment. The R2 (.016)
personal –life interference with work and shows that 1.6% of the variation in
normative commitment which further reveals normative commitment is brought about by
that there is mild or weak relationship personal – life interference with work.
a
ANOVA
Squares
b
Regression 1.127 1 1.127 1.438 .04
1 Residual 70.558 90 .784
Total 71.685 91
a. Dependent Variable: NORCOM
a
Coefficients
176
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 3.452 .486 7.105 .000
1
WLB -.173 .144 -.125 -1.199 .04
a. Dependent Variable: NORCOM
This indicates the statistical significance of
the regression model that was run. Here P < 5. Conclusion
0.05 which indicates that overall the The study has been able to establish that
regression model statistically significantly work life balance predicts affective,
predicts the outcome variable. The B – continuance and normative commitment of
Value (0.173|) shows that for every 1 – unit employees in the banking sector. The study
increase in the predictor variable the found that the independent variable made
dependent variable will decrease by 0.173. significant relative contribution to the
prediction of employees job commitment.
Discussion
It was found in this study that there is a Thus organizsations should implement work
20.4% weak or mild relationship between life balance policies/initiatives to enhance
work – place support and affective employees job commitment and stimulate
commitment. The result revealed that work – organizational performance.
place support account for 3.1% of affective Therefore it can be concluded that when
commitment. The study further indicates that organizations adopt and implement
work-place support is statistical significant to favourable wok life balance initiatives, it
affective commitment because P< 0.05 would increase employees job commitment.
which is less than 0.05. The result The study suggest that further studies
corroborate with previous studies (Oludayo, should be conducted to find out the effect of
Falola, Obianyju & Demilade, 2018) who each component work life balance initiative
found a linear relationship between work – such as (Time usage policies, dependent
life balance and employee behavioural care initiatives, among others), on
outcomes. The result of hypotheses two and employees job commitment.
three respectively shows that there is a 12% Recommendations
and 12.5% mild relationship between Based on the findings and conclusions
continuance, normative commitment and drawn from this study, the following
work interference with personal life and recommendations were made.
personal life interference with work i. Organizations should adopt appropriate
respectively. The study revealed that work work life balance initiative/policies, to
interference with personal life and personal enable employees balance their work
life interference with work respectively and family life and enhance employees
account for 1.1% and 0.5% of continuance job commitment.
and normative commitment respectively. ii. Management of organizations should
The p value of the three hypotheses tested provide informal support policies such as
are P = 2.1, P = 1 and P = 0.4 for affective counseling and welfare initiatives, to
continuance and normative commitment make the employees feel they are cared
respectively, P< 0.05 level of significance, for esteemed and valued in the world of
as a result the three null hypothesis were work.
rejected and the alternative hypotheses
accepted.
177
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178
AN OVERVIEW OF THE NIGERIAN FILM INDUSTRY: APPELLATION, PROSPECTS AND
CHALLENGES
Sunday Ufot Imoh
Hallmark University,
Itele Ijebu, Ogun State.
E – Mail: utifot11@gmail.com
09060594924, 08132857908
Abstract
This paper traces evolution of the Nigerian film industry, its appellation, prospects and challenges,
from the 19th century – a period that was described as the earliest film – to the decades of the 80s,
90s and 2000s.The appellation Nollywood is controversial and film making in Nigeria is divided
largely along regional and marginally within and religious lines. Thus, there are distinct film
industries seeking to portray the concern of the particular section and ethnicity it represents.
However, the Nigerian film industry can be partitioned into four eras, the colonial period, the
independence period, the indigenization decree period and the Nollywood period. It identifies how
the appellation Nollywood was conceptualized and how it was used to describe the Nigerian movie
industry. It highlights some of the backlash and milestones in the industry. The paper recommends
more talents from Nigerians population of over 180 million, unity among practitioners and a more
implemented copyright law.
Keywords: Nigerian Film industry, Nollywood, Nigeria cinema, Appellation, Prospects,
Challenges.
1. Introduction result, Nigerian content in theatres increased

