Conceptual Phase Best Practice

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Conceptual Phase Best Practices
By
Mohammad Razali bin Abdul Kadir

(B.Sc., M.Sc.)
A Doctoral Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University of Technology
May 1996
0 Mohammad Razali bin Abdul Kadir

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents i
Synopsis ii
Acknowledgement iv
Declaration v
List of Chapters vi
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xv
List of Appendices xvi
Chapters 1
References 218
Appendices 232
i
Conceptual Phase Best Practice
SYNOPSIS
Construction projects comprise holistic and organic processes of the

conceptual, detailed engineering, construction and start-up phases. The
conceptual phase is the most critical phase in a project's life-cycle where
the main strategic decisions are made. The success of other phases
depends upon the decisions made during the conceptual phase. Although
the conceptual phase presents the greatest opportunity for productivity
improvement during the construction phase, it has been given relatively
little attention.
The main aim of this research was to establish the conceptual phase tasks
and associated best practices for major projects that ensure good site
productivity through decisions made in the conceptual phase. The aim was
realised through the following five objectives:
• define tasks performed in the conceptual phase;
• rank the impact of conceptual phase tasks on site

productivity;
• determine the impact of conceptual phase tasks on

productivity in terms the main site resources of time,
labour, plant, material and finance;
• establish the sequence with which tasks are performed

in the conceptual phase; and
• establish Best Practices associated with each of the

conceptual phase tasks.
The research findings were based upon literature, an industry-wide postal

questionnaire survey and case studies. The survey comprised a
substantial twenty-page questionnaire containing 184 questions. The
questionnaire was posted to 144 companies including clients, consultants,
contractors and financial institutions throughout the European Union. A
return of 37 per cent was achieved.
The industry-wide survey was then followed by detailed case studies of six
projects: a power plant; a chemical plant; a sewerage treatment plant; an
ii
offshore-structure; a motor way; and, a substantial building project. These
case studies underpinned the survey and specific differences and
similarities were highlighted among the six projects and the processes
adopted during the conceptual stages.
The industry-wide survey and complementary case studies formed the

basis of recommendations for conceptual phase tasks and associated best
practices achieving enhanced site productivity. It was concluded that the
conceptual phase of construction projects comprised ten tasks: Consents
and Permits; Project Definition; Financial Strategy; Project Planning;
Contract Strategy; Project Management Organisation; Construction
Philosophy; Procurement Strategy; Design of Temporary Works; and,
Design of Permanent Structures. Eighty-one best practices relating to the
conceptual phase were accepted by the respondents. These best
practices, when adopted in the conceptual phase, should held to enhance
site productivity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My sincere thanks for the invaluable assistance to my mentor and

supervisor, Dr. Andrew David Freeman Price. He inspires and guides.
And, his encouragement have made this thesis a reality.
I am also grateful to Prof. Ron McCaffer, my director of research, for his

strategic advice at the start of my research and all the helps he rendered
throughout my research.
My unreserved gratitude also goes to the following individuals from the

European Construction Institute (ECI) for whom this research would have
been impossible without their dedicated help: the chairperson of the ECI
Productivity Task Force, Mr. C. J. Brown; fellow members of the Task Force
- Barry Dunn, Ian Knights, Dick Pemberton, Ivor Williams, M D Austick, D A
Cowan, J De Bock, J House, J Howlett, P LeBlond, S G Montgomery, P
Rimmer, J Roper, S. Tarr, and F Ussher. My thanks also go to Caroline, Su,
Carol and Debbie of the ECI main office.
I am also grateful to Jim McFarlane of Nuclear Electric, Peter Hamden of

Brown and Root, Peter Hillier of BP, Peter LeBlond of the Heathrow Airport
Authority and Steven Nice of Travers Morgan International Ltd. who were
very cooperative during the case studies.
I would like to thank all my colleagues in the department who shared their
time and knowledge during my research period: Jawahar, Zaimi, Nurzali,
Hakim, Francis and Lema - you have been extremely helpful during my
research period.
My appreciation also goes to Prof. Abang Abdullah Abang Ali and the
members of the Academic Forum (A. Rahim, A. Rahman, A. Rashid, A.
Razak, Azman, Azman, Hasbullah, Razali, Saparudin, Wan A. Rahman,
Yazid and Zaimi) for whom my PhD is worthwhile. Your words and smiles
inspires and were meaningful to me.
My special thanks is reserved for her, Supiah Sahari, whose dedication

knows no boundaries and support second to none whilst I laboured
throughout the long period of the research: it was a recipe of smile, tears
and sweat. And to my lovely children (Huzaifah, Amirah, Hamzah, Talhah,
Usamah and Abdullah), "I know that you could do better than this,
insyaAllah."
And not the least, to my first teachers: "Bapak, I have learnt courage and
dedication", and "Emak, I have learnt perseverance and love." I know that
you are proud of this thesis and the rewards of goodness in this life and the
hereafter will not part from both of you, Ameen.
iv
CONTENT
List of Tables
List of Diagrams
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction to subject matter 2

1.2 Justification 3
1.3 Research aim and objectives 5
1.4 Research methodology 6
1.5 Summary of research achievements 9
1.6 Guide to thesis layout 11
CHAPTER 2: THE PURSUIT FOR PRODUCTIVITY 16
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 Thriving with history 17
2.2.1 The ancient civilisation 17
2.2.2 The medieval period 20
2.2.3 The renaissance and post renaissance
period 20
2.2.4 Summary 22
2.3 The definition of productivity 25
2.4 Hierarchy of productivity 27
2.5 Summary 30
CHAPTER 3: THE QUALITY DIMENSION OF PRODUCTIVITY 31
3.1 Introduction 32
3.2 Linkages between quality and productivity 33
3.3 Definition of quality 38
3.4 How to achieve quality 40
3.5 Total Quality Management (TOM) 42
3.5.1 The Total Quality Management definition 43
3.5.2 Traditional Management versus TQM 44
3.6 Summary 45
vi
CHAPTER 4: BENCHMARKING - A TOOL FOR TQM 46
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 Historical development of benchmarking 48
4.3 Definition of benchmarking 48
4.4 Types of benchmarking 50
4.5 Principles of applying benchmarking 51
4.6 Summary 55
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 56
5.1 Introduction 57
5.2 Design of questionnaire 58
5.3 Pilot survey 60
5.3.1 Scale on the perception of best practices 61
5.3.2 Method of questioning characteristics of
conceptual phase tasks 62
5.4 Final survey 62
5.5 Case studies 63
5.6 Analytical methodology 63
5.6.1 Descriptive statistics 64
5.6.2 Influential statistics 65
5.6.2.1 Test of group difference 66
5.6.2.2 Correlation test (Kendall T &
coefficient of correlation) 67
5.7 Summary 68
CHAPTER 6: CONCEPTUAL PHASE OF CONSTRUCTION

PROJECTS 69
6.1 Introduction 70
6.2 Types of construction projects 71
6.3 Project life-cycle 73
6.4 The significance of the conceptual phase 75
6.5 The severe neglect of the conceptual phase 80
6.6 Summary 83
VII

CHAPTER 7: TASKS IN THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE 84
7.1 Introduction 85
7.2 The need for tasks and process identification 85
7.3 Notion of conceptual phase 89
7.3.1 The boundary for conceptual phase 89
7.3.2 Content of conceptual phase 89
7.3.2.1 Building construction industry 90

7.3.2.2 Civil and heavy engineering
industry 93
7.4 Propositions for conceptual phase 96
7.4.1 Introduction 96
7.4.2 Conceptual phase tasks proposition 96
7.4.3 Conceptual phase tasks definitions, issues
and Relationship between tasks 99
7.5 Proposition for conceptual phase tasks and

site resources productivity linkages 109
7.6 Proposition for best practices of the conceptual
phase 111
7.6.1 Identification of best practices for the
conceptual phase 111
7.6.2 Propositions for best practices 113
7.7 Summary 117
CHAPTER 8: EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF SIZEWELL B

NUCLEAR POWER STATION 118
8.1 Introduction 119

8.2 Project inception 119
8.3 Economic, financial, technical and political
interfaces 120
8.3.1 The economic necessity 120
8.3.2 The technical factors 121
8.3.3 The political implications 122
8.4 Tasks and process in conceptual phase of
Sizewell B 125
8.4.1 Tasks in the conceptual phase of Sizewell B 125
8.4.2 Tasks process in the conceptual phase of
Sizewell B 132
viii

8.4.2.1 Part 1 of Stage 2 of Sizewell B conceptual

Phase 134
8.4.2.2 Part 2 of Stage 2 of Sizewell B conceptual
phase 137
8.5 Summary 148
CHAPTER 9: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 1 -

CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS DEFINITION 149

9.2 Independent variables 150
9.2.1 Country of origin 151
9.2.2 Types of organisation 152
9.2.3 Respondents experiences 152
9.3 Conceptual phase tasks definitions 154
9.3.2 General acceptance 155
9.3.3 Influence of organisation on acceptance
of task definition 157
9.3.4 Influence of project types and cost, personal
experience and project phases experience
on acceptance of task definitions 159
9.4 Summary 162

CONCEPTUAL PHASE CHARACTERISTICS 163

10.2 Sequence of task performance in the conceptual
phase 164
10.3 Impact of tasks on site productivity 171
10.3.1 Ranking of tasks' impact on site productivity 172
103.2 Impact of tasks on site resources 175
10.4 Summary 176
ix
PERCEIVED AND ADOPTED BEST PRACTICES 177
11.2 Pilot survey 178
11.3 Survey results 179
11.4 Case studies 187
11.4.2 Case studies background information 187
11.4.3 Adopted best practices 188
11.5 Summary 206
CHAPTER 12: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

FURTHER RESEARCH 207

12.2 Conclusions 209
12.2.1 Conceptual phase tasks of construction
projects 209
12.2.2 Tasks' definition of the conceptual phase of
construction of conceptual phase tasks 209
12.2.3 Ranking of impact of conceptual phase tasks
on site productivity 211
12.2.4 Impact of conceptual phase tasks on site
resources 211
12.2.5 Sequence of tasks as performed in the
conceptual phase 211
12.3 Recommendations 212
12.3.1 Adoption of best practices for conceptual phase 212
12.3.2 Assessment of adoption of best practices 216
12.3.3 Standardisation of conceptual phase
terminology 216
12.4 Further research 216
12.4.1 Process mapping 216
12.4.2 Conceptual phase success criteria 217
12.4.3 Deliverables for conceptual phase 217
x
LIST OF TABLES
Page No.
Table 1.1: Tasks definition 10
Table 2.1: Summary of contributors towards the notion of 24
performance
Table 2.2: The etymology of productivity 26 •
Table 2.3: Comparison of international industrial labour 28

productivity
Table 2.4: Productivity measurement 29
Table 3.1: Definitions of quality 39
Table 3.2: Traditional Management versus Total Quality 44

Management
Table 4.1: Definition of different types of benchmarking 51
Table 5.1: Pilot survey respondent characteristics 60
Table 5.2: Data descriptive statistics 64
Table 5.3: Scale of measurement of variables 65
Table 5.4: Test type and assumptions 66
Table 6.1: Construction industry by several authors 72
Table 6.2: Classification of construction projects 73
Table 6.3: Project life-cycle by various authors 74
Table 6.4: Decision level analysis 78
Table 7.1: Outline of work 91
Table 7.2: Key elements for the base studies 92
Table 7.3: Synthesis of opinion and propositions 97
Table 7.4: Summary of opinions versus proposed tasks of 98

conceptual phase of construction projects
Table 7.5 Proposition for best practices 114-116
Table 8.1: Cost comparison of available alternative of power 121

generation
Table 8.2: Elements of Consents and Permits in Sizewell B 127
xi
Table 8.3: Elements of Project Definition in Sizewell B 127
Table 8.4: Elements of Financial Strategy in Sizewell B 128
Table 8.5: Elements of Project Planning in Sizewell B 128
Table 8.6: Elements of Contract Strategy in Sizewell B 129
Table 8.7: Elements of Project Management Organisation in 129

Sizewell B
Table 8.8: Elements of Construction Philosophy in Sizewell B 130
Table 8.9: Elements of Procurement Strategy in Sizewell B 130
Table 8.10: Elements of Design of Temporary Works in Sizewell B 131
Table 8.11: Elements of Design of Permanent Structures in 131

Sizewell B
Table 8.12 Project Management Organisation during the enquiry 139
Table 9.1: Respondent characteristics by country 151
Table 9.2: Respondent characteristics by types of organisation 152
Table 9.3: Frequency of project type 153
Table 9.4: Project phases involvement 154
Table 9.5: Frequency distribution of agreement versus 156

disagreement
Table 9.6: Influence of organisation on tasks definition 157
Table 9.7: Influence of project type, project cost, number of years' 161
experience and project phases on conceptual phase
tasks definition
Table 10.1: Ranking of conceptual phase tasks sequence 165
Table 10.2: Group difference test for client/consultant/contractor on 166

Contract Strategy
Table 10.3: Final sequence of tasks in the conceptual phase 166
Table 10.4: Tasks grouping 167
Table 10.5: The mean score of ranking of impact of tasks on site 172
productivity
Table 10.6: Group difference test on client/consultant/contractor for 173

Project Management Organisation and Construction
Philosophy
xii
Table 10.6: Group difference test on client/consultant/contractor for 173
Project Management Organisation and Construction
Philosophy
Table 10.7: The ranking of impact of tasks on site productivity 173
Table 10.8: Impact of tasks on site-resources 175
Table 11.1: Consents and Permits best practices frequency analysis 181
Table 11.2: Project Definition best practices frequency analysis 181
Table 11.3: Financial Strategy best practices frequency analysis 181
Table 11.4: Project Planning best practices frequency analysis 182
Table 11.5: Contract Strategy best practices frequency analysis 182
Table 11.6: Project Management Organisation best practices 183

frequency analysis
Table 11.7: Construction Philosophy best practices frequency 184

analysis
Table 11.8: Procurement Strategy best practices frequency analysis 185
Table 11.9: Design of Temporary Works best practices frequency 185

analysis
Table 11.10: Design of Permanent Structures best practices 186

frequency analysis
Table 11.11: Case studies details 188
Table 11.12: Case studies phases evaluation 188
Table 11.13: Scales used in survey and case studies 190
Table 11.14 Perceived and adopted best practices for Consents and 193
Permits
Table 11.15: Perceived and adopted best practices for Project 193
Definition
Table 11.16: Perceived and adopted best practices for Financial 195
Strategy
Table 11.17: Perceived and adopted best practices for Project 195
Planning
Table 11.18: Perceived and adopted best practices for Contract 197
Strategy
Table 11.21: Perceived and adopted best practices for Procurement 202
Strategy
Table 11.22: Perceived and adopted best practices for Design of 204
Temporary Works
Table 11.23: Perceived and adopted best practices for Design of 205
Permanent Structures
Table 12.1: Tasks and tasks definition of conceptual phase of 210

construction projects
Table 12.2: Ranking of impact on productivity and sequence of 212

conceptual phase tasks
Table 12.3 Recommended best practices for conceptual phase 213-215
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Page No.
Figure 1.1: Research process 7

Figure 1.2: Thesis layout 15
Figure 3.1: How quality, time and cost are perceived by clients 33
Figure 3.2: Efficiency matrix 36
Figure 3.3: Deming's chain reaction 37
Figure 3.4: Merger between productivity & quality 38
Figure 3.5: Quality inspection 40
Figure 3.6: Quality control system 41
Figure 4.1: Xerox benchmarking model 52
Figure 4.2: Benchmarking process/Deming cycle superimposition 53
diagram
Figure 4.3: Benchmarking process 54
Figure 5.1: Research Process 57
Figure 5.2: Questionnaire flow chart 59
Figure 5.3: Analytical methodology 64
Figure 6.1: Ability to influence final cost over project life-cycle 76
Figure 7.1: Inputs and outputs of a task 86
Figure 7.2: Tasks and process linkages 87
Figure 7.3: Tasks relationship model 106
Figure 7.4: Output of project phases 110
Figure 8.1: The process of inception and institutional interactions 124
Figure 8.2: Conceptual phase of Sizewell B 133
Figure 8.3: Relationships and process for Part 1 of Stage 2 137
Sizewell B conceptual phase
Figure 9.1: Agree/disagree amongst respondents 155
Figure 10.1: Conceptual phase of Sizewell B 168
Figure 10.2: Non-technical group relationship diagram 170
Figure 10.3: Interaction between non-technical Group and 171
technical Group
Figure 11.1: Typical best practice chart 179
XV
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page No.
A Survey Questionnaire 232
B Case studies document 254
C Selected annotated bibliography 276-324
xvi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction to the subject
In the fifties, Japan emerged as an economic superpower and joined the
exclusive G7 club from the ashes of World War II. This phenomenal growth
within a single generation has been widely attributed to the effective
management of quality and productivity through the Japanese operational

philosophy of Total Quality Control (TQC). At the heart of TQC is the concept
of continuous improvement directed towards excellence in quality and
productivity. TQC is a philosophy that applies to all industries such as
retailing, manufacturing, services and construction (Burati et al., 1991).
The on-slaught by Japanese products directed at the American market
share was responded to with equal vigour. Among the popular literature
reporting the battle were: "The American Samurai" by Jacobson and Hillkirk
(1986); and "In search of excellence" by Peters and Waterman (1985). A
few American companies emulated the TQC philosophy and fought back to
regain their market share. Rank Xerox, being one of them, used the same
TQC philosophy as its main Japanese competitor. In the American culture,
TQC became known as TOM - Total Quality Management. TOM gained
considerable ground in the manufacturing industry amid initial scepticism.
The construction industry also showed the same reluctance, but reports by
Burati et al. (1991) indicated a marked improvement.
An important agenda addressed in TOM is the assessment of a company's
or project's status in relation to competitors or market leaders. This can be
achieved through the practice of benchmarking. The need for
2
benchmarking is so crucial that it became one of an awarding criteria for the
prestigious American Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award and the
European Swedish National Quality Award (Karlof and Ostblom 1993).
In the UK, concern for construction productivity was stated by the Latham
Report (1994). The report envisaged that, by the year 2000, the
construction industry should reduce cost by 30 per cent. The need for
improvement which is so pressing in the current competitive environment, is
reflected by Latham (1994) as follows:
"The time to choose has arrived. The construction process cannot
wait 30 years for another Banwell or 50 years for another Simon"
(Pp. v).
Whether it is TQM or benchmarking, the intrinsic motive is the greater
attainment of performance: or 'the faculty to produce' as productivity is first
defined.
1.2 Justification of research
Available literature indicates that considerable research effort has been
directed towards the construction phase of construction projects rather than
the conceptual phase. To date, the conceptual phase has received little
attention in relation to its degree of influence on project costs and
production. However, it is well recognised that the conceptual phase has
the greatest impact on project life-cycle (Kellog et al. 1981 and Construction
Industry Institute 1990). To further reinforce this notion, Williams (1991)
stated that:
"In the construction industry a systematic analysis must include
both the on-site work and the off-site activities of design,
3
planning, procurement, and delivery, when many conditions for
high productivity on the project are determined" (pp. 102).
The conceptual phase is the main determinant of success for the
forthcoming phases namely: detailed engineering; construction; and
handover. The failure of many clients to adequately address the
conceptual phase has been reported on several occasions: Banwell Report
(1964), Building Economics Development Committee (1979), McKenzie
(1979), and McDermott and Newcombe (1986). At the same time, clients
expressed their dissatisfaction with the construction industry. The situation
is further exacerbate by the emergence of large and complex projects
(McKenzie 1979; Franks 1991; Latham 1994). Therefore, the need for
clients to focus on the conceptual phase is imperative.
Jump (1992) stated that:
"if there are mistakes at this stage, they are present for the life of
the project and possibly for the life of the asset itself" (pp. 85).
One of the several concepts that links productivity, TOM and benchmarking
is the establishment of tasks and processes that are deemed to be targeted
for change. Establishment of tasks as a prerequisite to improvement has

been recognised throughout civilisation, when the same question has been
repeatedly asked, "What is the task and how is it done?" Federick W.
Taylor did this in 1881 when he studied a common labourer shovelling
sand with the view of improving his productivity. Fifty years later, came
Harvard's Elton Mayo to demolish Taylor's scientific management and to
replace it with what later came to be known as "human relation". He
focused on the same question. In his experiment at Western Electric
Hawthorne Works, Mayo asked, "How can wiring telephone equipment
best be done?" (Drucker 1991). The TOM concept has further enhanced
4
productivity through the shift of productivity and quality issues from product-
centred to process-centric (Kubal 1994).
Another important concept aimed at enhancing performance is the
implementation of best practices. Best practice is the group of the most
desirable and beneficial day-to-day actions that result in superior
performance (Muglia 1992). Improved performance is generally observed
through the adoption of best practices (Lake and Ulrich 1992; Latham
1994). The adoption of the best practices enhance site effectiveness of the
conceptual phase which will lead to improved productivity during the
construction phase (Ireland 1992; Tucker 1995; Hamilton and Gibson
1996). Therefore, if the industry is to achieve greater productivity and
improved quality on future projects, it is crucial to map out the process and
related tasks and associated best practices of the conceptual phase.
1.3 Research aim and objectives
The main aim of this research was to establish the conceptual phase tasks
and associated best practices of major projects that ensure good site
productivity through decisions made in the conceptual phase. This was
realised through the following six objectives:
• establish tasks performed in the conceptual phase;
• define tasks performed in the conceptual phase;

productivity;

productivity in terms of the main site resources of time,
• establish the sequence with which tasks are performed

in the conceptual phase; and
5
1.4 Research methodology
The European Construction Institute's (ECI) Productivity Task Force was
established in April 1991 and comprised three subgroups:
• the On-site Productivity Subgroup;
• the Off-site/conceptual Productivity Subgroup; and
• the National and Industry Factors Subgroup.
The On-site Productivity Subgroup recently published a handbook: i.e.
Total Productivity Management - Guidelines for the construction phase (ECI
1994). This handbook is a culmination of a research exercise involving
136 companies throughout Europe representing customer and contractor
organisations. The research involved postal survey and face to face
interviews with senior company representatives prior to establishing best
practices for the construction phase.
This research was a complementary exercise undertaken by the Off-
site/conceptual Productivity Subgroup with the aim and objectives
stipulated earlier in Section 1.3. The research followed the scheme
presented below in Figure 1.1.
6
Priori Hypothesis Literature Review
' +
Exploratory
Case Study
LI Pilot Questionnaire 4-----
Industry - wide
Questionnaire
Survey
Ii
Case Studies
RECOMMENDATIONS
1 CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS

2 BEST PRACTICES
Figure 1.1: Research process
Through a series of meetings within the European Construction Institute's
Conceptual Phase Productivity subgroup, a priori hypothesis was
formulated. This was followed by conducting an exploratory case study on
Sizewell B Nuclear Power Station. This was further complemented with an
extensive literature review which partly formed the Annotated Bibliography
as per Appendix C.
Before conducting a pilot survey, a paper was produced and presented in

the First British Project Management Colloquium (Abdul-Kadir and Price
1993). The paper was well received and accepted as part of a special
7
issue of December 1995 International Project Management Journal
(Abdul-Kadir and Price 1995). A pilot questionnaire was then drafted and
tested amongst the Productivity Task Force members (Abdul-Kadir et al.,
1994).
Having validated the recommendations from eleven respondents of the
pilot survey, a twenty page industry-wide survey questionnaire was
prepared comprising 184 questions. The questionnaire was posted to 144
companies throughout the EU including clients, consultants, contractors
and financial institutions. A successful return of 37 per cent was achieved
though the length of the questionnaire was well beyond the norm. The
questionnaire essentially elicited the following information: definitions of
the conceptual phase tasks; opinions on perceived Best Practices;
performance sequence of conceptual phase tasks; ranking of impact of
conceptual phase tasks on site productivity; and impact of conceptual
phase tasks on productivity of site resources.
The industry-wide questionnaire survey was then followed by detailed case
studies of six projects: i.e. a power plant; chemical plant; sewerage
treatment works; an offshore-structure; motor way project; and a major
building construction. Construction projects vary in size, technology and
cost (Chapter 5), therefore, the choice of projects reflected these variations.
These case studies underpinned the postal survey and specific differences
and similarities were highlighted among the six projects. Each case study
involved an interview relating to the conceptual phase of projects based on
establishing if the best practices were, should or could have been adopted
on the individual projects.
Both the industry-wide survey and the case studies were synthesised
forming the recommendations for conceptual phase tasks and associated
best practices achieving enhanced site productivity.
8
Finally, the recommendation of conceptual phase tasks and best practices
were adopted by European Construction Institute (Ed, 1995) and
presented at the ECI conference: Total Productivity Management,
September 1995.
1.5 Summary of research achievements
Persistent problems of productivity existed in the construction industry.
These were documented by reports such as Simon (1944), Banwell (1964)
and the latest was Latham (1994). To date, research has been mainly
directed towards construction phase of projects, though it is well accepted
that the conceptual phase has the greatest influence on project outcome
(Kellog et al. 1981; CII 1990). It is also well recognised that task and
process identification and establishing of best practice are key
determinants for improving productivity (Pall 1987; Drucker 1991; Lake &
Ulrich 1992).
The main achievements of the research include:
• the identification of conceptual phase tasks;
• the establishment of conceptual phase tasks definition;
• the establishment of influence of conceptual phase tasks ranking on

site productivity;
• the establishment of impact of conceptual phase tasks on

productivity of site resources of time, labour, plant, material and
finance;
• establish the sequence with which tasks are performed in the

conceptual phase; and
• the establishment of best practices for the conceptual phase.
This research established that the conceptual phase of most construction

projects comprises ten tasks. These tasks and their respective definition
are shown in Table 1.1
9
Table 1.1: Tasks and definition
TASKS DEFINITION
Consents and Fulfilment of a society's embodiment of constitution, laws,

statutes, re9ulations, norms and culture, which ensures rights
Permits and protections of itself in relation to the proposed project. In
operational terms, any document which grants a person the
right to do something; issued by a person in authority,
empowering the grantee to do some act not forbidden by
law, but not allowed without such authority.
Project Definition Resolution of options during the conceptual phase which

culminates in statement of client's/owner's requirements.
Financial The principal means and methods by which the financial

requirements of total project delivery are satisfied.
Strategy
Project Planning Global planning of the whole project including the

establishment of and commitment to defined schedules and
milestones with built in incentives.
Contract Strategy A strategy that defines relationships, duties, obligations and

policies which are directed/engineered towards the desired
successful total project delivery in accordance with project
planning, financial strategy, project definition, and consents
and permits.
Project
The formulation and configuration of the client's management
Management team in accordance with the contract strategy.
Organisation
Construction The conceptual approach and method of construction that

dictates the design of permanent structures and temporary
Philosophy works.
Procurement Strategy for proactive project hardware purchasing is

required to achieve complete project delivery in accordance
Strategy with project schedule.
Design of The principles of construction practices to realise the

permanent structures of the project which may or may not be
Temporary Works part of the permanent structure and reflects construction
philosophy.
Design of The conceptual design, preliminary layout and sketches

outlining the permanent structures so as to fulfil project
Permanent definition.
Structures
The ranking of impact of these conceptual phase tasks on site productivity,
from the highest to the lowest, is: Project Planning, Construction
10
Philosophy, Design of Temporary Works, Design of Permanent Structures,
Project Definition, Contract Strategy, Procurement Strategy, Project
Management Organisation, Financial Strategy, and Consents and Permits.
It was also established that Project Planning, Construction Philosophy and
Design of Permanent Structures have significant impact on site resources:
plant, labour, material, time and cost. However, all the conceptual phase
tasks have significant impact on time and cost.
The sequence in which conceptual phase tasks are performed generally
complies with the following pattern (from the first towards the last): Project
Definition, Financial Strategy, Project Planning, Consents and Permits,
Contract Strategy, Construction Philosophy, Project Management
Organisation, Procurement Strategy, Design of Permanent Structures and
Design of Temporary Works.
In order to improve site productivity, 81 best practices were identified.
These best practices must be consciously accepted or rejected when going
through the conceptual phase of projects.
1.6 Guide to thesis layout
This thesis contains three parts: the background theory; focal theory; and
research contribution. The background theory is based upon the concept of
performance and comprises productivity, quality and benchmarking. The
details are further discussed in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 respectively. The focal
theory builds upon the understanding of the background theory and is
extended into construction project environment as presented in Chapters 6,
7 and 8. Generally, the focal theory explores the current perception of

conceptual phase and culminated with propositions relating to conceptual
phase tasks and best practices. The element of contribution towards the
subject of the research is elaborated in Chapters 9, 10 and 11. These
11
Chapters, through the methodology set out in Chapter 5, scrutinised the
focal theory through questionnaire survey and case studies. The final part
of the thesis is the conclusion, recommendations and suggestions for
further research. Figure 1.3 illustrates the flow of the ten Chapters
contained within this thesis. A summary for each Chapter is given below:
Chapter 1 presents the overall content of the whole thesis. It introduces

the subject matter and then moves on to describe the problems that it
purported to solve. The aims and objectives are specified with appropriate
research methodology to achieve them. A summary of achievements is
then presented. The chapter concludes with the organisation of the thesis.
Chapter 2 is the starting point for the development of the background

theory. The notions of performance are discussed with historical
evidences. This develops into an aspect of performance, i.e. productivity.
Productivity is also discussed within a historical framework. The various
definitions of productivity are given. The notion of productivity hierarchy is
also highlighted. This chapter ends with the emergence of a quality
concept to enhance productivity.
Chapter 3 reviews the performance issue of quality. The chapter

expounds the linkages between productivity and quality. Then, a
chronology of quality development is given along with the definition of
quality. The various means of achieving quality are also highlighted.
Chapter 4 discusses benchmarking as a tool for improvement of

performance and is the last issue relating to the development of a
background theory to the research. Historical development of
benchmarking and its various types are highlighted. Chapter 4 ends with
brief ideas of the principles behind the application of benchmarking.
12
Chapter 5 sets out the methodology to verify the propositions on
conceptual phase tasks and best practices (developed in Chapters 6, 7 and
8). The design and implementation of the questionnaire survey and case
studies are discussed. The analytical methodology adopted is briefly
described.
Chapter 6 sets the start of the focal theory for the research. Initially,
various types of construction projects and project life-cycle are discussed.
The significance of the conceptual phase is emphasised and elaborated.
Available literature reviewed in order to justify the need for concerted effort
on conceptual phase of construction projects.
Chapter 7 is built upon the understanding of productivity, quality and

benchmarking, from which the need for tasks and process identification is
established. It emphasises the need for achieving improvement for the
conceptual phase of construction project based on the same framework.
Current ideas and perceptions of the conceptual phase are also presented.
Propositions of tasks and best practices of conceptual phase are then
developed. The impact of conceptual phase tasks on site productivity is
also discussed.
Chapter 8 is an exploratory case study which reinforces the proposition

developed in Chapter 7. This is done within the context of the conceptual
phase of Sizewell B Nuclear Power Station project. It starts off with a
discussion on project inception and the evolution of economic, technical
and political interfaces of Sizewell B conceptual phase process. Tasks and
process of conceptual phase are then evaluated.
Chapters 9, 10 and 11 are the culmination of Chapters 5, 6 ,7 and 8.

The outcome of analyses, results and discussions for the conceptual phase
13
tasks are presented and discussed. These chapters confirmed the
propositions developed earlier in Chapters 6, 7 and 8.
Chapter 12 presents the conclusions, recommendations and further
research which emanates from the findings.
14

Chapter 1 Introduction
* Introduccs the subject & problems
* Aim & objectives
* Research methodology
* Achievcments of research
* Structure of thesis
BACKGROUND THEORY
Chap 2 Productivity Chap 3 Quality Chap 4 Benchmarking
* Linkage between productivity

& quality * Benchmarking historical
* Historical perspectives
* Chronology of productivity/ developement
* Productivity definition
quality conciousncss * Types of benchmark ing
* Productivity hierarchy
* Quality definition * Principles of applying
* How to achieve quality bcnchmarking
FOCAL THEORY
Chap 6 Conceptual phase Chap 7 Tasks in the Chap 8 Exploratory case
of projects conceptual phase study of Sizewell B
* Construction project types * The need for tasks & process * Project inception
* Project life-cycle identification * Economic, technical & political
* Conceptual phase significance • Notion of conceptual phase interfaces
* Conceptual phase proposition
* Severe neglect of conceptual * Tasks and process in the
• Impact of tasks on site productivity
phase conceptual phase
• Conceptual phase best practices
RESEARCH CONTRIBUTION
Chap 5 Research methodology Chap 9, 10 & 11 Results and discussions
* Design of questionnaire
* Pilot survey * Conceptual phase tasks definition
* Final survey * Tasks characteristics of the
* Case studies conceptual phase
* Analytical methodology * Percicvcd & adopted best practices
1414-14- 40i-lekvt4-*-4440.
I A Ìk Ch ap 12 Conclusion, recommendation e
t„&%,'„- t
and further research -‘•
f.
trk
4)
4:1 °oar X+
* Conclusion on conceptual phase tasks, tasks
, rt;( 44g $4 definition, tasks characteristics & tasks best
At' OP,
practices -
jt
* Recommendations on standardisation of
terminology & asscsscmcnt of best
practices.
* Further research on process mapping,
deliverables of conceptual phase & Figure 1.2
conceptual phase success criteria. Thesis layout
CHAPTER 2
THE PURSUIT OF PRODUCTIVITY

CHAPTER 2
THE PURSUIT OF PRODUCTIVITY
2.1 Introduction
Organised human activity is as old as history. From prehistoric food
gatherers to our modern age space travelling, there is a constant move for
betterment. The evolution of tools and machines is a reflection of human
subconscious for efficiency or performance (Dijksterhuis 1961; De Camp
1963; Usher 1982). As a prelude for further discussion on the present
understanding of performance, some historical perspectives have been
presented in Section 2.2. This chapter then further develops one of today's
notion of performance, i.e. productivity.
2.2 Thriving with history
Historically, the understanding of performance could be broadly classified
as ancient, medieval and renaissance and post renaissance (George
1972).
2.2.1 The ancient civilisation
From ancient civilisations (e.g. 5000 BC. Sumerians, 4000 BC. Egyptians,
1800 BC. Hammurabi of Iraq, the 1491 BC. Hebrews, the ancient Chinese
and Indian) there is clear evidence that indicates the endeavours that
human race is always on a constant move towards recognising the needs
for betterment for every act and deeds. This is followed by the Greek,
Roman and Muslim civilisations in the medieval period. The terms may
naturally differ but the substance and intention are very much today's goals
of performance (Organisation for Economic Co-operation & Development
17
1955; George 1972; De Camp 1963). A few specific examples would
suffice to capture the essence from the history.
Hamid, one of the superintendents building the Great Pyramid, complained
to the pharaoh that the blocks being used were designed so large that
installation into the final positions was too difficult, required too many men,
led to unsafe work practices and took too long. He also complained about
the cutting of the blocks at the quarry. The blocks were always of the wrong
shape and the surfaces were too rough. This resulted in too much rework
at site. Also, the blocks arrived at the site too late. Having taken heed of
this complaint, the pharaoh marshalled the workforce to embark on quality
control (TQC ?) and timely delivery (JIT ?) in the quarry. The ensuing
pyramids were installed 14 per cent faster at an overall cost saving of 24
per cent (CMI 1991).
Confucius (500 BC.) has been attributed with the following statement:
"Whoever pursues a business in this world must have a system.
A businessman who has attained success without a system does
not exist. with a system, even the unskilled may achieve the
same result, though dexterity they have none. Hence, every
craftsman posses a system as a model. Now, if we govern the
empire, or large state, without a system as a model, are we not
less intelligent than a common craftsman?" (George 1972, pp.
13).
Confucius stressed that efficiency would only be achieved through having
standards, system and methodology. To him this holds true irrespective
whether it is running an empire, business or any craft.
The Greek (350 BC) recognised that the principle of using uniform
methods, induced rhythm, standard motions, and work tempos by working
18
in harmony with music ensured maximum output. With positive
psychological reinforcement, they achieved an increased output (George
1972).
Cyrus (400 BC.), a military leader of the Roman civilisation, realised that
superior performance of his soldiers could be realised through orderliness
and uniformity of actions. He is attributed to be the first practitioners of
motion study and material handling as demonstrated by the following:
n
he paid the utmost attention to propriety of arrangement
The other parts of the army were so disposed, that each
knew its own ground both to the dimension and position, when
there are for marching, each man packs up such baggage as he is
appointed to use, while others place upon the beasts of burden; so
that all the baggage carriers come up at the same time, to the
baggage appointed to them to carry, and all, at the same time, place
it, that everything necessary may be done at its proper time, it
is appointed to each man, in like manner what he is to do, and, by
this means, the same time suffices for doing in one part and all
x
(George 1972, pp. 21).
Another aspect of performance is the measurement between the expected
and actual output. This was what Cato (234 - 149 BC.), a farm manager,
instructed his supervisor to do whenever he visited the farm and checked
the programme of work (George 1972).
From the ancient period several aspects of efficiency of performance were
realised. Amongst others are the timeliness of the Egyptian civilisation, the
need for system of the Chinese, the orderliness of the Greeks and the
planning of the Romans.
19
2.2.2 The medieval period
George (1972) quoted the works of Alfarabi (900 AD.) and Alghazali (1100
AD.) respectively concerning the traits of leaders and managers
respectively in relation to organisations for the medieval period.
Alfarabi (900 AD.) has been attributed to have written the following:
"In the model state there must be a hierarchy of rulers coming under
the control of a supreme head or prince. This prince must
possess certain traits: great intelligence, excellent memory,
eloquence, firmness without weakness, firmness in achievement of
good, love for justice, love for study All these traits must be
found in one man alone placed in charge of directing the
complicated machinery of the state "(George 1972, pp. 31).
George (1972) also stated that Sir Thomas Moore (1500) and Machiavelli
(1525) were recognised for their contribution on organisation. Sir Thomas
Moore called for specialisation, good management and leadership. While
the latter exhorted for reliance on mass consent principle and the need for
cohesiveness in organisation.
2.2.3 The renaissance and post renaissance period
The subsequent periods are the renaissance and post renaissance which
transformed the world with the birth of the English industrial revolution
between 1700-1785. With the thrust of technological advances, the world

is not constrained by geographical space and time. The erosion many
natural boundaries for economic market led to a rapid growth of
enterprises. This, in turn, set competition to produce the maximum possible
and led to greater realisation of productivity. The wealth and depth of
written material on productivity is substantial and, helps to form today's
20
understanding of productivity. This period witnessed the birth of the
scientific management and the behavioural school of management (De

Camp 1963; George 1972).
Sir James Stewart (1767), as in George (1972), was aware of the
complexities normally associated with the manufacture of goods. He
predates Adam Smith's concept of division of labour and foresaw the
concept of work methods and incentive wages as expounded by F. W.
Taylor's scientific management. George (1972) further stated that James
Watt and Mathew Boulton (1800) successfully implemented the concept of
standard operating procedures, specification, work methods and standard
time, which subsequently resulted in greater productivity. F.W. Taylor then
came into the scene with his ideas on scientific management. Taylor
envisaged, among others, the importance of time study, standardisation
and planning. Ten years later, Harrington Emerson forwarded his ideas
termed as efficiency engineering. In 1913, Emerson published his concept
of "The Twelve Principles of Efficiency" (George 1972; Drewin 1982).
The advent of Scientific Management also marked the evolution of work
study. Barnes (1980), outlined that Taylor (1900) and Gilbreth (1911) were
generally credited with considerable developments in work study. They
were contemporaries who further developed time study and motion study
(Niebel 1967, Drewin 1982 and Price 1986). The present notion of work
study is defined in the 'British Standard Glossary of Terms used in work
study and organisation and methods (BS 3138:1992)' as:
"The systematic examination of activities in order to improve
the effective use of human and other resources" (pp. 3).
21
However, the concept of work study has been merged into Total Quality
Management in the 1980's (Hellard 1993). Latham (1994) also adamantly
stressed productivity gains through the TOM framework.
The notion of scientific management was then challenged by the advent of
the behavioural management school of thought. This was the time when
the understanding in sociology, psychology and anthropology came to bear
in industrial production. Among those who initiated the social sciences into
management was Elton Mayo (1927). He came to develop another
perspective towards productivity beyond the established scientific
management. Mayo conceived the idea of sociological concept of group
endeavour. To further the behavioural school of thought came Herbert
Simon, Harold Leavitt and Robert Schkifer (1955). They placed special
emphasis on human behaviour in decision making, viewed as an
identifiable, observable and measurable process (George 1972). The
sixties and seventies witnessed the growth of integrative perspective of
management. This school of thought integrated the scientific and the
behavioural schools of thoughts (Mondy and Premeaux 1995).
2.2.4 Summary
The three different periods discussed earlier have made their own
contribution in the search for performance. For the ancient period,
performance was strictly trial-and-error basis with little or no theory and
virtually no exchange of ideas and practices. The medieval period signified
an important step towards the recognition of organisation and management

for performance. This period is also important since it is a bridge between
the ancient and the present thoughts. Then the renaissance and post
renaissance brought the ancient and medieval period within the scientific
framework which further enhanced performance. It is within this period that
the concept of productivity, as we understand it now, has gained its
22
importance (Randall 1969; George 1972; Currie 1978; Drewin 1982).
Furthermore, in the eighties and early nineties, the frontier of productivity
has been recently enlarged to include such terms as Total Quality
Management (TOM) and Benchmarking as discussed in Chapters 3 and 4
respectively (Chen and McGarrah 1982, Dobyn and Crawford-Mason 1991,
He!lard 1993, Karlof and Ostblom 1993, Mondy and Premeaux 1995).
23
A summary of the different contributors described in this section has been
presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Summary of contributors towards the notion of

performance
(adopted from George 1972, pp. vii - xiii)
Approximate individual / Major contribution

year Ethnic group
4000 BC. Egyptian Recognition of planning, organisation, and

controlling.
1100 BC. Chinese Recognised the need for system and

standards.
350 BC. Greek Scientific method applied. Use of work

methods and tempo.
175 BC. Cato Use of job descriptions.
900 AD. Alfarabi Listed traits of a manager.
1767 AD. Sir James Stewart Source of authority theory and impact on
automation.
1800 AD. James Watt Standard operating procedures,

