INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL

OF

CONSERVATION SCIENCE
ISSN: 2067-533X Volume 8, Issue 1, January-March 2017: 145-156 www.ijcs.uaic.ro

GROUNDWATER RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND

AUGMENTATION IN HARD ROCK TERRAIN: AN INTEGRATED
GEOLOGICAL AND GEO-SPATIAL APPROACH
Pramod Chandra SAHU*

Department of Geology, MPC Autonomous College, Baripada, Mayurbhanj District, Odisha, India

Abstract

Digapahandi block of Ganjam district is a chronically drought prone and economically

backward area of Odisha. The agricultural lands which are mostly rain fed bear the adverse
effects of drought resulting in loss of crops. Surface water irrigation is very limited and not
dependable due to vagaries of monsoon rainfall. Drinking water problem is very acute during
summer as most of the wells go dry. Keeping this fact in view the research was aimed at
locating site specific artificial recharge structures for groundwater resource conservation
and augmentation in hard rock terrain. Satellite IRS- IC LISS III data have been used to
prepare various thematic maps. The study reveals that the major litho units are granitic
gneisses, khondalite and charnockite suite of rocks. The geomorphic units are pediplain, flood
plain, denudational and structural hills. Four sets of lineaments have been identified. The
trends of lineaments are broadly NE-SW, NNE-SSW, NW-SE and N-S. The interpreted data is
cross-checked and confirmed during field visits. Based on the hydro-geological set-up,
suitable site- specific artificial recharge structures such as percolation tank, check dam,
contour bund, gully plug and vegetative measures have been suggested to maintain the
balance between the recharge and draft.

Keywords: Conservation; Artificial recharge; Hydro-geomorphology; Lineament; Drought prone

Introduction

Groundwater is one of the most important natural resources required for human
consumption, domestic purposes, irrigation, industrialization, urbanization etc. The demand for
groundwater is increasing every year due to growing population, recurring drought and
increased agricultural and industrial activities. To meet this increasing demand, proper
understanding of the groundwater condition in terms of availability and distribution very
important. Groundwater condition in hard rock terrain is multivariate because of heterogeneous
nature of aquifer due to varying composition, degree of weathering and density of fracturing.
Remote sensing has become an indispensable tool for groundwater exploration in hard rock
areas because the topographic expression and terrain characteristics have a direct relation to the
geological characteristics of the rocks and their structural set up.
Located on the east coast of India, Digapahandi block of Ganjam district, Orissa is
bounded by 1911’30” to 1924’0” N Latitude and 8419’50” to 8441’24” E longitude falling
in the Survey of India Topo Sheet Nos.74 A/7,74 A/8, 74 A/11 (Fig.1).

*
Corresponding author: pcsahugeol@gmail.com
P.C. SAHU

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area

It has a geographical area of 422.18sq.km. As per 2011 census, the total population of
the block is 136618. The area enjoys a humid and sub-tropical climate characterized by cold
winter and hot summer. The annual average rainfall is 1296mm. The most common soil types
in the block are red sandy soils, red loamy soils and alluvial soils. The soils are mainly neutral
to mildly acidic in nature. Digapahandi block shows wide variation in the pattern of land
utilization. Nearly 75% to 80% of the geographical area is available for cultivation. The
drainage pattern is dendritic (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Drainage map of the study area

Digapahandi block of Ganjam district is a chronically drought prone and economically

backward area of Odisha. The area requires development of ground water through suitable
structures to combat drought and to increase crop yield by covering more areas under irrigation.
In this study an attempt has been made to synthesize all the hydro-geological data generated and
related information collected from various sources for groundwater resource augmentation for
sustainable growth of agriculture and mitigating drinking water in the study area. The literature
available on ground water resource related studies was reviewed in detail. Some authors [1-6] in
their studies relating to ground water exploration and targeting potential ground water zone,
have emphasized that integrated geological, geophysical, remote sensing and GIS techniques

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should be adopted for targeting potential ground water zones in hard rock areas. Authors [7-15]
have emphasized the need to adopt modern know-how i.e. Remote Sensing and GIS to evaluate
the ground water potential in hard rock provinces. Authors[16-18] in their studies on ground
water development and management has remarked that artificial recharge structures/rain water
harvesting structures play a key role in sustainable development of ground water resources.