Film as a medium arrived in the space called in the late 1960s into the 1970s, especially
th
Nigeria in the late 19 century, in the form of productions from Western Nigeria, owing to
peephole viewing of motion picture devices. former theatre practitioners such as Hubert
These were soon replaced in early 20th Ogunde and Moses Olaiya transitioning into
century with motion picture exhibition the big screen. In 1972, the Indigenization
devices, with the first set of films screened at Decree was issued by Yakubu Gowon,
the Glover Memorial Hall in Lagos from 12 to which demands the transfer of ownership of
22 August 1903 Emeagwali (2004), about a total of 300 film theatres from their
Olubomehin (2012). The earliest feature film foreign owners to Nigerians, which resulted
made in Nigeria was the 1926’s Palaver in more Nigerians playing active roles in the
produced by Geoffrey Barkas and; the film cinema and film Obiaya (2015). The oil
was also the first film ever to feature boom of 1973 through 1978 also contributed
Nigerian actors in a speaking role. As at immensely to the spontaneous boost of the
1954, mobile cinema vans played to at least cinema culture in Nigeria, as the increased
3.5million people in Nigeria, and films being purchasing power in Nigeria made a wide
produced by the Nigerian Film Unit were range of citizens to have disposable income
screened for free at the 44 available to spend on cinema going and on home
cinemas. The first film entirely copyrighted to television sets. After the decline of the
the Nigerian Film unit is Fincho (1957) by Golden era, Nigerian film industry
Sam Zebba; which is also the first Nigerian experienced (a second major boom in) the
film to be shot in colour. 1990s, supposedly marked by the release of
the direct–to–video film living in
After Nigeria’s independence in 1960, the
Bondage(1992); the industry peaked in the
cinema business rapidly expanded, with new
mid 2000s to become the second largest film
cinema houses being established. As a
industry in the world in terms of the number
179
of annual film productions, placing it ahead conceptualized or whether it was first used
of the United States and behind only India. It to describe the Nigerian Movie industry.
started dominating screens across the
Evolution of Nigerian Film
African continent, and by extension the
The evolution of film in Nigeria is in
Caribbean.
consonance with Williams George Jordan’s
2. Literature Review assertion in The Power of Peace that
The Nigerian Film Industry in the 19
th Charles Darwin’s 1859 book, The Origin of
Century: Historical Perspective Species by Means of Natural Selection, was
The Nigerian film industry, which has inspired by Thomas Malthus’s Essay on the
evolved from video form, is a constant principle of population. The Nigerian film
Subject for research and scholarship derive from folklore plus traditional dance
“Nollywood” the name given to Nigerian and music of Yore, where people gathered
movies industry is of uncertain origin but is as families, kindred, clans, villages and
imitative of Hollywood in the same way that communities in the evenings or during
“Bollywood” was derived from joining Bali festivals and ceremonies to entertain
and Hollywood to describe the Indian film themselves, Amarachukwu (2018). In the
industry. The Nigerian Home video industry 1940s and 50s, the late Hubert Ogunde
has been linked to or compared with that of popularized the traveling theatre, which went
the more developed Bollywood Spin-off in from one south – western Nigeria city to
India. Historically, Nigeria’s film can be another, staging plays. However, filmmaking
partitioned into four eras; the Colonial like other businesses in Nigeria, suffered a
Period: 1903 – 1959; the independence setback following a dipping economy in the
Period: 1960 – 1972; the indigenization 1980.In 1989, Muyideen Alade Aromire of
Decree Period: 1972 – 1992; and the blessed memory ingeniously produced
Nollywood period, 1992 – present. The Ekun, Nigeria’s first video film in response to
Colonial era begins with the first exhibition of the plunging economy. However, the
film in Nigeria in August 1903 at the Glover Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) was
Memorial Hall in Lagos. The films were popular for many outstanding drama series
largely documentaries. The motive for between the 1970s and 1990s including the
introducing the cinema to Nigeria by the Adio Family, The Village Headmaster, and
British was largely Political and to a lesser Cockcrow at dawn, The Third Eye, Mirror in
extent, social. In the independence Period, the Sun, Check in and Fortunes.
the Nigerian Federal and States film Unit
By the mid – 1990s, with the video film
replaced the colonial Unit, but similarly
business now a money – spinner, less
concentrated on the production of mostly
attention was paid to Television Productions,
documentary and Newsreel films. During the
resulting in low – quality television series on
indigenization Decree period, Nigerian film
air. The theatre going public, who were
makers tried in vain to make successful
already dwindling owning to growing
films, as the Nigerian film industry attempted
insecurity at about the same time, thinned
to promote the national in counterpoint to the
the more; the staging of plays became few
influence of Lebanese and Indians who
and far between, happening mostly during
dominated the distribution and exhibition film
special events. Moreover, the lack of
sector in Nigeria flooded the country with
maintenance of theatre facilities at the
Indian Chinese and India films. This led to
National Theatre where many of the big
Nigerians attempting to produce (Nigerian
plays were presented equally affected the
films. The Nollywood era emerged as a
stage business. However, Charles (2015)
result of several factors one being
notes that NTA was the sole broadcaster of
economics. As noted earlier, no one can
media content back then. When NTA made
claim how the name “Nollywood” was
a decision in 1990 to stop producing media
180
content, it released its in-house talent-and Conti (2008) generally agree that Ken
most importantly, its audiences to other Nnebue’s (1992) Blockbuster, living in
operators. bondage, birthed Nollywood and heralded
the era of producing films in VHS, CD, and
The role of technology is crucial to film
DVD in Nigeria.
evolution. A visionary young trader, Kenneth
Nnebue with a passion for film thought that Also, Nollywood is a sobriquet that originally
combining the talent from the NTA with VHS referred to the Nigerian film industry. The
(video Home System) technology to meet origin of the term dates back to the early
the demand of Nigerians hungry for new 2000s, traced to an article in the New York
entertainment was a good idea. The result Times. Onikekeku (2015), Onazulike (2007).
was the straight-to-video release of living in
The origin of the term “Nollywood” remains
Bondage, a film whose commercial success
unclear; Jonathan Haynes traced the earliest
effectively launched a whole film industry.
usage of the word to 2002 article by Matt
Charles (2015) further explains that digital
Steinglass in the New York Times, where it
technology was rapidly replacing audio and
was used to describe Nigerian cinema.
video tape in both music and film industry
Charles Igwe noted that Norimitsu Omishi
around the world. This result in huge
also used the name in a September, 2002
stockpiles of discarded VHS cassettes in
article he wrote for the New York Times.
vast warehouses all over Lagos and the
Igwe (2015), Onishi (2002). The term
south-east of Nigeria (Onisha and Aba).
continues to be used in the media to refer to
VHS cassettes were an inexpensive way to
the Nigerian Films industry, with its definition
distribute straight-to-video movies releases.
later assumed to be Portmanteau of the
Nollywood words (Nigeria and Hollywood), the
The term Nollywood was coined by the New American Major Film hubAyengho (2012),
York Time Journalist, Norimitsu Onishi in Apara (2013).
2002 when he observed film – making
Definition of Nollywood
activity in Lagos, Nigeria. The term minors
Alex Eyengho (2012) defined Nollywood as
two of the most famous areas of film
the totality of activities taking place in the
production: Hollywood in the US, and
Nigerian film industry, be it in English,
Bollywood in India’s Bombay. For some,
Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo, Itsekiri, Edo, Efik, Ijaw,
Nollywood encapsulates the array of actors
Uhrobo or any other of over 300 Nigerian
and actresses emerging from the film –
languages. He further stated that the origin
making activity in Nigeria, for others, it refers
of Nollywood Started since the pre and post
to the collection of the thousands of movies
independent Nigeria, with the theoretical
that have been made there. However,
(Stage) and Cinematic (Celluloid) efforts of
Nollywood is best understand as referring to
the likes of chief Hubert Ogunde, Chief
the process of film making in Nigeria, where
Amata, Baba Sala, Ade love, Eddie
the films are produced using any and all
Ugboma, etc. Ayengho (2012).Over the
tools available, adequate or otherwise.
years the term Nollywood has also been
Nollywood refers to “nothing wood”, i.e
used to refer to other affiliate film industries,
creating something out of nothing. It can be
such as the Ghanaian English Language
liken to performing open – heart surgery with
cinema, whose films are usually Co-
forks and knives but the patient survives
produced with Nigeria and/or distributed by
Charles (2015).Every film Produced in
Nigerian Companies. The term has also
Nigeria is marketed and viewed as a
been used for Nigerian/ African Diaspora
Nollywood Product. Film researchers in
films considered to be affiliated with Nigeria
Nigeria Onuzulike (2009), Enna, Idakwo,
or made specifically to capture the Nigerian
and Akpovye (2015); Fosudo(2012);
audience. There is no clear definition on how
Chowdu Landesz, Santini, Tejada and Vis
181
“Nigerian” a film has to be in order to be The Nigeria Film Score Sheet and Boom
referred to as Nollywood. of the 2000s
In 1993, the national film festival was held
Some stakeholders have constantly
for the first time in Nigeria, and the industry’s
expressed their disagreement over the term;
film output score sheet recorded moderate
giving reasons such as the fact that the term
figures of about fifty Yoruba Language films,
was coined by a foreigner, as such another
twenty five English Language films, five
form of imperialism. It has also been argued
Hausa language films and one Igbo
that the term is an imitation of what was
language film (Emeagwali, 2004). Nigerian
already in existence (Hollywood and
films institute, Jos was established by the
Bollywood) rather than an identity in itself
Nigerian government in November, 1995 to
that is original and uniquely African.
help develop Young Nigerian talents in the
The First Video Film and Others art of film making. Nnabuko (2012) as at this
The beginning of the video film market in time in 1995, 177 video films were recorded
Nigerian is traced back to the1980s when by the Nigeria censors Board, a number
television production thrived. Many of the which further increased to 233 in 1996. It
television production often found their ways reduced in 1997 to 214, but in 1998
into VHS leading to the development of a increased again to 356. The number of films
small scale informal video trade. The first registered in 1999 was 389 (Obiaya, 2015).
film produced on video in Nigerian is 1988’s
The number of Nigerian video films
Soso Meji, produced by Ade Ajiboye.
registered in 2000 almost doubled the 1999
Subsequently, Alade Aromire produced
value, with 712 films. It continued to further
Ekun (1989) on video Emeagwali (2004).
increase in 2001 through 2002, with 974
However, the boom experienced in this era
and1, 018 respectively. It then reduced once
is generally believed to have kick started by
more to 761 in 2003. Number of video films
Kenneth Nnebue’s Living in Bondage
from Nigeria reached all-time high in 2005,
(1992), although some historians claim
with the number of films registered reaching
otherwise (Emeagwali, 2004 and Ayengho,
1,711 (Obiaya, 2015). Over the years, the
2004).
viewership of Nigerian films spread
This era mated an all time peak in the throughout African and with a massive
number of Nigerian film productions. As at audience in Europe and Asia.
2004, at least four to five films were
As at 2004, at least four to five films were
produced everyday in Nigerian and the
produced everyday in Nigeria. Nigerian
movies already dominated television
movies now dominate television screens
screens, across the African continent and by
across the African continent and by
extension, the Caribbean’s and Diaspora
extension, the Diaspora. According to film
Emeagwali (2004) with the movies
maker’s cooperative in Nigeria, every film in
significantly influencing cultures in many
Nigeria had a potential audience of 15
African nation Onikeku(2015) and the film
million people in Nigeria and about 5 million
actors becoming household names across
outside Nigeria. As at 2007, with a total
the continent.
number of 6,841 registered video parlours
Furthermore, Nnabue had been producing and an estimated of about 500,000
Yoruba language video films before “living in unregistered ones Obiaya (2015), the
bondage”, with his first film being “Aje Ni Iya estimated revenue generated by sales and
mi” (1989), which was also very profitable rentals of movies in Lagos State alone was
Nnabuko, et.al (2012) estimated to be #804 million (US$5million)
per week, which adds up to an estimated
#33.5 billion (US $209 million) revenue for
Lagos state per annum. Approximately
182
700,000 discs were sold in Alaba market per ethnicity it represents. However, there is the
day, with the total sales revenue generated English Language film industry which is a
by the film industry in Nigeria estimated at melting pot for film making and film makers
#522 billion (US$3 billion) per annum, with from most of the regional industries.
broadcast content valued at #250 billion
The Yoruba Theatre Group
(US$1.6 billion,). Okonkwo (2013)
The origin of video film genre in Nigeria is
Qualities of Nollywood Movies shrouded in conflicting views and
The first operators in Nollywood created contentions. Indigenous film historians and
stories and scripts that fitted into what was critics are yet to agree on who could be
being produced at the time, while supporting credited as the initiator of the video
a business model that guaranteed profit. The revolution in Nigeria. While some available
early stories were united by popular themes documents trace this genre to Kenneth
such as Love, marriage and conflicts with Nnebue’s “Living in Bondage” produced in
mothers – in - law. Film makers produced 1992, arguments at other quarters present
clusters of movies based on those themes the Yoruba filmmakers as the pioneers of
until the trend tapped out and a new one the bourgeoning video film industry in
took its place. But the themes of love, Nigeria, and thus accuse others of
betrayal, conflict, deception and triumph subverting history in favour of their region
unite most of the stories (Charles, 2015). (Abiodun, 2011).
Early Nollywood Movies reflect the colorful
Joel Adebisi traced the origin of the Yoruba
culture, architecture and, in many cases, the
theatre group to the masquerade of the
relative affluence in our Nigerian societies,
Egungun (the cult of the ancestor). The
while remaining true to authentic, believable
traditional rite is controlled exclusively by
storytelling. Stories had to resonate with
men and culminates in a masquerade in
target audiences and be supported by a
which ancestors return to the world of the
strong cast, usually with at least one popular
living to visit their descendants. In the ritual
figure. The films are often shot in residences
sense, Yoruba theatre can be traced to the
and offices over the course of a few days,
heterogenic nature of a number of the
and in iconic vehicles, such as BMWs and
deities in the Yoruba pantheon, such as
Mercedes, which were hired for short – term
Obatala the Orisha of creation, Ogun the
use.
Orisha of creativeness and Sango the
More recently, however, global recognition Orisha of lightning whose worship is
has brought about bigger budgets with imbricated with drama and theatre and their
interest from institutional finance and more symbolic and psychological uses (Banham,
mainstream productions. For instance, the 2005).
producers of “Half of a Yellow Sun” raised
The Alaarinjo theatrical tradition sprang from
most of their estimated 4.2Million Pounds
the Egungun masquerade. The Alaarinjo
from local investors in Nigeria. This
were a troupe of traveling performers who
development has somewhat diluted the
were masked (as were the participants in the
inventive, cutting – edge instincts of the
Egungun rite). The Alaarinjo tradition
early film – makers in Nollywood(Charles,
influenced the Yoruba traveling Theatre,
2015).
which was the most prevalent and highly
Nigerian Cinema developed form of theatre in Nigeria from the
Film Making in Nigeria is divided largely 1950s to the 1980s. In the 1990s, the
along regional, and marginally ethnic and Yoruba traveling theatre moved into
religious lines. Thus, there are distinct film television and film and now gives live
industries - each seeking to portray the performances only rarely. Tradition
concern of the particular section and performance modes have strongly
183
influenced the major figures in contemporary “Ajani Ogun” in 1976. This film was one of
Nigerian theatre. The work of Chief Hubert the few huge success that helped put the
Ogunde (sometimes referred to as the father Yoruba Language cinema on the map, and it
of contemporary Yoruba Theatre) was was followed by others by productions by
informed by the Alaarinjo tradition and Hubert Ogunde and others. One of the first
Egungun masquerades. He founded the first Blockbuster from Nigeria, came from the
professional Nigerian theatre company in Yoruba Language industry; a notable
1945 and served in many roles, including example is Mosebolatan (1985) by Moses
playwright, in both English and Yoruba. Olaiya which grossed #107,000
However, “Odun” is one of the traditions that (approximately 2015 #44.2 million) in five
constitute Yoruba and by extension, days of its release (Olubomehin, 2012).
Nigerian theatre. Although there might have
The Hausa Language Cinema
been disagreement about its
The Hausa Language Cinema, also known
appropriateness, it is generally considered
informally as Kannywood, is also a sub-
one of its idioms and it is included in its
industry of Nollywood mainly based in Kano.
classifications (Mineke, 1997).
The cinema, which is the largest in Northern
Undoubtedly, the Yoruba traveling theatre Nigeria, Slowly evolved from the Productions
troupes were the originators of the video – of RTV Kaduna and Radio Kaduna in the
film tradition in Nigeria, however most 1960s. Veterans like Dalhatu Bawa and
available historical records on the History of Kasimu Yero pioneered drama production
Nollywood identify “Living in Bondage” as that became popular with the Northern
the premier video film. Thus, in their audience. The 1990s sawa dramatic change
characteristics manner of retailing theatre in the Northern Nigerian Cinema, eager to
(Bamidele, 1992), the Yoruba itinerant attract more Hausa audience who find
troupes found an opportunity to replace the Bollywood Movies more attractive,
evading motion – picture tradition with video Kannywood, a cinematic synthesis of Indian
cameras originally meant to record social and Hausa Culture evolved and became
functions such as wedding, funeral and extremely popular.
naming ceremonies.
The Appellation Nollywood and Its
The Yoruba Language Cinema Controversy
The Yoruba Language Cinema is a sub In 2012, it was announced that Nollywood
industry of Nollywood, with most of its would be celebrating its 20 year anniversary.
th
practitioners in the western region of This Year marked the 20 Year after the
Nigerian. The Yoruba Language cinema release of direct – to Video Movie “Living in
began as actors of various Yoruba travelling Bondage” (1992), which arguably marked
theatre groups began to take their works the boom in the video film era. The
beyond the stage to delve into movie anniversary was eventually celebrated in
Production using the celluloid format, as far June, 2013. Apara (2013), Husseni (2014),
back as the mid – 1960s. These Olamide (2013).The event was later
practitioners are considered in some revealed to be a decision of a segment of
quarters to be the first true Nigerian the industry and not a unanimously agreed
filmmakers. Movies like Kongi’s Harvest event; the event was organized by
(1972), Bull Frog in the sun (1971), Bisi, Association of Movie Producers (AMP), an
Daughter of the River (1977), Jayesimi association consisting of producers of video
(1980), and cry freedom (1981) fall into this films Apara (2013). Since announcement of
era of a blossoming Yoruba Movie Industry. the “Nollywood @ 20” event in 2012 till its
Practitioners like Ola Balogun, Diro Ladipo Celebration; most of who believed the
and Adeyemi Afolahan (Ade Love) played a industry was much older than 20 years.
significant role when they came out with Since Nollywood has been a term for the
184
entire Nigerian Film industry, it was argued “Achievers” in Nollywood were not honored,
that “Living in Bondage” cannot be used to but rather the practitioners at almost the
celebrate the Nigerian film Industry, stating same level with the organizer of the
that the film wasn’t, in fact, the first Nigerian supposed flawed event were honored
video film, neither was it the first (Angelo, 2013).
“Successful” video film, (Ekeanyanwu, 2013)
President of actors guild of Nigeria at the
much less the First Nigerian film (Angelo,
time, Ibinabo, Fiberesima, admitted that
2013). This controversial celebration also
Nollywood is more than 20 but gave what
gave rise to report that another segment of
was considered and unconvincing statement
industry, “The Association of Nigeria Theatre
on the reason behind the event, stating: “it’s
Art Practitioners (ANTP)” are planning to
about celebrating our own even though
rename the Industry into another term which
Nollywood is more than 20years. It’s been
would encompass the entire history of
long that people have been celebrating us
Nigerian film Industry, since the term
but right now, we are celebrating ourselves
Nollywood has allegedly become ethnically
and giving lots back to the society. It’s a
dichotomized (Tolu, 2014). While it was
good step we have taken especially now that
argued by supporters of the events that it
the quality of our movies had improve
was the “Nollywood brand” that was being
(Apara, 2013).
celebrated and not the Industry, counter –
argument were made that the term Popularity and Backlash
“Nollywood” came into existence only in In 2009, UNESCO rated Nollywood as the
2000s, so explanations were needed on how second-biggest film industryin the world after
the “Nollywood brand” could be extended to Indian cinema in terms of output. Clayton
the year 1992 which isn’t specifically (2010).Since the 2000s, Nigeria movies
significant in anyway, and why not just to the started to dominate television screen across
very first Nigerian film that was made. Bada the African continent, and by extension, the
(2015) and Mc Cain (2011). Diaspora (Emeagwali, 2004). The film actors
have also become household name across
Alex Ayengho had noted in a 2012 article the continent, and the movies significantly
that the term “Nollywood” was absent during influence culture in many African nations
the formative years of both the video film era from way of dressing to speech and use of
and Golden Age. Ayengho (2012). Seun Nigeria slangs. Onikeku (2015). This has
Apara, in his article on 360 Nobs.com stated been attributed to the fact that Nigerian film
“it’s either the promoters of the event didn’t told relatable stories, which made foreign
do their research well or intentionally did not film gather dust on the shelves of video
want to reckon with history.” (Apara, 2013). stores, even though they cost much less.
Adegboyega Oyeniga comment.“I don’t Winker (2004.)
know what they are talking about by
celebrating Nollywood@20”: are they This overwhelming popularity has also led to
celebrating Ramsey Tokunbo Noah or backlash against Nigerian film in several
Genevieve Nnaji? Probably, they are countries; for instance, there have been
celebrating fortune. These people should reported cases of shop selling Nigeria film
stop deceiving Nigerians. Oyeniya (2013). being raided by the Police in Ghana
Some media outlets also reported that the according to them “they are struggling not to
event of the result of greed and selfish be colonized by Nigeria movies”.Onikeku
interest, as the organizers visited political (2015), Onizulike (2007). Several other
figures to solicit fund in the name of the government have also introduced
industry, but allegedly shared the fund protectionist measures, some of which
raised amongst themselves. Another issue include introducing spurious taxes for
raised to fault the event is that the real production houses who want to shoot film in
their countries. In July 2010, Ghana started
185
demanding U.S $1,000 from visiting Nigerian biggest film industry in the world after
actors and U.S $5,000 from producers and Indian. Similarly, Emeagwali (2004)
Directors. The democratic Republic of contented that the Nigerian actors have
Congo had also tried to ban Nigeria film. become household name across the
Jean Roach, a champion of Indigenous art in continent and the movies significantly
Niger, compared Nollywood to aids. He influence cultures in many African
stated that there seems to be a nations, from ways of dressing to
“Nigerianization” of Africa, worrying that the speech and use of Nigerian slang. In
whole continent has come to “Snap” its this way, films are a tool that Nigerian
fingers the in the Nigerian ways. employs to promote their cultural values
and widen their influence to other
The Nigerian film Industry has a strong
Africans.
following in the Africa Diaspora community
2. Influence on other Africans film
in Europe, especially in the United Kingdom
industry:- The increased collaboration
Ozolua (2007).
between Nigerian and Ghana from the
Organizations and Events in Nigerian mid 200s0s led to the resurgence of
Film Industry Ghana’s film industry. However, many
Organizations Ghanaian productions are copyrighted
 Actors Guild of Nigeria (AGN): Is a to Nollywood and distributed by Nigerian
union which regulates and represent the marketers due to Nigeria’s bigger
affairs of film actors in Nigeria and market. Nigerian film makers usually
abroad. It is headed by an elected feature Ghanaian actors in Nigerian
president. movies as well and that has led to the
 Director Guide of Nigeria (DGN) popularity of Ghanaian actors in almost
like their Nigeria counterparts. Korkus
Events (2013), observed that Nigerian
 Africa Movie Academy Award actorshave also starred in some
(AMAA): Is an award – event in Nigeria, Ghanaian productions, in order for the
which reward excellent film making in film to capture wider audience. For
the Africa film Industry. It was created in instance, Van Vicker, a popular
2005 and has been considered to be the Ghanaian actor, has starred in many
most prestigious award in Nollywood Nigerian movies. As a result of these
and on the Africa continent. It is also the collaborations, Western viewers often
most hungered after award and event in confuse Ghanaian movies with Nigerian
African Movie World. films and count their sales as one;
- Africa Magic viewer’s choice however, they are two independent
Awards. industries that sometimes share the
- Best of Nollywood Awards colloquial “Nollywood”.
- Nollywood Movies Award. 3. Reels in Foreign Investors:- The
Nigerian film industry, dubbed
Prospects in the Nigerian Movie Industry
Nollywood, has long kept viewers
1. Social conscience and world
entertained with tales of romance and
Culture:- The film industry of any
riches, and now foreign investors are
country should promote the well being of
increasingly looking for a part of the
humanity, which is an issue that is
action. For instance, U.S giant Netflix,
increasingly critical given the way in
France’s Canalt and China’s Star times
which movies play an ever greater and
are among those making movies in the
more important role in society. Clayton
globe’s second most – prolific film
(2010) reported that UNESCO in 2009
industry, which churns out more than
rated the Nigerian film industry also
2,500 films each year and is topped only
known as Nollywood as the second –
186
by India’s Bollywood. At an event in producer Genevieve Nnaji recently
Nigeria’s economic capital, Lagos in received global commendation with the
2019, potential investor’s from France production of “Lion Heart” which was
mingled with local directors and bought by Netfllix. This is the first
politicians as they heard about the Nollywood movie to be acquired by an
possibilities on offer. This is because American movie streaming company
according to Uwaegbute, “The revenues and is seen as one of the best things to
rose by 36% between 2017 and 2018 happen to Nollywood in recent times. In
from $17.3million to $23.6million”. April 2012, it was reported that the US
4. Revenue Generation:- The Nigerian hedge fund, Tiger Global Management,
film industry, commonly known as had invested US48 million in IROKO TV,
Nollywood, is a thriving space that not the world’s largest online distributor of
only provides an avenue for licensed Nollywood film. This substantial
entertainment but also generates a injection of funds to scale-up
sizeable amount of revenue for the IROKOTV’S video streaming operations
Nigerian economy. In 2018, the arts, was testimony to the growing
entertainment and recreation industry international prominence of Nigeria’s film
represented 0.21% of Nigeria’s G.D.P at industry is popularly known, produces
a value of nearly #270 billion. In the first on average 1500 films per year. This
quarter of 2019, the industry garnered makes it largest film industry in Africa
approximately #87 billion which and globally second only to Bollywood.
accounted for 0.27% of the country’s The industry’s phenomenal growth in the
GDP. The Nigerian box office was last two decades is nothing short of
realized and is expected to grow to an incredible.
estimated #6.4 billion by 2022.
Challenges in the Nigerian Film Industry
5. Employment:- The relevance of the
1. Lack of Unity among Practitioners:-
entertainment industry of which movie
You may not know it from the outside
production is a subset, cannot be
but the Nigerian film industry is divided
ignored. Notwithstanding its monetary
into three. Namely: The Yoruba sector,
contribution, the industry currently
The Igbo sector and The Hausa sector
employs over 1million people, making it
(also known as Kannywood).The Yoruba
one of Nigeria’s largest employers, after
and Igbo faction are debating who
agriculture.It capacity to employ a large
originated filmmaking in the country
number of people has been applauded
while Kannywood set itself aside
by the world bank, acknowledging the
because it is conservative in nature. Like
job creation potential of Nollywood.
that is not enough problem on it own,
6. Award and Recognition:- In 2013,
the Yoruba sector is divided into
Nollywood produced over, 1800 movies
additional two to three factions all
with the cost of producing each movie
claiming to be the authentic one.
ranging between #4.9 million and #13.9
million. The craftsmanship of players in As the proverb goes, a house against
the Nigerian film industry has also itself cannot stand. Hence, the Nigerian
received recognition. Actress and film industry is like a car plagued with
producer, Omotola Jalade ekeinde was various mechanical problems which
acknowledged as one of Times cannot move forward unless those
Magazine 100 most influential people, problems are taken care of.
alongside another world-renowned 2. Piracy:- The average cost of producing
personality like Beyonce and the former a movie in Nigeria ranges between the
first lady of America, Michelle Obama. sums of 3.5 million naira – 5 million
Similarly, Nollywood actress and naira. When done with the production,
187
the movies are made immediately talented filmmaker won’t feature scenes
available in DVDs at the price of 1,000 – of ghost peeling recharge cards to make
1,500 naira. That means for investors to a call or poorly subtitled scenes.
successfully recoup their money and 4. Misappropriation of Fund and Lack of
make profit, about 4,000 – 5,000 units of Government Support:- In 2010, former
DVDs needs to be sold. Although this President Good luck Jonathan released
might seem easily achievable when the sum of 200 million dollars in grant to
considering the fact that there are over the Nigerian movie industry for
180 million citizens in the country – that filmmakers to borrow from and make
is not the situation. As soon as a movie quality movies with. In March, 2013, an
comes out, pirates begin making copies, additional 115 million dollars in grant,
selling them for just 200. Majority of under the name “Project ACT
these pirated copies are made at Alaba Nollywood”, was disturbed in to the
in Lagos State, Aba in Abia State, and industry by his administration. During
Onitsha, Anambra State. this period, the industry experienced
significant change in terms of movie
A recent study by the BBC revealed that
production and global reach. Movie such
9 out of 10 copies are pirated.
as “Half of a Yellow Sun” and “Flower
Consumers see the pirated ones as
Girl” got made from these funds. Also
bargain and rush to purchase it. This
the digitalization of cinemas such as
usually leads to massive loss for
Silver bird, Viva, Ozone and many
producers, who will be left with lots of
others were funded by these grants. But
unsold DVDs, thereby leading to a loss
like many grants before it, the
for them.
Jonathan’s administration grants soon
3. Lack Of Talents In Acting And
disappeared into thin air due to lack of
Producing:- The history and evolution
proper monitoring and corruption.
of the film industry in Nigeria would not
Perhaps due to that, the Buhari-led
be possible without the talents of many
administration has neglected the
creative actors and actresses. From the
industry opting to grow other industries
producer/actors like Herbert Ogunde to
while forget that Nollywood, if invested in
actors like Pete Edochie then Genevive
rightly, has the potential to give our
Nnaji and ultimately the current crops
crude oil industry a run for its money.
which include little Emmanuella, the film
5. Bad Story Lines:- Many of Nollywood
industry have never lacked talents.
movies are easy to read without even
However, when looked at critically, one watching them. The ones about “evil
will notice that the industry is also stepmother” or “mother-in-law” usually
saturated by many talentless individual. featured the enigmatic Patience
These people ostensibly joined the Ozorkwo and Jim Ikye is almost always
industry for the fame or money and not the bad lover boy. On the Yoruba side,
because they love the job. Some of Taiwo Hassan is always usually the
them are so awful, it is better to watch good guy (even when he does
paints dry than them in movies. Also, something bad, the storylines finds a
many of today’s memes in the Nigerian way to justify it). These typecast and bad
social media sphere are pulled from storylines makes movies seem like
movie clips. A whole lot of them are horrible remark of earlier ones.
about hilariously subtitled scenes. While 6. Non-Availability of Cinemas:-
they can be funny, they bury a serious Currently, there are less than 50
problem that many people overlook bad cinemas in the whole country. That is,
movie productions by talentless there’s an average of 1 cinema to
producers. A movie produced by a almost 4 million Nigerians! Like isn’t
188
alarming enough, about 10 of those talented, get to star in movies while
cinemas are in Lagos alone. This means depriving real talent from getting the
there are perhaps states with just one roles. Modern movies use this practice
cinema or worse still states without as a means of raising funds for their next
cinemas at all.This problem project. Eventually, this usually leads to
consequently leads to piracy because cringe worthy moments in movies
actors are forced to release their movies whereby actors failed to portray proper
in DVDs instead of at the cinemas emotions to match dialogues because
thereby making it easy for pirates to get they were not trained for it.
their hands on the movie. Unlike India, 10. Lack of Funds:-As we all know, writers
this has more than 13,000 cinemas with good stories to tell and no funds to
catering for her citizens. finance their dreams are as good as
7. Lack of Quality Control:- An average being unemployed. Many times, movie
person can’t just walk into the hospital to makers have to resort to unconventional
treat patient. However, in Nollywood, an means, such as requesting for payment
average Nigerian with as little as 50,000 for roles and begging on social media, in
naira can decide to make a movie. This order to get money for their movie.As
is because they believe anyone can one of the major challenges facing
produce and act the movie once they Nollywood, the lack of fund have led to
have the resources. This usually leads the death of good story. Stories had to
to horrible and badly scripted pictures. be watered down in order for budget to
Many patrons who do not have the be met and many movie makers who do
money to pursue their projects, they had not want to compromise had to travel out
to watch in the sidelines as these of the country where it is easy to get
amateurs bastardize the industry with funds for movie.
terrible movies.
8. Lack of Umbrella Association:- Recommendations
According to veteran producer, Wale 1. Nigeria’s film industry was born many
Adenuga, the consequence of the decades ago. It comprises English
disunity among practitioners eventually language films (Nollywood), the Yoruba
leads to lack of an association to film industry, and the Hausa film Industry
represent the organization. Lawyers which produces films in Hausa, Igbo,
have the Nigerian Bar Association Yoruba language films as well as those
(NBA), Teachers have the Nigerian in other indigenous languages of
Union of Teachers (NUT) but the film Nigeria. Hence, the need of unity among
industry has no collective association these films is highly needed.
they can point to. Instead, we have 2. Nigeria’s diverse cultural traditions and
various associations claiming to lifestyles (180 million people, 300 tribes
represent different groups of actors. This and some 500 languages) offer a wealth
has made it very difficult for anyone to of material from which the country’s film
see Nollywood as a family. makers skillfully draw to recount simple
9. Paying for Roles:- One of the stories of daily life that resonate with
surprising challenges facing the Nigerians, as well as audiences sharing
contemporary film industry is the paying a similar culture and heritage across
for roles by aspiring actors. Although this Africa and the African Diaspora. Hence,
practice may have been going on for talented individuals should be identified
long time, it only became rampant from the society and incorporated to the
recently with many young talents industry.
desperate for quick fame. These 3. Copyright law (and contract law)
aspiring actors, who are not necessarily underpins the relationship arising from
189
the filmmaking process. Last amended 4. The UNESCO, which had previously
in 1999, Nigeria’s copyright Act is of ranked the industry as the second
particular relevance to Nigerian largest film producer in its 2008 report
filmmakers. Hence, more amendments on global Film Business, refused to
and implementations are needed so as feature Nigerian films in its next report
to make a robust quality films. as it considered the films “Semi –
Professional informal productions”.
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191
COMMUNICATION AND ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE: A STUDY OF FIRST BANK OF
NIGERIA AND ACCESS BANK PLC IN LAGOS STATE
Adelekan Saidi Adedeji (PhD)1