Matthew Boulton specifications, work methods, standard
time, etc.
1820 AD. James Mill Analysing and synthesising human

motions.
1881 AD. William S. Jevon Made motion study of spade use; studied
effect of different tools on worker; fatigue
study.
1900 AD. Federich W. Taylor Scientific Management
1911 AD. Gilbreth Work study.
1910 AD. Harrington Emerson Efficiency engineering; principle of

efficiency.
1955 AD. Herbert Simon Placed emphasis on human behaviour in

Harold J. Leavitt decision making, viewed as, identification
Robert Schlaifer able, observable, and measurable
process.
24
2.3 The definition of productivity
From the time of the Pharaoh to that of the renaissance period, the route to
efficiency/productive work can be captured by a few key words: tools,
machine, system, resources and conducive environment. The Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (1955) stated that the earliest
use of the term productivity was in 1766 by Quesnay. OECD (1955) also
stated that Littre (1883) used the term productivity to mean "faculty to
produce". Towards the beginning of 20th century, the word was refined to
mean "economic soundness of means" and technically it was taken to
mean as "production per unit factor". This historical wealth of achieving the
essence of efficiency/productiveness is enshrined in dictionaries and
encyclopaedias.
The dictionary meaning of productivity is: productiveness or efficiency in an
industrial production (Oxford English Dictionary 1988). In the 1993 edition,
productivity means: capacity to produce the rate of output per unit input,
used especially, in assessing the effective use of labour, material etc.
However, the Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary (1987) states a
slightly different meaning of productivity: a measure of the efficiency of

company or country, which is calculated by comparing the amount or value
of goods produced with the time and money spent on producing them and
the number of workers who produce them.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica states that:
"productivity may be viewed as a measure of efficiency alone at a

given point moment in an economic time" (pp. 719).
25
The definition given by the Encyclopaedia Americana is comprehensive in
nature: it covers the technical version of Encyclopaedia Britannica and non-
technical elements of productivity which states that:
"the environment by which resources are used has an important
bearing on productivity. The work environment consist of political,
social, and economic climate and the extent to which initiative
and ingenuity are encouraged or supported. History is replete with
example of declining total productivity despite the easy availability
of high-quality resources and advance technology" (pp. 639).
The evolution of the term productivity is summarised below in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: The etymology of productivity
No Year Source Comment

1 1766 Larousse dictionary early use of the word "productivity"
(1946-49 edition)
productivity defined as "faculty to
2 1883 Littre (ditto)
produce"
3 early productivity to mean measurable
OECD, 1955
20th relationship between product and
century factors.
1978 Encyclopaedia a measure of efficiency which
4
includes macro production
Americana environment e.g. political, social
economic etc.
1988 Oxford dictionary productiveness or efficiency in
5
industrial production
6 1988 Encyclopaedia a measure of efficiency
Britannica
1993 Oxford dictionary a measure of the efficiency of
7
company or country, which is
calculated by comparing the
amount or value of goods produced
with the time and money spent on
producing them and the number of
workers who produce them.
It could be implied from Tables 2.1 and 2.2 (The summary of contributors
towards the notion of performance and The etymology of productivity) that
26
productivity is an inherent state of mind of human beings, and reflects their
quest to achieve the best or par excellence with the resources around their
environment within a cultural precept.
2.4 Hierarchy of productivity
Productivity can be seen from several different perspectives depending
upon the circumstances. A possible way to integrate the various definitions
of productivity is to view productivity in a hierarchy of national, industrial
and resource levels (Kellog et al. 1981; Sumanth 1985; Porter 1990;
Ireland 1992).
An early document that advocated national level comparison of productivity
was by Dr. Laszlo Rostas in April 1943. He compared the national
productivity between the British, American and German industries and
concluded the superiority of the American (OECD 1955). Sidwell et al.
(1988), taking Japan as a baseline of 100, compared productivity between
nations amongst types of industry, as presented in Table 2.3. Porter (1990)
expounded implicitly national and industrial productivity as thus:
"The meaningful concept of competitiveness at the national level
is productivity. The principal goal of a nation is to produce a high
and rising standard of living for its citizens. The ability to do so
depends on the productivity with which a nation's labour and
capital are employed. Productivity is the value of the output
produced by a unit of labour or capital A nation's
standard of living depends on the capacity of its companies to
achieve high level of productivity - and to increase productivity

over time." (pp. 84)
27
Table 2.3: Comparison of international industrial labour productivity
(adopted from Sidwell et al. 1988, pp. 17)
COUNTRY JAPAN USA W. FRANCE BRITAIN

GERMANY
YEAR 1979 1979 1978 1979 1978
All industries 100 157 139 141 95
Agro-fishery 100 412 163 222 249
Mining 100 88 30 37 68
Manufacturing 100 107 99 53 53
Power, gas &

waterworks 100 106 152 66 66
Construction 100 135 163 107 107
Transportation &
communication 100 215 156 120 120
Commerce &
services 100 154 144 87 87
*** Japan is assumed to be 100
Table 2.3 suggest that Germany lead the construction industry in 1978,
followed by the USA, France, Britain and Japan. However, it is noted that
productivity trends in these countries are declining compared to that of
manufacturing industry (Kellog et al. 1981; Ireland 1992). To improve the
situation, the Construction Industry Institute (CII of the USA) has launched
several improvement programmes aimed at a cost reduction of 20 per cent
(Ireland 1992). The UK also has placed a target of 30 per cent cost
reduction in order to remain competitive in a global scale through its
Latham Report (1994).
28
Most of the construction industry operates on a project basis (Fellows et al.
1983; Barrie & Paulson 1992). Project level productivity is the building
block which culminates in productivity at industrial/national level for the
construction industry. Ireland (1992) expounded two elements at project
level productivity: namely, what to measure and what are the factors
affecting project level productivity. Nevertheless, the basic level of
productivity is that of the consumption of resources for the realisation of
any project: labour, money, time, materials, and plant (Sanvido 1988;
Barrie & Paulson 1992; Fox 1993). The measurement of productivity at
various levels in the hierarchy has been summarised in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Productivity measurement
Productivity level Productivity Authors

in the hierarchy measurement basis
Sidwell et al. (1988)
national / industrial labour
Porter (1990)
capital Drucker (1991)
Sanvido (1988)
project time
Ireland (1992)
cost Jaggar and Martin (1994)
Chen & McGarah (1982)

site labour
Cleland (1984)
cost Drewein (1985)
plant Sanvido (1988)
Thomas et al. (1990)
time
Muehlhausen (1991)
material Fox (1993)
29
2.5 Summary
The notions of productivity have been discussed in the preceding sections
within a historical and present context. It is concluded that productivity is
part of human 'wants' of improvements and that different views of
productivity which ensues from different perspectives could be integrated
within the 'productivity hierarchy'. Discussion is further enhanced in the
next chapter with the discourse on a latent aspect of productivity: the quality
dimension.
30
CHAPTER 3
THE QUALITY DIMENSION OF PRODUCTIVITY

CHAPTER 3
THE QUALITY DIMENSION OF PRODUCTIVITY
3.1 Introduction
The Great Industrial Revolution of the 18th century brought Great Britain into
the forefront of industrial production on the global scale. However, in 1943,
Dr. Laszlo Rostas produced a famous paper on comparative productivity of
three major industrial nations: Great Britain, Germany and the United States.
He established that America was the leader in industrial productivity (OECD
1955; Fox 1993), but within a generation, the champion had changed yet
again. Dobyns and Crawford-Mason (1991) wrote candidly on the surging
undercurrent that displaced the former champion, America, as thus:
"As you produced quality, productivity automatically goes
up and cost automatically go down. People have been
taught by economist that quality costs more, but a good
deal what is taught about the economy is outdated. In fact,
quality cost less, which helps explain why the Japanese
would sell a better car for less money in the 1980's, why a
Japanese stereo system in the 1970's would produce better
sound for a longer time with less trouble than a more
expensive American model" (pp. 2-3).
The following section explores further the linkages between productivity and
quality. Definition of quality and its evolution to the present understanding of

Total Quality Management have also been presented.
32
3.2 Linkages between quality and productivity
America was mainly responsible for mass production which enabled it to

establish superiority in manufacturing productivity on a global scale. Later
the Japanese learnt mass production but enhanced the superiority of
productivity with excellent quality. The consequence was that quality has
driven price down to that at a cost level of the American (Chen & McGarrah
1982). It is an irony that quality was seen as an essential ingredient of
productivity as early as the 1860's, yet it was the Japanese who put it into
mass effect. The tandem of quality and productivity is expressed by an
American industrialist in the late 19th century, Collis P. Huntington:
"We shall build good ships here at a profit if we can, at a loss if
we must, but always good ships" (Dobyns and Crawford-
Mason 1991, pp. 11).

An international comparison of a few of the economic superpowers on the
perceptions of quality, time and cost is illustrated in Figure 3.1 below:
United Kingdom Wm- ';:51
United States of America
=am
Japan
nrocarl
West Germany
NOM
Quality Time I i Cost igist41.4
Figure 3.1: How quality, time and cost are perceived by clients
(adopted from Flanagan 1990, pp. 233)
33
Figure 3.1 demonstrates that the Japanese (as well as the Germans)
perceived that quality has the greatest priority over time and cost in
comparison with the UK and USA, who ranked quality as second and third,
respectively.
Is it the attribute of being Japanese or American that secures success in
productivity and quality? Fox (1993) adamantly denied that proposition. He
insisted that it is not only the Japanese that have emerged as a challenge to
the present economic superpowers, but also those of the emerging
economies of the Pacific Rim. It is also interesting to note that there are
many striking similarities between successful western companies and that of
the Japanese. The common trait is the obsession with quality and
empowerment of production workers with the notion of quality (Fox 1993;
Atkinson et al. 1994; Stahl 1995).
In the early 1950's, the notion of quality in relation to productivity was
expressed as follows:
"The concept of productivity is sometimes considered as
synonymous with efficiency, but the French note clearly
establishes the distinction between productivity and efficiency.
Efficiency is "aptitude, capacity; in a word, the quality of the
entity whose productivity is under review" (OECD 1955, pp. 12).
Though quality is thought to be an essential part of productivity, it is seen to
be exclusive of each other. Deming, the venerated advocate of quality,
stated that:
"Engineers and technicians make product, bosses make policy, and

the decision to produce quality is a policy decision. The people
who made policy in American business in 1945 believe that quantity
34
was as more important" (Dobyns & Crawford-Mason 1991, pp.
17).
An interesting comparison can be drawn with the construction industry when
productivity is seen as the responsibility of contractors whilst quality is seen
as the realm of consultant. Given the adversarial nature of many contractual
relations, the divide between productivity and quality seems immortal (Lema
et al., 1994).
Pall (1987) expressed that quality has a great leverage on productivity:
"There is a popular belief in American business that quality
and productivity are incompatible: we cannot have both.
Deming relates the case of meeting with 22 production
workers and union representatives whose answer to the
question, 'Why is it that productivity increase as quality
improves?' was: 'Less rework.' These people new that quality
is achieved by improvement of the process; in turn,
improvement of process increase uniformity of output and
reduces rework and defects. The saving in human resources,
machine time, and materials actually increases output with
less effort, which by definition is productivity" (pp. 40-41).
Milford (1991) disagreed with the norm that productivity and quality are
incompatible. On the contrary, he expounded three positive linkages
between productivity and quality.
This is a direct result of how productivity is

defined and measured. Productivity is
• Direct linkage: measured by dividing output by input; it
therefore follows that the numerator should not
include defective output, thereby reducing
productivity.
35
Quality improvement programmes are likely to
• Indirect linkage: result in better and smoother production
processes that are likely to have fewer
breakdowns and less defects.
There is evidence that improvements in quality

• Motivation: and productivity have a salutary effect on
employee motivation; through empowerment,
implementation of performance related bonuses,
and the pride or security of working for growing
organisation.
It is further reinforced by Karlof and Ostblom (1993) that productivity and
quality are not exclusive of each other. He offered the concept of efficiency
to integrate productivity and quality. He proposed that efficiency comprised
four elements: quality, price, production volume and cost. The integration of
productivity and quality is shown schematically as in Figure 3.2.
HIGH
LOW
/ Productivity
Units of output per unit of input
HIGH
Figure 3.2: Efficiency matrix (adopted from Karlof & Ostblom 1993, pp. 5)
Units sold in a free market economy are partly determined by value: as
stated the quotient of quality and price. Productivity is stated as the quotient
of production volume and cost. In a free market economy, value must be

higher than unit cost of production. Thus, quality and productivity are seen
as the determinant of efficiency. Deming's chain reaction diagram also
36
stresses that quality is a necessity for productivity as in Figure 3.3 and
reinforces the notion of quality as a necessary ingredient of productivity.
Cost decrease
Improve
because of less
._* rework, fewer _÷. Productivity 1
quality
1 mistakes fewer
delays, better
use of resources
1 improves
Captures more
business with 1 _...0,. stays in
—.n better quality
and lower price
business
1 —' jobs, jobs 1
Figure 3.3: Deming's chain reaction

(adopted from Saylor 1992, pp. 4)
37
3.3 DEFINITION OF QUALITY
As for productivity, there is an evolution to what is termed as quality. Quality
has gone through a stage of 'a necessary evil' to a 'potent and essential
concept required to achieve competitive advantages'. Figure 3.4 illustrates
the evolution of techniques, practices and philosophies leading to TQM in
construction and portrays the quality journey from near-rejection to full
acceptance into the productivity streamline.
1890
TAYLOR
4
TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT
DRUCKER
•
McGREGOR
1990
GILBERTH MASLOW
URWICK
HERZBERG
motivation
•
Ts men
n
Bcn material po. TOTAL .
TIME methods METHOD fo, • QUALIFY- •
STUDY machine STUDY • MANA,GVONT .
0I- money
monitoring
•
0-
DEMING
CROSBY
JURAN
CROSBY
ISO 9000
BS 5750
1910 1950 1970 1987

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Figure 3.4: Merger between productivity & quality

(adopted from Hellard 1993, pp. 12)
38
From Quality Inspection at the turn of the century to Total Quality
Management of the 1990's, the understanding of quality changed accordingly
and merged into the productivity streamline in the 1990's. In the present
context, there are numerous definitions of quality. Some of them have been
listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Definitions of quality
YEAR SOURCE DEFINITION OF QUALITY
The totality of features and characteristics of

1986 ISO 8402 product or service that bear upon its ability to
satisfy stated and implied needs
1989 Juran Fitness for purpose or use
1979 Crosby Conformance to requirements
1983 Fiegenbaum Customers' needs, fitness and expectations
Generally, all definitions cover the essential attributes of a product or
services which satisfy the needs of end-users. These definitions do not differ
from those expressed earlier on in the section by the OECD (1955) and
Huntington in the sixties, respectively:
II
the quality of the entity whose productivity is under
review" (pp. 12)
and
"We shall build good ships here " (Dobyns and Crawford-
Mason 1991, pp. 11).
What changed is not the term quality but the perception, the needs and the
methods to achieve it.
39
3.4 How to achieve quality
Quality has evolved in four stages: Quality Inspection (QI); Quality Control
System (QCS); Quality Assurance (QA); and Total Quality Management
(TQM). Initially, quality is ensured through an inspection based system as in
Figure 3.4. QI includes examining, measuring and comparing characteristics
of a product with specified requirements. Staff are employed specifically for
that purpose. It is a system of after-the-event screening process (Figure
3.5). Suppliers or customers are not involved directly in the process of
achieving quality (Fox 1993).
COMPARISON PASS
IPROCESS --n WITH STANDARD ACCEPTANCE
(INSPECTION)
FAIL I REJECTION
PJ (scrap or rework)
Figure 3.5: Quality inspection

(adopted from Fox 1993, pp. 14)
Then came the Quality Control (QC) systems as in Figure 3.6. QC includes
operational techniques and activities aimed at monitoring processes and
involves eliminating causes of unsatisfactory performance at relevant stages
of the 'quality loop'. As a result, Quality Control systems attained a greater
control over the process. Nevertheless, the main mechanism for prevention
of failures is still through inspection and testing of processes and products
(Fox 1993).
40
COMPARISON ONTINUE
with standard for
PROCESS QC
A
FEEDBACK
to regulate
process
Figure 3.6: Quality control system

(adopted from Fox 1993, pp. 14)
Quality Assurance concepts then came onto the scene. QA contains all
those planned and systematic actions required to provide acceptable
confidence that a product or service will attain specific requirements for

quality. Generally, Quality Assurance is a shift of management practice to
prevent non-performance rather than of mere detection (Fox 1993).
The fourth stage of quality development is that of Total Quality Management

(TOM). TOM improves the concept of Quality Assurance in that it embodies
principles of quality management which are infused into every level of
organisation. It also includes ideas whereby participants should work

together for a common goal: that incudes partnership with suppliers and
customers (Oakland 1994). TOM development cannot be attributed to a
particular person. It evolves from teachings of Crosby (1979), Deming
(1982), Fiegenbaum (1983), lshikawa (1985), Juran (1989), Shingo (1986)
and Taguchi (1989). Nevertheless, Crosby, Deming and Juan provide the
foundations for TQM philosophy (Pike and Barnes 1994).
41
3.5 Total Quality Management (TQM)
Total Quality Management (TQM) is a philosophy that is quite different from
the principles advocated by QA and QC. Through TOM philosophy and
principles, targets of continuous improvement and total customer satisfaction
will be achieved (Saylor 1992).
Saylor (1992) further stated that TQM is a philosophy that readily absorbs
earlier proven systems, tools and practices that will secure continuous
improvements and total customer satisfaction. Systems and tools developed
earlier for quality control, quality assurance, quality management and work
study form part of TQM (He!lard 1993). Other important attributes of TQM is
its insistence on the following: a systematic, integrated, consistent,

organisation-wide perspective involving everyone and everything; bringing
about improvement from within the organisation; and preaches the

development of relationships - employee, supplier, and customer; and finally,
instilling a zeal to achieve victory. To achieve success, TOM stipulated

guiding principles which form fundamental rules and actions which must be
continuously performed (Saylor 1992):
1 provide a TOM environment;

2 reward and recognise appropriate actions;
3 involve everyone and everything;
4 nurture supplier partnerships and customer relations;
5 create and maintain a continuous improvement system;
6 include quality as an element of design;
7 provide training and education;
8 lead long-term improvement efforts for error prevention;
9 encourage corporation and teamwork; and
10 satisfy the customer, both internal and external.
42
3.5.1 The Total Quality Management Definition
As for productivity, which can also be considered as a philosophy, TQM has
attracted various definitions depending upon the perspective from which it is
viewed. Whatever the definition is, it will concur towards continuous
improvements and total customer satisfaction. Looking at the individual

terms TOTAL, QUALITY and MANAGEMENT may give some further
insights to the definition of TQM (Saylor 1992).
1 TOTAL connotes the involvement of everyone and

everything in the organisation in pursuing continuous
improvement.
2 QUALITY implies customer satisfaction. Total

customer satisfaction is the prime target of TOM which
in the long run would create repeat business and
increased market share instead of the simple approach
of increased profit. The customer shall not be viewed
only from the external customer, but also from the
internal customer within the organisation. Only
comprehensive satisfaction of internal customers will
bring about total satisfaction of external customers.
3 MANAGEMENT provides the environment in which the

concept of TOTAL and QUALITY could flourish.
MANAGEMENT forms the direction and leadership of
the business.
43
3.5.2 Traditional management versus TOM
The evolving notion of quality from quality inspection to Total Quality

Management and the final merger of quality into the mainstream of
productivity has brought a major shift away from traditional management
thought which is very much coloured by Taylorism (Saylor 1992). Table 3.2
compares and contrasts the two.
Table 3.2: Traditional Management versus Total Quality

Management (adopted from Saylor, 1992)
Traditional Management Total Quality Management
Adopts a new management

Looks for "quick fix" philosophy
Uses structured, disciplined

Fire-fights operating methodology
Advocates breakthrough thinking

Operates the same old way using small innovations
Randomly adopts improvement "Set the example" through

efforts leadership
Focuses on short term Stresses long-term, continuos

improvement
Inspects for errors Prevents errors and emphasises

quality design
Decides using opinions Decides using facts
Throws resources at a task Uses people as primary means to

add value
Is motivated by profit Focuses on customer satisfaction
Relies on programme Is a new way of life
44
3.6 Summary
This chapter has expounded that quality has strong linkages with
productivity: to a state that quality is synonymous with productivity. Quality
perception has shifted from that of a necessary evil to that of a survival
necessity in a global context. However, the basic definition of quality has

not changed. It was the methods of achieving quality that have evolved.
Quality movement culminates in the concept of TQM. Being a philosophy, it
readily accepts operational tools that could enhance continuous
improvement. The concept of benchmarking is among the tools which is
adopted in TQM and is the subject of discussion in Chapter 4.
45
CHAPTER 4
BENCHMARKING - A TOOL FOR TQM

CHAPTER 4
BENCHMARKING: A TOOL FOR TOM
4.1 Introduction
TQM has given the surviving philosophy with which to compete on a global
scale. It emphasises incremental but continuous improvement absorbing any
proven and viable processes and practices to elevate productivity and quality
(Saylor 1992). TOM philosophy broadens managerial attitudes, however, it
can be criticised for its lack of tangible and achievable targets. In 1983, Xerox
introduced the term benchmarking to fill the gap within the TOM philosophy.
An excellent attribute of benchmarking is that it negates industrial or national
boundaries. Benchmarking motivates learning from others since the basic
assumption is that no industry or nation has virtual monopoly of the 'best of
the best' resources (Jacobson and Hillkirk 1986). The scenario within Xerox
when they were adopting the benchmarking concept as thus:
"But it took Xerox almost ten years to recognise that. .... They
were horrified to find that the Japanese were selling their small
machines for what it cost us to make ours Xerox swallowed
its pride, admitting that others might have a better way of doing
things, and sent investigative teams on world-wide scouting
missions to find out. Benchmarking can help determine not only

the cheapest sources for quality parts, but the best
manufacturing and service methods. Before 1981 they thought
that they were always right!" (Jacobson and Hillkirk 1986, pp. 8).
47
4.2 Historical development of benchmarking
Though Xerox is reputed to be the first company to employ benchmarking

systematically throughout its company, its essence had been practised
informally by many. Companies were reluctant to admit benchmarking for fear
of being charged with plagiarism (Shetty 1993).
Reverse engineering is one form of benchmarking. Chrysler used to
dismantle competitors cars into pieces and determine what the car constituted
and how much it cost. Reverse engineering thus helped Chrysler to
understand its competitors. The Japanese have long sensed the need to
benchmark its international rivals. Benchmarking not only shortens the
learning curve for them, but also helped to determine gaps and opportunities
in the global market for achieving greater excellence (Shetty 1993).
Benchmarking reached its respectability when it was considered one of the
criteria for the award of the Baldrige National Quality Award which was
instituted in 1987 (Karsnia 1991). In line with the idea of the Baldrige National
Quality Award, 1992 witnessed the start of the European Quality Award to
further the concept of benchmarking in Europe (Karlof & Ostblom 1993).
4.3 Definition of benchmarking
Benchmark were originally used as a mark on a rock or any stable position to

serve as reference from which other points are measured. Benchmarking
therefore denotes the process in which a fixed position is established, from
which other positions are judged higher or lower according to an acceptable
unit of measurement. Benchmarking is also used in the computer industry. It
is taken to mean a standard process for the measurement of performance of
48
software and hardware systems from amongst vendors. The use in both land
surveying and computing industry is to mean comparison, and hence, judged
to be is higher/lower or better than the other. Though land surveying
benchmarking is a permanent feature, the computer industry sets a relative
between two objects of comparison (Allan et al., 1968; Watson 1993). In
business, 'Dantotsu' is the Japanese expression of benchmarking. It means
to strive and attain to the best of the best. Thus, the target is moving, since it
is not likely that a particular competitor will never vacate the status quo
(Karsnia 1991).
Xerox corporation definition of benchmarking is:
"The continuous process of measuring products, services and
practices against the toughest competitors or those companies

recognised as industry leaders" (Camp 1989, pp. 5).
The Xerox's definition implied that both the external and internal products,
processes and practices must be measured against competitors.
Bechmarking has subjected not only the external aspects of business to
competition but also the internal matters. This is a major shift from the
accepted norm in which only external products and services are subjected to
market competition (Karlof & Ostblom 1993).
Camp (1989) offered a working definition of benchmarking as 'the search for

industry best practices that lead to superior performance'. Another definition
is forwarded by Liebfried and McNair (1992) as 'an external focus on internal
activities, functions, or operation in order to achieve continuous improvement'.

The objective is to understand the existing processes and activities and then
to identify an external point of reference or standard by which that activity can
be measured or judged.
49
The International Benchmarking Clearing House Design Committee provided
a more comprehensive definition and represents a consensus amongst 100
companies (Watson 1993):
"Benchmarking is a systematic and continuous measurement

process; a process of continuously measuring and comparing an
organisation's business process against business leaders anywhere
in the world to gain information which will help the organisation to
take action to improve its performance" (pp. 4).
Watson (1993) further stated that business processes mentioned in the above
definition covered products, processes and services.
4.4 Types of benchmarking
Lema and Price (1994) summarised the works of Camp (1989), Thamhain
(1991), Zairi (1992), Watson (1993), Karlof and Ostblom (1993), Shetty (1993)
and, Singh and Evan (1993), stating that there are basically two types of
benchmarking as shown in Figure: 4.1: external; and internal. External
benchmarking further comprises four types: reverse engineering, competitive,

functional and generic benchmarkings. Definitions for each type of
benchmarking in Table 4.1.
50
Table 4.1: Definition of different types of benchmarking

NO TYPES OF DEFINITION
BENCHMARKING
1 Internal Comparison of performance

Benchmarking between units / departments
within an organisation
External
2 Benchmarking External/ Reverse Identifying competitor's product
Engineering and, comparing and contrasting
with one's own product.
3 External/ Competitive Product and processes oriented

comparison
4 External/ Functional Function comparison within

industry and identify best
practices.
5 External/ Generic Comparison of function

irrespective of industry.
Lema and Price (1994) emphasised that benchmarking has only been
recently recognised as a viable tool for TQM. It is therefore understandable
that inconsistencies and confusion still exist in terms of terminology.
Standardisation of terminology is imperative if the industry is to share
benchmarking experiences.
4.5 Principles of applying benchmarking
As noted earlier, Xerox has been recognised as an initiator of systematic
benchmarking. The approach adopted by Xerox for their benchmarking

process comprised nine stages as shown in Figure 4.2. It should be noted
that the nine stages could be consolidated to that of Deming Cycle of Plan-
Do-Check-Act in Figure 4.3. The looping in the diagram is an indication of

continuous benchmarking: in harmony with TOM principle of continuous
improvements (Camp 1989).
51
A 00.1 I Identify benchmarking subject
lir
2 Identify bench marking partner
PLANNING
3 Determine data collection

methodology / Collect data
4 Determine current competitive gap +

ANALYSIS
5 Project future performance
6 Communicate findings & gain

acceptance
+
1NTERGRATION
lir
I7 Establish functional goals

+
Ilr
I8 Develop action plans
t
9 Implement plans & monitor
progress ACTION
10 Recalibrate benchmark
+
Figure 4.1: Xerox benchmarking model
(adopted from Karsnia 1991, pp. 2)
The Deming cycle of Plan-Do-Check-Act has also been adopted by Watson

(1993). The four benchmarking elements are superimposed as shown in
Figure 4.3. Lema and Price (1994) stated that most companies'
benchmarking process conformed to the model suggested by Watson (1993).
52
Figure 4.2: Benchmarking process/Deming cycle superimposition
diagram (adopted from Watson 1993, pp. 4)
53
Shetty (1993) suggested that the actual benchmarking process involved five
steps as shown in Figure: 4.4.
I Identify the function to be

benchmarked
2 Select the superior performers

(Competitive or non-competitive)
•
3 Collect data & analyse for pinpointing 14

gaps in the performance, processes &practices
4 Set performance goals for improving

&
surpassing the best in class
v
5 Implementing plans to bridge
the
gap & monitor results
Figure 4.3: Benchmarking process
(adopted from Shetty 1993, pp. 42)
Shetty commented that feedback loops are for setting new performance goals
for on-going continuos improvement. Though there are various methods for
implementing benchmarking, the ultimate goal of benchmarking revolved

around the issue of performance. The differences of benchmarking from
traditional concepts of production is the shift from solely product oriented to
that of product, processes and people. Competition is not confined to product
54
alone, but extended to processes and those people involved in the process
(Karlof and Ostblom 1993).
4.6 Summary
The discussions in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 on Productivity, Quality and
Benchmarking, provide a strong argument for the evolution of the concept of

performance. It is a journey from "to produce as much as possible (mass
production)" to a journey for "mass production with customer satisfaction".
The boundary for performance is also pushed forward to embrace not merely
a competition of product but to embody a holistic competition of process and
product. The Innovative Manufacturing Initiative (1994) of the Department of
Trade and Industry (DTI) had embodied such concepts of performance and
had set up the 'Construction as a Manufacturing Process' as one of the
research focus area. However, a project must achieve critical success factors
of time, cost and quality. The discussions on the conceptual phase of
construction projects of Chapters 6, 7 and 8 are built upon the concepts
developed in Chapter 2, 3 and 4 that have been discussed earlier. Chapter 5

will discuss the research methodology that form the basis for Chapters 6, 7
and 8.
55
CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.1 Introduction
In pursuance of the aim and objectives as stipulated earlier in Chapter 1,
the research scheme in Figure 5.1 comprising six stages was adopted. The
theoretical foundation and propositions on which this chapter were based
on Chapters 2, 3, and 4, and Chapters 6, 7, and 8 respectively.
Priori Hypothesis Literature Review
+
Exploratory
Case Study
Pilot Questionnaire
Industry - wide
Questionnaire
Survey
Ii
Case Studies
I.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1 CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS

2 BEST PRACTICES
Figure 5.1: Research process
57
The theoretical treatment of the three types of data are expounded in
Chapters of 6, 7 and 8.
START
SECTION I
1 Company
2 Project
3 Respondent
14 questions
SECTION 2
OPINIONS ON
1 Tasks definition
2 Best practices
172 questions
IlY
SECTION 3
TASKS CHARACTERISTICS
1 Tasks sequence in conceptual phase
2 Tasks ranking on productivity
3 Tasks influence on site productivity
70 questions
iEND I
Figure 5.2: Questionnaire flow chart
59
5.3 Pilot survey
The importance of running a pilot survey was expressed by Oppenheim
(1992) as thus:
"Questionnaires do not emerge fully-fledged; they have to be
created or adapted, fashioned and developed to maturity after
many abortive test flights. In fact, every aspect of a survey has to
be tried out beforehand to make sure that it works as intended"
(pp. 47).
A pilot questionnaire was sent to eleven members of the European
Construction Institute (ECI) Productivity Task Force which comprised
clients and contractors organisations. Eight responded to the pilot survey
with some suggestions which were incorporated into the final version of the
questionnaire. The characteristics of respondents, projects and
organisations was tabulated in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Pilot survey respondent characteristics
RECENT PROJECT INVOLVEMENT

Company Project Years In Civil Building Process Power
Type Experience Industry Eng. constru engin. supply
1 Client Gen. Manager 23 4 4

2 Client Sen. Advisor 16 4
3 Contractor Proj. Director 38 q 4
4 Contractor 26 4 4
5 Contractor Proj. Manager 30 4 4
6 Contractor 13 q 4 4 4
7 Contractor 32
8 Contractor Const. Manager 24 4
60
There are two improvements that were incorporated into the final version of
the questionnaire: scale on the perceptions of good practices; and method
of questioning the characteristics of the conceptual phase.
5.3.1 Scale on the perceptions of best practices
In the pilot survey, perceptions of good practices (Section 2 of the
questionnaire) were ranked according to the scheme below:
strongly agree = 1
agree = 2
neutral = 3
disagree = 4
strongly disagree = 5
The responses from the pilot survey were skewed towards the strongly
agree and agree region. It was therefore suggested that the range of
strongly agree and agree was to be expanded as thus:
essential = 1
very important = 2
important = 3
somewhat important = 4
The neutral (3), disagree (4) and strongly disagree (5) region was
narrowed to:
unimportant = 5
61
5.3.2 Method of questioning the characteristics of the
conceptual phase
In Section 3 of the questionnaire, the respondents were requested to rank
tasks in terms of their relative importance in the conceptual phase in an
ascending order. This produced different responses: ranking in terms of
importance; ranking in terms of sequence; and others responded that the
tasks were equally important in the conceptual phase.
The original intention from this section was to elicit two facts: relative
importance in terms of impact on site productivity; and the sequence with
which the tasks are performed.
5.4 Final survey
The questionnaire was longer than the norm. It comprised twenty pages
with 256 questions (see Appendix A - Questionnaire survey). It was
anticipated that the questionnaire would take more than two hours for any
respondent to complete. The length of the questionnaire did not lend itself
to the normal random sampling technique. To ensure a reasonable return
which will enable a statistically viable responses, the members of the ECI
Productivity Task Force Members were requested to nominate the
maximum possible nominations. Twelve out of eighteen members of the

ECI Task Force responded with 144 nominations. Fifty-three successful
returns ( 37 per cent) were received covering various organisations within

the construction industry and covered some countries from continental
Europe. Details of data and analysis have been presented in Chapters 9,

10 and 11.
62
5.5 Case study
To underscore the survey, six projects were selected as case studies: a
power plant; a chemical plant; a sewerage treatment works; an offshore-
structure; a motor way project; and a major building project. These case
studies underpinned the postal survey and specific differences and
similarities were highlighted among the six projects and the processes
Each case study involved:
• a preliminary interview relating to the conceptual phase of
projects based on establishing if the best practices were,
should or could have been adopted on the individual project
(see Appendix B); and,
• a more in-depth interview starting with the client in order to
map the processes adopted in the conceptual phase prior to
bench marking with the other case studies.
The details of data and analysis have been presented Chapter 11.
5.6 Analytical methodology
Analyses of the data has been broadly categorised under two headings.
The first was the description of data which involves determining the central
tendencies, measuring the spread of data and plotting the distribution
exhibited by the sample. This is widely known as descriptive statistics.

Further analyses are performed to uncover sample characteristics such as
group differences and correlation: known as inferential statistics (Siegel
63
and CasteIlan 1988). A schematic form of the analytical methodology has
been presented in Figure 5.3.
DATA
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

1 measure of group difference
1 central tendencies (Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA)
2 degree of dispersion
3 shape of distribution 2 measure of correlation
(Kendall T)
Figure 5.3: Analytical methodology
5.6.1 Descriptive Statistics
Table 5.2 presents data that were collected from each section of the
questionnaire and the descriptive statistics that were used in the analyses
in Chapter 9, 10 and 11.
Table 5.2: Data descriptive statistics

Section no in Variables Measure of Measure of
questionnaire central dispersion
tendencies
Mean Median Std. Range
dev
1 Company type
1 Project value 4
1 Years in industry 4 4
1 Project phases
2 Tasks definition 4 4 4 4
2 Best practices 4 4 4 4
3 Sequence of tasks 4 4 4
Tasks influence on 4 4 4
3
productivity
Tasks influence on 4 4 4
3
site resources
64
5.6.2 Inferential statistics
An important aspect which determined the type of statistical test i.e.
parametric or non-parametric, is the scale of measurement for the data
generated during the survey. Table 5.3 identifies the various types of scale
used for this research.
Table 5.3: Scale of measurement of variables
Section No.
of Variable Measurement Scale
questionnaire
1 = Client .
Company type 2 = Consultant
1 3 = Contractor Nominal
4 = Bank
1 1 <£50 million
Project value 2 > £50 million Interval
1 Years in 1 <10 years
industry 2> 10 years Interval
1 Project phases 0 = no involvement
involvement 1 = involvement Ordinal
1 = strongly agree
2 = agree
2 Task's definition 3 = neutral Ordinal
4 = disagree
5 = strongly disagree
1 = essential
2 = very important
2 Best practices 3 = important Ordinal
4 = somewhat important
5 = unimportant
01 = first task performed
02 = second
3 Sequence of . Ordinal
tasks •.
10= tenth task performed •
01 = most important
influence
3 Task's influence Ordinal
on productivity
10 = least important
influence
1 = most significant
Task's influence 2 = significant
3 on site 3 = neutral Ordinal
resources 4 = insignificant
5 = very insignificant
65
Except for 'project value' and 'years of experience in industry', all are either
nominal or ordinal types of scale of measurement. These demand a non-
parametric approach of analysis (Siegel & CasteIlan 1988).
5.6.2.1 Test of group difference
The survey generated two types of variables: the independent variables
and dependent variables. Section 1 of the questionnaire represents the
independent variables: company type, project value, years of experience in
industry, and involvement in project phases. These variables may exert an
influence on the outcome of Sections 2 and 3 of the questionnaire.
Sections 2 and 3 were the dependent variables.
To test for differences between groups, there are three possibilities:

1 X 2 test for k-independent sample;
2 Extension of Median Test for k independent

sample; and
3 Kruskal-Wallis one way ANOVA for k

independent test.
The assumption for each of the test has been presented in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4: Test type and assumptions
Types of test Assumptions
1 k independent samples
X 2 test 2 data infrequency
3 data nominal / ordinal scale
4 minimum of response in each category is 5
Extension of Median Test 1 k independent samples

2 data ordinal scale
1 k independent samples
Kruskal-Wallis 2 data ordinal scale
66
The x 2 test has more assumptions to be satisfied than both the Median and
Kruskal-Wallis tests. Furthermore, the X 2 test demands a minimum

number in each category of response to be five. This is not always the
case from the survey data. The contenders were either the Median Test or
the Kruskal-Wallis. Kruskal-Wallis is be more efficient since it concentrates
scores into ranks while the Median Test merely converts score into pluses
and minuses. Thus, the Kruskal-Wallis preserves the magnitude of the
score more than Median Test and hence is more sensitive.
5.6.2.2 Correlation tests (Kendall T and coefficient of
correlation)
Having tested group differences (as in Section 8.6.2.1) due to the
independent variables of Section 1 in the questionnaire, correlation tests
were performed. Only those sets of data that show significant differences
were further tested to evaluate the strength of correlation.

5.7 Summary
Chapter 5 elaborated the research methodology adopted for the research.
It involved extensive literature review, design of questionnaire and case
studies. An analysis methodology was also given, which involve
rationalising the various methods employed. Chapters 6, 7 and 8 form the
theoretical framework on which Chapter 5 was built upon. Chapter 9, 10
and 11 contain the results and detail discussions.

