Liew Huay Ling, Lim Siew Yee and Helmer Aslaksen Department of Mathematics, National University of Singapore Semester 2, 2000/2001

The Mathematics of Sundials
Liew Huay Ling, Lim Siew Yee and Helmer Aslaksen
Department of Mathematics, National University of Singapore
Semester 2, 2000/2001
Abstract
What is a Sundial?
A sundial is a device which uses the position of the Sun to indicate time.
You Need to Know
1. The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere surrounding the Earth.

2. Zenith is the point on the celestial sphere that is directly over our heads at a given time.
3. The meridian is the imaginary circle passing through the north and south points on our
horizon and through the zenith.
4. The north celestial pole and the south celestial pole are the imaginary points in the sky
directly above the geographic north and south poles, respectively.
5. The celestial equator is the imaginary circle around the sky directly above the Earth's
equator.
6. The ecliptic is the imaginary path that the Sun follows on the celestial sphere over the
course of a year.
7. The vernal (spring) and autumnal (fall) equinoxes are the two points where the ecliptic
and the celestial equator intersect.
8. The summer and winter solstices are the two points where the Sun’s angular distance
from the celestial equator is at a maximum magnitude of 23.5º.
Celestial Coordinate Systems
1. The Altitude-Azimuth System

The altitude of a star is how many degrees above the horizon it is (anywhere from 0º to 90º).
The azimuth of a star is how many degrees along the horizon it is.
2. The Longitude-Latitude System

The lines on a map of the Earth that run east-west parallel to the equator are lines of latitude and
when projected onto the sky, they become lines of declination.
Parts of a Sundial
1. The gnomon is usually a rod or a triangular piece of metal or wood on a sundial.

2. The style is the sloping edge of the gnomon.
3. The hour lines are the numbered time lines that the shadow falls along.
4. The nodus is a "marker" along the gnomon to get an exact point on the shadow.
5. Dial furniture are the markers other than the hour lines on the dial plate. It is there to
provide other information, such as the date and declination of the Sun.
Background knowledge
The gnomons of most sundials have to be placed parallel to the Earth’s axis for easy calibration
of the hour lines because when the gnomon is at an angle to the Earth’s axis,
1. The shadow cast by the gnomon at a given hour points in different directions, depending
on the seasons.
2. The angle covered by the shadow during a certain time interval depends on the seasons.
Different Classification of Hours
In the course of history, classification of time has changed several times.
1. Unequal or Temporary Hours

The time from sunrise until sunset, as well as the night arc, was divided into twelve
equally long parts. The "hours" of any one day were equal, but the "hours" of the winter
were short and the "hours" of summer long.
2. Equinoctial Hours
The time beginning with the passing of the low meridian, about midnight, until the
passing of the next low meridian, was divided into 24 hours of equal length.
3. Italian Hours
Counting of the 24 equal hours began at sunset.
4. Babylonian Hours
Counting of the 24 equal hours began at sunrise.
Equation of Time – Analemma

The equation of time is the difference in time between what your watch reads and the position of
the Sun.
The analemma is the path that the Sun takes if we mark the position of the Sun in the sky at the
same time everyday, say sometime around noon.
There are two independent reasons why the Sun takes this strange path:
1. The Earth is tilted on its axis 23.5° in relation to the plane of its orbit around the sun.
2. The Earth does not orbit the Sun in a circle, but in an ellipse.
It is simply the sum of these two effects that causes the analemma.
Different Types of Sundials
There are two ways to classify sundials.
The first way is to group sundials into three main classes:

1. Sundials having gnomon parallel to Earth’s axis
2. Sundials depending on altitude of the Sun
3. Sundials depending on azimuth of the Sun
The second way is to group sundials into two main classes:

1. Pole-style sundials
2. Nodal sundials
A pole-style sundial has a gnomon which casts a line-shaped shadow on a set of hour lines.
Equatorial, horizontal and vertical sundials belong to this class.
For a nodal sundial, the time is read from the shadow of a fixed point or node.
Equatorial Sundials
The dial plate is in the plane of the celestial equator. They can be classified into two types:
1. Equatorial disk dials
2. Armillary dials
Equatorial Disk Dials
This is the only dial that has faces on both upper and lower sides.
Armillary Dials
The armillary dial is an extension of the equatorial dial, with two rings representing the celestial
equator and the meridian. A third ring is usually added to represent the horizon.
Horizontal Sundials
It is one of the most commonly used sundials because it can be used to tell the time whenever the
Sun is shining. Some other types of sundials, such as vertical sundials, can only be used during
restricted hours.
Vertical Sundials
Vertical sundials can be classified into two types:

1. Vertical direct sundials
2. Vertical declining sundials
Vertical direct sundials are dials that faced directly toward one of the cardinal points of the
compass. They are categorized into four types:
1. Vertical direct north dial
2. Vertical direct south dial
3. Vertical direct east dial
4. Vertical direct west dial
Vertical declining sundials are dials that are attached to vertical walls that do not directly face
north, south, east and west. They can be categorized into four types:
1. Southwest decliners
2. Southeast decliners
3. Northwest decliners
4. Northeast decliners
The gnomon is twisted out of the vertical in order for it to be parallel to the Earth’s axis.
Altitude Sundials
Sundials depending on the altitude of the Sun are called altitude sundials.
The best well-known altitude sundial is the shepherd’s dial. It is one of the simplest and most
widely used portable dials.
Azimuth Sundial
Sundials depending on the azimuth of the Sun are called azimuth sundials.
The analemmatic dial is the only representative of the azimuth sundial. It is not commonly used
because its style requires daily setting.
Portable sundials
Prior to the early seventeenth century, pocket watches were uncommon, expensive and
unreliable. The traveler who wished to keep track of time was forced to rely on a portable
sundial. The following are some of the more commonly used portable sundials:
1. Shepherd’s dial
2. Tablet dial
3. Cubic dial
4. Universal ring dial
5. Perforated ring dial
Dial Furniture
Dial furniture are additional markers on a sundial to provide information other than to tell time.
These information can be:
1. Time of year (Sign of Zodiac)
2. Month of year
3. Time of sunrise
4. Length of daylight hours
5. Elevation of the Sun above the horizon
6. Compass bearing of the Sun
7. Temporary hours
References
1. Helmer ASLAKSEN, Heavenly Mathematics: Highlights of Cultural Astronomy,

webpage, http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/teaching/heavenly.shtml
2. Frans MAES, Frans’ Sundial Site, webpage, http://www.biol.rug.nl/maes/zonnewijzers/
welcome-e.htm
3. Analemma, webpage, http://www.analemma.com/
4. Gnomonik_engl, webpage, http://tirol-php.highway.telekom.at/k.schwarzinger/
gnomon_e.htm
5. Queen's College Cambridge – Sundial, webpage, http://www.quns.cam.ac.uk/Queens/
Images/sundial.html
6. Albert E. WAUGH, Sundials Their theory and Construction, Dover Publications, Inc.
New York,1973
7. René R. J. ROHR, Sundials History, Theory, and Practice, Dover Publications, Inc. New
York,1996
8. H. Robert MILLS, Practical Astronomy, Albion Publishing, Chichester,1994
9. H.R. MILLS, Positional Astronomy and Astro-navigation Made Easy, Stanley Thornes
(publishers) Ltd, England, 1978

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The Mathematics of Sundials

Liew Huay Ling, Lim Siew Yee and Helmer Aslaksen

Department of Mathematics, National University of Singapore

You Need to Know

1. The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere surrounding the Earth.

Celestial Coordinate Systems

1. The Altitude-Azimuth System

2. The Longitude-Latitude System

1. The gnomon is usually a rod or a triangular piece of metal or wood on a sundial.

Different Classification of Hours

In the course of history, classification of time has changed several times.

1. Unequal or Temporary Hours

Equation of Time – Analemma

Different Types of Sundials

There are two ways to classify sundials.

The first way is to group sundials into three main classes:

The second way is to group sundials into two main classes:

Equatorial Disk Dials

Vertical sundials can be classified into two types:

1. Helmer ASLAKSEN, Heavenly Mathematics: Highlights of Cultural Astronomy,

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