Dominican University, Ibadan
Email: elevateddeji@gmail.com
2
DAVE-ROBINSON Chinenye May
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye
Email: cmdaverobison@gmail.com
3
EZE Benneth Uchenna (PhD)
Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele
Email: beneze7@gmail.com
4
EZE Blessing Mary
Department of Peace Studies
National Open University of Nigeria
Email: blessingokojie717@gmail.com
Abstract
Communication has become very necessary in conducting business in an efficient manner
globally, hence, it’s importance on the success or failure of any organizational change cannot be
underestimated. This study examined the effect of communication (measured by: Upward
communication, Communication technique (bottom-top), Communication gap, Feedback and
Effective communication) on organizational change in the banking sector. The study employed
survey research design. Four hundred and fifty six (456) copies of structured questionnaire was
administered. The validity of the instrument was tested with content validity index (CVI). For the
reliability test, the test-retest method was employed. Data were analyzed using regression analysis
at 5% level of significance. The findings revealed that communication elements (Upward
communication, Communication technique (bottom-top), Communication gap, Feedback and
Effective communication) individually have positive and significant effect on organizational change.
The combined effect of communication on organizational change equally indicated a positive and
significant combined effect (F-stat= 6.567, P<0.05). The study further revealed that communication
elements have a combined adjusted coefficient of determination of 0.642 (Adj. R2= 0.642) which
implied that communication elements account for 64.2% variation in organizational change. The
study concludes that communication plays a significant role in enhancing organizational change.
Specifically, the study concluded that upward communication, communication technique (bottom-
top), communication gap, feedback and effective communication are the most critical elements of
communication driving organizational change.
Keywords: Communication Feedback, Communication Gap, Communication Technique,

Effective Communication, Organizational Change and Upward Communication.
1. Introduction volatile, organizations have been forced to