CHAPTER 6
CONCEPTUAL PHASE OF CONSTRUCTION

PROJECTS
CHAPTER 6
CONCEPTUAL PHASE OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
6.1 Introduction
As discussed in Chapters 2 and 3, productivity and quality are
measurements for the concept of performance. He!lard (1993) indicated that
productivity and quality concepts merged in the nineties to form what is now
known as Total Quality Management (TOM). Continuous improvement,
incorporation of quality into production process and customer satisfaction are
among the principles advocated by TQM. The concept of performance
improvement has not terminated with the ideas of quality, but has in recent
time received further enhancement through benchmarking. Benchmarking
enhanced the concept of performance improvement by subjecting the total
processes of production and products resulting to an open economic
competition. Processes, tasks and best practices are elicited from whom
and where the best of best resided: negating sectorial or geographical
boundaries. Benchmarking has brought the focus of productivity from a
product-centred concept to embrace the processes-tasks-practices
measures. The need to analyse and map processes, tasks and practices is
imperative (Pall 1987; Sayle 1991; Saylor 1992).
Before elucidating on the conceptual phase of construction projects within
the framework of processes, tasks and best practices (Chapters 7 and 8),
Sections 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4 discuss the types of projects in the construction
industry, project life-cycle, and eventually leads to a discussion on the
70
significance of the conceptual phase. It is further argued that conceptual
phase has suffered severe neglect which needs justified attention.
6.2 Types of construction projects
Construction projects varies in size, sophistication of technology and hence
cost. This section surveys the various opinions forwarded by different
authors pertaining to the notion of construction industry classifications.
Priestly (1994) defined the construction industry as comprising building, civil
engineering and process plant, mechanical and electrical engineering
construction. Clough and Seers (1991) were of the opinion that the
construction industry can be classified in terms of housing, non-residential
building, heavy, highway, utility, and industrial. Whereas Austin and Neale's
(1986) classification consisted of building and civil engineering with the
following sub-division:
storage buildings, schools, training

Building centre, factories, offices etc.
irrigations, roads, drainage scheme,

Civil engineering hydro-electric scheme, sewerage and
sanitation, water supply etc.
In contrast, Tenah and Guevara (1985) put forward five categories for the
construction industry: residential building construction; non-residential
building construction; heavy and highway construction; marine construction;
and, military construction.
A summary of the above opinions and specific examples has been presented
in Table 6.1.
71
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This thesis adopted the classification of construction projects based on cost,
time for construction and level of technology as illustrated in Table 6.2. Cost,
time and level of technology generally increase from the classification of
building to power supply (Barrie and Paulson 1992).
Table 6.2: Classification of construction projects
Construction Types Examples/characteristics
building construction all types of building
motor-way, water supply, land

civil engineering irrigation and drainage, marine
construction such as jetties, airport,
etc.
industrial plant which involved with

process engineering substantial amount of mechanical
and electrical input
projects related to the supply of

power supply power which is characterises with
huge expenditure and period
6.3 Project life-cycle
Irrespective of type of construction, each project has a definite life-cycle.
Defining what a project is and what construction life-cycle is, should be a
good starting point. A project is any undertaking that involves a complex set
of activities and tasks guided by (Kerzner 1984):
specific objectives based on certain specification;
a specific start and completion date;

. specific funding requirements; and
. the consumption of resources such as money, people and
equipment.
73
This definition applies to any one or all phases of facilities acquisition in the
construction industry. To achieve its objectives, a project must go through a

specific process. This process is describe as project life-cycle comprising
several phases (Morris 1983 and Barnes 1990). The construction of
permanent facilities has five phases in its life cycle. They are (CII 1990):
• conceptual;
• detailed engineering;
• procurement;
• construction; and
• start-up.
The Table 6.3 illustrates the elements of project life cycle, as defined by
various authors.
Table 6.3: Project life-cycle definition by various authors
PROJECT LIFE-CYCLE
AUTHORS
NO PROJECT 1 2 3 4 5
CII, 1983 Conceptual Detailed Procurement Construction Start-up.
1 (General) Eng.
Barrie &
Paulson Concept & Eng. & Procurement Construction Start-up &
2 1992 feasibility design operation
(General) studies
Morris 1992 Prefeasibility Design Manufacture Erect / install Test / handover

3 (General) & feasibility /procure
Graff, 1981
(Off-shore Preliminary Design Bidding Construction Commissioning
4 structures) phase
Austen &
Neale 1986 Briefing Design Tendering Construction Commissioning
5 (Building)
Heisler 1994
(Non- Conceptual Execution Close-out
6 construction) &
definition
74
Heisler's (1994) definition of project life-cycle comprised the execution and
the close-out phase. The execution phase is taken to include design and
fabrication/construction. His definition was developed within the non-
construction industry. Austen and Neale (1986) restricted their definition to
building and civil engineering projects. Graft's (1981) project cycle was
developed within the off-shore structures construction and the construction
phase includes commissioning stage. The appeal of the CII (1986) definition
is that project life-cycle is developed within the whole spectrum of
construction. The CII (1990) definition is also similar to the definitions
offered by Barrie & Paulson (1992) and Morris (1992).
6.4 The significance of the conceptual phase
Before going into the details of what constitutes the tasks of the conceptual
phase, the forgoing section explores the importance of the conceptual phase
of a project. It is necessary to understand the significance of the project life-
c le •I . ' rela 1 SI • • •./ I. 1 involved. For the purpose of this
research, the conceptual phase is the focus whereby it is within the realm of
the owner or client. To underscore the prime role of the client, Latham
(1994) stated that:
"Implementation begins with clients. Clients are at the core of the
process and their needs must be met by the industry
leading clients and firms have substantial role to play in setting
demanding standards and insisting upon improvements" (pp. 3).
Nevertheless, depending upon the type of relationship/contract, the main
contractor may be involved at certain stage of the conceptual phase (Barrie
& Paulson 1992; and Smith 1992). The conceptual phase presents the most
important point in the project life-cycle. It is the stage that has the most
influence on the course of events to come - detailed engineering,
75
procurement and construction. How productive these phases are very much
depends upon the decisions in the conceptual phase (Kellog et al., 1981; Hill
et al., 1990; Jump 1992; Shafer 1994) as illustrated in Figure 6.1.
4:11.
co4-
ctoui
HIGH !CONCEPTUAL PHASE' COST OF
_ 9.0.144_
PROJECT
cf..,:fu_ t LAJ
I Dctail Enginccring I
tt,
IProcurcmcnt I
Construction I
Start-up
DEGREE OF
INFLUENCE
START FINISH
TIME
Figure 6.1: Ability to influence final cost over project life-cycle

(adopted from CII 1990. pp. 1)
It can be observed that the conceptual phase presents the greatest
opportunity for improvement of performance: either productivity or quality.
The influence of the conceptual phase is the greatest, yet with minimal cost
(Smith 1992; Hill et al., 1990). In the conceptual phase, a project is defined
in broad terms and determines, to a significant if not major degree, the cost
_physical cnnRtcuction through, amongst other things, choice of material,
the date of commencement and completion. It is here that the ultimate
success or failure of a project is predetermined. At the engineering phase,
the choice available to improve performance is decidedly narrowed. Finally,
during construction only effective employment of labour and equipment offers
any hope of improving productivity as the project is executed. Though much
improvement could be achieved at this stage, productivity henceforth are
likely to be marginal. The sooner in the life of a project that the concepts of
76
productivity and quality are infused, the more opportunity there is for
performance improvement (Kellog et al., 1981).
The significance of the conceptual phase in terms of impact on cost has
already been expressed by Shafer (1994):
"While capital is largely spent during the delivery stage, the key
decisions that will influence the final cost are primarily made
during the front-end engineering. Front-end engineering
decisions can influence the cost of projects by three to four time
the amount that occurs in similar decisions made during delivery.
The relation between timing and the ability to influence costs and
value is well documented project management principles. During
the front-end, the maximum impact on value can be obtained at
the lowest cost. The final cost is 75 to 80 per cent determined by
the end of the concept development, and 90 - 95 per cent
determined by the time scope is developed and delivery begins"
(pp. 3.1).
Finally, Jump (1992) further expressed the importance of the conceptual
phase as:
"if there are mistakes at this stage, they are present for the life of
the project and possibly for the life of the asset itself" (pp. 85).
77
Table 6.4 illustrated the potential of the conceptual phase decision on site
productivity.
Table 6.4: Decision level analysis

(adopted from Kellog et al. 1981, pp. 145)
DECISION LEVEL ANALYSIS

CONCEPTUAL PHASE*** DESIGN / PROCUREMENT CONSTRUC
PHASE*** TION
PHASE***
Macro/macro Macro Macro/Micro Micro Micro/Micro
(policy (programme (Planning/ (Project site
formation) management) design) management/ construction
administration)
Buildings
($5.2 B)
Sewer system
($5.8 13)
Water Supply
($213)
Motor way 41.100 Miles
($9.6 B) ,ystem
geographical Concrete Design ($2.00/sq, survey ($0.201
location Bridges ft. of bridgcl sq. ft. of bridge)
no. of lanes ($25.00/mildl planning VMH/central
no. of bridges material surveying pant
terrain finance specification $/mh/layout
alignment design structural analysis etc.
etc. land budget
contract admin. drafting Labour
excavation labour (S1.20/sq. ft. of
equipment brid.r4.1
profit VMH/forrn/sq..
ft.
S/MH/concrctel
cy
ste.
life-cycle phase according to the opinion of Cil 1990
The following example illustrated how the conceptual phase influences the
other downstream phases and has been given in relation to Table 6.4 above.
A project naturally needs the input of numerous resources. More so for a
large projects such as a motor-way, dam or industrial plant. Projects of such
a size are ailbjactacLto_guraemus_forces: social pressures; economic
persuasions; political ridings; and at times, a military strategic necessity.
These forces then culminate at a political/policy level in society (Barrie &
78
Paulson 1992; Morris 1991; Khan 1991). As an example, a decision by a
government spending on motor-way construction must be compromised
against, say, a badly needed new sewer system: i.e. Macro/macro -
Conceptual phase as shown in Table 6.4 (Kellog et al., 1981).
Having made the choice, say, the motor-way administration agency (Macro -
Conceptual phase) will elaborate upon the ideas into deciding the choice of
using bridges rather than following the natural terrain. The professionals
then determine the materials to be used, configurations of structures,
selection of components, and determination of milestone schedules for
beginning and completing the various packages of the project (Macro/micro -
Design/procurement). It is noted by many authors that these decisions are
made with little regard for implementation or execution problems (Abbott
1985; O'Connor et al., 1987; Rowing et al., 1987).
In the example of a bridge, the downstream or regional availability of
concrete versus structured .s je_el could be an important factor in determining
final cost, but was this question considered during preliminary design of the
cor
IceptLa
i L4abase? What construction crafts have a surplus of workload
forecast during the next year? Can the design or schedule be altered to level
out the requirements for those crafts in short supply? These kinds of
decisions need to be made with the normal planning and design trade-offs.
These decisions account for the conceptual phase.
Moving to the detailed engineering and construction level, analysis of the
logistics for the project and securing the necessary supply of labour,
material, permanent equipment, and construction equipment proceeds.
Detailed planning takes place in conformance with the specifications,
drawings, and schedule requirements. The objective at this level is to
provide the appropriate labour and equipment at the right time to install the
right material in the most efficient sequence and within the right time.
79
However, the decision makers at this level do the best they can, given the
constraints already 'cast in concrete', to bring the job on time and within
budget. Finally, at the site construction level, construction superintendents,
foremen, union stewards, and operatives make a multitude of individual
decisions affecting site productivity (Micro/micro - Construction phase). The
movement from the conceptual phase towards detailed engineering and
construction restricts the choice of decision to be made, hence its influence
on productivity factors at the project level, as illustrated in Figure 6.1.
6.5 The severe neglect of the conceptual phase
The previous section demonstrated how significant the conceptual phase is
to project cost and performance. Nevertheless, it is often severely
neglected. Newman et al. (1981) stated that there are six main problems in
the conceptual phase of building projects as detailed below.
Client problems The client is inexperienced in briefing, changes
his/her mind, does not understand his/her
requirements, has pre-conceived ideas and
does not understand drawings.
Client/architect The client does not understand what the
relationship problems architect does, or he/she appoints the architect
until too late.
Cost problems Cost limits are unrealistic, the client wants more
space than he/she can afford, the client does
not understand the cost; the architect finds it
difficult to provide early estimates, the
economic climate changes during briefing.
80
Client organisation No one person has the responsibility in the
problems client department, more than one client,
disputes within the client organisation, lack of
contact with building user or tenant.
Regulation/bureaucracy Building regulations, planning procedures, or
problems other bureaucratic requirements cause delays,
limit design are unpredictable. Many clients do
not understand these delays.
Site/timing problems Incorrect or unobtainable site information, site
does not match client requirements. Lack of
time for the architect to do the work, lack of
time for the client to examine proposals.
The situation is further exacerbate when approximately 80 per cent of private
sector professionals in the building industry do not have briefing procedures.
It is also concluded that the public sectors show no significant difference
(Newman et al., 1981). The work by McDermott et al. (1986) further reveals
neglect the conceptual phase. They discovered that five per cent of all
variations are caused by inadequate briefing in the conceptual phase.
However, the implication and impact on productivity is certainly magnified
when the variations filter through into the later life of the project.
The problems of neglect in the conceptual phase is not a new phenomena.
As early as 1964, through the Banwell report, it was stated strongly that
clients:
. seldom spend enough time at the outset of making clear in

the minds exactly what they want or programme of events required
in order to achieved their objectives" (pp. 3).
81
Though the Banwell Report (1964) recommended that greater effort should
be made to establish the brief, i.e. the conceptual phase, and further
criticised professional advisers for not emphasising that this is time well
spent", situation has not improved as suggested by the work of Newman et
al. (1981).
In the seventies, inadequate briefing in the conceptual phase was also
suggested to be partly responsible for the level of the UK client
dissatisfaction with the building industry (Building Economics Development
Committee 1983; McKenzei 1979). On other major projects in the UK that
suffered overrun of cost and time, Morris (1991) attributed it to:
The consequence of inadequate project definition" (pp. 198).
It is also learnt from the handling of major projects by the US Ministry of
Defence and the consequence of "massive tales of overruns" that there must
be an emphasis on the front-end definition (Morris 1991).
With severe neglect of the conceptual phase since the sixties of the Banwell
Report, Latham (1994) adamantly suggested that the design brief be part of
the contractual process and further recommends as thus:
"The client should sign off approval of the brief Such a
guide to briefing would be helpful to clients. I recommend that
the Construction Industry Council, in conjunction with clients,
should prepare such a check list" (pp. 19).
82
6.6 Summary
This chapter has reviewed the various classifications of construction projects
and adopted the following: building construction; civil engineering; process
engineering; and power supply. Various notions of project life-cycle are also
given. However, this thesis adopted the definition offered by the CII (1990):
conceptual phase; detailed engineering; procurement; construction; and
start-up. The classification of construction projects and project life-cycle
adopted in this chapter were incorporated into Section A of the questionnaire
(Appendix A). Finally, Chapter 6 explored the conceptual phase of
construction projects. It is established that the conceptual phase is a very
significant entity to be considered seriously; and that the conceptual phase
has been severely neglected for decades since the Banwell report of 1964.
Variations in opinion to what constitute conceptual phase leads to further
discussions in Chapter 7. This will include propositions of tasks, process and
best practices associated with conceptual phase of construction projects.
83
CHAPTER 7
TASKS IN THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE

CHAPTER 7
TASKS IN THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE
7.1 Introduction
The significant impact of the conceptual phase on construction projects and
the need for a proper appraisal of the present status of conceptual phase
were discussed in the Chapter 6. Chapter 7 expounds the need to establish
tasks of the conceptual phase and the present notion of conceptual phase.
These will lead to the propositions for the tasks, task definition and tasks
relationship process of conceptual phase of major project. As expounded in
Chapter 6, part of the need for performance in the perspective of
benchmarking is the development of best practices. The following section
also states some justifications of the need of best practices. Propositions of
best practices have been presented for each of the conceptual phase task.
7.2 The need for tasks and process identification

Diagnosis and prescription of any malaise is preceded with the anatomy of
the system and its related issues. This was what Frederick W. Taylor did in
1881 when he studied a common labourer shovelling sand with the view of
improving his productivity. The question was, "What is the task and how is it
done?" Fifty years later came Harvard's Elton Mayor to demolish Taylor's
scientific management and to replace it with what came to be known as
'human relation' management where the focus is not only work itself, but to
include human aspects. He focused on the same question! In his
experiment at Western Electric Hawthorne Works, Mayo asked, "How can
wiring telephone equipment best be done?" (Pall 1987; Drucker 1991). To
85
further reinforced the importance of defining the task, Drucker (1991)
illustrated the following experience:
"A major insurance company recently increased the productivity of
its claim-settlement department nearly fivefold - from an average of
15 minutes per claim to 3 minutes - by eliminating detailed
checking on all but very large claims. Instead of verifying 30 items
as they had done, the adjuster now check only 4, whether the
policy is still in force, whether the face amount of the claim,
whether the name of the policyholder matches the name on the
death certificate, and whether the name on the beneficiary
matches the name of the claimant. What provoked the change
was asking, "What is the task?"and the answer, "To pay death
claims as fast and as cheaply as possible." All that the company
now requires to control the process is to work through a 2%
sample, that is, every fiftieth claim, the traditional way" (pp. 73).
A task is defined as the smallest measurable activity within a process (Pall
1987). It is purported by Sayle (1991) that task comprises inputs and outputs
as in Figure 7.1.
I SUPPLIERS I CUSTOMERS
External
Customers
Internal
Internal Departments
Departments
Internal I
Internal Colleagues
Colleagues
Products / services
Products / service
supplied by the tas
needed by thc task I
I
FIGURE 7.1: Inputs and outputs of a task (adopted from Sayle 1991, pp. 29)
86
However, task or tasks do not stand independently but must be integral part
of a process. A process is defined by Pall (1987) as:
"The logical organisation of material, people, equipment and
procedures into work activities designed to produce a specified end
result" pp. 25.
WORK PROCESS
INPUT —*- Task I -Op. Task 2 ol Task n —*- OUTPUT

*.
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Figure 7.2: Tasks and process linkages
(adopted from Pall 1987, pp. 161)
The linkages between tasks and process has are illustrated above in Figure
7.2. Pall (1987) envisaged the need to map out tasks and related process so
as to establish process management. He further expounded that process
management comprises, amongst others, the following items.
1 Process definition, design and documentation
A structured and disciplined approach to the understanding and
_L.
formal documentation of all major somp.m_er ft of the process and
their interrelationships. The process plan is one of the key
documents in the overall quality management effort.
87
2 Continuous process improvement
This is a managerial process to ensure that improvement becomes
permanently embedded in the process.
3 Process optimisation in terms of efficiency and productivity
Installing a feedback system which ensures a 'learning system' and
achieve process optimisation.
Efforts to realise greater productivity and quality on-site through decisions
made in the conceptual phase must proceed from defining the tasks and task
process in the conceptual phase of construction project. As stated in Section
6.2 of Chapter 6, project life-cycle comprised the conceptual, detailed
engineering, procurement, construction and, finally, the start-up (CII 1990).
But, when does each begin and stop? Certainly, this is very much
dependent upon the type of contractual relationship a client wants to have
with the other parties who are involved in the final delivery of a project. The
other question would be the content of this phase. Again the answer is
bounded by related factors, for example, who defines it. The contractual
relationship does influence the definition of the conceptual phase of a
project.
In order to ease analysis, it is assumed in the forthcoming sections that the
life-cycle phases are sequential though in real life it may not be so. The
conceptual phase will be confined to a client's perspectives rather than from
the broad spectrum of other parties who are involved in the total project
delivery. Th3 section that follows will explore the present notion of
conceptual phase of projects. This will lead to the proposition of conceptual
phase tasks, tasks definition and issues, and, tasks relationship. The
propositions, thereafter, formed part of the questionnaire as in Appendix A.
88
7.3 Notions of the conceptual phase
7.3.1 The boundary for the conceptual phase
The needs of society is the genesis of a project. How it develops thereafter
is very much dependent upon the sum of forces containing it (Walker 1984;
Morris 1991). Then the demise?
RIBA (1967) pointed out that the conceptual phase of a project is the phase
up to a point in time when detailed engineering starts and a "freeze s' of the
conceptual phase is installed thereon. Numerous authors also suggested a
"freeze" when pursuing the detailed engineering, less it could play havoc in
terms of variations of work content and duration slippage (Endres 1991;
Tatum 1987; Rowing 1987).
Therefore, the start of a conceptual phase is distinct but it is not the case for
its "finishing" point. This is so since the conceptual phase is the framework
into which the other phases must conform. The phases may be distinct.
They are not separate, but integral parts of the project life-cycle. The phases
are overlapping and interdependent rather than discrete (Khan 1991). The
phases flows into one another organically (Heisler 1994).
7.3.2 Content of conceptual phase
In the foregoing discussions there are distinctions made for building
construction, civil engineering and heavy engineering. Building construction
covers areas of office space, housing , industrial buildings etc. Road
construction, dams and those of similar nature are termed civil engineering.
While heavy engineering covers the construction of processing plants, power
stations etc. These distinctions are generally intrinsic: level of technological
89
needs; duration of project life-cycle; quality expectations; and finally, the
financial needs (see Chapter 6).
The conceptual phase expresses the needs of client organisation for the
constructed facility. The needs are stated in broad terms rather than
specifics and operational details of the later phases. In a project
environment the conceptual phase is at a macro level, hence of a strategic
importance. The defined broad terms than form the main agenda against
which the other phases are orchestrated. Conformity is a must for
successful outcome (Kellog et al., 1981; Jump 1992).
7.3.2.1 Building construction industry
As early as 1944, the conceptual phase was recognised as an important
aspect of a building project. The term may not be identical, but the content
certainly reflects the needs of client. From the Simon Report (1944), the
term conceptual phase refers to elements such as design brief, selection of
coms, sketal and preliminary approximate cost. The Aqua Group
(1987) commended that an addition of statutory requirements and Wg
would make the Simon Report deem fit for today's basic good practice.
90
The handbook of Architectural Practice and the Architect Job Book,
published by RIBA (1967) stated the various stages of pre-contract period as
per Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Outline of work.
(adopted kohl The Handbook of Architectural Practice and the Architect Job
Book, 1967)
STAGES PURPOSE OF WORK AND DECISION TO BE REACHED
Inception To prepare a general outline of requirement and plan for

future action.
Feasibility To provide the client with an appraisal and recommendation in
order that he/she may determine the form in which the project
should proceed and ensuring that it is functionally, technically,
and financially feasible.
Outline To determine the general approach to layout, design and

Proposal construction in order to obtain authoritative approval of the
client on the outline proposals and accompanying report.
Scheme To complete the brief and to decide on particular proposals,

Design including planning arrangement appearance, construction
method, outline specification, cost and to obtain approvals.
- - -- - - --- — - - ---- -
Al-Sedairy (1985) stated that the inception phase (conceptual phase) has
two elements. These two elements were termed 'The Base Line Study I and
II'. The Base Study I expresses the statement of owner's needs while the
latter contains the project delivery method. The key elements for the Base
Line Studies are as in Table 7.2.
91
Table 7.2: Key elements for the base studies
(adopted from Al-Sedairy 1985, pp. 17)
BASE LINE STUDY 1 STATEMENT OF OWNERS' NEEDS

,
1 Problem definition 1 Problem statement
2 Search for information
3 Data collection
4 Classify information
2 Interpretation 1 Scope
2 Cost
3 Time
4 Quality
3 Project goals 1 Scope

2 Cost
3 Time
4 Quality
BASE LINE STUDY 2 PROJECT DELIVERY
"I Method of delivery 1 Project process

2 Design, construction, operation &
maintenance requirements
2 Management approach 1 Project development team

organisation
2 Project management
3 Method of project control 1 Project process

2 Management plan
3 Project management control system
4 Project implementation plan 1 Method of project delivery

2 Consultant agreement guideline
3 Architectural programme
4 Operating procedure
5 Preliminary funding proposal 1 Design requirement

2 Design phase deliverable
requirement
3 Tender phase requirement
4 Construction phase preliminary
requirement
5 Operation & maintenance phase
premier requirements.
92
Birrell (1989) stated that the conceptual phase comprises: establishing how
to satisfy the needs of the client; putting up appropriate financial
arrangements; the appropriate contractual relations with other parties;
resolution of issues related to governmental regulations; and conceptual
design proposals that takes into consideration overall conceptual phase
needs. It was stressed that it takes an iterative process to come up with the
final proposition which is later delivered for further actions of other down
stream phases.
Murray et al. (1990) indicated the conceptual phase contains the client's
requirements in terms of finance, timetable, budget, preliminary design,
environmental issues and finally definition of value of money and quality. It
could be observed that there is an evolution of details of what constitutes a
conceptual phase for building construction industry: from the simple Simon
Report (1944) to the detail descriptions of Al-Sedairy (1985). It is further
complemented by Murray et al. (1990) with the introduction of the
environmental aspect.
7.3.2.2 Civil and heavy engineering construction industry
The transition from building construction to civil and heavy engineering
industry is marked with technical sophistication and standards, longer project
duration and the need for large financial set-up. These demand greater
resources and assume greater risk, hence the concerns from the public at
large. The amplification and detailing of the conceptual phase are very much
needed to accommodate and absorb the overall project resources needs,
but, the conceptual phase shall also account to mitigate any eventualities
(Barrie and Paulson 1992).
Signore (1985) expounded the experience of the pharmaceutical industry
from the owner's perspectives with regards to the conceptual phase for
93
construction project. The elements in this are to define the following items:
functional objectives; operational concept; master planning; financial goals;
and finally, regulatory compliance. Within the conceptual phase framework,
data collection proceeds to include relevant codes, site information, aesthetic
preferences, and process manufacturing information. This will lead to the
formulation of criteria which defines the design objectives. These criteria
then clarify and confirm the project purpose, schedule and budget, regulatory
requirement and form the basis of the conceptual development phase.
Tatum et al. (1987) stated that the conceptual phase should comprise issues
such as: defining scope of work; 'provide data concerning the site and
process design; equipment procurement policy; stating the construction
methods; determining of site and local constraints; accounting for resources

_
availability; developing project execution plan; defining site layout; and finally
ensuring constructability being incorporated in the conceptual phase.
The CMC (1991) interpreted the conceptual phase of having elements of:
trade-off analysis; general description of structures; schedule for design,
procurement, construction and start-up; conceptual cost estimating;
implementation plan of project management; and equipment purchasing and
installation policy.
Khan (1991) argued that the conceptual phase comprises the inception,
formulation and approval processes. The inception is the phase where a
need has been identified and ideas have been recognised. Formulation
means developing a plan or method. The project idea has to be set out in
detail and has many specific terms. These entail conducting feasibility
studies, exploring alternatives, and identifying strategies for maximising
objectives. Then there are the needs of technical, economic, financial,
social, organisational and political appraisals. Approval processes can then
follow involving securing authorisation from competent authorities.
94
Heisler (1994) stated that conceptual phase comprises staffing plan,
preparation of scope book, development of contracting methods, project
schedule, project financing, attending to issues of licensing and permits,
dealing with long lead time items, and addressing the important factor of
quality assurance manual.
It is observed from the various authors that the content of conceptual phase
varies from that of building construction and that of civiVheavy engineering.
As stated earlier, the needs of the latter are greater. Hence the emphasis on
details in the conceptual phase is more apparent. This view was also
expressed by Latham (1994). The synthesis of opinions of the ten authors
pertaining to the conceptual phase described above consisted of the
following elements:
• design (conceptual /outline / preliminary);
• cost / finance / economics;
• statutory requirements;
• construction methods;
• project needs / definition;
• establishing project team;
• project general programme;
• procurement of main items; and
• contractual relation with parties involved.
95
7.4 Propositions for conceptual phase
7.4.1 Introduction
As stated earlier in Section 7.1, the fundamental genesis of process/system
improvement is the identification and definition of tasks and mapping the
relationship of tasks which forms the process or system. The discussion
below develops the propositions of tasks, tasks definition and relevant
issues, and process mapping of the conceptual phase of major projects. The
propositions are the basis for the questionnaire survey and case studies in
Chapters 5 and 8 (Appendices A and B).
7.4.2 Conceptual phase tasks proposition
The initial step to establish the relevant tasks of the conceptual phase
involved exploratory discussions with four experts. They were from the
construction industry representing a client and three major contractors of the
European Construction Institute Productivity Task Force (ECI Task Force).
The discussions were based on the information contained in Section 7.3. It
was concluded that the nine elements from the synthesis of ten opinions
should be transformed into TEN TASKS. These generic TEN TASKS should
adequately reflect the requirement in a conceptual phase of major projects.
This notion of ten tasks conceptual phase was tabled and verified in a
discussion which involved twelve participants of the ECI Task Force. Finally,
the ten tasks notion was finalised through the six case studies.
96
The Table 7.3 illustrated the transformation from the ten authors to the TEN
TASKS PROPOSITIONS:
Table 7.3: Synthesis of opinion and proposition
Synthesis of Opinions on Propositions of Ten Tasks

Conceptual phase
1 design (conceptual /outline / 1 Design of Temporary Works
preliminary) 2 Design of Permanent Structures
2 cost / finance / economics 3 Financial Strategy
3 statutory requirements 4 Consents & Permits
4 construction methods 5 Construction Philosophy
5 project needs / definition 6 Project Definition
6 establishing project team 7 Project Management Organisation
7 project general programme 8 Project Panning
8 procurement of main items 9 Procurement Strategy
9 contractual relation with parties 10 Contract Strategy
involved.
The whole gamut of ten opinions pertaining to the content of the conceptual
phase of a construction project as in Section 7.3 has been summarised in
Table 7.3. The spectrum of opinions in Section 7.3.2 were deconstructed
into ten tasks as proposed in Table 7.4.
97
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7.4.3 Proposition for task definitions and relationships between tasks
The following task definitions, issues and relationships are the culmination of
an extensive literature review and informed opinions of the members of the
ECI Task Force.
When the conceptual phase is considered in detail, it becomes clear that the
individual tasks are highly interrelated with one another, and an iterative
process is required. Figure 7.3 illustrates the proposition of the
interrelationships between tasks which must be considered if a holistic view
of the conceptual phase can be realised. These relationships have been
discussed below along with individual task definitions. Important issues
associated with each task have also been identified.
(i) Consents and Permits
The key issues addressed during the Consent and Permit task are: the
generation of information and data relating to the facility to be constructed;
and, an estimation of cost and time associated with obtaining future
Consents and Permits. The social, economic and political issues must also
be addressed, and the correct environment for successful project must be
established.
DEFINITION : 'The embodiment of a society's constitution, laws, statutes,
regulations, norms and culture, which ensures rights and protections of itself
in relation to the proposed project."
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS: The Consents and Permits task
circumscribes all tasks: Project Definition, Financial Strategy, Project
Panning, Contract Strategy, Project Management Organisation, Construction
Philosophy, Procurement Strategy, and the conceptual Design of Temporary

Works and Permanent Structures. Nevertheless, these other tasks
99
influence the required Consents and Permits through society's formal and
informal institutions.
(ii) Project Definition
Project Definition addresses key issues such as project feasibility and
definition of project needs at a very early stage. Project Definition must be
effectively communicated to all relevant parties as early as possible.
DEFINITION: Resolution of options during the conceptual phase which
culminates in statement of Client's requirements.
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS: Project Definition is subservient to
Consents and Permits. It determines the boundaries of Financial Strategy,
Project Planning, Contract Strategy, Project Management Organisation,
Construction Philosophy, Procurement Strategy, and finally the Design of
Temporary Works and Permanent Structures. However, these tasks may
well influence Project Definition.
(iii) Financial Strategy
The key issues considered during the development of a Financial Strategy
are conceptual estimating, including source and cost of finance. Ensuring
the right choice of currency, an appropriate political climate, a stable
economic system, and the security of funding sources during the whole
project life-cycle are among the issues which should be addressed as part of
the Financial Strategy. Compatibility with other tasks must also be achieved.
DEFINITION: The principal means and methods by which the financial
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS: Financial Strategy restrains the
extent of Project Planning, Contract Strategy, Project Management
I (X)
Organisation, Construction Philosophy, Procurement Strategy, and Design of
Temporary Works and Permanent Structures. These tasks may moderate
Financial Strategy, however, the choice of Financial Strategy mainly depends
upon the results of the Project Definition, and Consents and Permits tasks.
(iv) Project Planning
The main issues to be considered during project planning are the deadlines
for finalising all other tasks in the conceptual phase, and the other phases of
detailed engineering, procurement, construction and start-up of a
construction project. Other issues such as identification of resources,
objective setting, and establishing communication and information system
are also to be addressed. The main outcome of project planning should be a
defined schedule with easily identifiable milestones.
DEFINITION: Global planning of the whole project, including the
establishment of and commitment to defined schedules and milestones.
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS: Project Planning dominates
Contract Strategy, Project Management Organisation, Construction
Philosophy, Procurement Strategy, and finally the Design of Temporary and
Permanent Structures. However, these tasks will always moderate project
planning. Project Planning should satisfy the requirements of Financial
Strategy, Project Definition, and finally Consents and Permits.
lo I
(v) Contract Strategy
The main issues considered as part of the contract strategy are the type of
contract, the method of assessing tenders, and the selection criteria.
Amongst other issues to be considered are appropriate pricing policy,
establishing the appropriate contract document and project control, setting
quality standards, and finalising work package organisation.
DEFINITION: A strategy that defines relationships, duties, obligations and
policies which are directed/engineered towards the desired successful total

project delivery in accordance with Project Planning, Financial Strategy,
Project Definition, and Consents and Permits.
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS: Contract Strategy dictates Project
Management Organisation, Construction Philosophy, Procurement Strategy,

and finally the Design of Temporary Works and Permanent Structures.
However, constraints placed on these tasks may well influence Contract
Strategy.
(vi) Project Management Organisation
Project management organisation involves the formation and configuration of
the Client's management team. It must establish the extent of power and
responsibility, whilst facilitating a team building process. Establishing a
mechanism for dispute resolution, team decision making process, and
communication networks are important issues to be considered in this task.
Ensuring the right motivating work environment must also taken into
consideration.
DEFINITION: The formulation and configuration of the Client's management
team in accordance with the contract strategy.
1 02
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS . Project Management Organisation
evolves from Contract Strategy, and constrains Construction Philosophy,
Procurement Strategy, and the Design of the Temporary and Permanent
Structures. However, the outcome of these tasks do moderate Project
Management Organisation. Project Management Organisation is also
constrained by Project Planning, Financial Strategy, Project Definition, and
finally Consents and Permits.
(vii) Construction Philosophy
Construction Philosophy involves the evaluation of alternatives and
characterises the degree of standardisation, modularisation, and
prefabrication. It also represents policy towards neighbouring operations,
and structures. Construction Philosophy is heavily influence by weather,
resources availability, safety and quality requirements.
DEFINITION: The conceptual approach and method of construction that
dictates the Design of Permanent Structure. and Temporary Works
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS: Construction Philosophy is
constrained by Project Management Organisation, Contract Strategy, Project
Planning, Financial Strategy, Project Definition and finally Consents and
Permits. The adopted Construction Philosophy determines the Procurement
Strategy, and influences the Design of Temporary and Permanent
Structures, however, these tasks may well moderate Construction
Philosophy.
(viii) Procurement Strategy
Procurement Strategy establishes the policy on the whole procurement task
ensuring availability and timely supply of resources such as material, plant
103
and equipment and power. Achieving the required standards and
specifications is also an important consideration.
DEFINITION: Strategy for proactive project hardware purchasing required
to achieve complete project delivery in accordance with project schedule.
RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TASKS: Procurement Strategy is dependent
upon Construction Philosophy, Project Management Organisation, Contract

Strategy, Project Planning, Financial Strategy, Project Definition, and finally
Consents and Permits. Procurement Strategy will subdue Design of
Temporary Works and Design of Permanent Structure conceptual designs,
however, these may well moderate Procurement Strategy.
(ix) Design of Temporary Works
The Design of Temporary Works very often reflects Construction Philosophy,
taking into account site layout, site facilities, efficiency and safety.
DEFINITION: The principles of construction practices to realise the
permanent structures of the project which may or may not be part of the
permanent structure.
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS: The Design of Temporary Works
must satisfy the needs of the permanent structures. Nevertheless, design of

the Design of Temporary Works shall be dominated by Procurement
Strategy, Construction Philosophy, Project Management Organisation,
Project Planning, Financial Strategy, and finally Consents and Permits.
104
(x) Design of Permanent Structures
The design of Permanent Structures must take into account Construction
Philosophy, and achieve simplification and standardisation of design which
will promote efficiency and conformity to the required schedule and
standards.
,
DEFINITION: The conceptual design, preliminary layout and sketches
outlining the permanent structures so as to fulfil project definition.
RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER TASKS: The Design of the Permanent
Structures is subservient to Project Definition and must be in accordance
with the Design of Temporary Works, Procurement Strategy, Construction
Philosophy, Project Management Organisation, Contract Strategy, Project
Planning, Financial Strategy, and Consents and Permits. Nevertheless, the
conceptual design of the permanent structures may influence the above
tasks.
(xi) Task relationship model
It is recognised that all the task are interrelated with each other as shown in
Figure 7.3.
105
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4,8 8 ,t
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Consents and Permits
Figure 7.3: Tasks relationship model
The task relationship model has been illustrated through the following
example. A client has decided that a crossing is required across a river.
Alternatives are generated in the Project Definition. A bridge is decided from
other alternatives such as tunnel, a ferry, pontoon etc. It has to be decided
that the bridge alternative is technically sound and economically feasible. In
the Project Definition, the usage and capacity of the bridge are determined.
Nevertheless, before even contemplating upon a crossing, an important
question to be asked, for example, does it contravene established strategic
decision of the national security? The possibility of destroying the
environment may pose a colossal hindrance to be fought! The decisions in
the Project Definition shall impinge issues within the realm of the Consents
and Permits. The Consents and Permits represents the rights of society over
the proposed project. It also imposes the cardinal obligations of the project
outcomes towards the society at large. It is here that all the political and
social processes take place. If the mooted idea of a crossing failed by its
106
champion, the future of the bridge is doomed! Hence the Project Definition
shall interface with the Consents and Permits.
The next activity that proceeds from the Project Definition is the Financial
Strategy. It is here that the conceptual estimate is established to conform to
the needs of the Project Definition. Essential financial control mechanisms,
such as, a preliminary budget and cash flow are prepared. The sources for
finance should also be established. Is it a public funded project or to be
financed from private investment? Does the finance need on overseas
input? How does the financial package provide the best option for achieving
the various phases of the project life-cycle? These are among the many
examples that have to be determined in this task. Having confirmed the
financial package, does the law of the land allow such provision? If a new
idea were to be introduced, such as the Built-Operate-Transfer (BOT), the
existing legislation might not have an allowance for it. Then there will be a
need for legislation to enable it to do so. The issue of security of the financial
resources should also be addressed. A political change might disrupt all
financial commitment. A potential social unrest may jeopardise the whole
set-up. Thus, relating the Financial Strategy to Consents and Permits and
Project Definition is of paramount importance.
Having decided the client's needs in the Project Definition task, formulated
the financial packages and related mechanisms in the Financial Strategy
without violating Consents and Permits, the bridge project moves to the next
activity, i.e. the Project Planning Task. This task provides the global
planning for the whole project life-cycle; the deadlines for the conceptual
phase, construction phase and the project commissioning; and also the
deadlines for all the ten tasks in the conceptual phase. The planning of
communication system, intelligence, planning criteria and project objectives
is also done with the full knowledge of the needs of the other nine tasks:
107
Consents and Permits; Project Definition; Financial Strategy; Contract
Strategy; Project Management Organisation; Construction Philosophy;
Procurement Strategy; Design of Temporary and Permanent Structures.
The Contract Strategy then sets in to wrap up all the tasks into formal
contractual obligations with all parties involved in the final project delivery of
the proposed bridge. This task defines relationships, duties, obligations, and
policies which are directed and engineered towards the desired successful
outcome of the bridge project.
All the said tasks will be the responsibility of the Client's Project Management
Team. Hence, the formulation of the Project Management Organisation.
Their task will be responsible for the human resources needed to undertake
the other tasks of the conceptual phase. The relationship with other parties
will also be defined in this task
The Construction Philosophy for the bridge project is then, developed to
involve a design of how to realised the Project Definition; within the
constraints imposed by Consents and Permits; up to the limitations identified
within the Financial Strategy; within the time frame set-up by Project
Planning; and to maximise the expertise of the Project Management
Organisation. Issues such as modularisation and prefabrication are decided
in relation with the final permanent structure.
Then the Procurement Strategy Task will build upon the decisions made in
the Construction Philosophy. Policies are set out in a proactive mode to
ensure efficient and timely deliveries of all the required hardware and
software within the constraint and needs of previous tasks.
Circumscribed by Construction Philosophy and Procurement Strategy, the
conceptual design of the Temporary and Permanent Structures will be
108
performed. Decisions on site lay-out, site facilities, site efficiency,
simplification and standardisation etc. are addressed.
If problems occur in any task in time, the revisions that ensue will have to
address all the other nine tasks in its entirety and integrity. Though each
task is unique, it is not discrete per se. The whole body of the conceptual
phase tasks is a unity in its diversity of functions to deliver a construction
project. Nevertheless, all tasks rest on the bedrock of Consents and
Permits.
7.5 Proposition for conceptual phase tasks and site

resources productivity linkages
Having ascertained the conceptual phase tasks, task definitions,
relationships, and process, the linkages with site productivity need to be
established. Relationships with site productivity will be assessed through the
impact of conceptual phase tasks on site resources.
The product of the conceptual phase is essentially 'information' in the form of
drawings and related documents. This information is further developed into
the detailed engineering phase of a project. It is presumed that construction
is a process of marshalling appropriate resources on construction sites to
realise the physical facility decided earlier on in the project life-cycle. These
resources are primarily, material, plant, labour, time and finance as in

Section 2.4. Figure 7.4 summarise the relationships between conceptual,
detailed engineering and construction phases (Tatum et al., 1987; Sanvido
1988; Kellog et al., 1981; Barrie & Paulson 1992).
109
CONCEFTUAL 1 DETAILED
CONSTRUCCION
ENGINEERING
PHASE
DETAILED RESOURCES
Information
& Information material
Document
&
Document
plant
labour
--• FACILITY
time
finance
Figure 7.4: Output of project phases
The questions of what, when, how, where, why etc. relating to the required
resources for construction site is determined earlier in a project life-cycle: the
genesis is the conceptual phase and further developed in the detailed
engineering phase. Kellog et al. (1981) adamantly pointed out the
relationship between conceptual phase and construction phase in relation to
site resources as thus:
"Moving on to the micro level, engineers, contractors, and
combinations of both are found analysing the logistics for the
project and securing the necessary supplies of labour, materials,
permanent equipment, and construction equipment. Detailed
work planning takes place in conformance with the specifications,
drawings, and schedule requirements. The objective at this level
is to provide the right labour at the right time, and equipped with
the right tools to install the right materials and equipment in the
most cost effective sequence at the right time - an admirable goal
but seldom achieved. However, decision makers at this level do
the best they can, given the constraint already 'cast in concrete'
to bring the job in on time and within budget" (pp. 146).
110
Chapter 2 demonstrated how productivity can be viewed as a hierarchy
which has a base of resources. Resources are consumed input to produce
what is planned in the conceptual phase. Therefore, the proposition, in
terms of resources, is that the conceptual phase tasks have significant
influence on site resources: material, plant, labour, time and finance (see
Figure 7.4).
7.6 Proposition for best practices of the conceptual phase
7.6.1 Identification of best practices for the conceptual phase
The world has witnessed the Japanese outstripping its competitors in terms
of productivity and quality by the early seventies. This surge has been
counteracted by the search for excellent organisation in the eighties: but later
surpassed by the current notion of exemplary practices or best practices. As
stated by Lake and Ulrich (1992):
"Identifying and adopting what others do best is one method of
meeting the growing need to find shortcuts to improvement. Many
of the lessons of globalisation and take-overs are clear. Survival
and growth depend on continuous learning regarding how to
improve quality, reduce cost and time, and increase productivity.
Any organisation that has developed effective practices which
contribute to these outcomes can be studied, and, where possible
and suitable, their practices can be adopted" (pp. 2).
The idea of best practice is further institutionalised by the Baldridge Award
Program where the best practices of the winners are highlighted. This
benchmark of best practice will then become exemplary for others to emulate
l11
if they were to improve productivity and quality. In the UK, benchmarking
and best practices are explicitly mentioned by Latham Report (1994) as thus:
"Encouraging continuous improvements in productivity should be
the driving force behind government action as client, and the
formulation of best practices should complement and contribute to
this" (pp. 4).
Latham (1994) further stressed that clients have has a vital role to play in
ensuring the implementation of best practices, and they will also have most
to gain from it. The creation of such a forum should be an immediate priority.
He further stated that the Government should commit itself to being the best
practice client. It should provide its staff with the training necessary to
achieve this and establish benchmarking arrangements to provide pressure
for continuous improvement. Thus, the benchmarking of best practice is
seen as a must to further enhance productivity in the construction industry.
Best practice, as defined by the Computer and Automated System
Association of the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (Muglia 1992), as:
"A group of most desirable and beneficial day-to-day business
actions that result in superior business performance, either by
themselves or combined with other actions" (pp. 4).
Watson (1993) provided a more robust definition of best practice as a
superior performance within an activity, regardless of industry, leadership,
management or operational approaches, or methods that lead to exceptional
performance; a relative term that usually indicates innovative or interesting
business practices that have been identified during a particular

benchmarking study as contributing to improved performance in leading
organisations.
112
7.6.2 Propositions for best practices
The following best practices which are related to each of the ten tasks of the
conceptual phase are shown in Tables 7.5. The list of best practices were
collected and collated through a review of 75 relevant papers which are
based on experiences, opinions, observations and research reports. An
annotated bibliography of the 75 papers has been presented Appendix C.
These propositions of best practices became part of the questionnaire in
Appendix A and case studies questionnaire in Appendix C. The definition of
each task of the conceptual phase has been given in the previous Section
7.4.3 and was checked with industry, i.e. ECI Task Force.
113
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7.7 Summary
Chapter 7 argues for the establishment of tasks, tasks definition and task
process. It also expounded the need to establish best practices for each of
the conceptual phase tasks. These are the productivity - quality -
benchmarkng paradigm for continuous improvement for the conceptual
phase for construction projects. Chapter 7 also established propositions for
conceptual phase tasks, task definition and task process. This was done
through an extensive literature review and moderated by expert opinions
from the ECI Productivity Task Force members. These propositions were
tested through an exploratory case study of the conceptual phase of Sizewell
B Nuclear Power station as in Chapter 8. These propositions were also
tested through a general questionnaire survey and case studies as described
in Chapter 5. The results and discussions for the survey and case studies
have been presented in Chapters 9, 10 and 11. Details of questionnaire and
case studies are in Appendices A and B.
117
CHAPTER 8
EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF SIZEWELL B