Over the past few decades organizations adapt to and, when possible, anticipate such
have experienced significant change from change by reinventing themselves through
global environment, work force, organizational redesign, changing the
technological change as a results of organizational culture or using some other
challenging competitive environment and means (Self, 2016). Change in organizations
economic environment that is increasingly is complex, continuous, iterative, uncertain
192
(Lozano, 2015), necessary and inevitable. change success. It is noticed that the
The quality movement, continuous importance of employees in the change
improvement, action learning organizations, process becomes more apparent (Lenberg,
advanced technology, competition, new Tengberg & Feldt, 2016).
consumer media, new distribution
Recent studies about communication show
methodologies, etc., all alter the landscape
that communication has positive correlation
of the familiar (Maltz, 2008).
with many organizational outputs like
Organizational change is concerned and organizational commitment, performance,
involves a process by which an organization organizational citizenship behaviors, and job
transforms its structure, tactics, techniques, satisfaction (Uka, (2014); Adejoh & Hadiza
strategies, operational methods, (2015); Nwata, Umoh & Amah (2016);
technologies, management or organizational Kelvin-Iloafu (2016)). In contrast
culture to effect change within the communication failure may cause
organization environment as well as the functionless results like stress, job
effects of these changes having on the dissatisfaction, low trust, decrease in
internal and external operations of the organizational commitment, severance
organization. Change has become intention, and absence (Bastien, 1987;
synonymous with standard business practice Malmelin, 2007) and this can affect
and an organization needs to change in organization’s efficiency negatively (Zhang &
order to remain competitive (Mutihac, 2010). Agarwal, 2009). However, studies on
Researchers have found that at least more communication and organization change
than half of all the organizational change have been relatively studied more in the
programs do not reach the results which developed economies when compared to a
they intended to produce (Makumbe, 2016 & developing country like Nigeria.
Burns, 2004).
Also, constant delay in accessing
Similarly, in the business world, information by staff seems to limit
communication is necessary for conducting employees’ performance, which could create
business in an efficient manner as the maladministration in integrating
success or failure of any organization to a organizational activities, especially when
considerable extent depends on the change is initiated (Nebo, Nwankwo &
efficiency of its communication process Okonkwo, 2015). The performance of
(Adejoh & Hadiza, 2015). Good employees in relation with their duties and
management recognizes the fact that it has responsibility seems to be doubtful or
to transmit skills and knowledge to those in challenging due to their communication
the organization through its directing, techniques in terms of performance in the
controlling, organizing ability, decision organizations (Occasion, Loewenstein, &
making, and coordinating techniques Nigam, 2015). Communication with
(Spaho, 2013). The quality of employees should be an important and
communication skills possessed by the integrative part of the change efforts and
management of any institution determines strategies. Although the general conclusion
the degree of accomplishment and change about the importance of communication in
effected (Elving, 2014). Communication is a organisational change is demonstrated and
vital tool to be deployed by organizations in agreed on, specific communicative actions,
transforming employee attitudes to accept approaches and effects are still left
organization change. This is considered unexplained (Armenakis & Harris, 2012).
important by managers in organization for Hence, there is a need to investigate how
successful organizational change. While effective communication influence
there is the need to examine the factors that employees attitude towards organizational
serves as threats and associated with change.
193
Furthermore, recent studies on the communication and thereby gaining higher
relationship between communication and rewards and benefits. It provides guidance
organizational change adopted the top- to organizational change through
bottom approach (Smith, 2012; Ocasio, communication in which the attitude of
Loewenstein, & Nigam, 2015; Nebo, workers towards change in a better manner,
Nwankwo & Okonkwo, 2015 & Akarika, in such a way it gives more job satisfaction
Ekanem & Ukpe, 2017). Similarly, to the individual because only self-
communication has also been studied by satisfaction of the work last longer and
organisational behaviourists (Bauer & provides the energy and enthusiasm for an
Erdogan, 2012; Robbins & Judge, 2005) and individual to accept change. Managers can
human resources scholars (Ashkanasy, use the study to enhance acceptance of
Wilderom & Peterson, 2011; Chalofsky, employees during change process and
Rocco, & Morris, 2014; Armstrong & Taylor, thereby increase the performance of the
2014). Nevertheless, their approaches focus entire organization through the new insight
on communication process, types, channels, that it provides to shape employees attitude
barriers and effectiveness in a somehow positively. It provides new knowledge
informational and operational basis, regarding employees’ attitudes towards
minimizing satisfaction over internal acceptance of organizational change. It will
communication from employees’ viewpoint. also provide information that will be more
Thus, in addressing this research gap, this valuable to organizations that operate within
study therefore examines the relationship Nigerian economic environment, as it
between communication and organization provides fresh insight that will enhance the
change using the dimensions of effective employee obstruction of change through
communications as suggested by (Nwata, building right sets of job attitudes.
Umoh and Amah (2016) Hence, this study
2. Literature Review
will examine the relationship between
It is important to establish a general
communication and organizational change.
definition of organizational communication
The study tested the following null because there are many different definitions
hypotheses; that scholars have used in the past.
H01: Upward communication is not Establishing one definition will allow the
significantly related to organizational literature review and the study to focus on
change. one specific area of organizational
H02: Communication technique (bottom-top) communication. Communication is the
do not significantly affect process by which one party as a sender
organizational change. conveys information (i.e. message) to other
H03: Communication gap has no significant party or parties at one end in expecting
effect on organizational change. feedback which must be understood. It is not
H04: There is no significant effect of ending process between the two or more
feedback on organizational change. parties involved and it occurs in many levels,
H05: Effective communication has no such as intra-individual communication level
significant effect on organizational (Keith, 2014). Communication is an action
change. oriented that occurs between at least two
H06: Communication elements have no people, where messages are sent,
significant combined effect on delivered, received and reacted to among
organizational change participants. It proves to be the most
significant tools for managing relationship
The study is valuable for individuals,
about social life and business management
managers and the country as whole. The
(Hasanaj & Manxhari, 2017).
study is ready to lend a hand in improving
employees’ acceptance of change through
194
Communication is the process of expressing written words, or actions on the path of the
feelings, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and communicator in such a way that the
behaviors spoken, non-spoken or in writing receiver gets the same message and reacts
in order to influence other people’s in manner envisaged by the communicator
behaviors or to come to a certain conclusion. (Akam, 2011). While change communication
The interaction that occurs within or among refers to aspects such as communication to
people, workers or customers in define a new vision, to establish the
organizations and institutions occurs by involvement of staff, to provide training, to
adopting communication as a strategy handle power issues and to attend to
(Akan, Er-Ulker & Unsar, 2016). Within marketing matters (Akan, Er-Ulker & Unsar,
organizational context, communication is 2016).
defined as sharing of information and
Organizational Communication Structure
opinions between the components of within
The organizational communication structure
and outside organizational environment for
is defined as the ‘system of pathways
implementing organizational goals in term of
through which messages flow’ or as
their mission, purpose, objectives, strategy
‘patterns of interaction among people who
and for carrying out daily activities within the
comprise the organization’ (Nica, 2014).
organization (Akan, Er-Ulker & Unsar, 2016).
Communications is important in solving
In modern business world, communication is conflicts because it can increase
necessary for carrying out business in an understanding and reduce the risk of
efficient manner. Any business organization jumping to conclusions or making
basically involves two types of generalizations. It is important to understand
communication: external communication that first the sources of most conflict situations.
is directed towards the actors or chieftain in Shonubi and Akintaro (2016) state that
the business environment, and internal communication within an organization is
communication or organizational both formal and informal communication.
communication that is directed to employees Formal communication is that type of
(Spaho, 2013). Within this context, the communication that sends information
concept of communication plays a gigantic officially through formal structure and
role in organizations in this process of channels. There are three types of formal
change. communication: downward, upward and
lateral communication (Nica, 2014).
The main objective of organizational
communication is to inform, disseminate and Downward communication is the one that
convince employees about the flows from upper to lower (from managers to
organization’s goals and policy. This can be their subordinates). Upward communication
done by providing a platform to interact for is the transmission of messages from lower
employees working in various departments levels to the higher ones (such as
and different-level managers, and will also communication initiated by subordinates with
increase job motivation and satisfaction, will their superiors). Lateral communication is
maintain the operations of the organization the flow of messages across functional
and will help attain the organization’s areas at a given level of an organization (this
objectives (Ince, & Gul, 2011). permits people at the same level to
communicate directly) (Shonubi & Akintaro,
Concept of Effective Communication
2016).
Effective communication on the other hand
is a process by which a sender of message, Concept of Change
receive feedback from the receiver in an Change in some way is the necessary and
intended manner (Peter, 2015). Effective important aspect of human life and
communication is a transaction of ideas, organization. Change is the only constant in
directory command or guide into oral or this world where everything keeps on
195
changing continuously. A change is any increase its effectiveness (Lunenburg,
alteration from a normal situation. It is 2013). Some symptoms existing within an
unavoidable event in the life of an individual organization overtly reveal the need for a
and organization; managing it is a persistent change. The need for a change within the
challenge that must be met in order to organization is evident in the continuous
achieve the required level of organizational reoccurrence of the same problems; failure
effectiveness (Lawal, 2012). Change is an to come to a conclusion, although various
approach of shifting/transitioning individual’s strategies have been implemented to solve
teams towards achieving a specific goal. It the problem, and poor employee motivation
also means to alter, replace, substitute, due to various reasons (Capraz, 2017).
exchange, etc. Whatever form it takes, there
Organizational change has become an area
is always a difference between former state
of focus in management literature. Despite
and a new form (Akanshi & Gupta 2016).
the growing significance, change efforts
Organizational change is the movement of a
often suffer a disappointing fate.
business entity away from its current state of
Implementing change in organizations is
operation and towards some desired and
fundamentally difficult. Not only does it entail
better future state in order to increase its
knowledge about what to do, information
effectiveness, to compete among the
needs to be communicated to those charged
competitors in the industry (Lunenburg,
with its application to avoid crisis.
2010).
Communication is a necessary instrument
According to Smith (2015), the phenomenon during change as well as providing
of organizational resistance to change has information about what to do, it can allay
become a distinct field of study. One of the fears about the prospective change and
most well documented findings from studies managers charged with the responsibility of
of individual and organizational behavior is change need to advocate for sufficient belief,
that organizations’ and members’ opposition doggedness and energy to ensure its
to change. Change, the process of moving success (Bel, Smirnov, & Wait, 2017).
to a new and different state of things is a Organizational change has become an area
constant for organizations in order to survive of focus in management literature. Despite
and stay competitive (Abdel-Ghany, 2014). the growing significance, change efforts
Change has become a central theme in the often suffer a disappointing fate. Poorly
study of organizations. During the past managed change communication results in
decade, scores of articles have been gossip and opposition, which also enlarge
dedicated to exploring the process and the negative aspects of the change (Husain,
management of change and an entire 2013).
industry has emerged around the practice of
Butt, Naaranoja, and Savolainen, (2016)
change management. Although the interest
states that organisation may experience
in change among organizational scholars
change due to factors such as; wrong
continues to rise, our understanding of the
interpretation of scope; conflicting
concept remains limited by several flawed
stakeholder expectations or understanding
assumptions relating to change and to the
about project functionality; change in
nature of organizations (Grubbs, 2011).
regulations, laws, and standards; wrong
Change is the empirical analysis of the project assumptions; financial uncertainties;
differences in the structure, quality or the political uncertainties; technology
status of an organizational entity that occur improvements; human behavior-related
in the course of time (Capraz, 2017); uncertainties; omissions during engineering;
organizational change is the movement of mistakes during construction; value
an organization away from its present state engineering; delayed deliveries from the
and towards some desired future state to sub-contractors and vendors; non-
196
conforming components and equipment; affects the organization. The easier means
extreme weather and other force majeure of overcoming this resistance is if the
condition; and incomplete or conflicting communication strategy is designed to take
contract clauses among others. care of resistance.
Simultaneous occurrence of any two of the
Communicating during the ‘move stage:
factors will increase the need for
When change is being implemented, there
organizational change (Butt, Naaranoja, &
are series chains of organizational activity.
Savolainen, 2016).
Since most of the employees are not
Sheik (2013) consider change to involve one participating in the transformation process
or more components of an organizational and do not know exactly what is happening,
structure, entailing reconfiguration of the the level of uncertainty is high and rumors
entire system that has an effect on the key appear (Uka, 2014). The first thing that
sub-systems like formal and informal needs to be communicated is the reasons
procedures, work, human resource, for change, by pointing out the gap between
strategies and hierarchy. If the change desired outcomes and actual outcomes.
involves substantial part of the organization, Although written communication, meeting
it is considered tactical. Change is has been proved to be an effective way of
necessary for an organization's survival and communication, face-to-face communication
have to adjust both their operations is important in this stage.
according to the changing environment, and
Communicating during the ‘refreezing stage:
their organizational structures according to
The basic aim during this stage is to build
new operational models. A change of
sound and realistic organizational structures
organizational structure is an apparent
and processes that support the new ways.
indicator and clear evidence of isolated
The communication should assist
organizational change (Krá & Králov, 2016).
employees’ jobs regarding efficiency,
Communication and change process rewards, controls and relationship roles. The
Klein has identified the objectives and information flow should be non-stop,
communication needs for each stage of the concrete and multidirectional, so that
change process based on Lewin’s change employees have more understanding of the
model (Kelvin-Iloafu, 2016). These personal implications the change has.
objectives include Because of the unavoidable
Communicating during the ‘unfreezing stage: misunderstandings that may occur in this
During this stage, the basic communication stage, communication should primarily
objective is to prepare employees and the concentrate on making public the success of
organization for the transformation. the change and spread the word to
Resistance will increase at the same rate employees.
with how big the change is and how much it
197
Conceptual Framework
Researchers’s Conceptual Model
Theoretical Framework This theory represents a dramatic theoretical

The theory underpinning this study is the move from empirical laws and human rules
system theory, the general system theory approaches for gaining ng knowledge of
was originally proposed by Ludwig von communication. The thought began in the
Bertalanffy, a biologist in 1968 in his work. social and physical sciences in the 19th
This sort provides a general analytical century with George Hegel. Otieno,
framework (perspective) for viewing an Waiganjo, and Njeru, (2015) argued that
organization. Since then the theory has been everything is interrelated and interdependent
used in academic fields such as psychology, components connected and therefore, there
th
history and physiology. Studies conduc
conducted is need to study interconnectedness as a
by theorists in management studies expose means of understanding the world as a
a digression from the classical and human whole. This departs from empirical
relations model. According to Neves and approaches that traditionally study
Eisenberger (2012) the systems theory has phenomena by looking at individual
more valid and applicable stance in internal components. The basic idea behind
communication. This is because the systems
system Systems Theory is, “The whole is greater
approach recognizes the role that than the sum of its parts.” One area of
communication plays in facilitating efficient communication study that utilizes systems
functioning between the various components theory extensively is the study of
of the organizations. organizational communication.
198
The power of looking at communication from are designed into subsystems, making up
a systems perspective is that every the whole system, which itself operates
communicative act impacts the system as a within a larger environment (Hasanaj &
whole. When there is a change in one part of Manxhari, 2017).
a system, it changes the entire system to
Amechi, Long & Chikaji, (2014) posit that
some degree. Those who look at
feedback enables decision makers in the
communication from a systems perspective
organization to strategize to be on top of
believe that it is the interaction of the
issues thereby building network
participants that makes organizations what
relationships. Conferring to Husain (2013),
they are. Communication researchers
the systems theory operates from primary
examine the interactions of those that make
principles of inter-relatedness and
up systems to understand the systems’
interdependence, it can be said that the
goals, as well as how they attempt to
same basic principles form the basis from
achieve goals (Makumbe, 2016).
which communication audit occurs.
Another characteristic of systems is they are
3. Methodology
always trying to achieve homeostasis -- the
The study adopted descriptive survey
state of equilibrium or balance. Systems are
research design in gaining an insight into the
always in a process of trying to achieve a
study. Surveys are useful in describing the
level of homeostasis with their environment.
characteristics of a large population;
When changes occur in either the
relatively not expensive in relation to other
environment or a system, system
design; and allows respondents to answer
participants will adapt in order to maintain
with more candid and valid answers
balance (Akan, Er Ulker & Unsar, 2016).
(Abosede & Onanuga, 2016). The target
One of the reasons each of your colleagues
population comprised of First Bank of
is unique is that each person (component) is
Nigeria (FBN) and Access bank Plc staff.
unique, and thus, the interaction among the
The rationale behind choosing these banks
components is unique and cannot be
were: FBN is an old generation bank, which
duplicated. When we apply this approach to
has operated over a century and has one of
our communication exchanges we can learn
the largest branches and customers. Access
many things about the impacts that our
bank is one of the new generation banks.
interactions have in the systems in which we
The study was conducted in Lagos State
interact (Lalropuii, 2014).
because it is the commercial hub of Nigeria
In organizational communication research, where over 60% of businesses and industrial
some main components of the systems transactions take place (Ogbechie & Anetor,
theory have been identified that informs how 2015). The population of the study
effective communication leads to employee comprised of 698 and 406 employees. The
productivity namely; wholeness, hierarchical staff comprised of male and female; different
and feedback. In systems theory, the whole age bracket; managerial and non-
determines the character and functions of managerial position.
parts (Lalropuii, 2014). Wholeness refers to
Multi-Sampling was adopted for this study.
the interdependence of the various elements
Purposive sampling was used to select
that constitute the system. This means that
Lagos State as the study area; simple
individual parts of a system contribute to the
random sampling was adopted in choosing
existence of the organization. Conferring to
the branches because they are naturally in
Uka, (2014), the concept of an
strata: Senatorial Districts (West, Central
organizational structure indicates that the
and East); and convenience sampling was
relations within an organism are
adopted in the administration of
systematized by order of hierarchy rules. In
questionnaires. Yamane’s sample size
this regard, components the main systems
determination method was adopted in
199
selecting 255 and 201 from First Bank of mechanism) on the dependent variable
Nigeria and Access Bank Plc respectively (Organisational change).
which gave a total of 456 respondents OC=f (UC, CT, CG, FB, EF) .................... (1)
(255+201). The sample comprised of male This can be specifically expressed as:
and female; different age bracket; OC= β0 + β1UCi + β2CTi + β3CGi + β4FBi +
managerial and non-managerial position. β5ECi + µi…………………………………… (2)
The content validity index and test-retest Where OC= Organizational Change but
method were employed to ascertain the proxy by resistance to change.
validity and reliability of the research
UC = Upward Communication
instrument respectively.
CT = Communication Techniques
Primary data was gathered through the CG = Communication Gap
administration of a well-structured FB = Feedback Mechanism
questionnaire, adapted from (Schalock, EC = Effective Communication
Verdugo & Loon, 2017) as a research Where µ = stochastic or random error term
instrument which comprised of bio-data and (with usual properties of zero mean and non-
questions related to both independent and serial correlation).
dependent variables. It employed a 5-point β1, β2, β3, β4 & β5 are the parameters
Likert scale for measurement of responses. β0 is the constant.
Model Specification 4. Results and Discussion
The model below therefore showed the Hypothesis One: Upward communication
effect of the independent variables (upward is not significantly related to organizational
communication, communication technique, change.
communication gap and feedback
Table 4.1: Summary of Hypothesis1 result (Dependent Variable– ORGANIZATIONAL