NUCLEAR POWER STATION
CHAPTER 8
EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF SIZEWELL B NUCLEAR
POWER STATION
8.1 Introduction
The public enquiry of the Sizewell B Nuclear Power Station was the longest
Britain has ever had: stretching from January 1983 until March 1985. It was
the first British Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) nuclear project which
demanded such huge resources for the enquiry.
The enquiry gave sufficient time to objectors of the project on numerous
issues. The whole process involved 195 witnesses and 500 supporting
documents. The abundance of literature was the basis for the choice of
Sizewell B as a case study. The transparency of the whole conceptual
phase of the Sizewell B project and its nomination as one of the best projects
in terms of cost, quality and project duration, added to the creditability of the
project as a case study (O'Riordan et al. 1988, Greenhalgh 1986; New Civil
Engineering 1994).
The framework within which the following case study was based on the
propositions developed in Sections 7.3. and it was further reinforced by the
interviews with two personnel from Nuclear Electric.
8.2 Project inception
Project inception results from the demands of society: political, economic,
social, military etc. Though a particular demand may predominates, most
119
are the interactions of many factors in society (Walker 1984; Morris 1991;
Khan 1991; Barrie and Paulson 1992).
Sizewell B was initially driven by an economic need. It was initiated by the
Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) whose task was set by the
1957 Electric Act to develop and maintain an efficient, co-ordinated and
economical system of supply of electricity in bulk for all parts of England and
Wales (Greenhalgh 1986).
Sizewell B was seen by the CEGB as an essential investment to meet the
future demand of projected electricity needs in England and Wales. The
initial step for the CEGB was to seek consent from the Secretary of State for
Energy. As a consequence, in the House of Commons on the 18th
December 1979, a statement by the Secretary of State for Energy, Mr.
David Howell, marked the formal political birth of Sizewell B project (0'
Riordan et al., 1988).
8.3 Economic/financial, technical and political interfaces
8.3.1 The economic necessity
The CEGB argued strongly for the project on the basis of economic rational.
Table 8.1 demonstrates a comparison between available alternatives: it
showed that PWR nuclear power was the cheapest alternative compared to
the conventional AGR and that of coal power station.
120
Table 8.1: Cost comparisons of available alternatives of power
generation (adopted from Greenhalgh 1986, pp. 5).
Nuclear Powered Conventional

COST
(March 1982 prices)
Sizewell B New AGR New Coal
Station
Capital Charges 1.47 1.99 0.87
Fuel 0.57 0.78 2.73
Other Cost 0.28 0.29 0.23
TOTAL 2.32 3.06 3.83
The CEGB also envisaged that the project would open the opportunity for a
small family of replicas of Sizewell B and as a consequence it could reduce
the CEGB's present 80 per cent dependence on coal. It could also hold
down and would eventually reduce the price for electricity. The economic
gain could be achieved within an excellent safety standard and an
opportunity of reducing air pollution. The gains in terms of economics and
environment could be further enhanced if the project were to start at the
earliest date possible. CEGB has produced detailed economic analysis to
support their view. Factors such as economic growth, the demand for
electricity and the prices of competing fuel were taken into consideration.
These factors were set against various possible world and British economic
future scenarios (Greenhalgh 1986).
8.3.2 The technical factors
The PWR technology, as envisaged by CEGB, was tried and tested. It has
been build in twenty countries and presents 50 per cent of the world total
nuclear generating capacity. It was generally accepted in the United States
and France. Standardisation with other reactors elsewhere would bring
benefits in terms of efficiency in design, construction and operation with very
high degrees of predictability from the concept stage to commissioning.
CEGB believed that this well tested technology would achieve safety and
121
engineering attributes to the highest degree (Greenhalgh 1986; O'Riordan et
al. 1988).
Nuclear technology is not alien to Britain. It is in the interest of perpetuation
of this nuclear technology that served as the main motivator to acquire the
better PWR system rather than the traditional AGR or Magnox system. The
procurement of the project would ensure the sustenance of nuclear
capability. The acquiring of the PWR technology from the USA would also
put Britain in the main stream of the world nuclear market and further
perpetuate Britain's nuclear capability in the future (O'Riordan et al. 1988).
8.3.3 The political implications
The economic soundness and technical feasibility had to go through political
scrutiny. This was set by the Secretary of State for Energy in the form of
'terms of reference' for the enquiry (O'Riordan et al. 1988):
• the CEGB's requirement for the power station in terms of the
need for secure and economic electricity supply and having
regard to the Government's long term policy,
• the safety features relevant to the design, construction and
operation of the station and in particular the review of the
Nuclear Industry Inspectorate (NI!) as the licensing authority;
• the arrangement for waste management, in the light of the
views of the authorising department and
• the implication of the department (including both construction
and operation) for agriculture and fisheries, local employment,

water supply and disposal, transport requirements, coast
protection, housing and public services generally, and local
122
amenities and in particular areas of special landscape value or
nature conservation interest.
During the whole course of the enquiry, the economics and technicality of the
Sizewell B project were debated against a spectrum of scenarios and
contradictions as underscored in the terms of reference above. The complex
interactions between the three facets of economics, technology and politics
of Sizewell B is stated by O'Riordan et al. (1988):
"Energy policy has become one of the most complex and
pervasive areas of decision-making. It involves macroeconomics
and in affairs, international relations, environmental
considerations and important considerations and important areas
of science and technology. It interacts with all these in both
directions. As a result it is not easy to sum up the content of
energy policy in a compact and convenient definition although
public debate and discussion have often required that the attempt
should be made" (pp. 6).
He further stated that the connection between the production, distribution
and use of energy and the rest of human society are so pervasive, and at the
same time so tangled and complex, that many of the major questions which
arise are not the least technical in character, but rather 'political' in the widest
sense, in that they are related to the kind of society and indeed the kind of
world, in which we or our descendants will be living in the future.
123
Figure 8.1 illustrates the schematics of project inception with the consequent
interfaces with economics, technology and politics etc. as discussed in this
section.
PROJECT INCEPTION / NEED
* economics
* political
* social
* military
* etc.
li
TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICS
At
POLITICS
Figure 8.1: The process of project inception and institutional
interactions
124
8.4 Tasks and processes in the conceptual phase of
Sizewell B
8.4.1 Tasks In the conceptual phase of Sizewell B
The Sizewell B project had strong economic, technical and political needs
during its inception. However, any project has to go through formal
procedure to attain legitimacy in society. The need for legitimacy was even
greater for Sizewell B due to these factors, amongst others (O'Riordan et al.
1988):
• huge cost of £2 billion;
• novelty of PWR nuclear technology; and
• the Chemobyl nuclear power station incident.
The proposition for obtaining legitimacy was termed as the task of Consents
and Permits. Its detail discussion of the evolution of the task of Consents
and Permits was in Section 7.4. The proposition is thus:
The key issues addressed during the Consents and Permits are:
the generation of information and data relating to the facility to
be constructed; and an estimation of cost and time associated
with obtaining future Consents and Permits. The social,
economic and political issues must also be addressed, and the
correct environment for achieving successful project must be
established.
DEFINITION: "The embodiment of a society's constitution, laws,
statutes, regulations, norms and culture, which ensures rights
and protections of itself in relation to the proposed project."
125
The elements shown below which were performed during the conceptual
phase of Sizewell B were similar to that what was proposed as Consents and
Permits (George 1984; O'Riordan et al., 1988):
• information for total approval of project;
• negotiation with local authority;
• preparation for public enquiry;
• Sizewell B statement of proposal in House of Commons on 18.12.79;
• 30.1.81, CEGB applied to Sec. of State for Energy for consent;
• objectors also sent their case to Sec of State for Energy;
• Public enquiry 26.7.1982-7.3.1985;
• safety case development and submission to NII - preconstruction safety
report (May 1982);
• debate in the House of Common & Lords - 23.2.87 & 2.3.1987
respectively; and
• 12.3.87 consents and permits granted to Sizewell B project.
The same argument is valid for the other nine tasks which were proposed in
Section 7.4.
Project Definition
Financial Strategy
Project Planning
Contract Strategy
Project Management Organisation
Construction Philosophy
Procurement Strategy
Design of Temporary Work
Design of Permanent Structures
Elements of each task were identified within the conceptual phase of
Sizewell B project. The details of the elements for each of the ten tasks
were summarised in Tables 8.2-8.11.
126
Table 8.2: Elements of Consents and Permits in Sizewell B
CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS PROPOSITIONS CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS IN SIZE WELL B
The key issues addressed during the • information for total approval of
consent and permit task are: the project
generation of information and data • negotiation with local authority
relating to the facility to be constructed; • preparation for public enquiry
and, an estimation of cost and time • Sizewell B statement of proposal in
associated with obtaining future consents House of Commons on 18.12.79
and permits. The social, economic and • 30.1.81, CEGB applied to Sec. of
political issues must also be addressed, State for Energy for consent
and the correct environment for • objectors also sent their case to Sec
successful project must be established. of State for Energy
• Public enquiry 26.7.1982-7.3.1985
DEFINITION : "The embodiment of a • safety case development and
society's constitution, laws, statutes, submission to NI! - preconstruction
regulations, norms and culture, which safety report (May 1982)
ensures rights and protections of itself in • debate in the House of Common &
relation to the proposed project." Lords - 23.2.87 & 2.3.1987 resp.
• 12.3.87 consents and permits
granted to Sizewell B project
(George 1984; O'Riordan et al. 1988)
Table 8.3: Elements of Project Definition in Sizewell B
CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS PROPOSITIONS CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS IN SIZEWELL B
Project definition addresses key issues • scope of work and phasing

such as project feasibility and definition • establishing a sound commercial,
of project needs at a very early stage. financial and organisational base
Project definition must be effectively • establishing of PER technology
communicated to all relevant parties as • feasibility and conceptual design
early as possible. studies, and development of the
Reference Design (May 1982)
DEFINITION: Resolution of options • safety case development and
during the conceptual phase which submission to the Nil -
culminates in statement of Client's preconstruction safety report (May
requirements. 1982)
• strategy development for later
design and hardware contract
(George 1984)
127
Table 8.4: Elements of Financial Strategy in Sizewell B
The key issues considered during the • preliminary project cost estimate
development of a financial strategy are • financial control
conceptual estimating, inclu(tjg__,w_w___g
ir • sufficient fund
and cost_o f_f__jance.
it Ensuring the right • preconstruction finance
choice of currency, an appropriate • risk margin
political climate, a stable economic • financial reporting
system, and the security of funding
sources during the whole project life- (George 1984)
cycle are among the issues which should
be addressed as part of the financial
strategy. Compatibility with other tasks
must also be achieved.
DEFINITION: The principal means and

methods by which the financial
requirements of total project delivery are
satisfied.
Table 8.5: Elements of Project Planning in Sizewell B
The main issues to be considered during • key dates -Project Investment Prog
project planning are the deadlines for Executive Target Prog
finalising all other tasks in the conceptual Project Master Prog
phase, and the other phases of detailed • engineering, procurement,
engineering, procurement, construction construction prog.
and start-up of a construction project. • monitoring & control
Other issues such as identification of
resources, objective setting, and (George 1984)
establishing communication and
information system are also to be
addressed. The main outcome of project
planning should be a defined schedule
with easily identifiable milestones.
DEFINITION: Global planning of the .

whole project, including the
establishment of and commitment to
defined schedules and milestones.
128
Table 8.6: Elements of Contract Strategy in Sizewell B
The main issues considered as part of the • contract strategy-size & no. of
contract strategy are the type of contract, contract
the method of assessing tenders, and the • preferential of UK contractors
selection criteria. Amongst other issues • contract packaging, interface &
to be considered are appropriate pricing monitoring
policy, establishing the appropriate • lump sum contract & competitive
contract document and project control, tendering
setting quality standards, and finalising
work package organisation. (George 1984; Layfield 1987)
DEFINITION: A strategy that defines

relationships, duties, obligations and
policies which are directed/engineered
towards the desired successful total
project delivery in accordance with
project planning, financial strategy,
project brief and consent and permit.
Table 8.7: Elements of Project Management Organisation in Sizewell B
Project management organisation • organisational set-up

involves the formation and configuration
of theCJie re t team. It
' mar
must establish the extent of power and • Project Management Board (PMB)
responsibility, whilst facilitating a team
building process. Establishing a
mechanism for dispute resolution, team • Project Management Team (PMT)
decision making process, and
communication networks are important • PMT responsible for administration,
issues to be considered in this task, design, procurement, manufacture,
Ensuring the right motivating work inspection and quality audit
environment must also taken into
consideration.
(George 1984)
DEFINITION: The formulation and
configuration of the Client's management
team in accordance with the contract
strategy.
129
Table 8.8: Elements of Construction Philosophy in Sizewell B
CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS IN SIZE WELL B

PROPOSITIONS
Construction philosophy involves the • site work/local community

evaluation of alternatives and • industrial relation/union
characterises the degree of • constructability
standardisation, modularisation, and • site organisation
prefabrication. It also represents policy • quality
towards neighbouring operations, and • staff recruitment
structures. Construction philosophy is • work pattern - double shift
heavily influence by weather, resources • workers' needs
availability, safety and quality • modularisation
requirements.
(George 1984)
DEFINITION: The conceptual
approach and method of construction
that dictates the design of permanent
and temporary structure.
Table 8.9: Elements of Procurement Strategy in Sizewell B
CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS PROPOSITIONS CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS IN SIZEVVELL B
Procurement strategy establishes the • draw up the procurement

policy on the whole procurement task strategy
ensuring availability and timely supply • deadlines are co-ordinated with
of resources such as material, plant and other aspects of the project i.e.
equipment and power. Achieving the design and construction.
required standards and specifications is • procurement strategy is
also an important consideration. construction driven.
• equipment, plant, and systems
DEFINITION: Strategy for proactive are tested prior to delivery to site
project hardware purchasing required by the Independent Inspection
to achieve complete project delivery in Agency (IA)
accordance with project schedule. • establishing of Procurement
Document Control
(George 1984)
130
Table 8.10: Elements of Design of Temporary Works in Sizewell B
The design of temporary works very • landing facilities for sea-borne

often reflects construction philosophy, plant / equipment
taking into account site layout, site • alternative routes for incoming
facilities, efficiency and safety. resources
DEFINITION: The principles of (George 1984)

construction practices to realise the
permanent structures of the project
which may or may not be part of the
Table 8.11: Elements of Design of Permanent Structures in Sizewell B
The design of permanent structures must • design process

take into account construction • development of design
philosophy, and achieve simplification • detailed eng layout
and standardisation of design which will • model
promote efficiency and conformity to • control of design work
the required schedule and standards. • design changes procedures
• design interfaces
DEFINITION: The conceptual design,
preliminary layout and sketches (George 1984)
outlining the permanent structures so as
to fulfil project definition.
131
8.4.2 Tasks process in the conceptual phase of Sizwell B
Most construction projects begin with the recognition of a need for the
facility. The economic needs of Sizewell B were justified by CEGB. It was
to replace the ageing facilities and to meet future demand based on
projected domestic and international economic growth of the UK. The
economic needs were enhanced through the need to acquire the PWR
technology from USA which has proven reliability throughout the world. The
economic and technological needs were further reinforced by political needs
and will, since nuclear capability symbolised a potent power among the
league of powerful nations. O'Riordan et al. (1988) stated:
"The nuclear fraternity is almost Masonic in its collegiate self-
assurance and self-congratulation. All nuclear industry
executives believe they are pursuing a moral and just cause.
Nuclear power is the embodiment of progress, capitalism and
civilisation" (pp. 39).
The notion of economics, technological and political needs, as shown in
Figure 8.1, represents the first stage of the conceptual phase of Sizewell B
(Greenhalgh 1986; O'Riordan et al., 1988; Barrie & Paulson 1992). The first
stage of the conceptual phase interfaced with the second stage via Consents
and Permits.
The process and relationships Sizewell B conceptual phase tasks has been
depicted by Figure 7.3. Figure 8.2 was a result of superimposing Figure 7.3
with Figure 8.1 to form the whole process of the conceptual phase of
Sizewell B project.
132
.%
PROJECT INCEPTION / NEEDS

1
* economics
* political
* social
* etc.
ECONOMICS
04 TECHNOLOGY
POLITICS
PART 1 OF STAGE 2
*a. Permanent
b) Structure
. bg a) c
c
.1
—
i cis ..g0131) Design
.-.: 4-: . --.

cs
4.-.
g
• .-,
g bo
•Fej
8
•.--„ fa2., ,.;-
.
o
ct Contract Strategy
Financial Strategy
PART 2 OF STAGE 2
V
0 -. Permanent
bo
E
0=
gc )..., Structure
= = bl) o r) to Design
•
..g ci . (10 2
PI
'a
'47.:
_
a.,
.= 8 JC I Temporary Work
at cn
Design
ii t 119
0 ..- L,
g zi 2 Construction Philosophy
"6 (=IT:, II'
at Contract Strategy
Financial Strategy
FIGURE 8.2: Conceptual phase of Sizewell B
133
8.4.2.1 Part 1 of Stage 2 of the Sizewell B conceptual phase
The public enquiry which started on the 26th July 1987 represented the
epitome of society's relationship with the Sizewell B project. The enquiry
also described the embodiment of perception of society towards the project.
In operational terms (Part 2 of Stage 1 of the conceptual phase), it was the
process of Consents and Permits for Sizewell B. The perception of society is
embodied in its political institution of the Secretary of State for Energy and
the state apparatus of the Nuclear Industry Inspectorate (Nil). Therefore, the
relationships of Consents and Permits with the other nine tasks is imperative,
as described in the proposition of tasks relationships as (Section 6.4):
"The Consents and Permits circumscribes all tasks: Project Definition,
Financial Strategy, Project Planning, Contract Strategy, Project Management
Organisation, Construction Philosophy, Procurement Strategy, and the
conceptual Design of Temporary Works and Permanent Structures.
Nevertheless, these other tasks influence the required Consents and
Permits through society's formal and informal institutions."
(i ) The development of reference design
This relationship of Consents and Permits with other tasks could be
illustrated with evolution of the Reference Design (RD) which becomes the
basis for other tasks later in the project. The task of Project Definition of
Sizewell B was based upon the stage of the project: the preliminary stage;
the preconstruction stage; the construction stage; and the commissioning
stage. The project must achieve, amongst others, conceptual design for the
preliminary stage of Project Definition.
The conceptual design then becomes the Reference Design (RD). The
development of RD (which must take into consideration the established
norms stated within the jurisdiction of authorised bodies of Consents and
134
Permits) was the task of Design of Permanent Structure. However, the first
RD Was rejected by the Nuclear Industry Inspectorate (Nil) in mid 1981: Nil
was in the realm of consents and permits. This called for a redesign.
The rejection of the first RD impinged the project planning element, and
project management organisation of the conceptual phase tasks. The dates
in the project planning had to be adjusted accordingly. The failure of the first
RD also provoked the placement of a task force (Project Management
Organisation element) to replace the earlier team which expedited the
redesign works. The task force was recommended (by the NII - part of the
Consents and Permits organisation) to combine the expertise of CEGB,
NNC, Westinghouse, Bectel, BNFL and UKAEA. The task force was created
_
in July 1981 (Layfield 1987).
It was clearly an iterative process which vested Consents and Permits with
the final verdict. The process and relationship is summarised below and is
reflected in Figure 8.2, i.e. Stage 2 Part 1.
Development of reference design process

Project Definition
Design of Permanent Structure
Project Planning
(ii) The development of Financial Strategy
The following example illustrates the relationship between Consents and
Permits, Financial Strategy, Contract Strategy and Project Management
Organisation in part one of the second stage of the conceptual phase of
Sizewell B (Figure 8.2).
135
Prior to the establishment of the PMB (Project Management Board),
expenditure was authorised progressively on an interim basis by the CEGB
Executive to execute a substantial amount of work in Stage 1 and Part 1 of
Stage 2 of Sizewell B conceptual phase.
The feasibility studies and conceptual design were the basis of preliminary
power station cost estimate (financial strategy). An allowance of 20 per cent
was given to such an estimate by the CEGB. This estimate was included in
the Capital Memorandum submitted to the Secretary of State for Energy
(consents and permits institution for the Part 1 of Stage 2 of conceptual
phase of Sizewell B) for his approval.
The approval from the Secretary of State was followed by a partial approval
by the CEGB. The estimate was then entrusted to the PMB to manage and
becomes the basis to develop the project's contract strategy. The
establishment of Sizewell B's Contract Strategy was one of the prerequisites
of submission for full sanction by the CEGB. The interaction of tasks
described above could be summarised as thus (George 1984):
Development of Financial Strategy

Financial Strategy
Contract Strategy
136
Diagrammatically, the whole relationships and process described above is
shown below:
. PART 1 of STAGE 2
-a
Design of
bo g
0 c
o Permanent
8 .1 g.,5; Structure
7i g •i
:g ci.: ba
CS g `g e5
8 0 ,...
Contract Strategy
Financial Strategy
7 Consents and Permits
Figure 8.3: Relationships and process for Part 1 of Stage 2:

of Sizewell B conceptual phase
8.4.2.2 Part 2 of Stage 2 of Sizewell B conceptual phase
The Project Management Board (PMB) bears the sole responsibility for Part
2 of Stage 2 (Figure 8.2) of the conceptual phase to go through the iterative
and interactive process in relation with the ten tasks of Sizewell B
conceptual phase. Any change in a task would be likely to influence and
create changes with the other nine tasks. The public enquiry, which was
part of the institution of Consents and Permits process, was the largest
single source of change.
137
The following section illustrated the interactions of the nine tasks with
Consents and Permits.
(i) Project Management Organisation
Project Management Organisation involves the formation and configuration
of the Client's management team. It must establish the extent of power and
responsibility, whilst facilitating a team building process. Establishing a
mechanism for dispute resolution, team decision making process, and
communication networks are important issues to be considered in this task.
Ensuring the right motivating work environment must also be taken into
consideration.
DEFINITION: The formulation and configuration of the Client's management
team in accordance with the contract strategy.
The first task in undertaking the Sizewell B project was the assignment of
client organisation on behalf of CEGB. The Project Management Board
(PMB) was designed to play such role. The PMB was chaired by Mr. J W
Baker. He was directly accountable to the Board of CEGB. The members of
PMB consisted of directors from CEGB and NNC (National Nuclear
Corporation) who were assigned specific responsibility relevant to individual
expertise. The PMB was entrusted with all management, financial,
contractual and technical matters for the successful execution of the project.
The PMB sets out policy for the management of the project. It has also to
monitor the performance of the Project Management Team (PMT) whose
Chief Executive was Mr. R N Burbridge. He was also the Deputy Chairman
of PMB. Securing all resources, division of work scope, and provision of
support to the project were the main responsibility of Mr. R N Burbridge. He
had to look closely at working interfaces with CEGB, NNC and other
industrial companies from which the project procure its essential resources.
138
The PMT was further subdivided to principal managers to carry out its duties:
Project Manager; Project Engineer; Construction Manager; System and
Safety Manager; Research and Development Manager; and, Quality
Assurance Manager. These Managers were under the command of Project
and Technical Director: Mr. B V George.
Amongst the important criteria in setting up the Project Management
Organisation for the project were close integration of major project activities
and insistence of short and direct lines of communication. It was also stated
that achievement of team spirit, and establishment and maintaining a good
level of motivation were required to accomplish project objective.
The whole set-up of PMB and PMT as the Project Management Organisation
for Sizewell B project were scrutinised in great detail in the enquiry by Sir
Alister Frames. The list below (Table 8.12) were a few example of the points
that has been raised during the public enquiry.
Table 8.12: Project Management Organisation during the enquiry
POINTS OF THE ENQUIRY RESPONSES FROM CEGB
Setting up of a specific project PMB established acting as if it

management company were a company
responsible to client's board
for implementation of project.
Full-time Chief Executive with PMB has a Chief Executive

clear terms of reference and and a Project Director
delegated authority from
Client's Board.
Clearly defined delegated Delegated financial authority

authorities must be have been approved by the
established. PMB. A Project Master
Document was being
prepared which will cover all
responsibilities, roles,
procedures, delegated
authorities.
139
It could be seen that the formation of Project Management Organisation was
the most important step into accomplishing the project. All other tasks were
linked to the formation of this task and vice versa. These linkages (hence
the process) could be easily traced through the enquiry.
(ii) Project Definition
Project definition addresses key issues such as project feasibility and
definition of project needs at a very early stage. Project Definition must be
effectively communicated to all relevant parties as early as possible.
DEFINITION: Resolution of options during the conceptual phase which
culminates in statement of Client's requirements.
One of the earliest tasks of the PM0 of Sizewell B project was to
substantiate the market need. It involved evaluating the current generating
capacity and predicting the most probable demand. General trends of
domestic and international economic growth were among the factors taken
into consideration. The next effort then was how to produce and how much.
This aspect had to interface with National Energy Policy. This aspect was
one of the agenda items in the enquiry. Each part of CEGB's proposal was
queried and rectified where necessary during the enquiry.
Having established the main project definition, the following items were also
formulated:
• setting up, at the beginning of each phase of the project, the appropriate
organisation arrangements;
• obtain all the consents required for construction of the project;
• ensuring good design definition; and
140
• establishing the safety case to ensure clearance by the Nil and
establishing the nature and timing of subsequent submissions.
(iii) Financial Strategy
The key issues considered during the development of a Financial Strategy
are conceptual estimating, including source and cost of finance. Ensuring
the right choice of currency, an appropriate political climate, a stable
economic system, and the security of funding sources during the whole
project life-cycle are among the issues which should be addressed as part of
the Financial Strategy. Compatibility with other tasks must also be achieved.
DEFINITION: The principal means and methods by which the financial
Financial Strategy started very early in the project inception stage. The
economics and its feasibility were deliberated and debated within the CEGB
Project Management Organisation, i.e. the PMB and PMT. To determine
the timing and sources of finance, project cash flow were also established.
Project budget and mechanism of control of expenditure were also done.
In the Enquiry, doubts were voiced regarding the ability of CEGB to finance
the project due to the imposition of External Finance Limit by the
government. In response, the Department of Energy clarified that no capital
rationing was expected for Sizewell B (Layfield 1987).
On the question of ca la! costs of major project such as Sizewell B, it is very
sensitive to construction time. The conceptual estimate was strongly
challenged during the Enquiry. The objectors cited the appalling past
performances of CEGB construction projects. But, the CEGB categorically
proved that their most recent projects, Heysham II and Drax Nuclear Power
Station, had shown marked improvements in terms of construction time. The
141
CEGB also pointed out that the experiences of constructing PWR projects in
the USA and France could be harnessed through corporation with relevant
parties since the PWR has established pattern of construction throughout the
world. The CEGB further emphasised that Sizewell B was the first of the
many replicas of PWR in UK. Replication would further absorb possible cost
overrun (Layfield 1987).
For financial control, CEGB forwarded four stages (George 1984):
• Budgetary Approval;
• Sanction of Schemes;
• Commitment and Expenditures; and
• Monitoring and Forecasting.
The first two stages were appropriate for the conceptual phase, while the
second two stages represents the execution phase of the project.
(iv) Project Planning
The main issues to be considered during Project Planning are the deadlines
for finalising all other tasks in the conceptual phase, and the other phases of
detailed engineering, procurement, construction and start-up of a
construction project. Other issues such as identification of resources,
objective setting, and establishing communication and information system
are also to be addressed. The main outcome of Project Planning should be
a defined schedule with easily identifiable milestones.
DEFINITION: Global planning of the whole project, including the
establishment of and commitment to defined schedules and milestones.
142
Project Planning for Sizewell B was a very critical aspect in relation to cost
and financial viability. Any compromise would have lead to delays and
overruns and undermined the economic efficacy established earlier during
project feasibility stage. It was noted that major projects are very sensitive to
delays in the construction stage which may have its roots in the conception
stage. This aspect of the project was also debated during the Enquiry.
CEGB had three main hierarchies in its Project Planning: project time scale
was set by the development of Project Investment Programme, the
Executive Target Programme and the Project Master Programme. However
the operational and control of project duration was based on Project Master
Programme which was further broken into two sections: namely the
engineering and procurement programme, and the construction programme.
The actual timing was worked backwards, i.e. construction driven
programme. The engineering and procurement programme was optimised
with construction to ensure that the supply of all hardware was sequenced
and delivered according to the needs of the construction facets.
The duration of programmes and main deadlines were carefully set through
the experiences of previous projects and the experiences of Bectel and
Westinghouse who have vast knowledge on the construction of similar
technology in the US and France.
Procedures were set in such a way that enabled early detentions of problems
so as to ease monitoring and control. This was partly through a six-monthly
high ranking meetings amongst parties involved in the project. Monthly
meetings were also available for operational level monitoring and controlling.
Openness and frankness were always nurtured during those meetings.
CEGB employed the SNAP (system of network analysis programme) for the
purpose of planning.
143
Project Planning was scrutinised during the Enquiry and the case of CEGB
was defended by Mr. McFarlane and Mr. Wilson (George 1984).
(v) Contract Strategy
The main issues considered as part of the Contract Strategy are the type of
contract, the method of assessing tenders, and the selection criteria.

. .
Amongst other issues to be considered are appropriate pricing policy,
establishing the appropriate contract document and project control, setting

,..
quality standards, and finalising work package organisation.
DEFINITION: A strategy that defines relationships, duties, obligations and
policies which are directed/engineered towards the desired successful total

project delivery in accordance with Project Planning, Financial Strategy,
Project Definition, and Consents and Permits.
Sizewell B works were divided into many contract packages which were
controlled by responsible engineers from the PMT. Operational level control
of contract was done monthly while representative of respective contracting
organisations met twice a year. These are where potential problems were
identified and rectified with the relevant parties.
Payments were designed to link progress with payment. Upon delay of a
contract, payment was not made until lost time was made up for.
Contract Strategy Memorandum was the document that contained the form
and term of each individual contract, method of payment, and price
adjustment formulae.
Contract interfaces were rigorously planned and monitored so as to minimise
knock-on impact of any delayed contract. The estimated 30,000 work

activities inevitably posed potential work interfaces problems.
(vi) Construction Philosophy
Construction Philosophy involves the evaluation of alternatives and
characterises the degree of standardisation, modularisation, and
prefabrication. It also represents policy towards neighbouring operations,
and structures. Construction Philosophy is heavily influenced by weather,
resources availability, safety and quality requirements.
DEFINITION: The conceptual approach and method of construction that
dictates the design of permanent and temporary structure.
At the PMT engineering office, the construction manager lead a small group
of experienced power plant construction engineers. The role involved
advising the engineering team at the preparatory stage such as determining
the construction plans, methods, and site management procedures. Issues
of constructability were well placed in this stage. The construction manager
had an influential role to the development of design and procurement
strategies.
A Construction Quality Standard Engineer was appointed at this stage to
draw conceptual issues pertaining to quality assurance agenda. He ensured
that quality issues were considered very early on in the project phases. He
was also responsible for enforcing quality assurance during the other phases
of the project.
Matters relating to workers were also considered: staff recruitment; work
pattern; workers needs; and, industrial relation planning. Public relation
issues were also established.
145
(vii) Procurement Strategy
Procurement Strategy establishes the policy on the whole procurement task
ensuring availability and timely supply of resources such as material, plant
and equipment and power. Achieving the required standards and
specifications is also an important consideration.
DEFINITION: Strategy for proactive project hardware purchasing required
to achieve complete project delivery in accordance with project schedule.
The construction manager was entrusted to draw up the Procurement
Strategy needed to realise the Project Definition. Deadlines were co-
ordinated with other aspects of the project, i.e. design and construction.
Nevertheless, the whole procurement strategy was construction driven. Any
equipment, plant, and systems were tested prior to delivery to site. This was
done by the Independent Inspection Agency (IA).
(viii) Design of Temporary Works
The Design of Temporary Works very often reflects Construction Philosophy,
taking into account site layout, site facilities, efficiency and safety.
DEFINITION: The principles of construction practices to realise the
permanent structures of the project which may or may not be part of the
Design of Temporary Works is important for massive project such as
Sizewell B. Alternative routing of incoming resources were generated.
These were either through land or sea transportation which entailed
temporary works appropriate to the nature of the incoming resources.
146
(ix) Design of Permanent Structures
The Design of Permanent Structures must take into account Construction
Philosophy, and achieve simplification and standardisation of design which
will promote efficiency and conformity to the required schedule and
standards.
DEFINITION: The conceptual design, preliminary layout and sketches
outlining the permanent structures so as to fulfil project definition.
The initial part of the Design of Permanent Structures was the feasibility and
conceptual design studies which culminated to the development of the
Reference Design in May 1982. The design process for the project was
defined to include constructability, design changes control mechanism, and
the staging of different level of design details required for different tasks.
The development of a physical model of the project was also done so as to
crossbreed design and construction.
(x) Consents and Permits
The key issues addressed during Consents and Permits are: the generation
of information and data relating to the facility to be constructed; and an
estimation of cost and time associated with obtaining future consents and
permits. The social, economic and political issues must also be addressed,
and the correct environment for successful project must be established.
DEFINITION : "The embodiment of a society's constitution, laws, statutes,
regulations, norms and culture, which ensures rights and protections of itself
in relation to the proposed project."
Consents and Permits was a very important aspect of the project. It
permeates the political, economic and social aspect of the society at large.
This was reflected in the Public Enquiry.
Plans were forwarded to obtain all Consents and Permits for the approval
from relevant authorities and institution related to the project.
8.5 Summary
The propositions in Chapter 7 on conceptual phase tasks were used to
explore the conceptual phase of Sizewell B project. It was shown that the
propositions have strong ground of validity within the context of Sizewell B.
The tasks and task relationships fit well into the scenario of the conceptual
phase of Sizewell B. The proposed task relationship diagram could be
suitably used to reflect the complex relationships of the ten tasks. Therefore,
the case study in Chapter 8 further reinforced the propositions developed in
Chapter 7. However, a generalisation could only be established through a
general survey and further case studies as stated in Chapter 5. Chapters 9,
10 and 11 present the results of the survey and further case studies.
148
CHAPTER 9
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 1 -

CONCEPTUAL PHASE TASKS DEFINITION
CHAPTER 9
Results and Discussions I - Conceptual phase
tasks definition
9.1 Introduction
Chapters 7 and 8 respectively, established and confirmed the propositions
used in this research. Chapters 9, 10 and 11 respectively, present the
results and discussions on the conceptual phase tasks definition,
conceptual phase tasks characteristics and conceptual phase best
practices. Chapter 9 starts off with the results of independent variables of
the questionnaire (Section 5.6.2.1) and their influence on conceptual phase
tasks definition. The influence of independent variables on conceptual
phase tasks characteristics and conceptual phase best practices
respectively were presented in Chapters 10 and 11 respectively.
9.2 Independent variables
For the main part of data collection, 144 self administered questionnaires
were distributed throughout Europe. 54 respondents replied giving a
success rate of 37 per cent. This was higher than the 30 per cent, as
suggested by Fowler (1988). The response rate enables statistical analysis
to be performed and firm conclusions to be made.
As stated in Chapter 5, the questionnaire had three parts: Section One
comprised independent variables; and, Sections Two and Three comprised
dependent variables. Section 9.2 discusses the outcome of the survey for
Section One of the questionnaire which dealt with the independent
variables: data on companies, projects and respondents.
150
9.2.1 Country of origin
Table 9.1 illustrates the distribution amongst the EU countries and the rate
of return. Approximately 65 per cent of the 144 questionnaire were sent to
UK companies and the remaining to other companies in the EU. The
overall rate of return was 37 per cent of which the UK represented the
largest group. Out of the 53 successful returns, 40 came from the UK and
13 from continental Europe. No analysis was attempted for cross country
comparison due to the small number from individual countries like The
Netherlands, France, Germany and Belgium. UK versus Continental
Europe comparison was also not possible since the total sample from the
latter is highly likely not representative of the population.
Table 9.1: Respondent characteristics by country
A B C D E F G
% of % of % of % of
overall No. of return overall return
NO Country Questionnaire sent return for return on total
Sent country sent
C=81144 E=D/B F=E153 D/144
01 UK 93 65 40 43 75.5 28
02 Netherlands 14 14 5 36 9.4 3.4
03 France 6 4 1 17 1.9 0.7
04 Germany 6 4 1 17 1.9 0.7
05 Belgium 6 4 2 3.8 1.4
06 Italy 3 2
07 Spain 3 2 1 1.9 0.7
08 Holland 3 2
09 Sweden 3 2
10 Portugal 1 0.7
11 Luxembourg 1 0.7
12 Ireland 1 0.7
13 Switzerland 1 0.7
14 Denmark 1 0.7
15 Norway 1 0.7 1 1.9 0.7
16 Finland 1 0.7
17 USA 1 0.7 1 1.9 0.7
18 others 1 1.9 0.7
TOTAL 144 53 100 % 37 %
151
9.2.2 Types of organisation
Table 9.2 Column E displays respondents' types of organisation. The
contractor group contributed approximately 50 per cent to the opinion,
whilst clients and consultants formed approximately 30 and 20 per cent
respectively.
TABLE 9.2: Respondent characteristics by types of organisation
A B C D E
% Return in Overall %
No of No of relation with on total
Organisation questionnaire return organisation return
sent
D=C/B E=C153
Client 27 15 56 28.3
Consultant 39 12 31 22.6
Contractor 73 25 34 47.2
Bank 5 1 1.9
I c%. 7,'TOTALI "4111447:4 M/ 53 ' I I 100% I
The impact of type of organisation on respondents' opinions for conceptual
phase tasks definition is investigated in Section of 9.3.
9.2.3 Respondees experiences
Project types
The implicit need of this research was that the conclusion must go beyond
the boundaries of personal, and project type and project cost. Table 9.3.
illustrates the spectrum of project experiences that may influence the
perception of respondents.
152
Table 9.3: Frequency of project types
No Project type Percentage

1 Civil engineering 17.0
2 Building construction 17.0
3 Process engineering 23.4
4 Power supply 12.8
5 Off-shore structures 2.1
6 Mixed projects 27.7
Generally, there were two types of respondents experience. The first were
those who had been involved in a particular type of project which range
from 17 to 23 per cent for civil, building, power supply and process
engineering, respectively. The other group were those who had been
involved in mixed projects which accounted for 27.7 per cent. The
respondents' experience was well spread amongst the various typical
construction project.
Project Value
Project values were between £1.5 million - £35 billion with a mean value of
£105 million. Engineering construction projects generally tended to be of
higher project value, i.e. process engineering and power supply projects.
Length of time in industry
The range of personal experience in terms of number of years in the
construction industry is between 10 - 43 years with a mean of 25.4 years. It
is practically a normal distribution with a median of 25 years, which
provides a good spread of personal experience in the sample.
Respondees' involvement in project phases
Table 9.4 illustrated the distribution of project phases involvement of
respondents involved in the general survey.
153
Table 9.4: Project phases involvement
Project phases involvement Frequency in %

1 All phases 47.1
2 Conceptual, engineering & construction 7.8
3 Conceptual & engineering 2.0
4 Engineering, construction & start-up 13.7
5 Engineering & construction 3.9
6 Conceptual phase only 5.9
7 Construction only 19.6
About half of the respondents (47.1 per cent) had been involved in all the
phase of construction projects, and 19.6 per cent were involved in
construction only. There were those who had been involved in
engineering, construction & start-up which comprises 13.7 per cent. The
sample was thus biased towards those who have been involved in all
phases.
9.3 Conceptual phase tasks definitions
9.3.1 Introduction
The proposition in Chapter 7 stated that the conceptual phase comprised:
Consents and Permits, Project Definition, Financial Strategy, Project
Planning, Contract Strategy, Project Management Organisation,
Construction Philosophy, Procurement Strategy, Design of Temporary
Works and Design of Permanent Structures
The ten tasks notion and definitions were developed through intensive
discussion with the ECI Productivity Task Force. They were further
reinforced through an intensive literature review (see Appendix C -
Annotated Bibliography). An exploratory case study of Sizewell B nuclear
power station (Chapter 8) was also conducted to underpin the intensive
literature review. Finally, a further five case studies were conducted
consisting of a chemical plant, sewerage treatment plant, an offshore
structure, motor-way construction and a major building construction to
154
confirm the ten tasks notion of conceptual phase of construction project
(Appendix B). The following sections establish the definition of the ten
tasks and, influence of respondent, project and organisational
characteristics.
9.3.2 General acceptance
Respondents were requested to react to the definition (refer to Chapter 7 or
Appendix A for definition) of conceptual phase tasks. Figure 9.1 indicated
the overall agree/disagree dichotomy of the 54 respondents.
Others 9.5%
Neutral
20.5%
Agree 63.4%
Disagree
6.6%
Figure 9.1: Agree / Disagree amongst respondents
Figure 9.1 clearly indicated that approximately 60 per cent of the
respondents agreed to the definitions proposed in the questionnaire.
About 20 per cent were neutral and 15 per cent disagree. The neutral and
disagree groups could be one, or combinations of the following reasons:
• definitions too long;

• the language used is not appropriate; and
• difference in experience gives rise to varying perception: a person who
is only thoroughly involved in instrumentation design and installation
will not totally appreciate the 'Design of Temporary Works' or 'Design of
155
Permanent Structures' which is mostly civil-mechanical domain of the
total construction.
This fact is clearly seen if Figure 9.1 is broken down into details as shown
in Table 9.5.
Table 9.5: Frequency distribution of agreement versus

disagreement
strongly
agree & strongly agree neutral disagree strongly
TASKS agree agree disagree

A=B+C B C D E F
Consents & Permits 73.2 16.1 57.1 14.3 1.8 o
Project Definition 83.9 37.5 46.4 7.1 o o
Financial Strategy 69.7 30.4 39.3 14.3 5.4 o
Project Planning 62.5 26.8 35.7 25.0 3.6 o
Contract Strategy 67.9 14.3 53.6 16.1 5.4 o
Project Management Organisation 58.9 14.3 44.6 25.0 1.8 1.8
Construction Philosophy 57.2 16.1 41.1 28.6 5.4 1.8
Procurement Strategy 58.9 26.8 32.1 23.2 5.4 1.8
Design of Temporary Works 41.0 8.9 32.1 33.9 8.9 7.1
Design of Permanent Structures 60.7 14.3 46.4 17.9 5.4 3.6
I OVERALL' 63.4 I 20.6 I 53.1 I 20.5 I 4.3 I 2.3 I
Columns E and F represent the proportion that respectively the disagreed
and strongly disagreed. These illustrate the dominance of Design of
Temporary Works and Design of Permanent Structures. Every task
commands about 60 per cent or above except for Design of Temporary
Works. Table 9.4 also indicates Design of Temporary Works commands
the least frequency for strongly agree category, i.e. only 9 per cent. Design
of Temporary Works was the task least associated with the conceptual
phase as indicated in Table 7.4 of Section 7.4.2. However, Design of
Temporary Works has an important impact on site productivity as indicated
by contractors and consultants in Table 10.7.
Table 9.5 (Column A) illustrates that Project Definition commands the
highest agreement frequency of 83.9 per cent and Column E and F indicate
that no respondents disagreed. This could be attributed to the familiarity of
156
Project Definition associated with the conceptual phase. Table 7.4
illustrated that all the ten authors associate Project Definition with the
conceptual phase. Table 10.3 confirmed that Project Definition is the first
task performed in the conceptual phase.
Generally, the definition of the conceptual phase tasks were
overwhelmingly agreed to as illustrated in Figure 9.1.
9.3.3 Influence of organisation on acceptance of task definition
As indicated in Section 9.1, the independent variables may influence
perceptions of respondents. Table 9.2 indicated that client, consultant and
contractors contributed 28, 23, and 47 per cent, respectively, towards the
overall response of the questionnaire. Table 9.6 displays the responses
according to the type of organisation.
Table 9.6: Influence of organisation on tasks definition
Tasks Client Consultant Contractor Overall Probability

response value for Kruskal
by task Walli s test ***
A B C D E F
01 consents & permits 2.00 2.35 2.05 2.02 0.65
02 project definition 1.60 1.75 1.57 1 .67 0.66
03 financial strategy 2.30 2.13 1.74 1. 94 0.08
04 project planning 2.00 2.00 2.11 2.06 0.70
05 contract strategy 2.00 2.25 2.05 2.14 0.36
06 project man g gement 2.00 2.38 2.16 2.22 0.04
organisation
07 contraction philosophy 2.20 2.37 2.32 2.25 0.41
08 procurement strategy 1.80 2.63 2.05 2.14 0.21
09 design of temporary works 2.50 2.88 2.58 2.71 0.29
10 design of permanent 2.00 2.75 2.47 2.29 0.30
MIMI-CS
1) ll'AULIgESMSE ZW. ,.PT.F411".0 ''' .4.7.10k."' overall response
t gISATIP 4.5A
Mi A .dit.GA
0144g001.05 4'''.4.);
lit. -
''';'.5'..:• tif*I.>.! 2.17
*
kruskal-%% 1 allis
* *
1-Way ANOVA Test for k-independent sample with
significance level of 5%
DEGREE OF AGREEMENT
(1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree)
157
The overall response was 2.17, Column F, which is favourable as also
stated in the previous Section 9.3. The breakdown of these averages were
2.04, 2.35 and 2.17 representing the responses of client, consultant and
contractor, respectively. The most favourable responses were from the
clients, i.e. 2.04. To determine whether there is statistical significant
difference amongst the three groups, a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis 1-
way ANOVA test for k-independent sample with significance level of 5 per
cent was performed using the SPSS statistical package. Column F of
Table 9.7 presents the final result. All tasks, except for Project
Management Organisation, have a probability above 5 per cent
significance level.
Task number 6, 'project management organisation' had a score of below
the 5 per cent significance limit, i.e. 0.04. This signifies that there was a
significance difference amongst the groups. The range of data was
between 2.00 - 2.38 with an average of 2.2, as indicated in Table 9.6. As
stated earlier, tasks definition were agreed to. The only difference was the
degree of agreement. The outcome of this result was expected since the
definition of 'project management organisation' was from the perspective of
client as stated earlier in Sections 6.1. It was stated that:
PROJECT MANAGEMENT ORGANISATION
Project Management Organisation involves the formation and
configuration of the Client's management team. It must establish
the extent of power and responsibility, whilst facilitating a team
building process. Establishing a mechanism for dispute
resolution, team decision making process, and communication
networks are important issues to be considered in this task.
Ensuring the right motivating work environment must also taken
into consideration.
158
DEFINITION: The formulation and configuration of the Client's
management team in accordance with the contract strategy.
It can be concluded that the acceptance of tasks definition as proposed in
Chapter 7 was not influenced by type of organisation.
9.3.4 Influence of project types and cost, personal

experience and project phases experience on
acceptance of task definitions
Independent variables such as project types and cost, personal experience,
and project phases experience may have an influence on the acceptance
of tasks definition. Through the Kendall correlation test with 5 per sent
probability, it was shown that the aforementioned independent variables
did not influence the acceptance of tasks definition. The details are as in
Table 9.7.
Project type
The correlation test between project types and definition of tasks is
illustrated by Table 9.7. Column A indicates that there was no significant
correlation between project type and acceptability of tasks definition.
However, there was an exception for Contract Strategy which has a
probability below 5 per cent i.e. 2 per cent. It seems that project type does
influence the Contract Strategy task definition. Nevertheless, from Table
9.5, 68 per cent of the respondents agreed to the definition.
159
Project cost
The correlation test between project cost and task definitions are given in
Table 9.7. Column B indicates that there is no significant correlation
between project cost and acceptability of tasks definition. Therefore, tasks
definition were independent of project cost.
No. of years of experience
Table 9.7: Column C illustrates the results of Kendall correlation test to see
the influence of number of years of experience on tasks definition. Column
C indicates that number of years' experience of the respondents does not
have significant influence on the acceptability of the proposed tasks
definition. All probability values were greater than the statistically
significant level of 5 per cent.
Project phase
Project phase in which respondents were involved may exert an influence
on the perception of tasks definition. Table 9.7: Column D illustrates that
there was no statistically significant influence, except for financial strategy
which has probability value of 3 per cent. However, from Table 9.5,
Financial Strategy was generally accepted as achieving an approximate
score of 70 per cent.
160
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9.4 Summary
The results and discussions for the research into the tasks definition of
conceptual phase of construction projects have been presented in this
chapter. It was shown that the ten-tasks notion for the conceptual phase for
construction projects was accepted. Along with the ten tasks of the
conceptual phase were the definition. These were also accepted.
Independent variables of types of organisation, and respondents personal
and project experiences had no significant statistical influence on the
definition of the ten tasks (Section 9.3). The range of independent
variables enables the results to be taken as a broad industry perspectives.
162
CHAPTER 10
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 2- CONCEPTUAL

PHASE TASKS CHARACTERISTICS
CHAPTER 10
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ll - CONCEPTUAL PHASE
TASKS CHARACTERISTICS
10.1 Introduction
It was argued in Chapter 7 that tasks and process identification were
amongst the prerequisites for process improvement. This notion was a
common thread linking productivity, TQM and benchmarking. Section 9.3
established the ten tasks and associated definition of conceptual phase of
project. In the following sections, tasks' characteristics were established.
These included the sequence with which tasks were performed; the impact
of each task on site productivity; and the impact of each task on site
resources. The influence of types of organisation on tasks characteristics
were also presented.
10.2 Sequence of task performance in the conceptual phase
The proposition of task sequence was given in Section 7.4.3.11. This was
further underscored by Section 8.4 which discussed tasks and processes of
the conceptual phase of Sizewell B project. The discussions below
confirmed the proposition in Section 7.4.3.11.
In the questionnaire, respondents were requested to rank the sequence of
task as performed in conceptual phase: the first task = 1, and the last task =
10. Table 10.1 depicted the views of the 54 respondents.
164
Table 10.1: Ranking of conceptual phase tasks sequence
MEAN VALUE OF SEQUENCE SCORES
TASKS Client Consulta nt Contractor .1:)virtillY : Probability

44
:resp.onseT, Value
, - iii'lask ::;1 Kruskal Wallis
Test for k
independent
' sample @ 5%
significance level
A B C D
F
01 Consents & Permits 4.3 3.6 4.6 4 :"4 i 0.92

. . .
02 Project Definition 1.8 1.1 1.7 . :" " .. 0.44
03 Financial Strategy 4.2 2.5 2.6 If...3'..' 0.09
04 Project Planning 3.4 4.5 4.2 4.0 0.09
05 Contract Strategy 5.2 6.3 4.7 5.1 0.02
06 Project Management 6.3 5.9 6.0 5.9 0.94

Organisation
07 Construction 5.5 6.0 6.0 :5:::8,7 0.54

Philosophy
08 Procurement Strategy 6.2 7.1 7.3 7.0 0.24
09 Design of Temporary 9.5 9.6 9.2 9.-4 0.85

Works
10 Design of Permanent 8.8 8.3 7.8 8.''1 0.34

Structures
Except for Contract Strategy, there was no statistical significant difference
between the three groups of respondents at 5 per cent significance level
(Column F of Table 10.1). The mean score of client, consultant and
contractor in relation with Contract Strategy were 5.2, 6.3 and 4.7
respectively. Visually, there were differences between the three groups.
The mean score from client and contractor was fairly close, but there seems
to be differences between client and contractor on one hand, and that of
consultant on the other. To determine whether or not, there is a statistically
significant difference between the three groups, a one-to-one comparison
165
was done using the Mann-Whitney U Test of two independent samples at a
5 per cent significance level. The results have been tabulated in Table
10.2.
Table 10.2: Group difference test for

client/consultant/contractor on Contract Strategy
PROBABILITY VALUE
(Mann-Whitney U Test of two independent sample @ 5%
significance level)
NO TASKS client/consultant client/contractor consultant/contractor
05 Contract Strategy 0.06 0.70 0.006
As suspected earlier, there was an agreement between client and
contractor. The probability value of 0.06 for client/consultant was too close
to the 5 per cent significance level criteria, as shown in Table 10.2.
However, a statistically significant difference existed between consultant
and contractor with a probability value of 0.6 per cent.
The final ranking in Table 10.3 confirmed the analysis presented in Table
10.2. The ranking for Contract Strategy was 5th for both client and
contractor, but 7th for consultant. Agreement only exited between clients
and contractors, and the source of disagreement of ranking came from the
consultants.
Table 10.3: Final sequence of tasks in the conceptual phase
Sequence of tasks
0 y.ptATILT
TASKS CLIENT CONSULTANT CONTRACTOR RESPONSEI
';,' Z;14.1MNOKr;
01 Consents & Permits 4 3 4 ZaktiMft
02 Project Definition 1 I I Irrawv,-,
03 _Financial Strategy 3 2 2 ktitgailai;
04 Project Planning 2 4 3 UNP.AtiM 7 ;;
05 Contract Strategy 5 7 5 WiNinitlata
06 Project Management Organisation 8 5 6 06117NW
07 Construction Philosophy 6 6 7 AINAGINM
08 Procurement Strategy 7 8 8 11,448E0r0
09 Design of Temporary Works 10 10 10 ,wiTrosrife:
_10 Design of Permanent Structures 9 9 9
166
The results presented in Table 10.3 could be grouped into three categories.
The first is where there was unanimous agreement between the three
groups of respondents: Project Definition; Design of Temporary Works; and,
Design of Permanent Structures. The second group is that of Consents
and Permits, Financial Strategy, Construction Philosophy, Procurement
Strategy. The last group is Project Planning, Contract Strategy and Project
Management Organisation. However, as for the last group, there was no
difference statistically. The case for Contract Strategy has been explained
earlier.
The sequence of tasks concluded from the survey in Table 10.3 has been
split into two groups as in Table 10.4.
Table 10.4: Task grouping
Group 1 Group 2
(non-technical) Sequence (technical) Sequence
Consents & Permits 4 Project Management Organisation 7
Project Definition 1 Construction Philosophy 6
Financial Strategy 2 Procurement Strategy 8
Project Planning 3 Design of Temporary Works 10
Contract Strategy 5 Design of Permanent Structures 9
The sequence of tasks as shown in Table 10.4 is very similar in pattern with
the one developed from the case study of Sizewell B project (Chapter 8).
Figure 8.5 is reproduced here (Figure 10.1) to show similarities between
sequence of tasks and relationships from Sizewell B and that which was
developed in the survey as shown in Table 10.4.
167
1nMIP
STAGE 2 PART 1
VI Permanent
Structure Design
to1.
g .
g)3
'm g g L',3
a: 1
1
..2' .g 6
gro, E k
•X Contract Strategy
Financial Strategy
STAGE 2 PART 2
11 'à' Permanent
bn g
u c g Structure Design
a-
e ..7.- Do o § 2
....2. i 11 fgosE Temporary Work
E E. 2 '5 Design
4f t t A°
Construction Philosophy
et Contract Strategy
Financial Strategy
Figure 10.1: Conceptual phase of Sizewell B

(partly adopted from Figure 8.2)
Figure 10.1 is referred to for the following discussion. Having gone through
Stage 2 Part 1 of the conceptual phase, an iterative process of Stage 2 Part
2 ensued. The first step was to establish the Project Definition. The
requirement of Financial Strategy is to realise Project definition. There is
then a need to formulate the Project Planning that broadly defines
dimensions of time for the whole project delivery. This is further
consolidated with the formation of Contract Strategy which defines
relationships between the various parties that are needed to deliver the
project. The four tasks of Project Definition, Financial Strategy, Project
Planning, and Contract Strategy are then 'balanced' to the requirements of
Consents and Permits. If there is any contradiction between Project
Definition, Financial Strategy, Project Planning, and Contract Strategy, and
168
Consents and Permits then there is an iterative process of adjustment
which must satisfy Consents and Permits. This is similar with the
proposition of task relationships in Section 7.4.3:
. Consents and Permits
DEFINITION : "The embodiment of a society's constitution, laws, statutes,
regulations, norms and culture, which ensures rights and protections of
itself in relation to the proposed project."
RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER TASKS: The Consents and Permits
task circumscribes all tasks: Project Definition, Financial
Strategy, Project Planning, Contract Strategy, Project
Management Organisation, Construction Philosophy,
Procurement Strategy, and the conceptual Design of Temporary
Works and Permanent Structure
Therefore, Consents and Permits forms the bedrock on which Project
Definition, Financial Strategy, Project Planning, and Contract Strategy must
rest up on. This was further confirmed during the case study interview for
the sewage treatment plant. It is usual to determine the needs of Consents
and Permits even before proceeding to consider Project Definition,
Financial Strategy, Project Planning, and Contract Strategy.
Diagramatically, the non-technical group, could be represented by the
following diagram in terms of tasks sequence and relationships (see

Section 7.4.3)
169
Contract Strategy
Financial Strategy
Figure 10.2: Non-technical group relationship diagram
The second set of tasks (Table 10.4) is the technical group: Project
Management Organisation, Construction Philosophy, Procurement
Strategy, Design of Temporary Works, and Design of Permanent
Structures. This second group must satisfy the requirements of the first
group, i.e. the non-technical group. If a project is technically impossible,
then there is a need to reconsider the requirements of the non-technical
group to adopt to the limitations posed by the second group of
'technicalities'. The dynamics of the situation has been graphically
illustrated in Figure 10.3. The iteration will continue within the organic-
whole of the conceptual phase until a 'freeze' is decided. It was therefore
concluded that the proposition of sequence and relationship of tasks was
generally acceptable through the survey.
170
Technical Group Permanent
'a' v,
L V
Structure
Design
w.g § ,i.
1
g F,z,'
17,'
(
8 e7, Temporary
Works Design
E9
b '60 Construction
tt Philosophy
Contract Strategy
Financial Strategy
Consents and Permits Non-technical

Group
FIGURE 10.3: Interaction between non-technical group and

technical group
10.3 Impact of tasks on site productivity
Having established tasks, task definitions, and sequence and relationships
of tasks in the conceptual phase of construction projects, this section
addressed the linkage with productivity. To achieve this, two main
questions were posed to the respondents: which tasks exert the highest
degree of influence on site productivity and how significant is the impact of
each task on the site resources of plant, labour, material, time, and
finance?. For the first question, respondents ware asked to rank on a scale
of 1 to 10 with 1 = most important and 10 = least important. Then
respondents were asked to rank on a scale of 1 to 5 scale, whether each
task has strongly significant or strongly insignificant impact on each site
resource. The following sections present the detail results and analysis.
171
10.3.1 Ranking of tasks' impact on site productivity
The respondents' ranking has been tabulated in Table 10.5.
Table 10.5: The mean score of ranking of impact of tasks on

site productivity
MEAN VALUE FOR RANKING SCORES
ifiVir4L.'
TASKS Client Consultant Contractor i0Veiiill Probability
response .; Value
Kruskal Wallis
Test for k
i,, z et . independent
, tee i ir sample @5%
441t .. '' significance level
;.' 7314,
01 Consents & Permits 7.4 7.8 8.2 , , • gii?-k! 0.46
IOW .
02 Project Definition 4.9 6.4 6.8 4;e6....0. 0.30
03 Financial Strategy 7.4 8.0 7.6 ' 7:7 . . 0.98
04 Project Planning 4.2 5.0 3.6 4.1 0.26
05 Contract Strategy 5.6 6.9 6.0 6.1 0.27
06 Project Management 4.6 6.1 8.0 6.6 0.0 0 0 7

Organisation
07 Construction Philosophy 2.9 2.6 6.4 4.4 0.0 0 0 2
08 Procurement Strategy 5.8 4.5 7.3 6.4 0.08
09 Design of "Femporary Works 5.8 4.6 3.7 4.5, . 0.09
10 Design of Permanent 5.2 4.4 5.9 54 0.26

Structures Vat .'•:
As indicated in Table 10.5 above, there was no significant difference
between the client, consultant and contractors except for two tasks, i.e.
Project Management Organisation and Construction Philosophy. An initial
observation reveals that there is a big gap between client, consultant and
contractor respectively: scores of 4.6, 6.1 and 8 for Project Management
Organisation. The same applied for Construction Philosophy. These
observations were confirmed when the Mann-Whitney U Test of two
independent sample was applied as in Table 10.6.
172
Table 10.6: Group difference test on
client/consultant/contractor for Project Management
Organisation and Construction Philosophy.
SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL
(Mann-Whitney U Test of two independent sample)
NO TASKS client/consultant client/contractor consultant/contractor
06 Project Management Organisation 0.11 0.0003 0.02
07 Construction Philosophy 0.57 0.0005 0.0008
Table 10.6 shows that it was the contractor that contributed to the difference
between the groups at a 5 per cent significance level criteria. The overall
ranking of impact of tasks on productivity is shown in Table 10.7.
Table 10.7: The ranking of impact of tasks on site productivity
RANKING
OVERALL
NO TASKS CLIENT CONSULTANT CONTRACTOR RESPONSE
BY TASK.:
01 Consents & Permits 10 9 10 •- 1. 04AV:
02 Project Definition 4 7 6
03 Financial Strategy 9 10 8 ! ,-)' 9 wrgY
04 Project Planning 2 5 I 1 .L •
05 Contract Strategy 6 8 4 61,,,,s'
06 Project Management Organisation 3 6 9 81)‘-',-.'!
07 Construction Philosophy i i 5
08 Procurement Strategy 7 3 7 7J
09 Design of Temporary Works 8 4 2 ,.. 3 ..-..:1,
10 Design of Permanent Structures 5 2 3 4'
Project Planning, Construction Philosophy, Design of Temporary Works,
Design of Permanent Structures and Project Definition are ranked highly,
and all have a high technical content. These tasks are called technical
group. Nevertheless, the non-technical group which comprised Contract
Strategy, Procurement Strategy, Project Management Organisation,
Financial Strategy and Consents and Permits were amongst the earliest in
terms of sequence as discussed in Section 12.2.
173
Abubakar (1992) also concluded that the technical group (design factors)
has a great influence on site productivity and is potential source of cost
overrun. However, the technical group is the product of the non-technical
group as discussed earlier. Take Consents and Permits as an example to
illustrate the point. Although Consents and Permits was ranked last (i.e. the
10th in terms of its impact on site productivity) the case study on Sizewell B
is instructive here. The original planning of CEGB was to use the maximum
possibilities of road transport. With that in mind, they proposed a second
entrance route into the site to complement the existing system. The idea
was rejected during the Consents and Permits although it was a necessity
as thought by CEGB for enhanced productivity of site in terms of efficient
transportation system (Layfield 1987). In another case, there was the
interfacing of design, and Consents and Permits (Cleland 1988). A nuclear
power plant project had to address a pertinent strategic issue. An
earthquake fault was discovered a few miles offshore near the site of the
plant at about midway of the project life cycle. It was established that no
attempt was made by the senior management to have an in-depth enquiry
to determine the extent of possible future problems. Having completed the
power plant, the court demanded a redesign of the whole facility to cope
with the poor location. This was the result of the organised efforts of the
'stakeholders' demanding a complete closure of the nuclear power plant!
Therefore, strategic issues may well crop up during the project life cycle.
More so for long duration projects, such as a nuclear power station or a
huge civil works.
Although the ranking of relative importance in terms of influence on site
productivity of the technical group is clear, the impact of the earlier non-
technical group should not be underestimated. The whole conceptual
phase tasks is an organic entity which is highly interrelated as described in
Section 7.3 and Chapter 8.

174
10.3.2 Impact of tasks on site resources
Having ranked the impact of each task on site productivity (Section 10.3.1),
the impact of each task on site resources was assessed. Table 10.8
illustrates the results.
. .. . ..
lame ma: impact ot tasks on sue-resources
P*
D* D* D* D*
Plant Labour 1 Material ' Time l Cost i MEAN
TASKS
Consents &
Permits 3.5 0.05 3.8 0.18 3.8 0.18 2.3 0.13 2.4 0.60 3.2
Project i
Definition 3.2 0.31 3.4 0.35 2.9 0.30 2.3 0.70 1.9 0.97 2.7
Financial
Strategy 3.4 0.60 3.5 0.99 3.2 0.41 2.4 0.07 1.6 0.71 2.8
Project
Planning 2.4 0.26 2.2 0.39 2.5 0.12 1.4 0.86 1.8 0.36 2.1
Contract
Strategy 3.2 0.24 3.0 0.11 3.1 0.05 1.9 0.20 2.0 0.62 2.6
Project
Management 3.4 0.10 3.1 0.06 3.3 0.56 1.8 0.47 1.9 0.83 2.7
Organisation
Construction
Philosophy 2.0 0.55 0.29 2.4 0.10 1.7 0.19 2.1 0.92 2.1
Procurement 0.00
Strategy 0.27 0.96 5 0.21 0.42
2.9 3.0 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.4
Design of
Temporary 2.8 0.44 2.7 0.40 3.0 0.87 2.4 0.84 2.9 0.76 2.8
Works
Design of
Permanent 2.5 0.33 2.8 0.46 2.2 0.25 2.2 0.50 1.9 0.66 2.3
Structures
MEAN 2.9 3.0 2.9 2.0 2.1
P* (probability values) Kruskal-Wallis 1-Way ANOVA Test for k-independent
sample with significance level of 5%
Scale:
1 = very insignificant 2 = insignificant 3 = neutral 4 = significant, 5 = very
significant
The resources which were significantly influenced by conceptual phase are
time and cost with scores of 2.0 and 2.1 respectively. This correlated with
the opinion of an interviewee during the case study of off-shore structures
project. It was stated that time and cost could be taken to be the indicators
of productivity of the conceptual. Section 2.4 also stipulated that time and
175
cost could be a measure of project level productivity (Sandivido 1988;
Ireland 1992). Plant, labour and material have scores of 2.9, 3.0 and 2.9
respectively. These scores indicated that respondents do not commit
themselves to state the significance of the conceptual phase tasks impact
on site resources.
In terms of impact of each task on site resources, Project Planning,
Construction Philosophy and Design of Permanent Structures show
significant influence having scores of 2.1, 2.1 and 2.3 respectively. These
were also the tasks which are ranked amongst the highest in terms of their
impact on site productivity as stated in the previous Section 10.3.1.
Therefore, time and cost are the two resources which were considered to
be significantly influenced by conceptual phase though plant, labour and
material were not necessary insignificant. Project Planning, Construction
Philosophy and Design of Permanent Structures are the three tasks that
were perceived to have significant influence on all the site resources.
10.4 Summary
Chapter 10 presented the results and discussions on the characteristics of
ten tasks of the conceptual phase: the sequence of which the tasks were
performed; ranking of impact of tasks on site productivity; and impact of
tasks on productivity of site resources. It was generally shown that the
characteristics were independent from the influence of type of organisation.
176
CHAPTER 11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3- PERCEIVED
AND ADOPTED BEST PRACTICES
CHAPTER 11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 3- PERCEIVED AND ADOPTED BEST
PRACTICES
11.1 Introduction
Benchmarking of best practices is the cornerstone for rapid improvement
within the TOM concept which leads to enhanced productivity. Section 8.5
listed 81 best practices that were collected and collated from the construction
industry literature. The annotated bibliography of the 75 papers which forms
the basis of the 81 practices is presented in Appendix C. The papers cover
the whole range of construction activities: building, civil and heavy
engineering. The best practices were grouped according to their relevance
with the conceptual phase tasks.
The first stage under which the 81 best practices were scrutinised was the
pilot survey. A full scale survey involving 144 repondees was then
performed. The following sections discussed the pilot survey, final survey
and case studies in detail. Influence of types of organisation have also been
presented.
11.2 Pilot survey
During the pilot survey, respondents were questioned whether they rate how
much they agreed on a scale of 1 to 5 with each of the 81 proposed best
practices. The results from the nine respondents during the pilot survey
were skewed towards strongly agree - agree region. It was decide that the
strongly agree - agree region should be expanded to:
essential = 1;
very important = 2;
important = 3; and
somewhat important = 4.
178
The neutral, disagree and strongly disagree were narrowed to unimportant =
5. The final survey incorporated such changes.
11.3 Survey results
Figure 11.1 illustrates the responses for one of the best practices of
Consents and Permits: Cost-benefit analysis must be performed for the
whole process of consents and permits (see Section 7.6.2 for the complete
list of best practices).
unimportant
essential
8%
19%
somewhat very
important important
37% 17%
tintx)rtant
19%
Figure 11.1: Typical best practice chart
Figure 11.1 illustrated that 92 per cent of the respondents perceived that
'Cost-benefit analysis must be performed for the whole process of Consents
and Permits' is an important best practice, and only 8 per cent stated that
the best practice is unimportant. Referring to Table 9.20, the mean value for
this best practice is 2.9 (i.e. between important and very important). The
details of other best practices for Consents and Permits have been
presented in Table 11.1.
Virtually all best practices that have been proposed in the questionnaire were
accepted to be between the range of 'essential' and 'somewhat important'.
179
Figure 11.1 is a typical response for most of the best practices. The
overwhelm majority of the scores for the 'unimportant' category were less
than 10 per cent for the proposed best practices. Tables 11.1 -11.10
illustrates all the detail results for 81 proposed best practices of conceptual
phase. The scales used in the survey were indicated in Section 11.2.
180
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11.4 Case Studies
11.4.1 Introduction
Tables 11.1-11.10 illustrate that all the proposed best practices were
accepted between the range of 'essential' and 'somewhat important' during
the general survey. Six case studies were conducted to further reinforce the
general survey. As stated earlier in Chapter 5, the survey seeks to establish
best practice whilst the case studies test whether best practices perceived
during the survey were actually practical within a real project environment.
The following sections discuss the results of the case studies as a complete
process of establishing the benchmark of best practices attributed to the
conceptual phase of construction projects.
11.4.2 Case studies background information
The second phase of this research involved case studies comprising six
projects: i.e. a power plant; chemical plant; sewerage treatment plant; an
offshore-structure; motor-way; and a major building construction. These
case studies underpinned the postal survey, and specific differences and
similarity is highlighted among the six projects.
Table 11.11 provides a background to the projects that were used as case
studies. The six case studies were from different types of project within the
construction industry as presented in Section 6.2.2
187
Table 11.11: Case studies details
NO PROJECT
PROJECT TYPE INTERVIEWEE CONTRACT TYPE PROJECT COMPLETION
VALUE STATUS
(million) (Dec. 1994)
1 Nuclear Power Client Fixed sum with £2 Billion on-going

Station price adjustment
2 Hydrofiner Project Client Lump sum £60 on-going
3 Sewage treatment Client Lump Sum £25 on-going
plant Contractor Design & Build
4 Off-shore structures Contractor Partnering * on-going
5 Motor way (M20) Consultant Traditional completed
Lump sum £69.5
(1991)
6 Building client Traditional £15 Phase 1
Construction Lump sum completed
* data not available
11.4.3 Adopted best practices
During the initial part of the case studies, interviewees were requested to
evaluate the conceptual and construction phases of their respective projects
in terms of time, manpower, quality, safety, cost and client satisfaction. The
results have been illustrated in Table 11.12.
Table 11.12: Case studies phases evaluation
.:1 'Interviewee
I Project I dc:s CONCEPTUAL PHASE ** CONSTRUCTION PHASE **
timc man quality safety client time cost quality safety client
power satis. satis.
I power £3 client * * * * * * * * * *
station billion
2 £6 client I 1 I I I 1 1 I 2 I
hydrofincr million
project 4 years
3 sewage £25 client & 3 2 2 3 2 I I I 2 2
plant million contractor
5 years
4 off- contractor 1 2 I I 2 1 2 2 2 2
shore 5 years
structure
5 motor £69.5 consultant 2 3 1 2 I 1 3 3 2 3
way million
6.75
years
6 £15 client 4 3 2 3 3 2 4 2 2 2
building 2.5 years
* &an not available in this initial study
**Scale used:
1 = very satisfied, 2 satisfied, 3 = neutral, 4 = unsatisfied, 5 = very unsatisfied,
6= don't know
188
The hydrofiner project (No. 2) shows the best result. This was apparent
during the interview where the client took proactive role of ensuring that all
the resources and best practices were adopted to deliver the project. The
conceptual and construction phases were performed very satisfactory. At
the time of interview, the project was three months ahead of schedule. This
was followed by the offshore project (No. 4). A close relationship existed
between the contractor and client through partnering contract (Table 11.11).
Both of these phases were satisfactory. The next project was the sewage
treatment plant which was let under a lump sum design and build contract. It
had a good overall score. It was also cited during the interview that a close
relation was maintained between the client and contractor. The scores for
the conceptual and construction phases were generally satisfactory. The
other two projects, i.e. the motor-way and the building project showed mixed
scores ranging between satisfactory and unsatisfactory for both the phases.
Both were let under the traditional lump sum contract (Table 11.11). The
mixed scores for the last two projects were also expressed clearly during the
interviews. Generally, it can be observed that the scores for both the
conceptual and construction phases can be related to the degree of adoption
of best practices as shown in Tables 11.14-11.23.
Tables 11.14-11.23. illustrate the degree of adoption of all the 81 perceived
best practices in the six different projects. The tables comprise three major
columns. Column A lists all the best practices that have been tested during
the general survey. Column B summaries the general survey: B1 illustrates
the mean score; and B2 presents the probability values from the Kruskal-
Wallis ANOVA test of group differences amongst client, consultant and
contractors. Column C illustrates scores for each of the six case studies.
The project numbers correspond with the numbers used in Tables 11.14-
11.23..
189
The second and third columns were included i.e. B1 and B2 (results from the
general survey analysis of Section 11.3) to facilitate forthcoming discussion.
All the responses for best practices were within the essential and important
region during the survey. In terms of significant difference among the three
groups, there were only six practices which were so. This represents a mere
3.6 per cent of the total 81 best practices: nevertheless all the groups
accepted the importance of the disputed best practices. The case studies
further underpinned the results of the survey. There was 3.6 per cent best
practices which were disputed as to their degree of importance in the survey.
However, they were adopted in the case studies projects. An example from
Table 11.14, best practice for Project Definition (Project Definition must be
frozen throughout the project) is a typical example. The following sections
showed the details of the results and discussions for the 81 best practices
that had been used in the case studies. Table 11.13 indicates the scales
(see Chapter 5) used in Tables 11.14-11.23.
Tables 11.13: Scales used in survey and case studies
SCALES FOR SURVEY SCALES FOR CASE STUDIES
1 = essential 1 = best practices were adopted
2 = very important 2 = best practices should be adopted
3 = important 3 = best practices could have been

adopted
4 = somewhat important
4 = best practices could not be
5 = unimportant adopted
190
(i) Perceived and adopted best practices for Consents and Permits
The adoption of best practices by the six case studies for Consents and
Permits has been summarised in Table 11.14. Column B1 indicated that the
best practices were between 'important' and 'essential' during the general
survey. Furthermore, Column B2 shows (probability values between 0.09-
0.54) that there was no statistical significant difference between client,
consultant and contractor according to the Kruskal-Wallis one way ANOVA
test for k-independent sample with significant level of five per cent.
Generally, all the best practices were adopted for the case studies. For
project No. 6, the building project, the best practice 'Cost-benefit analysis
must be performed for the whole process of Consents and Permits could not
be adopted. The interviewee stated that though he agreed to the best
practice, the project value was too small for such an exercise. For project
No. 4, an off-shore structures maintenance project, the best practices
'Political stability must be assessed for long term projects ' was not
applicable in this situation since it is a partnering project with BP
It was therefore concluded that all the best practices were accepted and
were of practical value in construction projects. Where best practices were
not adopted, it was usually due to specific circumstances for the project.
The pattern for Consents and Permits repeated itself throughout the best
practices of the other nine tasks (Tables 11.14-11.23).
191
(ii) Perceived and adopted best practices for Project Definition
All the best practices for Project Definition were within the 'essential' and
'important' region as given in Column B1 of Table 11.15. Column B2
indicated that all the best practices were agreed to by the three groups of
respondents: client; consultant; and, contractor. The exception was the best
practices of 'Project definition must be frozen throughout the project'.' The
probability value was less than 5 per cent. Therefore, there was a statistical
significant difference between the three groups. As for the case studies, all
the best practices could be adopted in the projects: the exception was for
project no. 1, i.e. the Nuclear Power Station. This was consistent with the
exploratory case study as in Section 8.4.2.2.1. Project Definition was
subject to the public enquiry. It is understandable that the Project Definition
was still fluid in the conceptual phase. However, it is well recognised that
Project Definition must be 'frozen' beyond the conceptual phase (Bresnen
1991; Rowing et al. 1987; McDermott and Newcombe 1986).
192
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(iii) Perceived and adopted best practices for Financial Strategy
All the best practices for Financial Strategy were perceived to be important
by respondents: mean score were between 1.46 - 2.65 as in Column B1
Table 11.16. Column B2 indicated that there was no significant difference
between client, consultant and contractor. All the best practices could be
adopted in most of the projects as shown in Column C. No response was
given by project No. 3, i.e. the off-shore structure project, for the first three
best practices. This was because the best practices were not considered to
be relevant with a partnering form of contract. There was also no response
for the last best practice for project No. 5, i.e. the motor-way project. It was
stated by the interviewee that the best practice was not compatible with the
contractual arrangement, i.e. traditional lump sum contract (Table 11.11).
(iv) Perceived and adopted best practices for Project Planning
The five best practices for Project Planning were perceived to be important
as indicated by Column B1 of Table 11.17. The mean scores were between
1.51 - 2.85, i.e. ranging between 'essential' and 'important'. Column B2 gave
a minimum value of 0.27, which is higher than the 5 per cent criteria to
indicate the statistical difference amongst the groups. With the exception of
the first best practice, 'Planning must be construction driven', all the best
practices could be adopted in the case studies projects. Project No. 3 and 4,
i.e. the sewage treatment plant and the building project, attributed to the type
of contract they were engaged in that deny them to adopt such best practice.
It should be noted that the said best practices is recognised by the
construction industry to improve productivity on site (Abbot 1985; O'Connor
1987).
194
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(v) Perceived and adopted best practices for Contract Strategy
The 13 best practices for Contract Strategy were perceived to be important
as shown in Column B1 of Table 11.18. The range of mean score was 1.94 -
3.46. From the values indicated by Column B2, four of the best practices
proved to be controversial: quality assurance must be built into contract
document; risk must be distributed equitably between client and contractor;
the number of consultants to be minimised; and the number of packages
should be limited. Each has probability values of less than 5 per cent, i.e.
0.004, 0.04, 0.02 and 0.02 respectively. Statistically, these values indicated
differences amongst client, consultant and contractor. However, the mean
values as shown in Column B1, indicated that the four best practices were
perceived to be important. In the case studies, best practices related to
'dispute', project Nos. 4 and 5 (off-shore structure and motor-way projects)
cited that the best practices were not relevant in their contractual situations.
The same was the situation for best practices related to 'work organisation':
the best practices were not adopted since they were not relevant to their
contractual situations. Though some best practices were not adopted in
some of the projects in the case studies, they were perceived to be important
by the survey respondents. These were also confirmed by the case studies
interviewee during the interview.
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(vi) Perceived and adopted best practices for Project Management
Organisation
Column B1 of Table 11.19 illustrates that the 12 best practices related to
Project Management Organisation were seen to be important by
respondents. With the exception of one best practice of 'initiate team
building activities between clients' and contractors' team', there were no
significant statistical difference amongst client, consultant and contractor.
Most of the best practices could be adopted in the six case studies. The best
practices of 'client team must be autonomous from parent company' and
'continuity of project team must be achieved throughout the project duration'
could not be adopted in the off-shore structures and the motor-way project.
The best practice of 'be informed of foreign cultures when the need arises'
could not be adopted in all the projects with the exception of the Nuclear
Power Station. This is not at all surprising since this best practice is only
suitable when the project involved international participant (Donovan 1984).
The nuclear Power Station was a good case in point.
198
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(vii) Perceived and adopted best practices for Construction
Philosophy
From Column B1 of Table 11.20, all the best practices for Construction
Philosophy were perceived to be important: the range of mean values was
between 1.66 - 3.17. Only two best practices were seen differently by the
client, consultant and contractor: 'facilitate design and construction, elements
must be standardised'; and, 'utilise local resources'. Each has probability
values of 0.05 and 0.02 respectively. However, all the best practices could
be adopted in the projects. The exception was for project No. 4 (Off-shore
structures project) which the interviewee attributed to the nature of the
project and contractual relationship between the parties.
(viii) Perceived and adopted best practices for Procurement Strategy
All Procurement Strategy best practices were perceived to be important as
illustrated by Table 11.21 Column B1. There was no disagreement amongst
the client, consultant and contractor as indicated by Table 11.21: Column B2.
With the exception of 'Procurement Strategy must give flexibility to
construction needs', all best practices could be adopted in the projects.
200
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(ix) Perceived and adopted best practices for Design of Temporary
Works
The best practices for Design of Temporary Works were perceived to be
important by the respondents as indicated by Column B1 Table 11.22.
Furthermore, there was no statistical difference between the three groups of
respondents (client, consultant and contractor). With the exception of the
Off-shore structure project, all the best practices could be adopted in the
case studies. In the building construction project the best practices of 'site
layout must promote efficiency of construction operation and maintenance'
and 'temporary works must promote safety, construction accessibility of
personnel, material and equipment' could not be adopted. This was
attributed the nature of the site by the informant.
(x) Perceived and adopted best practices for Design of Permanent

Structures
The nine best practices for Design of Permanent Structures mean scores
were between 1.79 - 3.43 as shown in Table 11.24: Column B1. Column B2
illustrated that the probability values did not go below 5 per cent. This
indicated that there was consensus amongst client, consultant and contractor
as to the importance of all the best practices. With the exception of the Off-
shore Structures project, all the best practices could be adopted in the other
projects. The best practice of 'detail engineering of main item with long
delivery period must be given priority' could not be adopted in the Motor-way
project. This was due the type of contract: traditional lump sum contract.
203
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11.5 Summary
Chapter 11 has presented the results and discussions for the research into
the best practices of conceptual phase of construction projects.
Approximately 90 per cent of the respondents perceived the best practices to
be important (Tables 11.14-11.23). Most of the best practices were also
agreed by the client, consultant and contractor. As stated in Section 11.4.1,
case studies were conducted to underpin the survey. Most of the best
practices could be have been adopted in the six case study projects. Those
best practices that were not adopted in any of the projects, were due to the
type of Contract Strategy specific to the project itself or the inherent nature of
the project itself. In cases where best practices could not be adopted,
interviewees stated their agreement as to the importance of the best
practices. Therefore, within the limit of the samples during the survey and
case studies, the 81 best practices were important to be accepted into
projects for enhanced site productivity.
206
CHAPTER 12
CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FURTHER
RESEARCH
Chapter 12
Conclusions, recommendations and further research
12.1 Introduction
At the outset of this research, the objectives were to:
• establish the tasks performed in the conceptual phase;
• define the tasks performed in the conceptual phase;

productivity;

productivity in terms of the main site resources of time,
• establish the sequence with which tasks are performed in

the conceptual phase; and

These objectives were achieved through thorough discussions with members
of the ECI Productivity Task Force, an exploratory case study of the Sizewell B
conceptual phase, extensive literature searches, a questionnaire survey and
six case studies as detailed in Chapter 5. The objectives were developed to
focus the potential of the conceptual phase of projects (Chapters 6 and 7)
within the concepts embedded in productivity, quality and benchmarking
(Chapter 2, 3 and 4). The subsections below listed the achievements of the
research objectives.
208
12.2 Conclusions
The research into the conceptual phase of construction projects established
that there are ten tasks and 81 relevant best practices. The definition of the ten
tasks was also achieved. The ranking of conceptual phase tasks in terms of
their impact on site productivity was also attained. The influence of conceptual
phase tasks on site resources productivity was established. The research also
established the sequence of performance of the conceptual phase tasks.
12.2.1 Tasks of the conceptual phase of construction projects
Through a rigorous process of research, it is concluded that the conceptual
phase of construction projects consisted of ten tasks as shown in Table 12.1.
12.2.2 Tasks definition of the conceptual phase of construction
projects
The research further concluded the definition of the ten tasks as illustrated in
Table 10.1. It was also proven, within the limitation of sample, that tasks
definition were not influenced by project type, project cost, project experience
of respondents and respondents types of organisation. The good sample was
representative of industry with many years experience

Table 12.1: Tasks and tasks definition of conceptual phase of
construction projects
TASKS DEFINITION
Consents and Fulfilment of a society's embodiment of constitution, laws,

statutes, regulations, norms and culture, which ensures rights
Permits and protections of itself in relation to the proposed project. In
operational terms, any document which grants a person the
right to do something; issued by a person in authority,
empowering the grantee to do some act not forbidden by law,
but not allowed without such authority.
Project Definition Resolution of options during the conceptual phase which

culminates in statement of client's/owner's requirements.
Financial Strategy The principal means and methods by which the financial
Project Planning Global planning of the whole project including the

establishment of and commitment to defined schedules and
milestones with built in incentives.
Contract Strategy A strategy that defines relationships, duties, obligations and

policies which are directed/engineered towards the desired
successful total project delivery in accordance with Project
Planning, Financial Strategy, Project Definition, and Consents
and Permits.
Project The formulation and configuration of the client's management

team in accordance with the Contract Strategy.
Management
Organisation
Construction The conceptual approach and method of construction that

dictates the Design of Permanent Structures and Design of
Philosophy Temporary Works.
Procurement Strategy for proactive project hardware purchasing is

required to achieve complete project delivery in accordance
Strategy with project schedule.
Design of The principles of construction practices to realise the

permanent structures of the project which may or may not be
Temporary Works part of the permanent structure and reflects Construction
Philosophy.
Design of The conceptual design, preliminary layout and sketches

outlining the permanent structures so as to fulfil Project
Permanent Definition.
Structures
210
12.2.3 Ranking of impact of conceptual phase tasks on site
productivity
The research also established the ranking of impact of the conceptual phase
tasks on site productivity as illustrated in Table 10.7. Project Planning, Design
of Temporary Works, Design of Permanent Structures and Construction
Philosophy were ranked as highly influential on site productivity.
12.2.4 Impact of conceptual phase tasks on site resources

productivity
Having ranked the impact of each task on site productivity, a detailed question
asked the respondents to assess the impact of each task on productivity of site
resources. Site resources were defined as labour, time, cost/finance, material
and plant as stated in Section 7.5. Project Planning, Construction Philosophy
and Design of Permanent Structures were stated as having significant impact
on productivity of site resources of labour, time, cost/finance, material and
plant. However, all the ten tasks of the conceptual phase had a significant
impact on resources of time and cost.
12.2.5 Sequence of tasks as performed in the conceptual

phase
The research also concluded the sequence of performance of tasks of the
conceptual phase as stated in Table 12.2. The top three tasks are Project
Definition, Financial Strategy and Project Planning.