CHANGE)
Variable(s) Coefficient T P-Value
*
Upward 0.514 4.490 0.0000
Communication
F-Statistics 12.183 (0.0000) R-Square- 0.462
N.B:*: Significant at 5 percent level
Author’s computation from SPSS 23
Source: Field survey (2018)
The result on table 4.1 above revealed that accounted for by upward communication,
upward communication has a positive and while the F-statistics suggests that the
significant effect on organizational change (β model is reliable for decision and policy
= 0.514, p-value =0.0000). This indicated making.
that an improvement in upward Hypothesis Two: Communication technique
communication will enhance the level of (bottom-top) do not significantly affect
organizational change. The coefficient of organizational change
determination (R2) suggested that 46.2%
variation in organizational change is
200
CHANGE)
*
Communication 0. 463 4.731 0.0000
Technique (bottom-
top)
F-Statistics 22.381 (0.0000) R-Square- 0. 318
The result on table 4.2 above revealed that variation in organizational change is
communication technique (bottom-top) has a accounted for by communication technique
positive and significant effect on (bottom-top), while the F-statistics suggests
organizational change (β = 0.463, p-value that the model is reliable for decision and
=0.0000). This indicated that an policy making.
improvement in communication technique Hypothesis Three: Communication gap has
(bottom-top) will enhance the level of no significant effect on organizational
organizational change. The coefficient of change
2
determination (R ) suggested that 31.8%

CHANGE)
*
Communication Gap 0. 410 3.140 0.0000
The result in table 4.3 above revealed that organizational change is accounted for by
communication gap has a positive and communication gap, while the F-statistics
significant effect on organizational change (β suggests that the model is reliable for
= 0.410, p-value =0.0000). This indicated decision and policy making.
that an improvement in communication gap
Hypothesis Four: There is no significant
will enhance the level of organizational
2 effect of feedback on organizational change
change. The coefficient of determination (R )
suggested that 42.9% variation in
CHANGE)
*
Feedback 0. 598 5.196 0.0000
The result on table 4.4 above revealed that improvement in feedback will enhance the
feedback has a positive and significant effect level of organizational change. The
2
on organizational change (β = 0.598, p-value coefficient of determination (R ) suggested
=0.0000). This indicated that an that 53.4% variation in organizational
201
change is accounted for by feedback, while Hypothesis Five: Effective communication
the F-statistics suggests that the model is does not significantly affect organizational
reliable for decision and policy making. change
CHANGE)
*
Effective 0. 698 5.896 0.0000
Communication
The result in table 4.5 above revealed that Hypothesis Six: Communication elements
effective communication has a positive and have no significant combined effect on
significant effect on organizational change (β organizational change
= 0.698, p-value =0.0000). This indicated
that an improvement in effective This sub-section aggregates the indicators
communication will enhance the level of of communication (Upward communication,
organizational change. The coefficient of Communication technique (bottom-top),
determination (R2) suggested that 56.4% Communication gap, Feedback and effective
variation in organizational change is communication); it is estimated to examine
accounted for by effective communication, how these variables jointly affect
while the F-statistics suggests that the organizational change. The model
model is reliable for decision and policy addresses the main objective of the study,
making. which is to examine the effect of
communication on organizational change.
Table 4.6: Summary of Hypothesis 6 result (Dependent Variable – ORGANIZATIONAL

CHANGE)
Variables
Coefficient T P-
VALUE
Constant 2.787 .794 .432
Upward .564* 4.037 .000
Communication
Communication .290* 2.482 .017
Technique
Communication Gap .338* 3.032 .004
Feedback 5.697 .000
Effective .616* 5.992 .000
Communication .649*
F-Statistics = 6.567 R-
(0.0000) Square
N.B:*: Significant at 5 =0. 697
percent level Adj R
Square=
0. 642

202
The result summary on Table 4.6 above technique have the second, third, fourth and
revealed that the combined communication fifth highest effects respectively on
elements have positive and significant effect organizational change
on organizational change (F-statistics=
The study further revealed that
6.567 *0.000). The adjusted coefficient of
2 communication elements have a combined
determination (adjusted R ) suggested that
adjusted coefficient of determination of
64.2% variation in organizational change is 2
0.642 (Adj. R = 0.642) which implied that
accounted for by the combined effective
communication elements account for 64.2%
communication elements. The multiple
variation in organizational change.
regression output for the combined
communication elements revealed that The empirical findings of this study provide
effective communication has the highest evidence that communication elements play
effect on organization, while feedback, an important role in organizational change.
upward communication, communication gap Communication elements: Upward
and communication technique have the communication, Communication technique
second, third, fourth and fifth highest effects (bottom-top), Communication gap, Feedback
respectively on organizational change. and Effective communication have individual
positive and significant effect on
5. Conclusion
organizational change, with coefficient of
This study examined the effect of
determination (which is the percentage of
communication on organizational change in
variation in the dependent variable that is
the banking sector. The study identified and
accounted for by the variation in the
employed five elements of communication
independent variable) of 46.2%, 31.8%,
as used by various scholars and these five
42.9%, 53.4% and 56.4% respectively,
elements are: Upward communication,
which suggest that communication elements
Communication technique (bottom-top),
can all lead to organizational change.
Communication gap, Feedback and
Effective communication. The study The combined effect of communication on
employed survey research design, by organizational change equally indicated a
administering structured questionnaire on positive and significant combined effect (F-
selected staff of two banks in Nigeria. stat= 6.567, P<0.05), with adjusted
2
coefficient of determination Adj. R = 0.642
The findings revealed that communication
(64.2%).
elements (Upward communication,
Communication technique (bottom-top), It can be concluded that communication
Communication gap, Feedback and plays a significant role in enhancing
Effective communication) individually have organizational change. Specifically, the
positive and significant effect on study concluded that upward
organizational change. The multiple communication, communication technique
regression output revealed that combined (bottom-top), communication gap, feedback
communication elements (Upward and effective communication are the most
communication, Communication technique critical elements of communication driving
(bottom-top), Communication gap, Feedback organizational change.
and Effective communication) have positive
Recommendations
and significant combined effect on
In line with the findings, the following
organizational change. The t-statistics
recommendations are made:
values from the multiple regression output
1. It is recommended that banks should
revealed that effective communication has
employ Upward communication,
the highest effect on organization, while
Communication technique (bottom-top),
feedback, upward communication,
Communication gap, Feedback and
communication gap and communication
Effective communication towards the
203
enhancement of their organizational 2. Banks should focus more on effective
change communication as it has the highest
effect on organizational change.
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206
EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT AND ADAPTIVE PERFORMANCE IN THE
MANUFACTURING SECTOR: EVIDENCE FROM DRURY INDUSTRIES LIMITED, OGUN
STATE, NIGERIA.
1
SHOLESI Olayinka Yusuf
Department of Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management
2
AGBOOLA Oluyemisi
Department of Entrepreneurship,
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
Email: agboolaoluyemisi123@gmail.com
2
OYEWOLE Adeola Abosede
Centre for Entrepreneurship Development
P.M.B. 2011, Yaba, Lagos.
3
OLATUNJI Elizabeth Taiwo
Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye
Abstract
The increasing need for dynamic work situation is apparently affecting employees engagement.
This study examined employee engagement and adaptive performance in Drury Industries Limited.
The study adopted the survey research method and made use of census sampling technique.
Three hundred and twenty (320) copies of the questionnaire were distributed, but two hundred and
thirty (230) copies were duly completed and returned. Three hypotheses were tested using
ordinary least square method to test the stated hypotheses with the aid of SPSS (20.0) version.
The result indicates a 56.7%, 51.3% and 67.1% significant relationship between employee
motivation, advocacy, involvement and adaptive performance respectively. The study also found
that, employee motivation, advocacy and involvement account for 32.2%, 26.3% and 45%
variation in adaptive performance respectively at Drury Industries limited. The three null
hypotheses were rejected and their alternative hypotheses accepted. The study recommended
that organizations should put in place and implement appropriate performance incentives such as,
(performance bonuses, recognition awards, profit sharing) among others and also involve
employees in critical decision making process.
Keywords: Employee Engagement, Adaptive Performance, Motivation, Advocacy and