Table 12.2: Ranking of impact on productivity and sequence
of conceptual phase tasks
Ranking of impact of Sequence of

TASKS tasks on site tasks
productivity performance
Project Planning 1 3
Construction Philosophy 2 6
Design of Temporary Works 3 10
Design of Permanent Structures 4 9
Project Definition 5 1
Contract Strategy 6 5
Procurement Strategy 7 8
Project Management Organisation 8 7
Financial Strategy 9 2
Consents and Permits 10 4
10.3 Recommendations
10.3.1 Adoption of best practices for conceptual phase
The recommended best practices (Table 12.3) were developed through
research methodology detailed in Chapter 5. Some of the best practices may
be more relevant to a particular situation than others. It should be noted that
Contract Strategy has an important influence on the ability to adopt best
practice. The selection of the most appropriate form of Contract Strategy is of
vital importance. Though the sample concentrates on major projects, the
results could be transferred to smaller projects (e.g. buildings). Nevertheless,
it is highly recommended that each best practice should be accepted or
rejected consciously. A self-assessment form should be available listing all
the best practices below and a process of conscious acceptance or rejection
of all the best practices when going through the conceptual phase of projects.
In so doing, one is benchmarking one's current practices against industry
accepted best practices.
212
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12.3.2 Assessment of adoption of best practices
The 81 best practices established in this research are recommended for
adoption by the construction industry. If any are rejected due to a specific
requirement, it may be done so, but consciously. It is recommended that
adoption of best practices should be monitored. This will lead eventually to
quantitative linkage between adoption of best practices and specific
quantitative improvements in productivity.
12.3.3 Standardisation of conceptual phase terminology
To facilitate the benchmarking of conceptual phase best practice, it is
recommended that project should adopt the ten-tasks concept propounded in
this research. To realise this, a consortium of public and private organisations
which are stake holders in the construction industry, should be initiated with
the necessary legislative tools along the line of the Latham Report. With this
in-place, a common 'vocabulary' of the conceptual phase will facilitate
benchmarking of best practices and enhanced 'learning project' for improved
productivity.
12.4 Further Research
12.4.1 Process mapping
A ten-notion of conceptual phase of construction project has been established

in this research. Further research, based on the ten-tasks notion, to map the
processes involved in the other phases namely: detailed engineering;
construction; and start-up. This will illustrate the continuity and optimise inter-
phases integration from the conceptual phase up to the start-up phase. An
216
agreed process map from conception to start-up by participants in the
construction industry will shift the focus of productivity and quality from merely
as end-product entity to that of the total process of delivery of product: process-
centric concept. Focused studies on individual elements of the conceptual
phase, but with a holistic view point, will underpinned the process mapping.
12.4.2 Conceptual phase success criteria
Further research should also be embarked upon to assess suitable criteria
upon which a conceptual phase could be judged successful. With milestone
indicators project could be monitored and problems could be pre-empted.
12.4.3 Deliverables for conceptual phase
With the ten-tasks notion of conceptual phase, an inventory of deliverables
could be established. Development of conceptual phase deliverables would
be linked with milestone mentioned in section 12.3.2 above.

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231
APPENDIX A
Survey questionnaire
232
EUROPEAN CONSTRUCTION INSTITUTE
I
THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE ON

PRODUCTIVITY IN EUROPEAN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
THE PRODUCTIVITY OFF-SITE SUBGROUP QUESTIONNAIRE

JUNE 1994
LOUGHBOROUGH UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
The European Construction Institute (ECI) was established in 1990 and has brought together
major clients, contractors, and consultants to improve the performance of the construction
industry. It has established Task Forces comprising representatives from clients,
contractors, and consultants. One of these is the Productivity Task Force which has several
subgroups. The off-site subgroup is currently investigating the productivity aspects
associated with the conceptual phase of major construction projects, with a view to producing
good practice guides.
This questionnaire is part of the research effort of the off-site subgroup. In this
questionnaire, a construction project is assumed to have the following phases: conceptual
phase; detailed engineering; construction; and hand-over. The objectives of the
research is focused on the conceptual phase.
Each answer should be based on your own perspective and personal involvement in projects
as much as possible but based on the two most recent projects. Your evaluation should be
based only on the services your company provided to these projects. All groups participating
in the survey will be asked to use the same reference base and approach to completing their
respective questionnaire in order to maintain a degree of consistency.
The data collected in the survey will be treated on a confidential basis.
Please return the completed survey using self-addressed envelope enclosed to:
Dr. A.D.F. Price

Department of Civil Engineering
Loughborough University of Technology
Loughborough
Lcics. LEI 3TU, UK.
(att: M.R. Abdul-ICadir)
Specific questions regarding the contents of the questionnaire should be addressed to M.R.
Abdul-Kadir at 0509-263171 Ext. 4133.
Your assistance in completing the questionnaire is very much appriciatcd.

SECTION ONE
A Company data FOR OFFICE USE ONLY
Company name and address:
Type of company: client/owner I

(Please circle the appropriate description) contractor 2
consultant 3
financial institution 4
Others 5
If others please specify
B Project data
Indicate your title and position during the penultimate project:
Indicate your title and position during the last project:
Indicate your title and position during the current project:
Indicate the type/value of project you were/are involved in:

PROJECT TYPE CIVIL BUILDING PROCESS POWER
& VALUE ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING SUPPLY
Penultimate project £ £ £
Last project £ £ £ £
current project £ £ £ £
C Individual data
The number of years you have been in the industry H years
Indicate the project phases you were/are involved in:
CONCEPTUAL PHASE DETAILED ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION HAND-OVER
Do you want a summary of questionnaire results? Yes I No 2
State your name, please.
235
SECTION TWO
Investigation by the Task Force had ascertained that the conceptual phase is
divided into ten tasks:
A consents and permits;
B project definition;
C financial strategy;
D project planning;
E contract strategy;
F project management organisation;
G construction philosophy;
H procurement strategy;
I design of temporary works; and
J design of permanent structures.
Section two aims to assess industry response towards the relevant issues of
each task and task definition. Respondent is then asked to assess the good
practices for each task and rank them relative to their importance to task
definition. Please circle the appropriate number. Spaces are provided for
comments of alternative definition and other good practices.

A CONSENTS AND PERMITS
The key issues addressed during the consents and permits task
are: the generation of information and data relating to the facility
to be constructed; and an estimation of cost and time associated
with obtaining future consents and permits. The social, economic
and political issues must also be addressed, and the correct
environment for successful projects must be established.
strongly agree strongly disagree

DEFINITION: Fulfilment of a society's embodiment of
constitution, laws, statutes, regulations, norms and culture, I 2 3 4 5
which ensures rights and protections of itself in relation to the
proposed project. In operational term, any document which
grants a person the right to do something; issued by a person
in authority, empowering the grantee to do some act not
forbidden by law, but not allowed without such authority.
Comments for definition of Consents and Permits

GOOD PRACTICES very somewhat RANK
essential important important important unimportant
Cost-benefit analysis must be
performed for the whole process 1 2 3 4 5
of consents and permits.
Duration of the process of 1 2 3 4 5

consents and permits must be
assessed.
Information and data must be 1 2 3 4 5

established before embarking on
the process of consents and
permits.
Political stability must be 1 2 3 4 5

assessed for long term projects.
Risk management must be 1 2 3 4 5

performed.
Suggestions of other Good Practices for Consents and Permits
237

B PROJECT DEFINITION
Project definition addresses key issues such as project feasibility

and definition of project needs at a very early stage. Project
definition must be effectively communicated to all relevant parties
as early as possible.

DEFINITION: Resolution of options during the conceptual
phase which culminates in statement of client's/owner's I 2 3 4 5
requirements.
Comments for definition of Project Definition

Project definition must be frozen 1 2 3 4 5

throughout the project.
Project definition must be 1 2 3 4 5

defined clearly.
Project definition formation 1 2 3 4 5

process must be established.
Project definition must be 1 2 3 4 5

communicated to all relevant
parties
Suggestions of Good Practices for Project Definition
238
C FINANCIAL STRATEGY
The key issues considered during the development of a financial

strategy are conceptual estimating, including source and cost of
finance. Ensuring the right choice of currency, the appropriate
political climate, a stable economic system, and security of
funding sources during the whole project life-cycle arc among
the issues which should be addressed as part of the financial
strategy. Compatibility with other tasks must also be achieved.

Definition: The principal means by which the capital
funding of a total project is justified and obtained. I 2 3 4 5
Comments for definition of Financial Strategy

Sources of finance must be 1 2 3 4 5

secured.
Method of payment must be 1 2 3 4 5

established.
Financial strategy must be 1 2 3 4 5

compatible with contract
strategy.
Good estimate and cost control 1 2 3 4 5

mechanism, must be established
Link progress performance with 1 2 3 4 5

in-built monetary motivation.
Suggestions of Good Practices for financial strategy
239
D PROJECT PLANNING
The main issues to be considered during project planning are the

deadlines for finalising all other tasks in the conceptual phase,
and the other phases of detailed engineering, procurement,
construction and handover of a construction project. Other
issues such as identification of resources, objective setting, and
establishing communication and information systems are also to
be addressed. The main outcome of project planning should be
a defined schedule with easily identifiable milestones.

DEFINITION: Global planning of the whole project
including the establishment of and commitment to defined I 2 3 4 5
schedules and milestones with built in incentives.
Comments for definition of Project Planning

Planning must be construction
driven. 1 2 3 4 5
Project objectives must be clearly 1 2 3 4 5

defined.
Project objectives must be in 1 2 3 4 5

written form.
Project objectives must suit all 1 2 3 4 5

parties involve.
Installation of effective and 1 2 3 4 5

simple communication system.
Suggestions of Good Practices for Project Planning
240

E CONTRACT STRATEGY
The main issues considered as part of the contract strategy arc the
type of contract, methods of equitable allocation of risk and
establishing availability of competent contractors. Amongst
other issues to be considered are appropriate pricing policy,
establishing the appropriate contract document and project
control, setting quality standards, and finalising work package
organisation.

DEFINITION: A strategy that defines relationships, duties,
obligations and policies which are directed/engineered I 2 3 4 5
towards the desired successful total project delivery in
accordance with project planning, financial strategy, project
definition, and consents and permits
Comments for definition of Contract Strategy

(Contract Type) essential important important important unimportant
Choice of a particular type of
contract should be rationalised 1 2 3 4 5
against client objectives, nature
of client, project size and
complexity, and prevalent market
conditions.
Accept innovative contractual 1 2 3 4 5

arrangement if real benefit can be
demonstrated.
Ensure timely selection of 1 2 3 4 5

contract type.
A set of proven criteria must be 1 2 3 4 5

established for contractor
selection process.

(Dispute) essential important important important unimportant
Eliminate adversarial attitudes
from forms of contract. 1 2 3 4 5
A procedure for resolving 1 2 3 4 5

disputes should be provided.
241
(cont.' E CONTRACT STRATEGY)
GOOD PRACTICES very somewhat

(Contract Document) essential important important important unimportant RANK
Specification must be reviewed 1 2 3 4 5

in detail by owner, designers and
contractors personnel and served
to simplify the field construction
process.
Remove all unnecessary material 1 2 3 4 5

from contract document.
Quality assurance must be built 1 2 3 4 5

into contract document.
Risk must be distributed 1 2 3 4 5

equitably between client and
contractor.

(Work Organisation) essential important important important unimportant
The number of consultants to be 1 2 3 4 5

minimised.
Avoid very large work packages. 1 2 3 4 5
Limit number of packages. 1 2 3 4 5
Suggestions of Good Practices for Contract Strategy
242

F PROJECT MANAGEMENT ORGANISATION
Project management organisation involves the formation and

configuration of the client's management team. It must establish
the extent of power and responsibility, whilst facilitating a team
building process. Establishing a mechanism for dispute
resolution, team decision making process, and communication
networks are important issues to be considered in this task.
Ensuring the right motivating work environment must also be
taken into consideration.

DEFINITION: The formulation and configuration of the
client's management team in accordance with the contract I 2 3 4 5
strategy.
Comments for definition of Project Management Organisation

(Client Project essential important important important unimportant
Management Team)
Client project management 1 2 3 4 5

organisation must be led by a
leader with excellent leadership
qualities.
Criteria for team membership 1 2 3 4 5

must be set.
Keep project team down to 1 2 3 4 5

smallest effective number of
people.
Team building activities must be 1 2 3 4 5

instituted to foster team work and
team approach.
Client team must be autonomous 1 2 3 4 5

from parent company.
Continuity of project team must 1 2 3 4 5

be achieved throughout the
project duration.
(cont.' F PROJECT MANAGEMENT ORGANISATION)
GOOD PRACTICES
(Client / Contractor very somewhat
r
RANK
.ong
Relationship) essential important important important unimportant
Initiate team building activities 1 2 3 4 5

between clients' and contractors'
team.
Each team from client and 1 2 3 4 5

contractor must have a clear
senior management support.
;
Atmosphere of trust and co- 1 2 3 4 5
operation between clients' and
contractors' teams must be
nurtured.
Informal communication and 1 2 3 4 5

physical proximity must be
facilitated between clients' and
contractors team.
Unity of purpose of client and 1 2 3 4 5

contractor must be cultivated.
Be informed of foreign cultures 1 2 3 4 5

when the need arises.
Suggestions of Good Practice for Project Management Organisation

G CONSTRUCTION PHILOSOPHY
Construction philosophy involves the evaluation of alternatives

and characterises the degree of standardisation, modularisation,
and prefabrication. It also represents policy towards
neighbouring operations, and structures. Construction
philosophy is heavily influenced by weather, resources
availability, safety and quality requirements.
DEFINITION: The conceptual approach and method of

construction that dictates the design of permanent structures I 2 3 4 5
and temporary works
Comments for definition of Construction Philosophy

(Standardisation) essential important important important unimportant
To facilitate design and 1 2 3 4 5

construction, elements must be
standardised.
To facilitate construction, units 1 2 3 4 5

must be pre-assembled or pre-
fabricated.
Modularisation must be 1 2 3 4 5
reviewed.

(Site Constraint) essential important important important unimportant
Layout of site must consider site 1 2 3 4 5

efficiency.
Minimise site activities. 1 2 3 4 5
245
(cont.' G CONSTRUCTION PHILOSOPHY)

(Constructability essential important important important unimportant
Review)
6
Design must facilitate 1 2 3 4 5
construction under adverse
weather. ri•t-
1
Constructability concept must be 1 2 3 4 5 V
infused in the earliest stage of 1

design.
Design must promote 1 2 3 4 5

accessibility of manpower,
material and equipment.
Clash checking must be 1 2 3 4 5

instituted.
Install a systematic material 1 2 3 4 5

handling and tracking system.
Complete certification of material 1 2 3 4 5

and equipment must be achieved
before entering site.

(Resources) essential important important important unimportant
Utilise local resources. 1 2 3 4 5
Good industrial relations must be 1 2 3 4 5

maintained throughout
construction period
Working pattern must be 1 2 3 4 5

established. (e.g. normal day
working or double day shift, etc.
Sources of raw material must be 1 2 3 4 5

ascertained.
Suggestions of Good Practices for Construction Philosophy

H PROCUREMENT STRATEGY
Procurement strategy establishes the policy on the whole

procurement task ensuring availability and timely supply of
resources such as material, plant and equipment and power.
Achieving the required standards and specifications is also of
concern.
DEFINITION: Strategy for proactive project hardware

purchasing is required to achieve complete project delivery in 1 2 3 4 5
accordance with project schedule.
Comments for definition of Procurement Strategy

(Resources) essential important important important unimportant
Ensure availability of resources. 1 2 3 4 5
Only purchase and install a 1 2 3 4 5

proven system for a project.
Implement systems that will 1 2 3 4 5

improve vendor selection.

(Planning) essential important important important unimportant
Ensure the timely supply of 1 2 3 4 5

material with the right quality and
quantity.
Ensure that long lag equipment 1 2 3 4 5

or facilities are preordered well in
advance.
Make suppliers accept precise 1 2 3 4 5

schedules of delivery.
Check for shipping and 1 2 3 4 5

manufacturing problems which
delay delivery deadlines.
Procurement strategy must give 1 2 3 4 5

flexibility to construction needs.
Suggestions of Good Practices for Procurement Strategy
247

I DESIGN OF TEMPORARY WORKS
The design of temporary structures very often reflects the

construction philosophy taking account of site layout, site
facilities, efficiency and safety.

DEFINITION: The principles of construction practices to
realise the permanent structures of the project which may or I 2 3 4 5
may not be part of the permanent structure and reflects
construction philosophy.
Comments for definition of Design of Temporary Works

(Site Layout) essential important important important unimportant
Site layout must promote 1 2 3 4 5

efficiency of construction
operation and maintenance.
Temporary works must promote 1 2 3 4 5

safety, construction accessibility
of personnel, material and
equipment.

GOOD PRACTICES
very somewhat RANK
(Facilities) essential important important important unimportant
Good transportation system must 1 2 3 4 5

be well established in advance.
Storage areas must be planned 1 2 3 4 5

taking account of transportation
system and construction
schedule.
Ensure adequate provisions of 1 2 3 4 5

area for workforce camp facility.
Suggestions of Good Practices on Design for Temporary Works
248

J DESIGN OF PERMANENT STRUCTURES
The design of permanent structures must take account of

construction philosophy, and realise simplification and
standardisation of design that will promote efficiency and
conformity to the required schedule and standards.
DEFINITION: The conceptual design, preliminary layout

and sketches outlining the permanent structures so as to fulfil 1 2 3 4 5
project definition
Comments for definition of Design of Permanent Structures

(Simplification) essential important important important unimportant
Simplified design must be the 1 2 3 4 5

aim in the detailed design.
Design procedure must be 1 2 3 4 5

standardised.
Pre-assembly designs or factory 1 2 3 4 5

finished components are
prepared to facilitate
transportation and installation.

(EFFICIENCY) essential important important important unimportant
Design must promote efficiency 1 2 3 4 5

during construction and
maintenance.
3-D system must be used during 1 2 3 4 5

design.
Standard, procedures and 1 2 3 4 5

specification must be upgraded
so as to translate into new
project.
Design team continuity for a 1 2 3 4 5

particular project must be
maintained.
249
(cont.' J DESIGN OF PERMANENT STRUCTURES)
ra"71
GOOD PRACTICES very somewhat RANK'
(Schedule) essential important important important unimportant
Design schedule must be
construction driven. 1 2 3 4 5
Detail engineering of main item
with long delivery period must 1 2 3 4 5
be given priority.
Suggestions of Good Practices for Design of Permanent Structures

SECTION THREE
A Section Three seeks to establish the influence of conceptual phase tasks on construction phase.
The conceptual phase is divided into TEN TASKS: consents and permits, project definition,
financial strategy, project planning, contract strategy, project management organisation, construction
philosophy, procurement strategy, design of temporary works, and design of permanent structures.
Please RANK the followings:
RANK
Sequence of conceptual task as
performed in conceptual phase
1= first and 10 = last
consents and permits
project definition
financial strategy
project planning
contract strategy
project management organisation
construction philosophy
procurement strategy
design of temporary works
design of permanent structures
tr RAK
Re ativejmportance ofanfliince of„f .„..
• conceptual task on site pilidiictiiity!i'
1 = most important & 10 = legeaportant
consents and permits
project definition •
financial strategy
kt
project planning
'V
contract strategy 14Z.1,t;
procurenrnt strategy
design of temporary works
design of permanent structures
251
B. The objective of this part is to investigate the influence of the conceptual phase tasks on construction
site. This is expressed in terms of the influence of these tasks on productivity of site resources, i.e.
plant, labour and material, and the susceptibility of progress and cost due to unforeseen delays and
events. Please circle the appropriate number.
CONSTRUCTION strongly strongly

CONCEPTUAL PHASE SITE RESOURCES significant insignificant
TASKS
consents and permits plant I 2 3 4 5

labour 1 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
progress/time 1 2 3 4 5
cost/finance 1 2 3 4 5
project definition plant 1 2 3 4 5

labour I 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
progress/time I 2 3 4 5
financial strategy plant I 2 3 4 5

labour 1 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
project planning plant 1 2 3 4 5

labour 1 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
contract strategy plant 1 2 3 4 5

labour 1 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
project management organisation plant 1 2 3 4 5

labour I 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
cost/finance I 2 3 4 5
252
CONSTRUCTION strongly strongly
CONCEPTUAL PHASE SITE RESOURCES significant insignificant
TASKS
construction philosophy plant 1 2 3 4 5

labour 1 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
procurement strategy plant I 2 3 4 5

labour 1 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
design of temporary works plant 1 2 3 4 5

labour 1 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
design of permanent structures plant 1 2 3 4 5

labour 1 2 3 4 5
material 1 2 3 4 5
253
APPENDIX B
Case studies documents
1 Introduction
2 Case study brief
3 Sample letter for case studies
4 Case study interview material
5 Case study questionnaire
254
1 Introduction
This appendix consisted of a case study brief, a sample letter for case
studies and documents for the six case studies. The case studies
comprised a power plant, a chemical plant, a sewerage treatment plant, an
offshore-structure, a motor way and a major building construction. Prior to
each case study, a letter was sent to inform the interviewee the general
structure for the two hour interview. Enclosed with the letter was a case
study brief and case study material which consisted of a general layout of
interview and a questionnaire. The results of the case studies were

presented in Chapter 11.
2 Case study brief
The European Construction Institute's Productivity Task Force was
established in April 1991 and comprises of three subgroups:
• The On-site Productivity Subgroup;
• The Off-site/conceptual Productivity Subgroup; and
• The National and Industry Factors Subgroup.
The On-site Productivity Subgroup has recently published a handbook: i.e.
Total Productivity Management - Guidelines for the construction phase.
This handbook is a culmination of a research exercise involving 136
companies throughout Europe representing customer and contractor
organisations. The research involved postal questionnaire survey and face
to face interviews with senior company representatives prior to establishing
best practices for the construction phase.
A complementary exercise is currently being undertaken by the Off-
site/conceptual Productivity Subgroup with the main objectives being to:
• establish best practice pertaining to the conceptual phase of
construction projects; and
• benchmark the processes and tasks of the conceptual phase
Benchmarking is a process of selecting key business processes and
comparing their operation and performance with that of comparable
process in other companies. This allows best practice to be identified,
providing a target for improvements in performance and efficiency.
This research thus comprises two phases. The initial phase is currently well.
underway and aims to elicit perceived best practices, tasks and process
256
associated with the conceptual phase, using a detailed questionnaire,
throughout the construction industry. The distribution of the questionnaire
covers clients, consultants, contractors and financial organisations.
The second phase of this research will involve case studies comprising at
least six projects: i.e. a power plant; chemical plant; sewerage treatment
plant; an offshore-structure; motor way; and, a major building construction.
These case studies will underpin the postal survey and, specific differences
and similarity will be highlighted among the six projects and the "processes"
Each case study will involve:
• preliminary interviews relating to the conceptual phase of project
based on establishing if the best practices were, should or could have
been adopted on the individual project; and
• a more in-depth interview starting with the client in order to map the
"processes" adopted in the conceptual phase prior to benchmarking with
the other case studies
Recommendations emanating from the postal survey and case studies will
form a Handbook of Guidelines which complements the one already
produced by the On-site Productivity Subgroup.

Case study interview material
General layout for case study interview
PART A
General questions on company and project. (sent before visit)
PART B
Content of Questionnaire for visit.
TIME
NO PARTICULARS ALLOCATION
(minutes)
1 Introduction to the research

5
* literature review & annotated
bibliography
* survey
* case study
2 Description of case study project - the motor way project 15
3 Conceptual phase and productivity 15
4 Conceptual phase tasks & tasks process mapping in 50

project
5 Best practices adoption (questionnaire sent before 35

visit)
* mechanism of learning
* % impact on productivity
6 Others 5
''' 741
TOTAL TIME ' 120 -,)
MINUTES
,
258
Department of
CIVIL & BUILDING ENGINEERING
LEICESTERSHIRE LE11 3TU UK.
TELEPHONE: 01509 263171 FAX: 01509 610231
Mr.P. W. Le Blond
General Manager
Group Technical Services
Jubilee House, Furlong Way
Gatwick Airport
London
West Sussex RH6 OJN
14 December 1994.
Dear Mr. P. W. Le Blond
ECI Productivity Task Force: case study on major building construction
Enclosed are the case study documents which will briefly indicate the level of discussion to
be held on the 22 December, 1994:
• General layout for the case study interview;
• Part A : General questions on company and project;

• Part B : Detail questions for our discussion and,
• Questionnaire for Best Practices adoption.
I request that you could complete Part A and the Questionnaire before we embark on
the discussion. The response from the questionnaire will form-part of the discussion.
I also seek your permission to use my recording machine for our discussion.
I would like to thank you in anticipation.
Yours Sincerely,
66(,,,Q_ it2(06'rZo
4 Case study interview material
PART A
General questions on company and project.
PROJECT TITLE
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
NO PARTICULARS
1 Name of client Company
2 Name of contractors 1
3 Name of consultants 1
4 Project cost
5 Project duration
6 Completion status
7 Role of informant 1
8 Client core business
9 Project evaluation (next page, please)
260
PROJECT EVALUATION
CONSTRUCTION very satisfied neutral unsatisfied very don't know

PHASE satisfied unsatisfied
cost 1 2 3 4 5 6
time 1 2 3 4 5 6
quality 1 2 3 4 5 6
safety 1 2 3 4 5 6
client satisfaction 1 2 3 4 5 6
COMMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION PHASE
CONCEPTUAL very satisfied neutral unsatisfied very don't know

PHASE satisfied unsatisfied
time allocation I 2 3 4 5 6
manpower 1 2 3 4 5 6
allocation
quality 1 2 3 4 5 6
achievement
safety I 2 3 4 5 6
consideration
client satisfaction I 2 3 4 5 6
COMMENT FOR CONCEPTUAL PHASE
261
Case study interview material
Part BI/5 INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH
• membership of ECI
• identification of problems
• setting of Task Forces (13 nos.)
• Productivity Task Force
• On-site subgroup (completed with publication)
• Off-site conceptual phase subgroup (final stage)
• Industry-wide Factors subgroup
• Off-site conceptual phase
• Literature review
• Annotated Bibliography
• Detailed survey (21 pages): 144 companies with 53

successful returns
1 conceptual phase tasks definition
2 ranking of tasks in term of sequence and influence

on on-site productivity
3 conceptual phase process mapping
4 perceived Best Practices
• case studies
1 Nuclear power station (completed)
2 Hydrofiner project (completed)
3 Sewage treatment plant (completed)
4 Off-shore structure (completed)
5 Motor way construction (completed)
6 Building construction (in progress)
• conclusion of the research will on the 31.01.1995 (meeting in

Forte Crest Hotel, London Heathrow.)
• handbook of Best Practices for the conceptual phase.
262
Introductory questions:
1 What is the conceptual phase in a construction project?
2 What differentiates the other phases from the conceptual phase, i.e.
detailed engineering and construction?
3 How long was the conceptual phase?
4 Who are involved in conceptual phase from the client organisation? To what
extent other organisations participate in the conceptual phase? (e.g. contractor

and consultant)
5 How important is the conceptual phase in term of influence on the productivity

of the construction phase? And why?
Conceptual phase tasks and tasks process in project
1 The Productivity off-site conceptual subgroup Task Force of the ECI had
identified the followings ten tasks that are performed in a conceptual
phase:
Consents and Permits;
Project Definition;
Financial Strategy;
Project Planning;
Contract Strategy;
Project Management Organisation;
Construction Philosophy;
Procurement Strategy;
Design of Temporary Works; and
Design of Permanent Structures.

Do these tasks adequately reflect the conceptual phase?
263
2 The conceptual phase tasks process will exhibit a logical regular pattern of
sequence in which the tasks are performed. This process could be mapped out. The
following was agreed upon by industry-wide survey including clients, consultants,
and contractors. Does the sequence depict the type of project your are involved in?
Please comment.

Project Definition
1 1
Financial Strategy 2
Project Planning
3
•nn
4 4
Consents & Permits
Contract Strategy 5
Construction
Philosophy
Project Management 7
Organisation
8 8
Procurement Strategy
Permanent Structure 9 9
Design
Temporary Works 10 10
Design
SEQUENCE FROM
SEQUENCE FOR BUILDING
SURVEY CONSTRUCTION PROJECT
TASKS SEQUENCE
3 What possible indicators do you suggest to assess the success of each task of
the conceptual phase
264
1
EUROPEAN CONSTRUCTION INSTITUTE
THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE ON

PRODUCTIVITY IN EUROPEAN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Case Study No. 6 Questionnaire
Building Construction Project
THE PRODUCTIVITY OFF-SITE SUBGROUP QUESTIONNAIRE

OCTOBER 1994

INTRODUCTION
The European Construction Institute (ECI) was established in 1990 and has brought together major
clients, contractors, and consultants to improve the performance of the construction industry. It
has established Task Forces comprising representatives from clients, contractors, and consultants.
One of these is the Productivity Task Force which has several subgroups. The off-site subgroup is
currently investigating the productivity aspects associated with the conceptual phase of major
construction projects, with a view to producing good practice guides.
This questionnaire is part of the research effort of the off-site subgroup. In this questionnaire, a
construction project is assumed to have the following phases: conceptual phase; detailed
engineering; construction; and hand-over. The objectives of the research is focused on the
conceptual phase.
Each answer should be based on your own perspective and personal involvement in the
building construction project, All groups participating in the survey will be asked to
use the same reference base and approach to completing their respective questionnaire in order to
maintain a degree of consistency.
The data collected in the survey will be treated on a confidential basis.
Please return the completed survey using self-addressed envelope enclosed to:
Dr. A.D.F. Price

Department of Civil Engineering
Loughborough University of Technology
Loughborough
Leics. LEI 3TU, UK.
(att: M.R. Abdul-Kadir)
Your assistance in completing the questionnaire is very much appreciated.
266
SECTION ONE
A Company data
Company name and address:

Typc of company: client/owner 1

(Please circle the appropriate description) contractor 2
consultant 3
B Project data
Indicate your title and position during the penultimate project:
Indicate your title and position during the last project:
Indicate your title and position during the current project:
Indicate the type/value of project you were/are involved in:

PROJECT TYPE CIVIL BUILDING PROCESS POWER
& VALUE ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING SUPPLY
Penultimate project £ £ £ £
Last project £ £ £ £
Current project £ £ £ £
C Individual data

The number of years you have been in the industry 1 years
Indicate the project phases you were/are involved in:
CONCEPTUAL PHASE DETAILED ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION HAND-OVER
267
SECTION TWO
Investigation by the Task Force had ascertained that the conceptual phase is
divided into ten tasks:
A consents and permits;
B project definition;
C financial strategy;
D project planning;
E contract strategy;
F project management organisation;
G construction philosophy;
H procurement strategy;
I design of temporary works; and
J design of permanent structures.
Section two aims to assess industry response towards the best practices relevant with each task.
Respondent is asked to assess the best practices for each task and state whether : the best
practices were practised; the best practices should have been adopted; the best
practices could have been adopted; or, the best practices could not be adopted.
Please circle the appropriate number. Spaces are provided for comments.
268
A CONSENTS AND I'ERMITS
The key issues addressed during the consents and permits task are: the generation of
information and data relating to the facility to be constructed; and an estimation of cost and
time associated with obtaining future consents and permits. The social, economic and
political issues must also be addressed, and the correct environment for successful projects
must be established.
DEFINITION: Fulfilment of a society's embodiment of constitution, laws, statutes,

regulations, norms and culture, which ensures rights and protections of itself in relation to
the proposed project. In operational term, any document which grants a person the right to
do something; issued by a person in authority, empowering the grantee to do some act not
forbidden by law, but not allowed without such authority.
best best
BEST PRACTICES practices best practices practices best practices
were should have could have could not be
adopted been adopted been adopted adopted
Cost-benefit analysis must be
performed for the whole process of 1 2 3 4
consents and permits.
Duration of the process of conscnts 1 2 3 4

and permits must be assessed.
Information and data must be 1 2 3 4

established before embarking on the
process of consents and permits.
Political stability must be assessed 1 2 3 4

for long term projects.
Risk management must be 1 2 3 4

performed.
Comment for Best Practices for Consents and Permits.
B PROJECT DEFINITION
Project definition addresses key issues such as project feasibility and definition of project
needs at a very early stage. Project definition must be effectively communicated to all
relevant parties as early as possible.
DEFINITION: Resolution of options during the conceptual phase which culminates in

statement of client's/owner's requirements.
best best
Project definition must be frozen
throughout the project. 1 2 3 4
Project definition must be defined

clearly. 1 2 3 4
Project definition formation process

must be established. 1 2 3 4
Project definition must be

communicated to all relevant parties 1 2 3 4
Comment for Best Practices of Project definition
269
C FINANCIAL STRATEGY
The key issues considered during the development of a financial strategy are conceptual
estimating, including source and cost of finance. Ensuring the right choice of currcncy,
the appropriate political climate, a stable economic system, and security of funding sources
during the whole project life-cycle are among the issues which should be addressed as part
of the financial strategy. Compatibility with other tasks must also be achieved.
Definition: The principal means by which the capital funding of a total project is justified
and obtained.
best best
Sources of finance must be secured.
1 2 3 4
Method of payment must be
established. 1 2 3 4
Financial strategy must be

compatible with contract strategy. 1 2 3 4
Good estimate and cost control

mechanism, must be established 1 2 3 4
Link progress performance with in-

built monetary motivation. 1 2 3 4
Comment for Best Practices for financial strategy.
D PROJECT PLANNING
The main issues to be considered during project planning arc the deadlines for finalising all
other tasks in the conceptual phase, and the other phases of detailed engineering,
procurement, construction and handovcr of a construction project. Other issues such as
identification of resources, objective setting, and establishing communication and
information systems are also to be addressed. The main outcome of project planning
should be a defined schedule with easily identifiable milestones.
DEFINITION: Global planning of the whole project including the establishment of and
commitment to defined schedules and milestones with built in incentives.
best best
Planning must be construction
driven. 1 2 3 4
Project objectives must be clearly

defined. 1 2 3 4
Project objectives must be in written
form. 1 2 3 4
Project objectives must suit all
parties involve. 1 2 3 4
Installation of effective and simple
communication system. 1 2 3 4
Comment for Best Practices for Project Planning.
270

E CONTRACT STRATEGY
The main issues considered as part of the contract strategy are the type of contract,
methods of equitable allocation of risk and establishing availability of competent
contractors. Amongst other issues to be considered are appropriate pricing policy,
establishing the appropriate contract document and project control, setting quality
standards, and finalising work package organisation.
DEFINITION: A strategy that defines relationships, duties, obligations and policies

which are directed/engineered towards the desired successful total project delivery in
accordance with project planning, financial strategy, project definition, and consents and
permits
best practices best practices best practices best practices

BEST PRACTICES were adopted should have could have could not be
(Contract Type) been adopted been adopted adopted
Choice of a particular type of
contract should be rationalised 1 2 3 4
against client objectives, nature of
client, project size and complexity,
and prevalent market conditions.
Accept innovative contractual

arrangement if real benefit can be 1 2 3 4
demonstrated.
Ensure timely selection of contract

type. 1 2 3 4
A set of proven criteria must be
established for contractor selection 1 2 3 4
process.
best practices best practices

BEST PRACTICES were adopted best practices could have best practices
(Dispute) should have been adopted could not be
been adopted adopted
Eliminate adversarial attitudes from 1 2 3 4
forms of contract.
A procedure for resolving disputes

should be provided. 1 2 3 4

(Contract Document) should have been adopted could not be
Specification must be reviewed in
detail by owner, designers and 1 2 3 4
contractors personnel and served to
simplify the field construction
process.
Remove all unnecessary material

from contract document. 1 2 3 4
Quality assurance must be built into
contract document. 1 2 3 4
Risk must be distributed equitably
between client and contractor. 1 2 3 4

(Work Organisation), should have been adopted could not be
The number of consultants to be
minimised. 1 2 3 4
Avoid very large work packages.
1 2 3 4
Limit number of packages.
I 2 3 4
Comment for Best Practices for Contract Strategy.
271
F PROJECT MANAGEMENT ORGANISATION
Project management organisation involves the formation and configuration of the client's
management team. It must establish the extent of power and responsibility, whilst
facilitating a team building process. Establishing a mechanism for dispute resolution, team
decision making process, and communication networks are important issues to be
considered in this task. Ensuring the right motivating work environment must also be
taken into consideration.
DEFINITION: The formulation and configuration of the client's management team in

accordance with the contract strategy.
best best
(Client Project Management were should have could have could not be
Team) adopted been adopted been adopted adopted
Client project management
organisation must be led by a leader 1 2 3 4
with excellent leadership qualities.
Criteria for team membership must

be set. 1 2 3 4
Keep project team down to smallest

effective number of people. 1 2 3 4
Team building activities must be

instituted to foster team work and 1 2 3 4
team approach.
Client team must be autonomous

from parent company. 1 2 3 4
Continuity of project team must be

achieved throughout the project 1 2 3 4
duration.
best best
(Client / Contractor were should have could have could not be
Relationship) adopted been adopted been adopted adopted
Initiate team building activities

between clients' and contractors' 1 2 3 4
team.
Each team from client and contractor

must have a clear senior management 1 2 3 4
support.
Atmosphere of trust and co-

operation between clients' and 1 2 3 4
contractors' teams must be nurtured.
Informal communication and

physical proximity must be 1 2 3 4
facilitated between clients' and
contractors' team.,
Unity of purpose of client and

contractor must be cultivated. 1 2 3 4
Be informed of foreign cultures
when the need arises. 1 2 3 4
Comment for Best Practice for Project Management Organisation
272
G CONSTRUCTION PHILOSOPHY
Construction philosophy involves the evaluation of alternatives and characterises the

degree of standardisation, modularisation, and prefabrication. It also represents policy
towards neighbouring operations, and structures. Construction philosophy is heavily
influenced by weather, resources availability, safety and quality requirements.
DEFINITION: The conceptual approach and method of construction that dictates the
design of permanent structures and temporary works

BEST PRACTICE were adopted best practices could have best practices
(Standardisation) should have been adopted could not be
To facilitate design and construction,
elements must be standardised. 1 2 3 4
To facilitate construction, units must
be pre-assembled or pre-fabricated. 1 2 3 4
Modularisation must be reviewed.
1 2 3 4

(Site Constraint) should have been adopted could not be
Layout of site must consider site
efficiency. 1 2 3 4
Minimise site activities.
1 2 3 4

(Constructability Review) should have been adopted could not be
Design must facilitate construction
under adverse weather. 1 2 3 4
Constructability concept must be
infused in the earliest stage of design. I 2 3 4
Design must promote accessibility of
manpower, material and equipment. 1 2 3 4
Clash checking must be instituted.
I 2 3 4
Install a systematic material handling
and tracking system. 1 2 3 4
Complete certification of material and
equipment must be achieved before 1 2 3 4
entenng site.