Involvement
1. Introduction that are important to the achievement of

Organizations envisage the creation of an organizational goals (Kenexa, 2008).
environment in which employees give their Engaged employees think and act in a
very best to the enterprise and modern work positive way about the work they do, the
is frequently characterized by new or altered people they work with as well as the
task, and employee engagement had organization. Engagement is a deep
become crucial for adaptive performance connection that employees have with all
(Jundit, Shoss, & Huang, 2015). Employee aspect of their work life, their job, people
Engagement is the extent to which they interact with at work (Saks, 2006).
employees are motivated to contribute to
Griffin, Neal and Parker (2007) posit that
organizational success, and are willing to
adaptive performance is the extent to which
apply discretionary effort to accomplish task
207
individuals adapt to changes in a work adaptation is not self evident because
system or work role. Adaptive performance changing to the new brings psychological
is seen as a behavior that individuals enact costs and employees prefer to stick to the
in responses to or in anticipation of changes status quo. Changes that have transformed
relevant to job related tasks, (Jundt et al, the traditional nature of employment and the
2015). These changes in the work structure of work include, the use of
environment, necessitate the need to autonomous work teams or projects teams
explicitly address how individuals and which results in changes to the
teams adapt using employee engagement responsibilities of individuals, assignments
as the driver. According to Schautfli, and employment relationship in the world of
Gonzalez, Roma and Bakker, (2002) work. Previous studies (Veldhuis, 2016;
employee engagement is a positive, fulfilling Griffen, Neal & Parker 2007) have examined
work related state of mind, this perspective the relationship between employee
views engagement as a positive engagement and adaptive performance
psychological experience when carrying out especially in the service industry (Abeer and
work activities, work tasks, and refers to mohammad, 2014; Jonathan and Anthony,
feelings of vigour, dedication and absorption. 2014) but little has been done in the
manufacturing sector.
Employee engagement can also be defined
in terms of results it is supposed to produce. As work environment becomes more
For example, it is seen as an force that complex, turbulent and unstable the required
motivates employees to higher levels of level of adaptability also includes the
performance. It has been termed as a capacity of individuals to set priorities, the
converted energy similar to commitment to ability to face new problems, as well as
the organization, job ownership and pride capacity to learn and adapt to ongoing
more discretionary effort, passion and changes in sophisticated technology.
excitement, commitment to execution and
Employee engagement and adaptive
the bottom line (Jundit, et al 2015). It can be
performance therefore calls for concern. It is
described as an amalgam of commitment,
against this background that this study
loyalty, productivity and ownership driving
raises the following research questions and
adaptive performance in organizations
hypotheses on employee engagement and
(Griffen, et al 2007). Kahn (1990) also sees
adaptive performance at Drury Industries
employee engagement as the harnessing of
Limited Agbara, Ogun State.
organizations members to their work roles.
In engagement, people express themselves Research Objectives
physically, cognitively and emotionally The main objective is to examine employee
during role performances. Thus engaged, engagement as a predictor for adaptive
employees put much of effort into their work performance
because they identify with it, thus a dynamic, 1. To examine the effect of employee
dialectical relationship exists between the motivation on adaptive performance.
person who drives personal energies 2. To ascertain the effect of employee
(physical, cognitive and emotional) into his advocacy on adaptive performance.
or her work role on the one hand and the 3. To evaluate the effect of employee
work role that facilitates adaptive involvement on adaptive performance.
performance. Research Questions
Statement of the Problem 1. What is the effect of employee
The increasing need for dynamic work motivation on adaptive performance.
situations is apparently affecting employee 2. To what extent would employee
engagement. Organizational changes have advocacy affect adaptive performance
their influences on employees and
208
3. What is the effect of employee presented a multidimentional model of
involvement on adaptive performance. engagement that included two different
types namely job engagement and
Research Hypotheses organization engagement. In other words,
Ho1: There is no significant effect of EE is not only limited to individuals
employee motivation on adaptive psychological presence and cognitive
performance interpretation of role activities but covers
Ho2: There is no significant effect of ones affective and psychological
employee advocacy on adaptive attachments to his job and organization. This
performance. multi dimensional model of Saks not only
Ho3: There is no significant effect of investigated the antecedents of EE but went
employee involvement on adaptive further to also examine the consequences
performance of the study. Ashlach and Leiter (1997)
2. Literature Review termed engagement as the positive antipode
An early approach to engagement was of burnout. They rephrased burnout as an
presented by (Kahn, 1990) who described crosion of engagement with the job in the
employee engagement as the harnessing of view of these authors, employee
organization member’s selves to their work engagement is characterized by energy
roles in engagement, people express involvement and efficacy.
themselves physically cognitively and Categories of Employee Engagement
emotionally during role performance. Harter, Gallup (2006) emphasized that there are
Schmidt and Hayes, (2002) perceive different types of people in organization.
employees engagement in terms of all ready i. Engaged – engaged employees are
known psychological constructs such as the builders. They want to know the desired
individual’s involvement and satisfaction as expectations for their role so they can
well as enthusiasm for work. meet and exceed them. They are
naturally curious about their company
According to Aleweld & Van Bismarck
and their place in it. They perform at
(2002) engaged employees have three
consistently high levels. They want to
characteristics:
use their talents and strengths at work
i. Employee says positive things about
every day. They work with passion and
their organization to other employees
they drive innovation and move their
and customers
organization forward.
ii. Employees have a desire to stay in the
ii. Not engaged – not engaged employees
company
tend to concert on tasks rather than the
iii. Employees serve the organization by
goals and outcomes they are expected
exerting additional discretionary effort.
to accomplish. They want to be told what
Gallup (2006) describes employee
to do just so they can do it and say they
engagement as the involvement with and
have finished. They focus on
enthusiasm for work.
accomplishing tasks than achieving
Schaufeli et al (2002) operationalized outcome. Employees who are not
engagement as a positive fulfilling work engaged tend to fee their contributions
related state of mind that is characterized by are being overlooked and their potential
three – factors vigour high level of energy is not being tapped. They often feel this
and mental resilience while working), way because they don’t have productive
dedication (being strongly involved in ones relationships with their managers or with
work and experiencing a sense of their workers.
significance and enthusiasm) and absorption iii. Actively disengaged- The “actively
(being fully concentrated and happily disengaged” employees are the cave
engrossed in one work. Saks (2006) dwellers. “they are consistently against
209
virtually everything” They are not just able to efficiently deal with uncertain and
unhappy at work, they are busy acting unpredictable work situations that may for
out their unhappiness they sow seeds of example arise from organizational
negativity at every opportunity. Every restructuring, a change in priorities, or the
day actively disengaged workers lowered availability of resources. It require
undermine what their engaged co- that employees adapt quickly and easily to
workers accomplish. As workers make decision in the face of inherent
increasingly rely on each other to uncertainty and ambiguity. Another
generate products and services the dimension of adaptability reflects the
problems and tensions that are fostered capability to solve new problems Pakos
by actively disengaged workers can (2002) opined that this involves the ability to
causes great damage to an find solutions and develop creative
organizations functioning. approaches to handle atypical ill – defined,
or complex problems. Employee are also
Ten Employee Engagement Factors expected to be able to manage the stress
According to Seigts (2006) as cited in Berry associated with the rapid and unpredictable
& Morris (2012). The nine employee nature of change in their must continue to
engagement factors are elements within the make appropriate decisions included here is
workplace that attract, focus, and keep the the capability to positively influence co
most talented employees. These include workers in stressful and/or frustrating
i. Connection situations. Given continuous technological
ii. Career advancement innovation and the evolution of various
iii. Clarify in communication occupations, employees needs the ability
iv. Recognition and willingness to engage themselves in
v. Contribution new learning to deal with change in an
vi. Control over own job efficient manner. They must anticipate
vii. Collaboration between employees prepare for and learn the skill anticipated to
viii. Credibility in leaders be of importance in future jobs (Heketh &
ix. Confidence in the organization Neal 1999). Thus it is assumed that
According to Hesketh & Neal (1999) the employees will be ready and willing to be
concep of adaptive performance is defined involved in their professional development,
in general terms as an individuals ability to to the extent that work environment are
adapt to dynamic work situations. Employee increasingly characterized by team or project
demonstrate adaptive performance by work and the formation of multi disciplinary
adjusting their behaviours to the teams.
requirements of work situation and new According to Edward Morrison (1994)
events. Jundt, et al (2015) perceive adaptive physical adaptability involves the ability to
performance as behavior that individuals work in uncomfortable or difficult
enact in response to in anticipation of environment involving heat and noise.
changes in response to or in anticipation of Physical adaptability involves jobs that
changes relevant to job related tasks. Tasks require the ability to withstand physical strain
relevant changes include changes in the (for example, military services the tourist
nature of job related tasks, the methods for industry emergency services, construction,
accomplishing the tasks, the tasks and the public service the restaurant business and
way effectiveness is maintained. Griffin, baking).
Noel and Parker (2007) define adaptive
performance as the extent to which
individuals adapt to changes in a work Theoretical Review
system or work role. Successful adaptive The theories reviewed include:
performance implies that employees are
210
1. Theory X and Y - By Douglas McGregor 6. They shy away from challenges and
(1960) competition
2. Social Exchange theory-By George
Theory Y: McGregor later realized that
Homans (1961)
theory X does not hold true when universally
Theory X and Y – at the time McGregor was applied. He then profounded an alternative
thinking about this theory he had two theory called theory Y. According to
assumptions about human nature. McGregor, managers who employ
democratic, participative, consultative
The first assumption was that by nature
leadership method are those that believe
some employees are to be led while others
that employees are sensible hardworking,
are to lead. According to McGregor the
ready to accept responsibility growth and
people to be lead should come under theory
who are not indifferent but react positively
X and while the second assumption was
towards organizational change.
that man is not as lazy as theory X suggest
and that work is as natural as play or Features and points to note in theory Y
enjoyment is to man but the difficult thing is i. Men and woman are loving and creative
that unfavourbale working conditions which ii. That most people would be more
man finds himself. Douglas McGregor in interested in work in a given situation.
his theory states that people or even iii. That all that matters to man is not only
managers have varying feature and money. That working condition and
characteristics and they appear differently relationship do count a lot.
from each other. He was interested with the iv. That recognition participation respect
effect of different forms of management and fair play is man’s concern.
styles and traits would have on the efficiency v. That talents and creative potential of
and productivity of workers. He stated that man must be properly tapped and
there are different leadership traits and that utilized.
these traits and styles must have certain vi. It discourages the use of force and
impact on workers both positive and coercion in order to achieves results.
negative. McGregor opined that an vii. That man is above all social animals
autocratic and bureaucratic leader believes who love to live in a group rather than in
that man cannot act and work without isolation.
supervision. According to McGregor Thus, from the above features and points
managers who believe in theory X or who McGregor argues that man should be given
are autocratic and rigid in their approach enough room to perform to create and to
agree that man is inherently lazy, Indolent achieve by bringing into his job accepted
and has no time for work. For him to work, measures of freedom.
he must be forced, coerced and if necessary
Independence and opportunity. He
punished. Theory X manager views man as
discovered that an average man would
irresponsible and only interested in filling his
perform to create and achieve by bringing to
stomach.
his job accepted measures of freedom,
Main features of theory X independence and opportunity he
1. Theory X people are indolent and discovered that an average man would
unwilling to work except force to do so. perform and even strive to excel if properly
2. They do not genuinely know what is mobilized and strengthened through the
good for them. forces of opportunity, reo cognition and high
3. They are generally lazy morale.
4. They love pleasure and are unwilling to
Two factor theory: In the 1950s at
create
Pittsburgh, Herzberg perfected a theory of
5. They require force to switch to action
work motivation which he conducted. His
211
idea was to discover what motivate framework, because according to theory y
employees and to ascertain what they managers who adopt democratic,
actually want in their work. He requested participative and consultative leadership
workers to narrate to him occasions when style are those that believe that employee
they found their job exceptionally good or are sensible, hardworking creative, ready
bad. According to Herzberg, the intrinsic and to accept responsibility, and who are not
extrinsic factors may be divided into two indifferent, but react positively towards
which are: organizational change and dynamic work
i. Motivators situations.
ii. Hygiene factors
3. Methodology
The motivators are the factors which In view of the nature and scope of this study,
determine or increase job satisfaction which this research is limited to the staff of Drury
include: Industries limited Agbara, Ogun state. The
i. Recognition survey research method was employed and
ii. Achievement census sampling technique was used data
iii. Work itself were collected through questionnaire
iv. Responsibility administration. The questionnaire was
v. Individual growth formatted on a 4 point likert scale.
The validity of the research instrument was
According to Herzberg the above points are
ascertained by experts in measurement and
the factors which could bring about job
evaluation from the department of
satisfaction even if the above situations are
psychology and department of industrial
absent. Herzberg maintains that they would
relations and personnel management, Lagos
not cause dissatisfaction because they are
State University, Ojo. The instrument was
extra provision which encourages or boosts
pilot tested using test – re-test method and
motivation. Herzberg called them the
the reliability coefficient of 0.75 was
satisfiers. On the other hand, there are
obtained. Three hundred and twenty (320)
situations or conditions which Herzberg
copies of the questionnaire were
states would cause dissatisfaction if they are
administered, 230 (72%) copies were duly
not present and these are situations relating
completed and returned while 90(28%)
to organizational administration and policies
copies were not usable.
like
1. Salary The copies of the questionnaire were
2. Superior – subordinate relationships administered with the help of the human
3. Job security resources manager and some of their
4. General working condition employees, and people in the area of study
5. Supervision within the period of three weeks interval.
The above condition are called hygiene or Copies of the questionnaire were
maintenance factors because according to administered to the following categories of
Herzberg they are extrinsic to the job. They employees junior staffs, supervisors, and
do not provide motivation if they are management staffs. The study made use of
adequate. However if they are not in place, ordinary least square in analyzing data using
they cause dissatisfaction. the SPSS (20.0) version.
This study reviewed two theories that are 4. Results and Discussion
relevant to this research work, but Theory X Hypothesis 1
and Y was adopted to provide explanatory
Table 1: Model Summary
212
Square the Estimate
a
1 .0567 .322 .291 .67850
a. Predictors: (Constant), EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
The result shows that there is a significant of effect reveals that 0.322 (32.2%) variation
relationship of 0.567 (56.7%) between in adaptive performance is brought about by
employee motivation and adaptive employees motivation while 67.8%%
performance. The coefficient of variation is caused by other factors not
2
determination (R ) which shows the degree accounted for.
a
Coefficients
Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig.
Coefficients Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 3.539 .068 51.857 .000
1 EMPLOYEE
.567 .016 0.347 2.480 .002
MOTIVATION
a. Dependent Variable: ADAPTIVE PERFORMANCE
This indicates the statistical significance of outcome variable (i.e., it is a good fit for the
the regression model that was run. Here, p < data). The B-value (0.567) shows that for
0.05, which is less than 0.05, and indicates every 1-unit increase in the predictor
that, overall, the regression model variable, the dependent variable will
statistically significantly predicts the increase by the 0.567.
Hypothesis 2: Model Summary

Square the Estimate
a
1 .513 .263 0.214 .68117
a. Predictors: (Constant), EMPLOOYEE ADVOCACY
The result shows that there is a significant of effect reveals that 0.263 (26.3%) variation
relationship of 0.513 (51.3%) between in adaptive performance is brought about by
employee Advocacy and adaptive employees motivation while 73.7% variation
performance. The coefficient of is caused by other factors not accounted for.
2
determination (R ) which shows the degree
a
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 3.417 .194 17.624 .000
1
EMPLOYEE ADVOCACY .413 .058 .272 3.217 .000
This indicates the statistical significance of outcome variable (i.e., it is a good fit for the
the regression model that was run. Here, p = data). The B-value (0.413) shows that for
0.00, which is less than 0.05, and indicates every 1-unit increase in employees
that, overall, the regression model advocacy, the adaptive performance will
statistically significantly predicts the increase by the 0.413.
213
Hypothesis 3: Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the
Estimate
a
1 .671 .450 .395 .67730
a. Predictors: (Constant), EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT
The result shows that there is a significant of effect reveals that 0.450 (45%) variation in
relationship of 0.671 (67.1%) between adaptive performance is brought about by
employee involvement and adaptive employees involvement while 55% variation
performance. The coefficient of is caused by other factors not accounted for.
2
determination (R ) which shows the degree
a
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 3.763 .177 21.308 .000

1 EMPLOYEE
.193 .052 .107 2.777 .007
INVOLVEMENT
This indicates the statistical significance of and Mohammed, 2014), who found a
the regression model that was run. Here, p = significant relationship between employee
0.07, which is less than 0.05, and indicates motivation and adaptive performance. The
that, overall, the regression model result of the hypothesis two and three
statistically significantly predicts the outcome respectively shows that there is a 51.3% and
variable (i.e., it is a good fit for the data). The 67.1% significant relationship between
β-value (0.193) shows that for every 1-unit employee advocacy. employee involvement
increase in employees involvement, the and adaptive performance respectively. The
adaptive performance will increase by the study revealed that employee advocacy and
0.193. involvement account for 26.3% and 45% of
adaptive performance respectively while the
Discussion of results remaining 73.7% and 55% are caused by
It was found in this study that there is 56.7% other factors not accounted for. The p values
significant relationship between employee of the three hypothesis tested are (P =0.02,
motivation and adaptive performance. P = 0.00 and (P = 0.07) respectively which is
The result revealed that employee less than 0.05 level of significances as a
motivation account for 32.2% of adaptive result of this the three null hypotheses were
performance, while the remaining 67.8% is rejected and the alternative hypotheses
caused by other factors not accounted for. were accepted.
The study further indicates that employee
motivation is statistical significant to adaptive 5. Conclusion
performance because P < 0.05 which is less The study has been able to establish that
than 0.05. This results corroborates with the components of employee engagement,
previous studies of (Veldhuis, 2016; Abeer such as motivation, advocacy and
involvement predict adaptive performance at
214
Drury industries limited Agbara. The study (motivation advocacy and involvement) on
found that all the independent variables the indicators of adaptive performance.
made significant relative contribution to the
predication of adaptive performance.
Recommendations
Employee involvement emerged as the most
Based on the findings and conclusions
potent predictor of adaptive performance
2 drawn from this study, the following
with the coefficient of determination (R )
recommendations were made.
(450).
i. Organizations should put in place and
The clearly shows that when employees are implement appropriate performance
motivated and involved in organizations it incentives such as performance
stimulates adaptive performance. Therefore bonuses, recognition awards and profit
it can be concluded that when organizations sharing among others.
adopt an effective motivational system and ii. Organizations should provide
involve their employees in the management percrusites perks eg medical, and
of the organizational affairs it enables hazard allowance to stimulate
employees perform better. The study employees adaptability to performance.
suggests that further studies should be iii. Finally the management of organizations
conducted to find out the effect of each should embrace the culture of involving
component of employee engagement their employees in critical decision
making process.
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216
CONFLICT AS AN ORGANIZATION’S ELEMENT OF ADJUSTMENT
1
Ganiyu Rasaq Omokeji
Department of Sociology and Psychology
Fountain University, Osogbo
08037231666
mrgeemum@yahoo.com
2
Tunde Adelaja
Department of Political Science
Hallmark University, Ijebu Itele
3
Atobajaye Emmanuel Modojutimi
General Studies, Federal College of Animal Production and Health Technology, Ibadan
Abstract
World of work today are engrossed with various degree of problems amounted from human
interaction, interrelationship and interdependence among its members. The climate and nature of
work environment largely determine the intensity and extensiveness of the interaction,
interrelationship and interdependence of each actor or group of actors within each of the
organization contributed immensely to organizational sustainability or conflictual situations.
Conflict, is an important concept in phenomenon adjustment because it makes threat or frustration
inevitable, precisely the action designed to satisfy one goal necessarily threaten or frustrate the
other. Conflict may be problematic to the success of an organization but it could also be
instrumental to, evoking a new culture that will be more enduring, give opportunity for cooperation,
resource discovery, conducive working environment, and attainment of self set goals and
enlistment of the organization development. There is no completely satisfactory solution to conflict
occurrence as long as the individual remains committed to both goals. Since conflict is a universal
problem, how it is handled is of the utmost importance. This study attempts to examine the
dimension of conflict situations in the contemporary world of work.
1. Introduction to be some degree of misunderstanding

It has been rightly observed that all activity (Conflict) simply because people do not view
within a contemporary world of work are things the same way. It is just human to
initiated, determined and controlled by the have different point of view on issues
internal and external actors who make up resulting to conflict. Thus, many
the organization and interact on continuous organizations today are engrossed with
basis to produced expected result. And it is several vices/problems amounted from
a truism that where more than one person human interaction, interrelationship and
come together for the purpose of pursuing or interdependence among its actors as
actualizing a set goal, there is bound to be observed in contemporary organisations. It
conflictual inter and intra-personal should be noted, therefore that the nature
relationship among such people before set and environment of work largely determine
objective can be achieved (Rasaq, 2020). the intensity and extensiveness of the
Also, the greater the inter-personal interaction, interrelationship and
interactions, the more a person becomes interdependence of each person or
more exposed to increasing number of group of persons within each of the
conflicts, and the more he acquires and organization. Therefore, to what extent
perfect the social skill of handling such would the organization, group of persons or
conflicts. Inherent is conflict. Whenever and individual be able to identify the sources of
wherever human beings' interact for the conflict, identify negative conflict and
purpose of achieving a goal there is bound develop a conflict resolution techniques or
217
skills that can adequately achieve the coordinated activities or forces of two or
organizational objectives. more actors. To him, activities are
Organizations are dominants components of accomplished through conscious, deliberate
contemporary society. They surrounded us, and purposeful activities through constant
we are born into them and usually die in communication, as willingness on the part of
them. Our life space in between is filled with members to contribute to a common
them. Organizations are important structures predetermined purpose. Edgar Shein (1970)
which make up the social web of also defined an organization as the rational
contemporary modern societies. Most co-ordination of the activities of a number of
citizens of modern societies are complex in people for the achievement of some
nature, because, born in hospital, educated common explicit purpose or goals, through
in a school, work in one organization or the division of labour and through a hierarchy of
other, and to the degree that they participate authority and responsibility.
in religious and political activities, these too According to Gibson et al, organizations are
frequently take place in organizations as devices for pooling and harnessing talent
(Amitai Etzioni, 1969). Modern man can be and ability together into an effective whole
said to be robed with organizations it is that can achieve for them some desired
therefore important to understand the basic objectives. All these definitions have
concern of organization such as conflict, if contributed one thing or the other to the
one will appreciate the modern man and the understanding of what the subject matter,
society in which he lives. We need organizations is. They are all the view that,
organization to get things done, for they do an organizations is the grouping together of
things that individual cannot do by individuals to accomplish goals that they can
themselves which make conflict an intrigue not achieve alone. From my own
part of any successful world of work. For understanding, organization is a group of
instance, when the amount of mental energy people whose activities are consciously
needed to accomplish a certain task requires coordinated towards a common objectives.
more than one individual there is bound for Looking at this definition, an entity needs to
miss-understanding among members, which meet with these two requirements to be
if managed effectively will bring about considered as an organization.
positive influence on goal attainment.
1. At least two people who consider
Therefore, this study attempts to examine
themselves part of a group.
the dimension of conflict situations in the
2. At least one objective i.e. desired and
contemporary world of work focusing on
result: This must be shared in common
contemporary formal Organisations.
by the group
2. Literature Review These group members must definitely work
Organization Conceptualized? together to attain or achieve the shared
Organization has been variously defined and objectives.
described by various scholars on their
various perspectives. According to Amitai Characteristics of an Organization
Etzzioni (1969) and Scott (1964) defined Besides being purposeful group with a set of
organization to be social units (or human interrelated objectives, organizations share a
grouping) deliberated constructed and number of characteristics.
reconstructed to seek specific goals. To i) Purpose or objective or goal: This
Scott, Organizations are defined as relatively provides a rallying point for all activities
specific pre-determined objectives on a of its members. Apart from serving as
more or less continuous basis. common bond for unification of an
organization resources to achieve result,
Also Chester Barnard (1998) defined goals are means for measuring an
organization as a system of consciously organization performance.
218
ii) Task of activity: Every organization postponed until all aspects were critically
carries out a major task of one kind or evaluated.
another that relates to and is directed
Conflict Conceptualized?
towards the realization of its mission or
Ordinarily, conflict could be seen as a
objective.
struggle, a battle, and mutual antagonism.
iii) Resources: Every organization is
Some people seem to thrive on creating
involved in transforming resources to
conflict, while others do their best to avoid
achieve results. The major resources
conflict. Basically, there are different
used by an organization are people
perceptions to the definition or the ways in
(human resources), capital, materials,
which conflict is viewed. Some viewed or
technology and information.
defined conflict in term of behavior, interest,
iv) Dependence on environment: One of
values, ideology and emotional commitment
the most significant characteristics of an
that may not be rational and substantive to
organization is its relationship with
define when the conflicts are broker. Wagner
outside environment. No organization is
IIIand Hollenbeck (1995) corroborate the
an island unto itself. Organizations are
above assertion by saying conflict exist
totally dependent on the outside world
when "there are differences between
(external environment) both for the
personal values and role expectation". This
resources they need and for customers
view was equally shared by Thompson
that would consume the result they
(1997) who says unfortunately at the heart of
desire to attain which goods and
many organization conflicts are differences
services.
concerning values, beliefs and interest"
v) Su-units: Complex organizations form
Essentially, the causes or sources of conflict
sub units, responsible for specific
are those set of differences that may exist
objective and tasks. These sub units
among individuals or group in their bid to
and tasks are called division or
ensure a better working condition, correcting
departments. Sub units are division
an unfavorable organization policy or on the
departments groups of people whose
other hand when the management wants to
activities consciously coordinated
ensure they make maximum use of human
towards common objectives.
resources available not minding the workers
Having known what organization is through
hopes and aspirations.
the definitions and characteristics, it is very
important to note that, during the process of According to Thompson (1997) the following
managing an organization, that is, the are the source or cause of organizational
coordination and directing of both the human conflict: Interpersonal differences,
and materials resources, and while differences in values and believes and
attempting to implement the policy the differences in interest Charles and Garch
parties involves. (1992) also concluded, by highlighting the
following as the main sources of conflict in
Conflict is part of organizational activities
an organization, differentiation, task
and life cycle and the phenomenon occur
relationships and scarcity of resources.
within the individual, between individuals,
Vayrynen (1991) in his own views argued
between the individual and groups and
the organization conflict has its which active
between groups. While conflict is mostly
roots incompatible value and ideologies
perceived as dysfunctional, it can also be
which have been resistant to resolution but
different perspectives. One top executive of
may be transferred in other to make their
a major company maintained that if there
outcome less destructive.
was no conflict on issue, it could not have
been sufficiently analyzed, and the final
Conflict may be problematic to the success
decision on the issues was usually
of an organization but it could also be
219
instrumental to its development, conflict Conflict is a situation of disagreement
evoking a new culture that will be more between two or more parties. A conflict
enduring, give opportunity for cooperation, situation is therefore one that is
resource discovery, conducive working characterized with the inability of those
environment, and attainment of self set concerned to settle out their various
goals and enlistment of the organization differences.
(Ayodele, 2002)
Concept of industry involves an exchange
The above position is supported by Alani relationship between the internal and
(1991) who stated that. Organization conflict external actors; employers and employees
is not always dangerous to the achievement as well as the state. Industrial conflict must
of organization objectives or goal due to the therefore be defined as inability of these
fact that it provides functions consequence parties to reach an agreement on any issues
on the organizations in the sense that a new connected with the objective of employer-
leader may emerge or old goals may be employee relations.
restated which may be more beneficial to the
Levels of Conflict
organization. Gannon (1990), though,
1) Intra-personal conflict type
supported the fact that conflict could be
2) inter-personal conflict situation
beneficiary, he also gives some caution
3) intra-group conflict situation
according to him "conflict in organization is
4) inter-group conflict
healthy because of the fact that it indicate
5) intra-organizational conflict
that the individual and groups are vibrant".
6) inter-organizational conflict
However, he went on to say that "An
excessive amount of conflict distractive, Conflict is a state in which two parties are in
destructive, and may prevent the attainment opposition to each other. Behaviour may be
of the goals of the organization/prevent it. planned and formal, or unplanned or
According to Pettinger (1999) in his own spontaneous. T may be verbal or physical,
View on effect of conflict on the ranging from passive resistance to active
"organizational conflict is higher desirable aggression. Conflictual behaviour includes
and constructive because it energizes directs interference with and resistance of
relationship but it mightneither or die if one the action of one party by another as well as
was ever able to eliminate conflict". The expression of negative attitudes.
argued further that not all organizational Conflict may be interpersonal or inter-group,
conflict is constructive, some are destructive interpersonal conflict may be between a
and one must endeavor to eliminate them. superior and his subordinate or between two
The solution of conflict in an organization individuals at the same level of the
may not be a serious task as educating the organizational hierarchy. Intter-group conflict
organizations on the inheritability of conflict, may arise between two departments or
re- orientating them to know that, a conflict is between management and workers while
easier eliminated or resolved when attempting to implement the policies and
embraced positively and that, it takes a great programmes of their organization.
deal of patient to identify the route of conflict  Intra-personal conflict: conflict within the
and that, it conflict can only be eliminated or individual, arising from uncertainty about
resolved totality by attacking it from the organization expectations; or the
source. A conflict must not be avoided. This situation where work conflict with other
is in support of Alani (1991) who disagree demands personal to the individual.
with the position of the traditional conflict  Inter-personal conflict: conflict between
theorist that says, "Conflict should be individuals usually caused by personality
avoided in order to protect the individuals difference e.g. conflict between the
and the organization" manager and the subordinates.
220
 Intra-group conflict: conflict between power held by one group is views as
individuals and group arising from the excessive by a group is less powerfull.
methods adopted by an individuals to iii) Personal source of conflict: this source
the group norms e.g. conflict within the of conflict emphasizes the human
trade union members, conflict within the aspect of organization. A considerable
junior staffs e.t.c. body of literature indicates that certain
 Inter-group conflict: situation this is the personality attributes including high
conflict that occurs between group in the authoritarianism, high dogmatism and
same organization arising from series of low self esteem, are important source of
factors such as role conflict, power conflict. In addition, empirical evidence
struggle etc, for example, line and staff suggests that conflict also stems from
conflict, labour management conflict where dissatisfaction with roles
e.t.c. requirement and incongruence in status
 Inter organization conflict: conflict hierarchy.
between organizations usually caused iv) Growth and complexity of organization:
by economic factors: innovations, price this create social distance and reduces
war, market share conflict e.t.c. communication and interaction between
organization members. It leads to wrong
Causes of Conflict enactment or perceptions situations and
The following are the various causes or issues between one department and
sources of conflict in an organization: another.
i) Communication service: this refers to v) Competition for resources: interpersonal
those disputes arising from different and inter-group conflicts often occur
difficulties, misunderstanding and noise where two parties compete for
in communication channels/. Research resources. The resources which include
have demonstrated that semantic money, materials, power, prestige,
difficulties arises as a result of training, position and status are generally valued
selective perception and inadequate by organization members and the
information of the activities of other units competition to obtain them usually
within the organization of the activities of evokes a vigorous exercise of power
other units within the organization. and intense display of emotion. Such
Similarly, research also suggests that conflicts frequently manifest themselves
ambiguity and uncertainty all stimulate between individuals who have diverse
misunderstanding which can lead to personalities and predispositions and
organizational conflict. are vying for positions and personal
ii) Structural source of conflict: this refers power and prestige. These type of
to those disputes arising from a number conflict also occur between functional
of structural variables which have been departments between workers union
identified as sources of conflict in and management.
organization. In particular, size and vi) Competition for territory: according to
increasing sixe and specialization have Rush Brookes and Glover (1983) the
found to lead to conflict. Although less word territory in the context of
style of supervision environment does organization means the rights, duties
not necessary exclude conflict entirely. and jurisdiction of any job holder and the
Similarly, conflict is frequently present priviledge and practices which may be
where different reward systems are evolved over time. Conflicts arising from
provided for two or more groups and territory can be a result of territorial
especially where one group gains at violation, or inter-territorial jealousy or
another. Conflict also results when the over crowding.
221
vii) Orientation towards and conflicting suggests that conflict develops gradually;
external norms and rules: the conflicts various antecedents which may not be
and pressure in the ecosystem may be noticed early initially by parties involved in
carried over into an organization. Many the relationships. When conflict begins, the
organization have several publics-in- people concerned manifest it through a
contact. For example, business relate process. For any manger who is willing to
directly to customers, to suppliers of understand the dynamics of conflict, its
various materials, to government management and it process.
agencies, to unions and to other groups.
Consequences of Conflict in
The internal organization of such
Organization
concern frequently reflects these basic
The following are consequence of conflict in
divisions. Thus, an enterprise will have a
an organization;
sales department, a purchasing
1) Organizational conflicts diverts
department, a labour relation
attentions from organizational goals
department etc. some of the internal
attainments and create resentment and
organization conflict which develops
anxiety among members which make
between department result from their
the organization unable to function
structural differences and diverse
properly.
orientation towards different public.
2) Organizational conflict usually causes
Conflicts occur between various
delays in organizational action and
department because they deals with
reduces efficiency and co-ordination.
different pressure from diverse outside
3) Conflicts in an organization can erode
groups. In other words, many conflicts
and destroy the basis for co-operation
between departments in an organization
and team work among organization
are subjected to a member of
members.
constraints external to the conflicting
4) Recruitment and persistent conflicts can
departments themselves. For example, if
cause a feeling of alienation, a loss of
the law requires one department to do
moral and other forms of discontent
one thing and another department is
which make individual to withdrawal
making it, conflict may arise because of
completely from the organization.
incompatible needs or preferences
All the above are destructive consequences
regarding some action.
of conflict. But, there are others positive
Stages of Conflict consequences of organizational conflict
Conflicts changes over time, whenever which are as follows:
group cannot accomplish its set goal or I) Better/good decision making in an
complete a task, the group's member organization through organizational
experience frustration and then result to conflict, the parties involve can come
unethical behaviour. Then those involved together and make a better through
may perceive that conflict issues exists from effective bargaining and eventually
multiple points of view (POV) to gain a better reach a better agreement.
understanding of the conflict issues. Those II) Strike which is one of the consequences
affected this phenomenon responded by of organizational conflict if well
resolving the conflict or many ignite more managed, usually improve the standard
conflict. Therefore, there is the need to of living of the workers
diagnose the nature of the conflict by III) Organizational conflict usually gives the
considering it is a sequence of conflict worker the sense of belonging in the
episodes. Researches have shown that decision making of an organizational.
regardless of the level of conflict, there can IV) Organizational conflict improves
be a progression of conflict in a dynamic understanding among the parties in an
process. The dynamic process of conflict organization.
222
management compromise is required in
Management of Organizational Conflict
order to reach a settlement and agree
The approaches to conflict management are
upon a labour contract.
varied as it causes, sources and context.
iv) Accommodation: when the parties seeks
Conflicts cannot be eliminated, but it could
to appeals the opponents, they may be
be minimized to reduce its negative impact
willing to place their opponents’ interest
on the well-being of the organization.
above their own, in order to maintain the
Organizational conflict could be managed relationship, one party is willing to be
through the following means: self-sacrificing. This is what is referred
i) Competition: when one party seeks to as accommodation.
achieve certain goals or further personal v) The use of formal rules and agreed
interest, regardless of the impact on the procedures: this can be used to resolve
parties to the conflict, he or she recruitment superior surbordinate
competes and dominates. These win- conflicts and to settle continued
lose struggles, in formal groups or in an disciplinary matters and grievances.
organization, frequently utilized the vi) Collectives bargaining: this is a method
formal authority of mutual superior as of fixing wages and conditions of
the dominant force, and the conflicting services after a due process of
parties will use his or her own power negotiation between the representatives
based in order to resolve a victory in his of the management and the organized
or her favour. workers’ union and settling disputes. It is
ii) Collaboration: when each of the parties the method whereby management and
in conflict desires to satisfy fully the labour come together to negotiate and
concern of all parties. We have reach agreement over procedural rules
cooperation and the search for a and substantive issues of industrial
mutually beneficial outcome. In relations. Because of the relatively equal
collaboration, the behaviour of the strength of both sides, the method of
parties is aimed at solving the problem reaching decisions is usually that of
and at clarifying the dif rather than compromise. The process is collective
accommodating various point of view. because it replace individual workers
The participant consider the full range of feeble attempt to usually gain
alternatives, the similarities and improvement for himself with the pooled
differences in view point become more experience and strength through a
cleared focused, and the causes or single union that is backed by collective
differences become outwardly evident. strength, it is bargaining because it is
Because the solution sought in adapted in practical solutions, and
advantageous to all panics, because there is a constant process of
collaboration is often thought of as win- give and take. Thus, the knowledge of
win approach to resolving conflict. management supplement that of
iii) Compromise: when each party to the workers, each side yielding here and
conflict must give something, sharing gaining there
occurs, resulting in a compromised vii) Arbitration by a third party: this is used
outcome. In compromising, there is no when the division between the warring
clear winner or looser. Rather, there is faction is intensed that open
rationing of the object of the conflict or confrontation can not be used because
where the object is not divisible. One the faction are not ready to come
rewards the other by yielding something together for a round table conference.
of substitute value. The requirement the The factions have taken definite
each party gives up something. In positions and their decisions are very
negotiations between union and fundamental. The arbitration
223
approached is then used to break the between the employer and the employees.
deadlock. The arbitrator, who acts at the Issue such as the determination of general
requests of a chosen by both parties in condition of services, discipline, maintaining
conflicts examine the facts and make a a suitable workforce, keeping production
decision to settle the conflict. Although high, adjusting to technological change and
this approach may not eliminate the providing welfare for workers are of
causes of the conflict, it could prevent its paramount importance.
escalation and minimize its negative
When the conflict level is low, performance
effects. A major weakness of this
can also suffer. Innovation and change are
approach is that the ‘solution’ arrived at
less likely to take place, and the organization
by the arbitrator alienate one of the
may have difficulty adapting to its changing
parties in conflict because the arbitrator
environment. If a low conflict continues, the
act as a judge.
very survival of the organization can be
Conflict and Organisational Development threatened. On the other hand, if the conflict
A great deal of industrial relations centers level becomes too high, the resulting chaos
around the resolution of conflicts, hence, it is also can threaten the organization’s survival.
believed that conflict is a permanent feature Conflict can be destructive when it creates
of industrial life. The recognition of this resistance to change, foster distrust, build a
interest not only formalizes the labour feeling of defeat or widen the gap of
management relationship but also shows misunderstanding among the active parties
that the relationship between the parties in organisations. Organizational conflict is
can lead to organizational development also known as a disruptive influence within
(Gannon, 1999). Conflict can be positive organizations, as it can affect the
when it encourages creativity, new organizational effectiveness and lead to
conditions, the clarification of points of view, counterproductive behaviour. This may not
and the development of human capabilities always be the case as research suggests
to handle interpersonal differences. Though conflict at moderate levels within an
conflict can create negative impact to group, organization is optimal for organizational
it may also lead to a positive effect development. Therefore, it is important to
depending on the nature of the conflict. note that conflict does play a part in
Every organization has an optimal level of determining organizational development and
conflict that can be considered highly also that it is not totally undesirable as some
functional which helps to generate positive conflicts appear to be necessary to
performance. Considering the vertical maximize organisations performance
conflict some studies examined the short- (Adenuga, 2015).
term and long-term effects of perceived
The issue therefore, is not one of completely
fairness in organizational conflicts between
eliminating conflict, but rather learn towards
employees and supervisors. The authors
managing conflict effectively. To achieve
concluded that employees’ fairness is
this, it has been advocated that rather than
important in the resolution of organizational
the fighting approach to issues, a problem
conflicts (Obasan, 2011). When employees
solving approach to decision making in
realize that there was fairness in the conflict
industrial relations should be adopted. In any
resolution, the bond between the groups
organization conflict is bound to exists,
strengthens. The authors added that the
because each party has its own interest,
perceived and distributive fairness
aspiration and temperaments. For instance
significantly enhances job satisfaction,
the management’s main interest within an
cooperation, positive organizational
organization is that of possible profit
commitment and satisfaction with outcome
maximization, which means, it will serve to
of conflicts. The attainment of this goal is
produce at the lowest possible cost, while
largely influenced by the type of relationship
224
the concern of the workers union is to embark on the study of the experiences of
secure and maintain the highest and best mobile producing Nigeria. Mobile producing
condition of service for workers. This kind of Nigeria Unlimited as an organization
situation can lead to conflict. Conflict is a recognized the need maintain highly
process, which begins when one party productivity and industrial harmony at all
perceives that other party has frustrated or is work locations and expect its management
about to frustrate some of its concerns or to cooperate always with the recognized
interests. Conflict is a state of mind, it has to workers trade unions namely: (NUPENG)
be perceived by the parties involved. Nigeria Union of Petroleum and Natural Gas
(PENGASSAN) Petroleum and Natural Gas
If one or more parties are not aware of a
Senior Staff Association of Nigeria(Gannon,
conflict, then no conflict exists. In any
1999). . However, the ineptitude on the part
organization conflict are inevitable. Hence,
of management and the complicated
sometimes conflict is functional in the sense
procedures of setting disputes as well as
that it improved the quality of decision,
lack of effective communication between the
stimulate creativity and innovation, provides
management and the workers unions have
a way of airing grievances, releases
often led to industrial conflict. Holt N. Whiter
tensions and encourages self-evaluation and
(1985) defines industrial conflict as collective
change. These result are best gotten where
aggressive action by employee acting
conflict is managed well, but if not, it
through formal organizations of unions.
becomes dysfunctional, which means it will
Since conflict is a permanent feature of
breed discontent, dissolve common ties,
industrial life, the issue therefore is not of
lead to the destruction of the group, retard
complete elimination of conflict but that of
communication reduced group cohesion,
managing conflict effectively. The purpose of
individual interest, supplant group
this study is therefore to examine the
effectiveness and threaten group survival.
concept of industrial conflict vis-à-vis
When such situation occurs and no proper
management Union relationship within the
machinery is used they can lead to strike,
context of the desirability of effective
lock outs, disputes etc.
communication between management and
In a nutshell, the way and manner conflict is union as a means of reducing industrial
managed goes a long way in determining conflict. Furthermore, we shall seek also to
the effective and efficient performance of the examine this relationship in the context of
organization. Therefore, when conflict employees collective action against the
occurs in an organization both union employers through formal unions and how
representatives and management should put the employees have been able to cope with
head together to dialogue to seek lasting conflict. As a result of efforts to resolve the
solution to the causes of the conflict. They conflict, both sides determine the extent to
should begin concessional or just use which a satisfactory resolution or outcome
integrated bargaining where each party does has been achieved. Where one party to the
not need to be too rigid on its interest. This conflict does not feel satisfied or feels only
means, where there is need to compromise; partially satisfied, the seeds of discontent
they should do that on time because a stich are sown for a later conflict, as shown in the
in time saves nine. preceding. One unresolved conflict episode
It is assumed that these rules or procedure can easily set the stage for a second
should be followed by employees and episode. Managerial action aimed at
employers so to guarantee industrial peace achieving quick and satisfactory resolution is
and harmony necessary for efficiency and vital; failure to initiate such action leaves the
productivity. To critically examine conflict possibility (more accurately, the probability)
management and organization development that new conflicts will soon emerge.
in large scale organization I have decided to
225
Conclusion Organization conflict on the other hand is
Conflict is an inevitable factor in any human distractive, destructive and may prevent the
organization. As long as human being, attainment of the goals of the organizational
interact with one another conflict is to prevent it. However, the elimination or
inevitable because we always run into resolution of conflict in an organization on
others who 'have a difference value system the inevitability of conflict, re-orientating
from ours. Conflicts are part of human them to know that conflict is easier to
nature and it is extremely important to study eliminated or resolved when embraced
it not only for theoretical purposes but also positively. And it takes a great deal of patient
for organizational practice, Conflict is not to identify the route in totality by attacking it
bad it’s our intention, perception thought, from the source. A conflict must not be
values up-bringing, personality that make it avoided. Conflict must arise in the
so. It was observed from that most management of an organization because
employees from the population studies conflict is an inevitable phenomeneous
make use of different methods in resolving human’s life, in as much there is an
their conflicts; most of which do not benefit interaction, there must be conflict.
themselves or others. The word of Obasan
The most used means of managing conflict
(2011) is of great important here. He said,
among the managers in Nigeria are
"Conflict may be problematic to success of
bargaining, collaboration, and avoidance.
organization but it could also be instrumental
When conflicts are properly managed in
to evoking a new development that will give
organization, it will lead to the development
more enduring opportunity for cooperation,
of organization for effective attainment and
resource discovery, conductive working
achievement of organizational goals and
environment, attainment of sets goals and
objectives. In an organization, conflict will
upliftment of the organization toward
arise among the junior staff, among the
development.
senior staff within and among department
In conclusion, "conflict in an organization is management, trade and between other
healthy because of the fact that it indicate organization during the process of
that the individual and groups are vibrant implementing organizational policies and
"(Gannon, 1999). Though conflict is often programme but in order to maintain
viewed as negative, it is capable of harmonious relationship within an
increasing organizational innovativeness organization, these conflicts must be
and productivity, thereby improving adequately managed through scientific
organizational performance methods.
References
Adapted Ivancevich J. M. Robert K., & society: On Power, involvement, and
Michael T, M. (2005). Organisational Their Correlates. The Free Press, New
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HALLMARK UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT & SOCIAL SCIENCES (HUJMSS)