(Resources) should have been adopted could not be
Utilise local resources. 1 2 3 4

Good industrial relations must be
maintained throughout construction 1 2 3 4
period
Working pattern must be established.
(e.g. normal day working or double I 2 3 4
day shift. etc.)
Sources of raw material must be
ascertained. 1 2 3 4
Comment for Best Practices for Construction Philosophy.
273
H PROCUREMENT STRATEGY
Procurement strategy establishes the policy on the whole procurement task ensuring
availability and timely supply of resources such as material, plant and equipment and
power. Achieving the required standards and specifications is also of concern.
DEFINITION: Strategy for proactive project hardware purchasing is required to achieve

complete project delivery in accordance with project schedule.

BEST PRACTICE were adopted best practices could have best practices
(Resources) should have been adopted could not be
Ensure availability of resources. 1 2 3 4
Only purchase and install a proven 1 2 3 4
system for a project.
Implement systems that will improve 1 2 3 4

vendor selection.
(Planning)
Ensure the timely supply of material

with the right quality and quantity. I 2 3 4
Ensure that long lag equipment or
facilities are prcordcred well in 1 2 3 4
advance.
Make suppliers accept precise

schedules of delivery. 1 2 3 4
Check for shipping and
manufacturing problems which delay 1 2 3 4
delivery deadlines.
Procurement strategy must give

flexibility to construction needs. 1 2 3 4
Comment for Best Practices for Procurement Strategy.
I DESIGN OF TEMPORARY WORKS

The design of temporary structures very often rcflects the construction philosophy taking
account of site layout, site facilitics, efficiency and safety.
DEFINITION: The principles of construction practices to realise the permanent

structures of the project which may or may not be part of the permanent structure and
reflects construction philosophy.

(Site Layout) should have been adopted could not be
Site layout must promote efficiency
of construction operation and 1 2 3 4
maintenance.
Temporary works must promote

safety, construction accessibility of 1 2 3 4
personnel, material and equipment.
(Facilities)
Good transportation system must be 1 2 3 4

well established in advance.
Storage areas must be planned taking
account of transportation system and 1 2 3 4
construction schedule.
Ensure adequate provisions of area
for workforce camp facility. 1 2 3 4
Comment for Best Practices on Design for Temporary Works.
274
J DESIGN OF PERMANENT STRUCTURES
The design of permanent structures must take account of construction philosophy, and
realise simplification and standardisation of design that will promote efficiency and
conformity to the required schedule and standards.
DEFINITION: The conceptual design, preliminary layout and sketches outlining the
permanent structures so as to fulfil project definition

(Simplification) should have been adopted could not be
Simplified design must be the aim in 1 2 3 4

the detailed design.
Design procedure must be

standardised. 1 2 3 4
Pre-assembly designs or factory
finished components are prepared to 1 2 3 4
facilitate transportation and
installation.

(EFFICIENCY) should have been adopted could not be
Design must promote efficiency 1 2 3 4

during construction and maintenance.
3-D system must be used during
design. 1 2 3 4
Standard, procedures and
specification must be upgraded so as 1 2 3 4
to translate into new project.
Design team continuity for a
particular project must be maintained. 1 2 3 4

BEST PRACTICES were adopted best practices could have best practice
(Schedule) should have been adopted could not be
Design schedule must be construction 1 2 3 4

driven.
Detail engineering of main item with 1 2 3 4

long delivery period must be given
priority.
Comment for Best Practices for Design of Permanent Structures.
275
APPENDIX C
Selected annotated bibliography
276
SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
The construction of permanent facilities has five key phases in its life cycle. These
are conceptual, detailed engineering, procurement, construction and start-up (CII
1988).
The conceptual phase has the most influence on the course of events to come. The
success of these later phases very much depends upon the decisions made during the
conceptual phase which expresses the client's needs for the constructed facility. The
needs are stated in broad terms, rather than specifics and operational details of the
later phases.
CONCEPTUAL PHASE OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

The Conceptual Phase Sub-group of the ECI Productivity Task Force was
established to determine and define the main tasks associated with conceptual phase,
identify the relationships between these tasks, and highlight the important issues to
be considered doing these tasks. The impact of these tasks on site productivity was
to be assessed. It was accertained that conceptual phase consisted of ten tasks:
Consents and Permits; Project Definition; Financial Strategy; Project Planning;
Contract Strategy; Project Management Organisation; Construction Philosophy;
Procurement Strategy; Design of Temporary Works; and Design of Permanent
Structures. The definition for each task was in Section 7.4.3.
SCOPE
The first stage of this study was an extensive literature search of the covering the
period between 1983 - 1993. Several hundred papers were reviewed and out of
these seventy-five were identified as relevant to productivity and the conceptual
phase tasks of construction projects. An annotated bibliography was produced for
each paper including: an outline of the subject area; objectives and relevance to the
conceptual phase tasks; identified good practices which could enhance site
productivity; and finally, a brief summary of the main conclusions.
Each paper has been numbered according to an alphabetical order after the author.
The paper were also classified according to project type it most closely related to.
(i.e. Building Construction; Civil Engineering; Heavy Engineering; or, General) .
Each paper was graded according to the degree of relevance to each of the
conceptual phase tasks as follows: grade A - very relevant; grade B - relevant; and,
grade C - quite relevant. The characteristics of each paper are tabulated in the
'ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHICAL MATRIX' table on the following pages.
This literature reviewas part of an ongoing research project that aims to establish the
relationship between the conceptual phase and site productivity. In the next phase of
this research, the good practices drawn from the literature were related to current
practice through an extensive questionnaire survey supplemented with case studies.
277
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1 Abbott, K. W. (1985). Improving Productivity with construction driven
project management. 41st Petroleum Mechanical Engineering
Workshop and Conference (ASME), 15-17 September, pp. 49-70.
The aim of the paper is to expound the concept of construction-driven project

management. The author starts by highlighting the appalling state of the
construction industry in terms of productivity, and suggests that the solution
is construction-driven project management/constructability. The paper states
that the petrochemical industry has been amongst the first to a growing
commitment towards the integration of constructability into the early stage of
the project.
The concept of construction-driven project management is elaborated and

enhanced by relating the experience of constructing a petrochemical
processing unit. A comparison of traditional and construction-driven
approaches is also provided. The advantages of the concept are: better
project related engineering/procurement production planning; earlier
identification and resolution of project problems, and finally, a greater
constructability of final engineering design.
The paper relates to:

• project planning
• project management organisation
The identified good practices include:

• construction-driven planning
integrated team of designers and constructors
2. Australian Government, (1991). Regulations and Approvals for

Building and Development. (1991). Construction Cost of Major
Projects. pp. 51-66. Australian Government Publishing Service,
Canberrra.
The objectives of this chapter are to: briefly outline the regulation and
approval processes that apply to land and building development in Australia;
examine some of the problems identified in various studies; and finally
discuss the scope for improvement.
This chapter is based upon several recent studies and past enquiries on the
regulation of construction activities in Australia. For example, it was
discovered that Victoria had 106 Acts of Parliament, 213 regulations or by-
laws, fourteen ministries, over 200 State Government or semi-government
bodies, and 210 local Government Authorities involved in the regulation and
approval processes. The report estimated that the annual cost of delays and
unnecessary regulations adds about five per cent to the cost of building and
construction in Victoria compared to New South Wales.
This chapter of the book is relevant to:

• consents and permits

• As a good practice, cost-benefit analysis should be performed to
quantify the impact of regulation and approval processes which
influences overall site productivity.
The chapter concludes that a "one-stop-shop" for approval purposes is

necessary. The "one-stop-shop" has been adopted by some states.
282
Furthermore, there is a need for a co-ordinated review involving the
Commonwealth and State government which could hasten reforms and help
promote consistency to counter the problems.
3. Armitt, J. A. (1984). Joint Ventures information and operation.

Management of International Construction Projects, pp. 61-71. Thomas
Telford Ltd., London.
This paper provides a good guideline for successful Joint Venture formation
and operation. The information provided is comprehensive, i.e. from the
conceptual level of Joint Venture to the operational stages. However, Joint
Ventures are not the easiest form of association to set up, manage and
operate. The following are discussed: the reason for joint ventures; types of
joint venture; the participation of partners; the pre-bid agreement;
management of the joint venture; documents relating to joint venture;
liabilities of partners; and finally operation of joint venture.
This paper relates to:

• contract strategy

• resolution of leadership
• detailing of duties
• power and limitation of each party
• detailing of dispute resolution mechanism
• need for good communication networks.
The author concludes and affirms that Joint Ventures are: joint efforts and
skills of several partners being combined in the most effective way to realise
a large project or projects.
4. Allen, P. L. (1991). Working Patterns in the Engineering Construction

Industry, European Construction Institute, ECI publication TF008/1.
pp. 50
This report discusses the outcome of research into working patterns

throughout the engineering construction industry. The primary objectives of
the research are to address the following questions: which, if any, working
patterns contribute to improve performance; if they contribute, how do they
do so; and are certain working patterns more effective than the others, either
generally or in particular circumstances?
Twenty personnel from clients, contractors and trade unions were

interviewed to elicit information on working patterns. A literature review
was also performed prior to the interviews.
This research report relates to:

• consent and permit
• construction philosophy

• determine the most appropriate working patterns
• assess the impact of such working patterns on the local community
• consider the constraint of limited working hours legislation
283
The author concludes that: for the normal day eight hour a day working
pattern is the most productive mode; scheduled overtime working does not
contribute to improved performance; shift working can provide a viable tool
for reducing project time scale; and the working pattern selected should
form part of the overall contract strategy.
5. Albertini, G. (1991). Refinery Expansion Project - France 1991:

Construction of a Gasoline isomerization. 2nd European Conference 7-8
November 1991. Weisbaden, Germany. pp. 167-173. ECI publication
C00211.
This paper relates the experiences and perceived good practices from the
Refinery Expansion Project which resulted in completing the construction
within schedule and under budget through close participation with the client.
The paper addresses the following issues: description of the complex;
amount of investment; analysis of the critical points of the project; and
identification and resolution of construction problems.
This paper mainly relates to:

• procurement strategy

• project progress to be audited regularly
• immediate orders for long delivery equipment
• purchasing and installation of proven systems
• insistence on safety throughout the project
The author concludes that success of the project is largely attributed to the
systematic analysis of all its aspects.
6. Barlow, K. J. (1985). Effective Management of Engineering Design.

Journal of Mana2ement in Enzineering. Vol. 1. No. 2. April 1985, pp.
51-66.
The aim of the paper is to emphasise the importance of planning and project
organisation. It is stated that time spent on planning must be justified and
achieve at least one of two things: it must improve the economic results that
can be achieved; and it must reduce the uncertainty associated with the
project. The author also stresses the importance of the optimum number in a
team, and that the optimum duration for team effectiveness is between
eighteen months up to two years.
This paper suggests sixteen major steps prior to actual physical project work
on major complex projects. They are: define project objectives and goals;
appoint the project manager; define scope of work and assign project
responsibilities; establish the organisation; define co-operation required;
establish and document major work packages in project; prepare work plan
to complete each work package at lowest possible cost; prepare detailed
schedule for each department work to be completed, information required;
summarise the outputs of all previous steps into project work plan; get
approval of project work plan by senior management before starting design
work; develop and install control system; establish meeting schedules; and
finally start project work by issuing work orders for work packages.
284
• Project Planning
• Project Management Organisation

• precise project goal and objectives
• good communication
• well defined scope of work and assignments
• establish and document major work packages
• prepare work plan to complete each work package
• obtain approval of project work plan by senior management before
commencing next stage
• develop and install control system
• establish meeting schedules
• start project work by issuing work orders for work packages
• establish criteria for team membership
• compatibility of project organisation with type of project
• finally define extent of co-operation required from each team
member
7. Barret, P. (1991). The client's brief: a holistic view. European

Symposium on Management of Quality and Economics and Other
Building Sectors. Lisbon, CIB Publication. pp. 3-13.
This paper discusses the construction briefing process and views briefing as
communication, leadership and teamwork. A holistic view of the briefing
process is presented and, within this context, a contingency approach
suggested with the client's level of knowledge identified as a major
independent variable.
This paper clearly relates to:

• project definition

• project definition should be holistic, not biased towards any
discipline of the project participants
The main conclusion is that client's knowledge will determine the roles
played by designer and contractor during the briefing process.
8. Birrell, G. S., (1989). Choosing between building procurement

approaches - concepts and decision factors. European Symposium on
Management of Quality and Economics and Other Building Sectors,
Lisbon, CIB Publication.
This paper discusses the concept of building procurement and a feasibility

study approach, including opportunity costs associated with several
procurement approaches, as a means of choosing the most appropriate
procurement process for future building project. The author surveyed and
discussed with field experts from building clients, architects and general
contractors. This paper states that the rational choice of a particular contract
strategy stems from four possible factors: the client's requirements of the
procurement process; the nature and current status of the client; the nature
and current status of the local construction industry; and, to a lesser extent,
the expected nature of the physical building. The above four factors are
285
detailed in the paper. The array of alternative building procurement
approaches available are also briefly discussed.


• rationalisation of method selection against client objectives, nature of
client and prevailing market conditions
• choice of procurement method for the contract strategy must be
rationalised
The paper has outlined an improved method of selecting the procurement

process for a particular building project.
9. Bresnen, M. J., (1991). Construction contracting in theory and practice:

A case study. Construction Management and Economics. Volume 9, pp.
247-263.
This paper highlights the manner in which variation in participants' attitudes

and actions systematically affect construction project performance. The
work is accomplished through an in-depth qualitative case study of a
management contract project. As an introduction, the author cites many past
and present studies that attempt to identify the main problems facing the
construction industry. It is stressed that it is necessary to examine human
behaviour within the proposed solutions, as it is people who take actions and
reach decisions within whatever structural framework. To ignore their
motives, perceptions and reasoning, as these systematically influencing their
actions and decisions, is to ignore an essential ingredient of the project
management process. The aim is to drawn analytical, rather than statistical,
generalisations. The following issues are dealt with in depth: the design
team; the design; the main contractor; the contractor; and finally
performance. Case analysis and discussion then proceeded.


• internal organisational conditions of client must be considered
• the motives of each party to the contract are factors which strongly
influence project outcome and therefore must be evaluated
The author affirms that any assessment of the efficacy of various types of
delivery systems should take into account the factors that are likely to
influence the operation of these systems in practice; and that the economic
and contractual power of the respective parties may influence project
outcome
10. Bresnen, M. J. (1991). Construction Industry clients: A survey of their

attributes and project management practices. Construction
Management and Economics, volume 9, pp. 327-342.
The goal of the paper is to present research findings on client attributes and
project management practices in the building industry. A questionnaire
survey and interviews were used to extract the necessary data from 138 client
organisations. These client organisations were drawn from both the private
286
and public sectors. Focusing upon their experiences on a recently completed
El million plus project, the paper examines similarities and differences in the
ways in which clients organise and manage their projects, and assesses the
impact of these practices on project performance. Difference in the type,
size and typicality of the projects are also taken into account in the analysis.
The analytical tools used are frequency distribution, cross-tabulation,
correlational study and t-test.


• project definition must be frozen throughout the project
• choice of procurement method must be rationalised
The paper concludes that: client experience has an important impact upon
many of the decisions made; strategic decisions are often internally driven
as opposed to project based; additional work and inadequate briefing still
continue to cause problems during construction; and, finally, there is little
evidence in favour of alternatives to traditional managerial and contractual
arrangements.
11. Brown, C.R.B. (1984). Inter-relationship between planners, contractors

and clients. Computer Technology in Construction, Thomas Telford
Ltd, pp. 19-27.
This paper explains the problems of obtaining land permits for development
purposes. Inherent problems and conflicts between planners, contractor and
clients are also highlighted. The advantages and disadvantages of the
planning system are also discussed. The introduction of a recent enterprise
zone is also discussed. This paper stresses that planning systems protect the
scarce commodity in this country, i.e. land. It acts as an assurance to the
public as a whole that the public interest will be protected, and large
financial institutions or corporations cannot simply do what they like where
they want to.
The paper is relevant to:


• informal contact with the county planners before embarking on a
formal applications
12. The Construction Management Committee of the ASCE Construction

Division, (1991). Constructability and constructability programs:
white paper. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
Volume 117, No. 1, March 1991, pp. 67-89.
The objectives of this paper are to elaborate on what constructability or

constructability program is, when it should be started, how it can be achieved
and why it is so beneficial. This paper is the compilation and condensation
of research work done on behalf of the Construction Industry Institute, USA.
The content of the paper is comprehensive. The following issues are
discussed: overall project plan; planning and design; construction-driven
schedules; cost estimates; construction and major construction methods;
project delivery system; contracting strategy; risk management;
construction bid packaging; labour plan; access to site; layout of the site
and facilities; layout of structures; access for operations, maintenance or
replacement; sequence of construction; rigging plan; availability and
procurement of equipment and material; special construction methods;
management plan for construction; quality management; material
management; and finally, cost and benefits of constructability.
This paper is related to:

• design of temporary and permanent works

• construction input should be incorporated early in the project life-
cycle
to achieve maximum benefits for the project
13. Chern, A. B., & Bryant, D. T. (1984). Studying the client's role in
Construction Management. Construction Manaeement and Economics,
Volume 2, pp. 177-184.
This paper presents findings of a pilot study aimed at establishing the

relationship between different forms of client involvement and construction
performance, taking into account the constraints on behaviour imposed by
the type of contract. The objectives of the pilot studies were to: establish the
feasibility of obtaining valid information from building clients about their
role in construction management; define the scope and form of a major
study of client involvement; specify the resources needed for such a study;
and finally, assemble and present some general propositions based on
impressions and observations. Client organisations comprising
manufacturing and service industries, nationalised industries, universities,
local authorities, churches and community organisations were interviewed to
elicit the required information.


• autonomy of the client team must be granted from parent company
The conclusions have been presented as twenty propositions that mainly

relate to the complexity of the client's project management team and the
cautions to be taken when obtaining information and data from the client's
team.
14. Committee on Construction Management (CII). (1987). Qualification

and selection of Construction Managers with suggested guidelines for
selection process. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, pp. 51-89.
288
This paper is a compilation and condensation of research works done on
behalf of the Construction Industry Institute (U.S.A.). The author explains
what Construction Management (CM) is, and discusses the associated
hybrids, qualifications, selection criteria and services. The following are
described in detail: forms and variations of construction management;
services of a construction management organisation; partial guidelines for
selecting construction management services. The appendices contain:
contracting characteristics of various systems; potential for conflict of
interest factor in project delivery process; standard documents used for
construction management projects; fundamental matrix of services provided
by construction management; comprehensive list of service activities of
construction manager; typical advertisement or notice for construction
management services; initial request for proposal; typical request for
proposal; samples of typical owner-construction manager interview
questions; owner/AE/CM responsibility client; and, finally, a typical
construction manager/owner fee arrangement.

• project procurement must match project characteristics

• there must be guidelines for appointing members of the client project
management team
The paper concludes that the material presented is a useful guideline for both
first-time users of CM services and repeat users seeking additional CM
information.
15. Construction Industry Institute (1986). Constructability - A Primer,

CII Publication. pp. 16.
The focus of this booklet is to define the constructability concept and its
benefits. It is a condensation of Construction Industry Institute (USA)
research on constructability. The booklet is both simple and practical.
Seven specific examples of project implementing constructability concepts
are also described.
A definition of constructability has been given. Examples from projects that

incorporate the concept have been illustrated. The projects includes: a
fertiliser plant in Indonesia; a Refinery Expansion in the Gulf Coast area in
the USA; a Residence Community Project in San Antonio, Texas; a Jet
Engine Overhaul Facility Restoration; a Bleach Market Pulp Mill; an Arctic
Oil Production Facility; and, an Electricity Generating Station. A discussion
of how to implement a constructability program follows these project
summaries.
The author concludes that, "constructability works - frequently with dramatic

results".
The booklet addresses:

• design of temporary works and permanent works

• early involvement of construction personnel
• construction driven schedules
• owners and contractors both to be committed to cost effectiveness
• designers must be driven by constructability
• construction driven procurement
specification should promote construction
design element should be standardised
design to facilitate construction under adverse weather conditions
• module/pre-assembly design must be prepared to facilitate
fabrication, transportation and installation
• site layouts must promote efficient construction as well as efficient
operation and maintenance
finally designs must promote construction accessibility of personnel,
material and equipment
16. Construction Industry Institute, (1987). Guidelines for Implementing a

Constructability Program, CII Publication pp. 30.
The booklet presents guidelines for implementing a constructability program.

It is a practical and simple booklet which contains the research findings of
Construction Industry Institute.
Constructability is addressed both at company level and at project level. For

the company constructability program the following are discussed: self
assessment; policy; executive sponsor; organisation; procedures;
appraisal; and database. Project level program includes owner's early role,
project organisation, training, constructability as an appraisal and finally
feedback and retrieval. Examples of constructability programs at the
company and project levels are further given in the appendices: Corporate
constructability policy; Corporate constructability procedure; Project
constructability policy and procedure; Project constructability functional
organisation; Project appraisal; Constructability "Lessons Learned"; and
finally, Constructability related savings.
The booklet relates to:


• clear communication of senior management's commitment and
support
• single point executive responsibility on particular issues
• a corporate lesson-learned database
• effective training
• early appraisal and feedback
• "user friendly" procedures and methodologies
The main conclusion are that constructability offers one of the greatest
opportunities for improvement in the construction industry.
290
17. Construction Industry Institute, (1989). Project Objective Setting CII
Publication 12-1. pp.16
This booklet discusses project objective setting. The booklet is a condensed

form of the findings of research works done by Construction Industry
Institute. It is simple and practical. The first issue discussed the
management of objectives throughout the owner's, designer's and
constructor's organisations. The management process is illustrated, and three
typical problem areas impeding effective objective setting are identified. An
approach for managing project objectives is then outlined and defined.
The process of communicating objectives between owner, designer, and

constructor is discussed. Several mechanisms that promote and inhibit
communication of objectives are also discussed. A method for illustrating
and analysing communication channels, that can be used to improve
objective communication and thereby improve chances for project success, is
presented.
In analysing several projects, a tool was developed to quantify agreement

between various project participants. This tool, called an Agreement Matrix,
is presented and explained. A process using the matrix for managing project
objectives also is explained. It was found that there was a correlation
between the agreement index (calculated by using the matrix) and the
assessed degree of project success for the projects examined. The
Agreement Matrix is promoted as an efficient feedback device for
identifying, communicating, reinforcing, and controlling project objectives.
Examples of the matrix applied to actual projects are included to demonstrate
its use.


• objectives should be set, prioritised, written, communicated and
reinforced
• communication networks must be designed
• project execution plan must be produced
• scope of work must be established
• policy and procedure manuals must be available
• a fee incentive evaluation process should be used
• progress meetings should be set
• communication must be open and direct
18. The Construction Industry Institute Strategic Planning Group, (1990).

Assessment of Owner Project Management Practices and Performance,
CII Publication. pp. 49
The booklet is a condensation of a Construction Industry Institute research

that assesses owner project management practices on performance. The
research objectives are fourfold: to select, categorise, and measure key
project management practices; relate the level of utilisation on projects of
these principles and recommended practices to other project characteristics;
capture current level of project performance as measured in terms of meeting
project cost, schedule, technical, and profit objectives; and finally relate
level of utilisation of Construction Industry Institute/Construction Industry
Cost Effectiveness principles and recommendations to project performance.
The results presented reflect the perceptions of respondents from various
architect/engineer (ALE) companies involved in the design of constructed
facilities. The database for the study comprise 465 respondents representing
113 A/E companies. Each respondent completed an in-depth questionnaire
reflecting his/her experiences on recent projects.

The conclusions are that perceived utilisation on projects of Construction

Industry Institute/Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness principles and
recommended practices is about 70 per cent, two-thirds of all projects meet
or perform better than cost or schedule target, and finally 80 per cent
achieved technical performance.
19. Crossett, R. N., (1991). Environmentalism and the European

Construction Industry. 2nd European Conference on 7-8 November
1991. Wiesbaden. Germany, (ECI) Publication: C002/1, pp. 37-44.
The paper discusses the environmental issues in relation to the construction

industry. The broad principles of environmentalism are discussed.
Environmentalism is defined to include popular, official and corporate
levels. It is stated that environmentalism represents a popular reaction to
threats to the environment. It may be stimulated by general concerns such as
the loss of biological diversity or very specific threats to an endangered
species. It may address global issues such as climate change or the specific
local impact of a project.
Links are being seen between the various aspects of environmentalism and
the levels at which these are being expressed. However, scientific
understanding of the issues often lags far behind public pressure for action.
In consequence, politicians are increasingly willing to back a precautionary
approach to regulation and to involve the general public in implementation.
These trends have significant implications for the construction industry and
the market for its product. The paper considers the way in which
environmentalism is being reflected in legislation and its implementation.
Particular reference has been made to the recent UK Environmental
Protection Act and the importance which it attaches to public consultation.

It concludes that during the 1990's, the construction industry will have to
operate within ever increasing environmental legislation.
20. Dickinson, D.J., (1979). Project Management - The client's view.

Structural Engineer, Vol. STAJNo. 12 December 1979, pp. 410-414.
The paper expresses the dissatisfaction of client organisations with the

traditional method of contracting. On the basis of 17 years of project
management, principally in the fields of chemical engineering and property
development, the author calls for a totally fresh look at the role of the client
in the management of its own projects as the level of expenditure and
292
complexity of multifunctional projects increases. The author looks at the
terms of engagement of architects and engineers under the classical 'third
party' approach to the provision of professional services, and considers some
of the ways in which he feels that the written word of these contracts is no
longer adequate, even though the spirit of co-operation means that the team
frequently achieves its objectives as seen from its own point of view. The
author has written and used a set of 'in-house' conditions of contract which
places more responsibility on the client and the contractor than on the team
of professionals. He comments on the relative success of this approach over
the past 10 years.


• the contractual form must suit project characteristics
The author concludes that the professionals need to take a new look at the
client's viewpoint and to consider whether the traditional methods remain
relevant in the 1980's.
21. Donovan, F. R., (1984). Turnkey Projects. Management of

jnternational Projects, Thomas Telford Ltd, London, pp. 45-59.
The author discusses the experiences associated with a major turnkey project
in Algeria. The paper is very detailed and addresses practical problems of
executing projects in a foreign environment. The following issues are
discussed: negotiations; finance and payment; language problems; team
leadership; meetings with client; communications; client inspectorate;
establishment and accommodation; personnel matters; clearing customs;
transportation and handling of materials; insurance; using local labour;
planning progress and cost control; pre-assembled units; engineering and
construction co-operation; inspection standards; construction and pre-
commissioning; and finally, acceptance certificate.
To emphasise the daunting task, the author states that "To undertake a
Turnkey project in the UK requires experience and determination. To
undertake a fixed price Turnkey project overseas, particularly in a country
trying very hard to establish its newly won self-determination, requires the
above attributes plus all the luck".

• financial strategy

• the use of knowledge relating to local conditions for approvals
• the need to understand culture of foreign land
• the possibilities of using local labour must also be explored
• recommended that pre-assembly is used as much as possible since the
quality of local technology is doubtful, and finally, ensure methods
and source of payment
The author concluded that, though the project was technically a success,
financially it was a failure.
293
22. Down, P.F., (Nov 1991). Ethyl Benzene Project - Stanlow, U.K., 1991: A
United Kingdom Partnership Success - The Contractor's Perspective.
2nd European Conference 7-8 November 1991. Wiesbaden. Germany.
(ECI) Publication: C00211, pp. 155-162.
The paper reports the perceived excellent practices which contributed to the
success of the Ethyl Benzene project from the contractor's perspective.
One thread that run throughout the project, from beginning to end, was the
partnering concept that existed between Shell/Fluor Daniel and the key
vendors, sub-contractors as well as senior officials from the trade unions.
Fluor Daniel, working closely with Shell, produced a cost-effective design
that maximised constructability. Only proven suppliers/sub-contractors who
had a known tract record were employed. By using a "win-win" contracting
policy, they also became part of the partnering concept. This concept was of
significant importance, at site level, and a harmonious workforce readily
responded to the needs of the projects. The end result was a project that was
completed on schedule, below capital budget and commissioned early. There
was no lost time caused by industrial disputes or accidents.
The author concludes that the project is among the best ever executed.

• design of temporary works and permanent works

• no excessive overlapping of activities in planning
• the right timing and phasing of construction works
• the need for long term partnership and trust
• safety consciousness
• involvement of labour force in decision-making
• good industrial relations
• complete certification of material and equipment before entering site
• hand-over by completed systems not geographical areas
• attention to plot layout to unit construction
• in-built quality systems
• continuity of people in the design team
• a lessons-learnt document for future upgrading of standards,
procedures, and specifications
• the use of 3-D CAD system in design.
23. Elton, J.R., (1984). Management Contracting. Management of

International Construction Projects. Thomas Telford Ltd, London, pp.
73-83.
The paper discusses various forms of management contracting, its

implications and the roles of the different parties. Its source of information
is the Construction Industry Institute publication, "Management
Contracting".
The following forms of management contracting are discussed: management

contracting for the building industry; construction management contractor;
process plant engineering, procurement, construction contractor; project
management contractor; and finally project services contractor. The roles to
294
be played by the client and management contractor are also elaborated in
detail. Aspects of liability, risk sharing and payment are briefly discussed.

• project management

• the roles of the client must be listed
• unity of purpose of client and contractor to be nurtured
• client and contractor to be located physically together
• frequent discussions between client and contractor to foresee any
conflict
• client and contractor to respond in a controlled and prompt manner
when facing difficulties
The main conclusion is that project target time and budget can be achieved if
the respective parties observed each other's respective responsibilities.
24. European Construction Institute, (Oct 1992). Client Management and

its Role in the limitation of contentious claims. E.C.I. Publication pp. 10
This report highlights the good practices for clients in limiting contentious
claims. The report envisages that the current contractual arrangements
encourage the development of adversarial attitudes though intrinsically it is
not. Positive attitude is being underscored and should be enhanced through
the recommended good practices.
This report relates to:


• clear and frozen project definition
• project objectives must be compatible and clear to every party
• eliminate adversarial attitudes from forms of contract
• define minimum reasonable contract sums
• have a clear project strategy
• ensure contractors can achieve an equitable return for competent
performance
• openness of relationships between the parties must be developed
• be prepared to learn from past problems
• do not abdicate to others responsibility for resolving conflict
It concludes that the report could be treated as a check-list for clients and
contractors alike.
25. Endres, W.R., (1991). LLDPE Plant Germany, 1991: BP Process for
EC Erdolchemie Gmblt. 2nd European Conference 7-8 Nov. 1991,
Wiesbaden. Germany, (Ed), publication C002/1, pp. 193-197.
This paper presents experiences relating to the construction of a LLDPE
plant in Germany. The author highlights perceived good practices which
295
would enhance project productivity. Civil, structural, mechanical, electrical
and instrumentation quantities used on the project are summarised.

project planning
• design of temporary works

• integrate public authorities at the early stage for preparation of
governmental approval
• public information meetings for citizens of residential areas in
proximity with the plant
• freezing of project objectives
• construct facilities which do not require governmental approval
• avoid materials double handling
• optimise the use of prefabrication
• early purchasing of main items with long delivery duration
• supplier to accept precise schedules of delivery
• early details of main engineering items with long delivery period
• freeze design.
The author concludes that the project was a success in terms of schedule and
budget.
26. Flint, R.W., (1989). The Challenge of Project Management Today.

Enemy Industries Council Oil. Gas and Petrochemical seminars
Baghdad.
This paper stresses the importance of proper project control for commercial
success of any project and outlines the various implementation and contract
strategies available to client organisations. The management of project risk
is discussed, together with the development of appropriate project
management organisational structures to implement the client's requirements.
The need to contain risk, while retaining the ability to influence the conduct
of the work and setting realistic levels for contractors' liabilities are
emphasised.
Prior to the conclusion, the paper listed ten key factors in the control of any
project. These factors could well be taken as good practices. The perceived
good practices are therefore: good communications, regular reporting,
clearly defined objectives; small project team, autonomous project manager,
continuity of project team members; contractors given power with
responsibility; and finally, anticipate shipping and manufacturing problems
which could delay delivery deadlines.

It concludes that proper project control is required to ensure project success.
296
27. Flanagan, R., (1990). Making International Comparisons in the Global
Construction Market. Building Economics and Construction
Management, Volume 3, pp. 230-246.
This paper examines the issues that affect international cost comparisons for
construction projects, and suggests possible approaches to making
international comparisons. A comparison of construction prices for a
number of selected countries is made on the basis of data collected for a
recent research project. In addition, clients' priorities of cost, speed of
construction, and quality are examined. The profitability and turnover of
construction contractors are also considered.
The sources of information for the paper are: the OECD main economic
indications 1989; the Department of Economic and Statistics; comparative
international statistics; the Economic Planning Agency, Japan; annual
reports of companies; the Ministry of Construction, Japan; and Engineering
News Review.

The main conclusions are that clients are becoming more global in their
outlook, consequently, contractors need also to expand their horizons
overseas. This require an understanding of construction in the global market
must be established.
28. Gupta, B., (1989). Everybody wins with joint project management.
American Association of Cost Engineers Trans. of Annual Meetings
1989, pp.A.5.1.- A.5.3.
The author relates experiences of joint project management with a Korean

client. In order to review the merits of joint project management, the major
project management functions adopted for Korea Multipurpose Research
Reactor (KMRR) are reviewed. The paper examines how each of these
functions were performed in a collaborative and positive manner in the
overall management of the project. A brief joint project management history
is also given: Phase 1 - Feasibility study; Phase 2 - Preliminary design; and
Phase 3 - Detailed engineering, procurement, construction and
commissioning.


• clear project definition for both parties
• clear split of responsibilities
• inbuilt quality management systems
• take account of cross-cultural barriers when negotiating
The author concludes that project management is about delivering a project

to a specified technical standard, to the required quality, and within the
planned schedule and cost.
29. Golletz, D.H., (1991). Environmental Consideration for Construction in
East and West. 2nd European Conference on 7-8 Nov. 1991, Wiesbaden,
Germany. ECI Publication: C00211, pp. 19-32.
The objectives of this paper are to focus attention on current and potential
environmental issues and opportunities pertaining to the opening of Eastern
Europe, and highlight some of the most important environmental concerns to
the construction industry. The paper is based on the author's own
experiences gained during Conran Roche studies on planning in Berlin and
Brandenburg.
The paper examines the main developments and changes resulting from the
opening of the Iron Curtain in 1989, by identifying some economics
decisions that are influenced by basic geographic functions in the EU and the
former political space of the Eastern Block. The opening of the East has
already had a profound effect upon the orientation of communication for
economic and social activities, with immediate needs for the re-
establishment, or new construction, of major communication corridors in
Central Europe.
Environmental issues and priorities in the East are predominantly linked to

affordability. A potential conflict of interests can occur, where low
affordability of environmental measures meets high priority and immediate
action requirements. Environmental issues regarding low and medium
affordability concentrate on three major topics: physical measures;
technological adjustments; and policy formulation.
In order to identify specific effects of construction on the environment, a list

of specific issues is provided according to environmental assessment
methodologies currently used in Great Britain. An example of the
complexity of environmental impact quantification, and the calculation of
construction noise impact are also given.
This paper is based on:


• the importance of cost-benefit analysis during this phase
It concludes that a balance between priority and affordability should be

considered in addressing environmental issues.
30. Glaser, L.B., (1983). Does modularisation reduce Plant Investment?

Chemical Engineering Progress, Volume 79, Part 10, pp. 63-68.
The experiences on four projects which utilised modularization are discussed

in this paper. The projects were: a new petroleum refinery in Calgary,
Canada; a crude oil processing facility in Saudi Arabia; a methane gas
recovery unit in New York City; and a new icebreaking unit in an existing
petroleum refinery in England. A brief account of modularization has been
presented for each project. Current projects which involve modularizations
around the globe are also mentioned: ethylene-based petrochemical, and the
world's largest crude oil stabilisation facilities in the Shetland Islands.
Aspects of economic considerations for modularization are also presented.

298
• increased modularization
Finally, the author concludes that there is an economic payback for the use of
modules at plants located in populous, industrially developed areas as well as
in remote, developing regions.
31. Holt, L, (1989). Project Management Excellence: The Shell Stanney

Case. Construction Management and Economics, Volume 7, pp. 217-
234.
The main aim of the paper is to discuss the management principles applied
by both the client and the management contractor during the successful
design and construction of a three storey office and laboratory block. The
paper is based on interviews with key participants and records their
perception of the ingredients to success. The client was Shell Research and
the management contractor was Wimpey Construction Management. The
study demonstrates how many of the principles promoted by recent books
such as In Search of Excellence , by Peters and Waterman, are applied in
practice. It is stated that success requires the initial ability to think creatively
and be prepared, and willingness to try new approaches, and then a strong
determination to apply these principles throughout the whole design and
construction process.

• define criteria for success
• have control systems in planning
• ensure autonomy of project leadership, involve team members to
reach decisions; encourage innovations
• build integrity perception among team members
• have team building activities
• set criteria for the selection of team members
It is concluded that the interpretation of excellence, as given by Peters and

Waterman, could be realised throughout the construction industry.
32. Haltenhoff, C.E., (1989). Contractability - recent concepts in

contracting. Proceedings of Construction Congress I:- Excellence in the
constructed project, San Francisco, USA, Conference No. 12842, pp. 32-
38.
The basic premise of contractability is that each project has a unique set of
contracting arrangements which, if applied, will most effectively produce the
owner's desired end results. The contracting arrangements vary in
importance with regards to the influence of each on the project's ultimate
success. The first major contractability decision is to select the project
delivery system to be used during the project execution. The choices are
general contracting, design-build or construction management. Each has
unique features to satisfy specific owner requirements. Though
contractability promises success, its shortcomings must not be ignored.
299
contract strategy

• tailor-made contract documents
The paper presents an overview of contractability concepts, application and

limitations. The author concludes that every contract has its own limitations
and contractability is giving prominence as a major contributing factor to
project success.
33. Howell, G., (1990). How owners and contractors organise project teams.
Source Document 53, CH, pp 120.
This report presents the results of research into how project owners and
contractors organise their project teams. The research involved: a review of
project manuals of companies associated with the Construction Industry
Institute; and, interviews and discussions within the Construction Industry
Institute Project Organisation Task Force who have proposed a list of
"critical success factors".
The report mainly relates to:

• employ qualified people

• develop effective working relationships, roles and responsibilities
• introduce effective information systems, procedures and instructions
install dispute resolution mechanism
establish long term partnering arrangements
ensure a sense of personal engagement
use a combination of team problem solving, action and learning
The main conclusion is that current research supports the argument for more
rationalised for project team relationship.
34. Hopper, J.R. (1990). Human factors of project organisation.

Construction Industry Institute, USA. 91 pp.
The report discusses research findings on human factors relating to the

individuals and groups of individuals who occupy the top hierarchy of an
organisation. The report also presents a detailed account of the following:
the requirement of project culture; human factors and project performance;
qualified key people; the selection of key people; focus on leading;
formation of individual group; key work teams; how project teams work
best; types of project teams; stages of Team Development; issues of
communication; managing differences; and finally, organising teams for
crisis management.

• design of permanent works
300
• clear scope definition and technical feasibility of project
• freezing of objectives and early extensive planning
• willingness for paradigm shift
• shared objectives of all parties
• avoid adversarial relationships
• problem detection mechanism
• good leadership
• positive relationship with contractors
• proper team chemistry
• quick response to changes
• team work
• always keep communication lines open
• desire for long term relationships
• install effective tracking systems.
It concludes that where projects go aground the hardest is when the project
team is given lowest priority.
35. Ibbs, C. W. et al. (1986). Determining the impact of various

construction contract types and clauses on Project Performance,
Construction Industry Institute, S.D. 10. pp 370.
This report presents the results of research on the impact of various

construction contract types and clauses on project performance.
Questionnaires were sent to CII member companies to elicit information.
Statistical and qualitative techniques, supplemented with structured
interviews, were used in the analysis.
Nine specific clauses are consistently identified as being problematic,

namely: construction and design changes; design rework; supporting and
included documents; workmanship; variations; work scope definition;
definition of cost; cost reporting and control; and schedule reporting and
control. Specific recommendations regarding improving techniques are also
suggested for each clause.