Vol. 2, No. 2 ISSN 2705-358X JUNE, 2020

Vol. 2. No. 2 JUNE, 2020

@Faculty of Management and Social Sciences

All rights reserved

Published June 2020

Faculty of Management and Social Sciences

1. Prof. A. A. Sulaimon (Department of Business Administration, University of Lagos, Akoka)

A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

A Note From The Editor-in-Chief........................................................................................... iii

Call For Papers ....................................................................................................................... iv

List of Contributors ............................................................................................................... vii

Development and Carbon Emission: Does Health Policy Matters?. Adekoya

Reward Management System and Employees’ Productivity in the Public Sector:

Job Stress and Employees’ Performance: Evidence from Manufacturing Industries in

Development and Validation of a Happiness Scale Among Africans: A Preliminary

Assessment of Print Media Reportage of the Menace of Cultism in Nigerian

Impulse Buying: Implications and Coping Strategies of Neo-Pentecostal Churches'

An Overview of Heterogeneity, Governance, and Insecurity in Nigerian Societies.

An Overview of Information Communication Technology and the Development of

Economics Teachers’ Knowledge and Attitude of Sustainable Education

Employees’ Evaluation and Banks’ Performance: Evidence from Selected Banks at

Channel of Distribution and Organizational Performance: Evidence from Selected

Standup Comedy in Nigeria: Evolutionand Prospects of a Performance Genre.

Creative Writing as a Tool Towards Nudging Nigeria to Development: An Overview.

An Overview of the Nigerian Film Industry: Appellation, Prospects and Challenges.

Communication and Organizational Change: A Study of First Bank of Nigeria and

Employee Engagement and Adaptive Performance in the Manufacturing Sector:

Conflict as an Organization’s Element of Adjustment. Ganiyu Rasaq Omokeji,

34 Omotajo Julia Arit The Polytechnic, Ibadan

Keywords: Audit Firm Rotation, Audit Partner Rotation, Audit Quality

1. Introduction of 10 years for audit firms (section 20.1) and

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics

Table 2: Correlation Matrix result

Keywords: Development, Carbon emission, Health

1.0 Introduction assist them to be healthy people, qualified to

Table 2: Estimates of the development model using ARDL

CUSUM 5% Significance CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance

a. CUSUM Test b. CUSUM Sq Test

5.0 Conclusion would encourage them to replant and

Keywords: Employees Productivity, Incentives, Public Sector, Reward Management

1. Introduction means of rewarding employees. Other

1. Introduction of stated objectives and their organizational

Source:: Prasad, Vaidya and Kumar (2015)

2.1 Theoretical Review will reduce the feelings of Helplessness

Analysis of Table 2 in respect of their job, while 13.8% disagree. On

Table 5.1: Correlation among Study Variables

Predictors (constant): EST: Environmental Stress

Result of Test of Hypothesis 1 p<0.01) between environmental stress and

Table 5.2: Correlation among Study Variables

EPF Correlation Coefficient 1

Result of Test of Hypothesis 2 using Pearson Correlation. The result of the

Table 5.3: Correlation among Study Variables

EPF Correlation Coefficient 1

Keywords: Happiness, Africans, Reliability, Culture, Development

Introduction relevant in another culture. Therefore, a

Table 3: Showing Factor Loading and Eigenvalues of HLSS (Happiness Subscale)

KEY: X-axis: Eigenvalue value

The scree plot depicts two factors loading Conclusion