• a clear definition of change
• dispute resolution procedures to be provided
• procedures to be established on how notice will be served and how
quickly
• a method for determining the cost of change should be stated
• change order processes should be clearly described
The main conclusion is that contract writers must realise that it is impossible
to manage today's construction using yesterday's contracts.
36. Jones, W.C. and Weathershed, D.C., (1984). Management of Civil

Engineering Contract at Torness. Management of International
Construction Projects, pp. 162-172.
This paper relates the experiences gained from handling the Torness project.
The construction activities comprised land reclamation of 60 acres, the
301
building of a sea wall and main civil engineering works. A total workforce
of 2,700, together with a staff compliment of 385, were on site at the peak of
the project.
The paper discusses, in detail, issues pertaining to industrial relations and the
effect on the social and environmental fabric of a community resulting from
the importation of labour. The paper also addresses important issues of
transportation, social and sports facilities, sub-contractors, the acquisition of
materials for the production of concrete, quality assurance, common site
services, and safety.

design of temporary structures

• quality assurance must be built within contract documents
• the project manager should be given autonomy
• establish good communication systems
• ensure quality of locally available material
• there is a need for good transportation system
The author re-affirms that one common aspect of any management problem
is communication and concludes that the importation of large number of
workers entails more efficient personnel management
37. Kellogg, J.C. (1981). Hierarchy Model of Construction Productivity.

Journal of the Construction Division A.S.C.E., Volume 107, 1981, Series
624, pp. 137-152.
The paper presents a comprehensive productivity model for the construction

industry.
The paper comprises two parts. The first part discusses: the appalling
condition of the construction industry in the United States; and the
introduction of a study program to develop a construction productivity
hierarchy model. The second part explains the application of the hierarchy
model using the specific example of highway construction. Both parts are
explained in detail. The members for the study program are drawn from
engineers, contractors, labour, government and the utilities. After two days
of deliberation, the study program proposed the hierarchy model for
construction productivity. The model addressed five distinct levels: policy
formation; program management; planning/ design; project management;
and construction.


• quantify the cost for approval processes
• to ensure availability of local resources for the chosen site
• the need for effective interpersonal relationships
302
The main conclusion of the paper is that research aimed at promoting
productivity consciousness at every level of the industry would be well
worthwhile.
38. Kharbanda, O.P. and Stallworthy, E.A. (1983). How to learn from
project disasters - The life stories with a moral for management. Gower
Publishing Company Ltd, England, pp 274.
This book furnishes lessons learnt from the execution of unsuccessful and
successful heavy engineering and civil engineering projects. These projects
were based in the United States, United Kingdom, Korea, Saudi Arabia,
Algeria, Iran and India. Special problems faced in both developed and
developing countries are also illustrated. Each project is treated in detail:
historical perspectives are given; financing arrangements are discussed; the
role of politics is identified; and technical problems are highlighted. The
book also includes an annotated bibliography of related material.
This book mainly relates to:


• impact of regulatory bodies and public opinion on project cost
• consider sources of labour, finance and raw material
• scrutinise contract documents.
The author emphasises and concludes that it is always beneficial, and indeed
wiser, to learn, from the experience of others who had to learn 'the hard way'.
40. Kirschenman, M. D. (1986). Total Project Delivery Systems. journal of
Management in Engineering, Volume 2, No. 4, 10/1986, pp. 222-230.
This paper addresses both the various organisational formats that can be used
at project level, and the potential benefits that could accrue to the
construction designers, constructors, and buyers of constructed projects. It is
stated that innovative planning will be required for survival and growth in
the construction industry during the next decade. As projects continue to
become more complex, planning concepts and methodologies need to be
implemented that will create more effective resource management at project
level. The main challenge for the construction industry is to provide total
project delivery packages including both the design and construction
services. The current trend in industry is towards the supply of totally
constructed projects to an owner, hence accepting the responsibility of
planning, managing, and co-ordinating all the component parts. By applying
a systems approach to planning, design, contracting, quality assurance, and
construction, a project can be delivered to an owner as a complete package.


• ensure that all phases of a project are interlinked and integrated
The author concludes that there is a definite trend towards total delivery
systems, and contractors and designers must respond accordingly.
303
39. Kolff, G.F. (1991). The Melamine 3 Project - Holland 1991: DSM
Melaf 3 Project. 2nd European Conference 7-8 Nov. 1991, Wiesbaden,
Germany, (ECI) Publication C002/1, pp.117-134.
This paper describes the successful execution of a melamine plant in the

Netherlands between 1989 and 1991.
The presented information relates to: contract documents, engineering, plant,

and site layout, construction, safety, and project schedule. It is stated that the
contract incorporated incentive schemes for milestones, performances,
safety, and target budget. The paper describes risk engineering and design
changes. Selection of sub-contractors, sequencing of the construction and
problems of delays are discussed under the construction phase. The
importance and significance of safety are also highlighted. Facts and figures
are presented for: construction percentages by discipline based on value;
construction manpower; procurement and inspection; drawings prepared;
construction progress curve; and actual timing of construction per trade.
This paper is relevant to:


• incentive schemes for milestone progress and performance
• effective safety policy
• a target budget
• pre-qualification of contractors and sub-contractors
• appropriate pre-fabrication.
41. Laufer, A. (1990). Decision-Making Roles in Project Planning. Journal

of Management in Engineering, Volume 6, No. 4, Oct. 1990, pp. 416-430.
This paper discusses research into the decision-making roles of various

parties in different planning areas and at different stages of a project. It also
presents the process of project planning from the owner's point of view in the
form of a descriptive study of decision-making processes. Data were
assembled from interviews with eleven leading US companies. Two stages
of project planning were investigated: the conceptual and the design stage.
These stages were each divided into three functional plans of project
definition, organisation and systems, and schedule. Projects were identified
by type of industry and included: petrochemical, office and high technology,
chemical and manufacturing, and power generation.

The main conclusion is that the role played by each party is dependent upon
the stage setting of project, the area planning stage and types of industry.
42. Laufer, A. (1989). Owners' Project Planning - The Process Approach,

Construction Industry Institute, US, pp 89.
The aims of this research report were to discuss the essentials of project
planning from the owners' perspectives and to enlighten the anatomy of
304
decision making processes. The report is base on an extensive literature
search, supplemented by interviews among members of the Construction
Industry Institute and provides the following: a brief summary of the project
planning essentials; an identification of the major obstacles to the
achievement of effective project planning; and a preliminary database
regarding the decision making processes in project planning.

• design of temporary structures

• create "a devil's advocate" to challenge each objective
• initiate a pro-active search for information to formulate objectives
• decisions must be frozen
• develop check-lists
• adjust planning must according to project type and imbibe a planning
culture in the team
• risk should be fairly distributed
• an atmosphere of trust and co-operation between client and contractor
must be nurtured
• facilitate informal communications and physical proximity.
It concludes that the preliminary findings support the view that project
planning can and must be managed if successful project completion is to be
achieved.
43. McDermott, P, and Newcombe, R. (1985). The Causes and Effects of
Design Changes. Organisation of the Desian Process IABSE Workshop,
pp. 135-145.
The paper presents the findings of a pilot study into the causes and effects of
design changes. Semi-structured interviews relating to the Schultz FIRO-B
were used to gather data from twelve building projects.
The following are discussed: the definition of variation; communications

and the design process. It is stated that the principal sources of the more
significant variations were caused by the client, whom was closely followed
by the designers. The relationship between extensive variations and poor
time performance was also established.


• the project must have a clear definition
• the design must be frozen at an early stage of the project
• good communications must be established
• good relationship between client and contractor must be cultivated
It is concluded that a data base should be established to provide a tool for

assessing impact of variations.
305
44. Moselhi, 0. (1991). Impact of change orders on Construction
Productivity. Canadian Journal of Civil Eng., Volume 18, pp. 484-492.
This paper presents the quantitative results of a comprehensive field

investigation using 90 cases drawn from 57 different construction projects,
and identifies to identify the effects of change orders on productivity.
It is stated that, in construction projects, it is virtually certain that there will

be changes made during the course of the work, and that the owner (or
design professional) and the contractor will seldom agree on the cost and
schedule impact of the changes. This is particularly so on fast-track
construction, where design and construction are overlapped to accelerate the
delivery of projects. Without doubt, the most contentious area of impact of
change orders is their effect on the productivity of the contractor's labour
force.
These productivity losses are exacerbated by the added presence of other

major causes of productivity losses such as acceleration and inadequate
scheduling and co-ordination. Regression models were developed for the
direct estimation of productivity losses caused by change orders, incurred
both independently and in conjunction with other major causes of
productivity loss. The results indicate a significant direct correlation
between the labour component of change orders and the loss of productivity,
for both civil/architectural and electricaU mechanical works.


• any acceleration of program must be accompanied by adequate
scheduling and coordination
It is concluded that productivity lost due to individual change orders can be

calculated by comparing impacted and unimpacted periods of work.
45. McLaughlin, R. T.P, and Doran, D. K. (1986). Designer - Contractor

Relationship. IABSE Workshop. Zurich 1986. Organisation of the
Design Process (International Association of Brid2e & Structural
Engineer., pp. 147-156.
The paper explores the various project management structures available to

client for project delivery in the United Kindom. The discussion is
complemented with case studies relevant to each type of delivery system.
The author states and discusses the following as possible arrangements for
project delivery: project management; turnkey; design and build;
management contract; consultant conceptual design and contractor's detail
design; and the traditional method.

The identified good practices include

• contract arrangement must be comprehensive in nature with inherent
continuity from design to construction
306
The paper concludes with a discussion on the liabilities which are inherent in
each system and quotes the problems and experiences in other countries
including United States, Japan, France and Denmark.
46. Marsh, P.D.V. (1984). The Dubai aluminium smelter project.

Management of International Construction Projects, Thomas Telford
Ltd, London, pp. 155-160.
The paper relates experiences and lessons learnt from the Dubai aluminium
smelter project built in 1977-1981 which is claimed to be the largest
industrial project. The paper is divided into three parts, namely: a
description of project essentials; details of the conception, finance and
management of the project; and, lessons learnt for future works.


• assess political stability
• ensure financial security
• clearly distinguish the responsibilities of client and constructor, and
effective client organisation
• ensure material and energy supplies
The author concludes and re-emphasises that lessons learnt from such a
project should be abstracted for use on future projects.
47. Maloney, W. F., CII, Employee involvement in construction, University

of Texas, SD 63. (March 1991). pp. 1-46.
This report presents research into the extent of employee involvement in the
construction industry and the feasibility of improved employee participation.
A thorough literature search and survey were used to gather the data.
The report stated that there was a shift in work paradigms in the 20th
century, which could be viewed in terms of the craft versus scientific
management. The construction industry leans more towards the scientific
management paradigm. The report discusses in detail the paradigm shift, the
required employee behaviours, and the extent of employee involvement
paradigm. Details of the following employee involvement paradigms are
given: Military/Authoritarian/Autocratic; Informal suggestion system;
Formal suggestion system; Ad. Hoc. Performance Improvement, Types 1 and
2; Quality Circle; Employee Survey Feedback; Job Enrichment; and Self
managing work teams.


• team members should be involved in all decision making processes
• appropriate authority must be delegated along with responsibility
307
The main conclusions are that: worker motivation has been found to be
directly related to the involvement of the workers in the decision making
process; and employee involvement results in improved productivity,
improved quality, lower absenteeism and lower worker turnover.
48. Millacci, A. (1991). 2nd European Conference 7-8 November 1991,

Wiesbaden. Germany, (ECI) Pub. C00211, pp. 179-188.
This paper presents the experience gained during the construction of the
US$100 million Terephtahalic Acid Plant in Belgium. The paper relates the
good practices which lead to satisfactory completion of the project
objectives, and describes the main project characteristics; the proposal phase;
and the execution phase.


• establish a clear understanding of project priorities
• use construction driven schedules and well developed schedule
milestones
• ensure that activities on site are minimised
• change order management to minimise any disruptive impact
• reduce time for vendors selection by negotiation with pre-selected
vendor
• pre-order long lag equipment or facilities
It concludes that the success of one project does not generally depend on
extraordinary measures taken, but on a mutual capability to select the most
appropriate approach, and then to fight for it side by side every day.
49. Nahapiet, H..and J.,. (1985). A comparison of contractual

arrangement for building projects. Construction Management and
Economics. Vol. 3, pp. 217-231.
This paper evaluates the major forms of contract available for building
projects from an organisational perspective, and examines the factors
influencing their selection. The analysis is based on the findings of a study
of ten building projects, six in the United States and four in the United
Kingdom, together with the results of a survey of those prominent in the
industry.
The comparison of five different contractual arrangements indicates that the
two countries establish different patterns of responsibilities and relationships
between clients and the various parties involved in building projects. In so
doing, they are regarded as offering clients differing combinations of
expertise, risk, flexibility and costs. For the projects studied, the three main
factors that influenced contract selection were found to be: the
characteristics of clients, particularly their experience and expertise in
construction; the level of performance required by clients; and the
construction complexity of the projects. These findings, together with
previous research, suggest that it is unlikely that there is one 'best' form of
contract for all types of building projects. The appropriate contractual
arrangement varies according to the particular set of project circumstances,
308
especially the type of client, the time and cost requirements, and project
characteristics.


• selection of contractual arrangement requires careful exploration and
balancing of client, project and performance criteria.
50. Naoum, S.G., and Longford, D. (1987). Management Contracting -

The Client's View. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management. Volume 113, No. 3. pp. 369-384.
This paper presents research findings from the Construction Study Unit at
Brunel University in the United Kingdom. It also discusses the results of
interviews with construction clients who are asked to compare management
contracting with the traditional method of project procurement. One of the
features of the construction industry during the late 1970's and the early
1980's was the emergence of a diversity of building procurement methods.
Among the most popular was "management contracting" as offered by
contractors. Management contracting is defined as the "process whereby a
contractor is employed to undertake the co-ordination of specialist sub-
contractors to complete a project. The management contractor relies upon a
percentage fee or a lump sum to be remunerated for the services offered.
The management contractor becomes associated with the client team of
professional advisors, and in common with other professionals has liability
for the provision of a professional service".


• both project size and complexity, and client organisation and type of
accountability should determine the type of contractual arrangement.
The following issues are explored: the rationale' of using managentent

contracting by clients; the type of client using management contracting; the
reasons why clients use management contracting; the client level of
satisfaction and criteria for satisfaction; the factors why management
contracting is favoured above traditional forms of contract; and finally, the
problems associated with management contracting. The main conclusion is
that management contracting should be a professional rather than a
commercial entity.
51. National Economic Development Councils. (1991). Partnering

Contracting without Conflict. NEDC. pp. 116
The report presents the finding of the research into partnering that:
determines its potential; and to ascertains whether it could have increased
implication in the UK construction industry. The data were gathered
through a survey of partnering companies and a study visit of the National
Economic Development Council's Construction Industry Sector Group to the
United States.
309
The following issues are addressed by the report: the nature of partnering;
the benefits of partnering; and a case study analysis. Four partnerships are
discussed, namely: DuPont/Fluor Daniel; Union Carbide/Bechtel; Proctor
& Gamble/Kellogg; Shell Oil/Parsons; Corps of Engineers/Frucon; and
finally Anglian Water/Biwater.


• ability of the client to offer a significant and continuing core
programme of work
• careful selection of the right partner
• trust and confidence in the chosen partner
• commitment at the highest levels in each organisation
• an understanding of the requirement for long-term relationships
• readiness to adapt to each other requirements.
The paper affirms that partnering gives a stable relationship which allows the
contractor, in particular, the opportunity to encourage training and career
progression which must ultimately work to the benefit of the industry as a
whole.
52. Osborne, A., Stannard, C.J., Lishman, G., (1987). Project Finance.
Proceedings - Institution of Civil Engineers Part 1 Design and
Construction Volume 2. pp. 411-5.
The paper briefly presents alternative sources of project finance. The

information is generated through the experiences of individuals handling
project financing in the United Kingdom.
Methods of finance recognised by the financial market are: direct recourse;

asset creation; and limited resource project finance. The direct recourse
project finance is essentially finance provided against a third party guarantee
or long-term contract. The government will normally be the guarantor. In
asset creation project finance, the private sector assumes the investment risk.
However, in limited recourse project finance, the recourse of the lender is
restricted to the future income produced by the project.
This paper clearly relates to:

The main conclusion is that wider project financial sources are possible, if
changes in politics do not disrupt existing commitments. It is recommended
that political climate is a key consideration when assessing a project's
financial viability.
53. O'Connor, J.T., Rusch, S.E., and Schulz, M.J., (1987).

Constructability Concepts for Engineering and Procurement. Journal
of Construction Engineering and Management Vol. 113 No. 2. pp.
235-248.
This paper presents the results of research aimed at identifying and analysing
the engineering constructability concept. Sixteen Client and Contractor
organisation were interviewed to elicit the information.
310
Constructability is the optimum use of construction knowledge and
experience in planning, engineering, procurement and field operations to
achieve overall objectives. Seven concepts for improving constructability
during the engineering/procurement phase of a project are presented and
analysed. A limited number of specific applications of each concept are also
presented. The concepts promote construction-driven schedules, simplified
design configurations, standardisation of elements, and module/preassembly
designs which facilitate fabrication, transport, and installation. Concepts
addressed also included: the accessibility of manpower, materials, and
equipment; design modifications to facilitate construction in adverse
weather; and specification improvements.
This paper is relevant to:


• construction driven schedule
decisions should involve the 'doers'
realistic specification
open communication to be encouraged and past practices should be
challenged
• innovation should be awarded and success must be documented
• modularization; standardisation and accessibility; and finally
simplified design with: engineering solutions being holistic
The paper concludes that early expenditure of effort results in significant

savings at a latter stage.
54. O'Connor J.T., Rusch, S.E., and Schulz, M.J., (May 1986).
Constructability improvement during Engineering and Procurement.
Source Document 5, Construction Industry Institute., US. pp. 42.
This 42 page report presents an investigation into how construction

knowledge and experience may be most effectively utilised during the
engineering and procurement phases of construction projects. The primary
purpose of the study is to develop constructability enhancement tools for
project management and middle management. These tools are presented in
the form of major constructability concepts and useful applications of the
concepts.
The research activities comprised an investigation into the state-of-the-art

data collection, and the formulation of constructability concepts and
applications. In addition, constructability data were collected in various
ways. Project personnel were interviewed at both construction sites and head
offices, topical discussions were held with panels of experts, and CII
constructability task force members discussed their the experiences.
Many constructability ideas were collected and analysed for the purpose of
abstracting concepts. This resulted in the identification of seven
constructability concepts that should be considered during the engineering
and procurement phases of project.
311

• specifications to be reviewed in detail
• designs to facilitate construction under adverse weather conditions
• designs to promote accessibility of labour, material and equipment
• designs to ease construction
• design elements to be standardised and repetition taken advantage of
The paper concludes that constructability should be employed as a catalyst

for better productivity.
55. Public Service Agency. (1988). Project Management. Construction

(PSA) Volume 67. pp. 21-23.
The paper describes the experiences of the construction of the British Library
under a Construction Management contract.
The £400 million British Library was constructed by Laing Management

Contracting, and managed by: PSA's Directorate of Civil Accommodation
for its sponsor client, the Office of Arts and Libraries; and the user client,
the British Library. The following issues are discussed: relationships with
PSA; project direction; pricing; and safety. The main problems faced
during the construction were: shortage of skilled workers; too many work
packages (i.e. 200 contract documents for 200 work packages in the project);
the sluggish nature of PSA because of its size; lack of PSA personnel
continuity; and finally, the inherent contradiction between the concept of
management contracting and Treasury control over project finance.


• ensure that: contract strategy is compatible with financial strategy
• the number of work packages is limited to a workable level
• there is continuity of project team members
• whole client organisation is committed to the project
• scheduled progress meetings
The main conclusion is that strict project control is necessary for project
successful outcome.
56. Porter, J.C. (1993). Exploring the leadership asset of the engineer.
Journal of Management in Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 3. pp. 227-233.
This paper explores the latent unexploited asset of leadership vested in an

engineer. The nature of leadership is explained in general terms. The paper
then extends the discussion of leadership in the context of an organisation
and finally within the engineering work environment. Building leadership
312
traits are also given. Leadership and stewardship traits are differentiated to
establish the relevance within an engineering work environment. Amongst
the traits required of leaders are the ability to: create and articulate a vision
of what could be achieved in the long run; and generate a feeling of work
value and importance. Stewardship is characterised as having, among many
factors, the need to: focus on the achievement of short term objectives and
goals; and enforce fulfilment of agreements and contracts of work.


• ensure a balance between leadership and stewardship characteristics
within the client project team
The paper concludes that "there are great opportunities available to exercise
leadership traits in the engineering profession to bring into balance its over
investment in stewardship traits, which appear to be typical in the
engineering organisation. Excessive rules and policies reduce the attitude of
the engineer to lead which is the birthright and the responsibility of all who
consider themselves professional".
57. Anon. (1988). Constructability means lower project costs, better

productivity. Pulp & Paper Vol. 62, Part 9, ISSN 0033-4081. pp. 153-
155.
This brief paper expounds the definition and concepts of constructability and
its implementation. It emphasises that constructability should be
incorporated during the earliest stage of project life cycle. This is illustrated
by plotting the ability to influence final cost over project life. Two projects,
a market pulp mill and an electricity generating station, are used to illustrate
the practicality and relevance of the constructability concept. Through these
two projects, implementation programmes are also provided. Problems
usually encountered during implementation, and potential solutions are also
highlighted.

• design of temporary structures

• construction personnel to be involved early in the project
• modularization; standard designs
• standard elements
• designs to facilitate construction under adverse weather conditions
• designs to promote accessibility
• site layout to promote efficient construction.
The paper concludes that, a good constructability program with an early

construction program will result in better project at a lower cost, improved
productivity, and earlier project completion.
313
58. Potts, K. F. (1988), An alternative payment system for major fast-track
construction projects. Construction Management and Economics Vol.
6. pp. 117-131.
This paper focuses on payment systems for fast-track projects and considers
the concept of predetermined payments linked to progress milestones. A
questionnaire survey and interviews were conducted in order to abstract the
relevant information from overseas construction projects.
In the United Kingdom, contractors are generally reimbursed on a monthly

basis reflecting the value of work done on site plus payments for agreed off-
site components. If the contractor is behind programme and even completes
late, reimbursement will still be based on the value of work done but
calculated using the original itemised bid.
The only way clients can influence progress of the project is to claim, from
the contractor, predetermined liquidated and ascertained damages in the
event of late completion. These damages can only be charged after
completion which may be hollow compensation, most clients prefer their
projects completed on time. This paper describes an alternative payment
system for major fast-track projects in which the contractor is financially
motivated to achieve satisfactory progress throughout the period together
with completion on time.
The system is based on the concept of predetermined percentages which are

applied on a monthly basis to each major section of the project, but only if
the section's relevant 'milestones' have been met during the period
considered. The system described has been satisfactorily used on a major
international multi contract, multi disciplined fast track construction project
with individual contracts value up to £100 million. The overall project was
completed on time and within budget.


• link progress performance with inbuilt monetary motivation
It is affirmed that the system introduced has been successful in practice and
should be adopted as an alternative method in 'fast-track' project.
59. Pinon, M.J., Ploix, M.B., Mentre, F., (1991). Lavera Cracker
expansion project - France 1991 : Lessons Learnt. 2nd European
Conference 7-8 Nov. 1991. Wiesbaden. Germany. pp. 107-111.
This brief paper presents lessons learnt from the Lavera project in France,
which comprises the revamping and enlargement of an existing cracker
plant. The work was commissioned in June 1991. Statistics on man-hours
and quantities of the following are given: piping, instruments, electrical,
civil works, structural steel, insulation and erection.

314
• reimbursable contracts are well adapted for plant revamping
• permanent top management must show support to project
• motivating personnel should commit everyone involved to the project
common objectives must be shared by all parties
The main conclusion is that the Lavera Cracker expansion project satisfied
its objectives; and it was completed on schedule and within the sanctioned
budget.
60. Ross, A.H., and Slattery, F.J., (No Date Supplied). Lump sum or
construction management: - A comparison of choices for Total
Execution of Engineering Projects. Applied Construction Management.
Editor Carmichael UNISEARCH. pp. 265-273.
The paper compares and contrasts lump sum and construction management
contract strategies in terms of duration and cost.
A hypothetical project costing $50M (Australian) is examined in relation to

time and cost of overall execution (i.e engineering, design, procurement and
construction). Competitive lump sum, cost reimbursable and negotiated
lump sum are compared. It is concluded that negotiated lump sum offers
minimum time and cost. This fact is recognised by major developers and
clients of the heavy engineering and resource extraction industry.

The paper recommends that negotiated lump sum is a good form of contract
strategy.
61. Rowlinson, S., Newcombe, B., (1986). Design-Construction

Organisation. International Association for Bridge & Structural
Engineers. IABSE Workshop Zurich 1986, Report 53, pp.27-34.
This brief report presents the results of research into client satisfaction and
reaction to the performance of the design and construction team organisation.
The information and data are elicited through questionnaires and interviews
with client organisations.
The report initially investigates the theoretical advantages and disadvantages

of contractor-designed projects as opposed to architect-designed projects.
The contractors' method of working and planning is analysed and the results
of the site based analysis of delays and productivity are reported. The report
concludes with time and cost analysis of the performance of contractor-
designed projects and, assesses the response cf client organisations to this
performance.
The report relates to:


• ensure that contract strategy is determined by project complexity,
client organisation and criteria for judging success
315
The main conclusion is that client building experience and type of
production process a have profound influence upon the degree of client
satisfaction.
62. Rowings, J E; Nelson, M; Kimberley, P J. (1987). Project objective -

setting by owners and contractors. Construction Industry Institute,
Source Document 31 August 1987. pp. 186.
The report presents the result of research into project objective-setting by

owners and contractors. The objectives of the research were: to examine the
objective-setting process used on several projects; identify the similarities
and differences; evaluate the congruence of objectives; and develop a
testable hypotheses related to the objective-setting process. Five case studies
from member companies of Construction Institute Industry were analysed.
The research included the development of in-depth case studies of the

objective-setting process, which were compiled from a series of interviews
with key management personnel associated with the projects. The projects
were: a gas production plant; an electric utility project; a paper mill; a
research facility; and, an automated warehouse. In addition, an extensive
literature search and review was conducted to identify specific work which
related to objective-setting.
The processes used in the five projects exhibited similarities and differences
in the degree of formality and in the methods used to establish, monitor,
control, and prioritise project objectives. The owner was the primary source
of influence in the process of setting and communicating objectives. On the
successful projects there was good level communications between project
participants which led to congruency of objectives. The congruency was
accomplished through the use of primary mechanisms and reinforcing
mechanism. Primary mechanisms are those methods or elements used to
directly communicate objectives and include such items as written scopes of
work, contracts and contract clauses, proposals, preconstruction meetings,
and project objective letters. Reinforcing mechanisms support the
communication process for objectives and help clarify priorities. Examples
include fee incentive evaluations, weekly progress meetings, executive level
reviews project team office layout, and numerous types of management
reports.
From these case studies over twenty hypotheses relating to the objective-
setting process were developed. These hypotheses all support the overall
hypothesis that successful projects come about through a thorough, co-
ordinated objective setting process and through execution of the process,
which promotes shared objectives of all project participants.
The report is related to:

• well defined scope
• early extensive planning
• quick response to change
• smooth flow of communications
• disciplined project control and realistic scope
316
• agreed schedule and budgets
• use local companies to reduce cultural differences
• use contract incentives where cost performance is important
• good leadership positive relationships with contractors
• proper team chemistry
• physical proximity with contractor
The main conclusion is that successful projects have high levels of

congruency of objectives between participants.
63. Stull, J.0., (1982). Management holds the key to improving

productivity. Nuclear Engineering International Vol. 27, Part 324. pp.
30-33.
This paper relates the experience associated with the construction of a

nuclear power plant. The author, who was the Manager of Construction for
Bechtel Power Corporation of United States of America, describes the
essential elements for improving construction productivity.
In addition to explaining how to produce an effective specification the paper

discusses the use of: construction sequence model for design and
construction; offsite prefabrication to take advantage of efficient shop labour
practices; site pre- assembly to allow for parallel work operation; effective
numbering systems for material handling; work study group for productivity
monitoring; and finally, a labour agreement to secure labour relations.

• design of temporary works

• simple communication systems
• good leadership
• good working relations with contractors
• appropriate off-site fabrication
• effective 'material tracking systems'
• integration of design with construction
• good project labour agreement
• appropriate use of models
The author concludes that, "there is no panacea for improving productivity or

reducing cost or schedule in building nuclear power plants, but it is clear that
there are many barriers to good performance that management can remove to
ensure success".
64. Winston, H.E. (No date given). The origin and dynamics of conflict in
construction. (No source given). pp. 521-533.
This paper reviews the genesis and dynamics of conflict in the construction
industry, and sheds more light on to the understanding of phenomenon of
conflict.
317
The paper also reviews the underlying principles of law of contract and law
of tort that circumscribe the construction industry. Human factors, and
relationship formations required to deliver the project are further discussed
and inherent conflicts are highlighted. Conflict and productivity are never
compatible. Hence, addressing conflict in formulating contract strategy and
project management organisation is a quantum leap for productivity on site.


• avoid conflicts by ensuring clear documentation
• share risks; and resolve conflicts promptly.
The paper concludes that recent improvements of the construction industry's

capacity has brought with it increased occurrence of conflict. Nevertheless,
attempts should be made to avoid conflict, and should it erupt, speedy
resolution must be attempted.
65. Stukhart, G. (1987). Construction Management responsibilities during

design. journal of Construction Engineering and Management Vol.
113, No. 1, March 1987. pp. 90-98.
This paper defines the role of construction management in the project design
process. The paper initially focuses on design having three subprocesses:
defining the problem; generating alternatives; and reducing the best solution
to a description for construction or detailed design phase. The paper also
discusses the various responsibilities of construction managers in the total
design process. A discussion of liabilities inherent in various roles is
included because of the potential limitations such risks impose on the actual
fulfilment of the roles discussed. The lists of skills and responsibilities of
construction managers are also given.


• division of responsibility by task
• timely selection of contracting method
• setting criteria for team membership
The main conclusion is that construction management input into the design
process has gained recognition through the experiences of owners and
designers, and thus warrants more extensive use of this approach in the near
future.
66. Skitmore, R.M., Marsden, D.E.; & Wright E. (1988). Which

procurement system? Towards a universal selection technique.
Construction Management and Economics, Vol. 6. pp. 117-131.
318
The term "Procurement" is used with slightly different meaning between the
building and process industries. Procurement implies the selection of a
particular type of contract for a project, (e.g traditional, or turnkey, or
construction management). This paper presents the use of concordance and
discriminate statistical analysis to determine a suitable procurement path.
Two approaches are described which aid the selection of the most
appropriate procurement arrangements for a building project are described.
The first is a multi-attribute technique based on the National Economic
Development Office procurement path decision chart. A small study is
described in which the utility factors were weighted by averaging the scores
of five 'experts' for three hypothetical building projects.
A concordance analysis was first used to provide some evidence of any

abnormal data sources. When applied to the study data, one of the experts
was seen to be atypical. The second approach was by means of discriminant
analysis. This was found to provide reasonably consistent predictions
through three discriminant functions. The analysis also showed that quality
criteria had no significant impact on the decision process. Both approaches
provided identical and intuitively correct answers in the study described.

The paper concludes that: the absence of any notable theory of procurement
selection to date, suggests that discriminant analysis is an outstanding
vehicle for future empirical work of this nature.
67. Tatum, Clyde B. (1987). Improving constructability during conceptual

planning. Journal of Construction Engineering and Manaeement. Vol
113, No. 2. pp. 191-207.
The paper describes existing practices suitable for design and construction
integration during the conceptual phase. Data have been taken from fifteen
case studies in the United States. The projects ranged from the conceptual
phase to the construction phase. Definitions of project conceptual phase
planning, with respective responsibilities to client, engineer and contractors,
are also given. Three key decisions taken during the conceptual planning
that strongly influence constructability are the: development of the overall
project plan; establishment of site layout and preparation of the site plan;
and selection of major construction methods for projects. These have been
discussed in depth.


• 'backward pass' approach in planning
• proactive involvement of construction in planning
• increase use of 'designs freeze' concept
• produce designs that minimise impact of weather on construction
• encourage efficient layout and increased modularization.
The paper concludes that decisions made early in the project life cycle,
despite the low level expenditure at that time, have the highest influence on
the overall project cost.
319
68. Tucker, R.L. (1986). Management of Construction Productivity.
Journal of Management in Enaineering. Vol 2, No. 3 July 1986. pp. 148-
156.
The paper addresses the problems and solutions of decreasing productivity in

the constiuction industry. The paper cited the following factors that could
hamper growth in productivity: labour costs; unionised labour; growth of
project size without parallel improvement of installation techniques; impact
of legal restrictions upon the management of projects; questionable
competency of project participants; cost of finance; trends of firms
becoming large and centralised; and, a vast increase of paper work.
The paper mainly relates to:


• establish a project orientation philosophy improvement of planning,
good communication and consultation can be ensured
• adopt a formalised constructability programme with systems that can
quickly measure progress and productivity
• attention should be given to project control and project organisation
The paper thus concludes that "the momentum is building for change and
improvement in the construction industry and change is inevitable".
69. Tiong, Robert L.K., (1990). BOT projects : Risk and Securities.
Construction Management and Economics Vol. 8. pp. 315-328.
In recent years, there has been a growing trend for governments in many
developing countries to place major public investments, particularly for
infrastructure projects, with the private sector. This has resulted in
governments looking towards the private sector to finance projects using
anticipated revenues as security, rather than relying upon a direct sovereign
guarantee of the project debt. Many governments have adopted the 'Build-
Operate-Transfer' (BOT) approach, where the private sector operates the
plant for an agreed period and then transfers the ownership back to the
government after a specified concession period. However, for BOT to
succeed in any major privatised project, the host government cannot
withdraw or adopt a passive role; it has to ensure the right political and
commercial environments in which to advance the projects.
This paper discusses the various guarantees and incentives that could be
provided by governments. It covers the responsibilities and undertakings
that the project sponsors could commit to, in order to negotiate favourable
concessions from governments and raise the finance that is so vital if the
BOT model to be successful. The financing, political and technical risks are
discussed, and techniques to cover these risks and to ensure a smooth project
implementation are suggested.

project definition
contract strategy
320
• strong government for huge and long term projects
• projects that are technically and economically viable
• stable economic systems and currency.
The main conclusion is that, for project financing, the BOT model has shown
to be a successful alternative in various countries to conventional financing
methods.
70. Tatum, C.B., Vanegas, J.A., Williams, J.M., (March 1986).

Constructability improvement during conceptual planning.
Construction Industry Institute, University of Texas, Austin, USA. pp.
120.
This report discusses a research study investigating how construction

constructability can be improved during the conceptual phase. Fifteen
projects have been used as case studies based on data collected through
interviews.
The following are described: the opportunity for constructability; the study
description and approach; findings regarding project plan, site layout, and
construction method; general findings regarding constructability practices;
and, improving constructability during conceptual planning. The appendices
contain the details of nineteen projects, including: project name; sponsors;
type of project; interviewees; description of project; project plan and
schedule; plot plan and site layout; construction methods; and finally,
general constructability aspects.


• backward pass approach to planning
• proactive construction role in the conceptual phase
• early design freeze
• physical proximity of client and contractor
• foster a team approach and install team building activities and ensure
that designers receptive to constructability
• design permits flexibility during construction.
The report concludes that constructability should be part of the conceptual

phase where degrees of influence are the greatest.
71. Tatum, C.B., Vanegas, J.A., Williams, J.M. (Feb 1987).

Constructability improvement using prefabrication. pre-assembly and
modularization.
CII, University of Texas. pp. 300.
This report presents the findings of a research study on the use of
prefabrication, preassembly and modularisation for constructability
improvement. The objectives of the research were to: determine current
practices of prefabrication, pre-assembly and modularisation in both
industrial and building construction; identify forces which prompt
321
consideration of these methods on specific project; describe the processes
used to evaluate and implement these methods; identify project implications
of using these methods; and finally develop guide-lines for their effective
use on future project.
The report discusses: the opportunity to improve constructability using
prefabrication, preassembly, and modularisation; prefabrication techniques
suitable for building projects; the use of modularisation on industrial and
building projects, and specialised construction methods; it also forwards
guidelines for evaluating special construction methods. Detailed discussions
of nine industrial projects and six building projects have been presented in
the appendices. Specific applications of prefabrication, preassembly and
modularisation are also given.
The report mainly relates to:


• embark on the concept of prefabrication, pre-assembly and
modularisation
The main conclusion is that when managers have the proper exposure and
awareness; prefabrication, pre-assembly, and modularisation may assist in
meeting many of the challenges of the changing engineering and
construction markets.
72. Tayler, C.J., (1991). Ethyl Benzene Project - Stanlow United Kingdom
1991: The Clients Perspectives. 2nd European Conference 7-8 Nov.
1991. Wiesbaden, Germany (ECI) Publication: C002/1. pp.139-152.
The aim of the paper was to present the perceived factors which contribute to
project success. Criteria used to judge project success and factors
contributing to project success have been briefly elaborated in the light of the
Ethyl Benzene Project experiences.


• disciplined control systems
• frozen objectives
• alignment of client's and contractor's goals
• proven ability of contractors
• reduced management layers
• avoid task duplication
• build trust between client and contractors
• establish long term relationships
• good safety; excellent industrial relations
• good constructability record.
It concludes that the Ethyl Benzene Project - Stanlow was very successful
and represents a benchmark for comparison of future works.
322
73. Wright, G., (1991). CM firm emphasises pro-active relationship with
owners. Building Design & Construction February 1991. pp. 58-62.
The objective of this paper was to report on the performance of a

Construction Management (CM) company in the United States. The
company in question was jointly owned by British based Bovis, and Lehrer
McGovern Bovis Inc. (LMB).
Most of the company's projects were either based on CM or a hybrid CM

with high-profile projects being a US$65 million restoration works of the
Statue of Liberty. Their marketing niche is to have a proactive relationship
with owners.

• project management organisation contract strategy

• elimination of conflict of interest and avoidance of court proceedings
by good contract strategy
The paper concludes that, despite the economic climate, the company is very
optimistic about its future because of their track record current and financial
strength.
74. Ward, S.C., Curtis, B, Chapman, C.B., (1991). Objectives and

performance in construction projects. Construction Management and
Economics. Vol. 9, pp. 343-352.
This paper considers the problems associated with the identification and use
of project-related objectives held by project-owning client organisations. It
argues that the evaluation of projects, contractors, professionals or
procurement methods, solely on the extent to which client objectives are
achieved, is problematic. The identified difficulties include setting
objectives at an appropriate level, allowing for uncertainty and
interdependencies between objectives, and measuring the achievement of
objectives. Proper evaluation and improvements in performance require an
examination, not just of project objectives, but also of the processes involved
in pursuing them.
This paper is mainly related to:


clear objectives subjected to trade-off analysis
good communication of objectives.
The main conclusion is that project objectives and evaluation of time, cost
and quality should also consider the shortcomings and strengths in the
procurement process adopted.
323
75. Ward, S.C., Curtis, B. (1991). Advantages of Management contracting
- critical analysis. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management. Vol. 117 No. 2. June 1991. pp. 195-211.
This paper examines the strengths and weaknesses of management

contracting with a view to providing guidelines on its future use.
The paper is based on a literature review of management contracting and a

programme of interviews with top-level managers from client, design and
contracting organisations in the United Kingdom. An influence diagram
showing interrelationships between advantages cited for management
contracting is used to structure a critical discussion under four general
headings of the advantages of the procurement method: fast completion,
improved design, lower costs, and better supervision and co-ordination. One
section examines the effect of management contracting on project
uncertainty.
Clients' reasons for choosing management contracting are identified and

related to perceived advantages of management contracting. Projects suited
to the use of management contracting are usually large, complex, need for
flexibility, and can gain advantage from early completion. However, a
number of important provisos suggest that management contracting will only
work if everyone involved understands how to make it work and wants to
make it work.


• motivate the team to make the strategy work
• ensure that project size and procurement methods are compatible.
324

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Loughborough University

Conceptual phase best

• A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University.

Metadata Record: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/7241

Please cite the published version.

For the full text of this licence, please go to:

Mohammad Razali bin Abdul Kadir

A Doctoral Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the

award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University of Technology

0 Mohammad Razali bin Abdul Kadir

List of Appendices xvi

Construction projects comprise holistic and organic processes of the

• define tasks performed in the conceptual phase;

• rank the impact of conceptual phase tasks on site

• determine the impact of conceptual phase tasks on

• establish the sequence with which tasks are performed

• establish Best Practices associated with each of the

The research findings were based upon literature, an industry-wide postal

The industry-wide survey and complementary case studies formed the

My sincere thanks for the invaluable assistance to my mentor and

I am also grateful to Prof. Ron McCaffer, my director of research, for his

My unreserved gratitude also goes to the following individuals from the

I am also grateful to Jim McFarlane of Nuclear Electric, Peter Hamden of

My special thanks is reserved for her, Supiah Sahari, whose dedication

1.1 Introduction to subject matter 2

CHAPTER 2: THE PURSUIT FOR PRODUCTIVITY 16

CHAPTER 3: THE QUALITY DIMENSION OF PRODUCTIVITY 31

CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 56

CHAPTER 6: CONCEPTUAL PHASE OF CONSTRUCTION

CHAPTER 7: TASKS IN THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE 84

7.3.2.1 Building construction industry 90

7.5 Proposition for conceptual phase tasks and

CHAPTER 8: EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF SIZEWELL B

8.1 Introduction 119

8.4.2.1 Part 1 of Stage 2 of Sizewell B conceptual

CHAPTER 9: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 1 -

9.1 Introduction 150

9.4 Summary 162

CHAPTER 10: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 2 -

10.1 Introduction 164

11.1 Introduction 178

11.2 Pilot survey 178

11.3 Survey results 179

11.4 Case studies 187

11.4.1 Introduction 187

11.4.2 Case studies background information 187

11.4.3 Adopted best practices 188

11.5 Summary 206

CHAPTER 12: CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

12.1 Introduction 208

Table 2.2: The etymology of productivity 26 •

Table 2.3: Comparison of international industrial labour 28

Table 2.4: Productivity measurement 29

Table 3.1: Definitions of quality 39

Table 3.2: Traditional Management versus Total Quality 44

Table 4.1: Definition of different types of benchmarking 51

Table 5.1: Pilot survey respondent characteristics 60

Table 5.2: Data descriptive statistics 64

Table 5.3: Scale of measurement of variables 65