Methodology

The present study was carried out by interpretation of the Satellite Imageries of IRS- IC
LISS III in the scale of 1:50000. Thematic maps on hydro geomorphology and lithology have
been prepared. Reconnaissance survey with special reference to lithology, structure, topography
and weathering characteristics was made during field visits. Resistivity Survey has been
conducted to understand the sub-surface condition. Systematic collection of hydro geological
data for both pre and post monsoon period during well inventory studies and interpretation of
data was carried out. Collection of secondary data like population, rainfall, ground water
abstraction structures and irrigation potential was made. Data generated have been analyzed,
synthesized and interpreted. Suitable sites for specific water harvesting structures/artificial
recharge structures have been demarcated in the map of the study area.

Results and discussions

Geological Aspect
The study area is underlain by the Eastern Ghats Group of rocks of Pre-Cambrian age,
which includes granitic gneisses, khondalite and charnockite suite of rocks. Alluvium of Recent
age occurs as the discontinuous patches in the close vicinity of river channels. Granitic gneiss is
the dominant lithology of the study area. The lithology map prepared from satellite data,
ancillary data and field checks is shown in the (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Lithology map of the study area

The rocks have undergone intense structural and metamorphic deformation as revealed
by features like foliation, lineation, shearing, joints, folds etc. Tectonic foliation is well
developed in granitic gneiss and khondalite. The khondalitic suite of rocks are highly foliated,
jointed and folded. Charnockites are usually compact and massive. Examination of sections of
dug wells excavated in granitic gneiss at Bhismagiri, Jakarpali, Padmanavpur, Digapahandi,

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Ramachandrapur and Bomkei villages and analysis of litholog data revealed that the depth of
weathering extends down to a depth of about 5m to 15m below ground level.
Geomorphology
Geomorphology exercises a significant control over groundwater regime. The relief,
slope, depth and type of weathered materials and the overall disposition of different land forms
play an important role in defining the groundwater regime, more particularly in hard rock areas.
Through remote sensing technique, various hydro geomorphic units within the block have been
identified (Table 1). The different hydro-geomorphic units are shown in (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Hydro-geomorphology map of the study area

Table 1. Hydro-geomorphology of the study area

Geomorphic unit Lithology / Structure Description

Deeply weathered buried Granitic gneiss with lineaments Flat surface with more than 10m thick
pediplain weathered zone
Shallow weathered buried Granitic gneiss with or without lineaments Flat or slightly undulating land surface
pediplain with less than 10m thick weathered zone
Pediment Granitic gneiss, Charnockite and Gently sloping rocky floor, erosional
Khondalite, with or without lineaments surface of low relief covered with thin
veneer of detritus
Flood plain Sand, Silt and Clays A level or gently sloping land surface
produced by extensive deposit of
alluvium, highly permeable zone
Structural valley Granitic gneiss, fractured control Flat valley surrounded by hills around,
filled with colluvial deposits.
Denudational hill Khondalite and Charnockite without Relict hills which have undergone the
lineaments process of extensive denudation
Inselberg Ganitic gneiss, Khandalite/ Charnockite Isolated hill with limited areal extension
surrounded by plain lands

Lineament
Study of lineaments, which act as conduits of groundwater can help in identifying
potential sites for groundwater recharging. The lineament and intersection of lineaments is
favourable indicator for groundwater recharging sites. In hard rock terrain, lineaments are the
most sought after features for groundwater development. Lineaments mapped from satellite data
are natural linear or curvilinear features that can be correlated to faults, fractures, joints,
bedding trace, lithological contact etc. The study area is characterized by NE-SW, NNE-SSW,
NW-SE and N-S trending lineaments. The trends of dominant lineaments are NE-SW and NNE-

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SSW characteristics of granitic gneisses. The lineament density is high in North-Western part of
the area and some scattered pockets in eastern and southern part of the area.
Hydrogeology
The contrasting water bearing properties of different geological formations usually play
an important role in the occurrence and movement of ground water. The crystalline rocks of
Achaean age occupy about 95% of the total geographical area. The narrow discontinuous
patches of recent to sub-recent alluvium along the river courses occupy small area in the block.
Depending on the water yielding properties of various formations, the block can be broadly
grouped into two distinct hydro geological units.
Consolidated formation
These include granite and granite gneisses, khondalite and charnockites of Eastern Ghats
Group of rocks. These rocks are devoid of primary porosity and are usually very hard and
compact in nature. The secondary porosity in the consolidated formation developed as a result
of weathering and fracturing due to major and minor tectonic movements, form the conduits for
movement of ground water as also act as reservoir of ground water. This fractured and jointed
rocks when interconnected form potential aquifers, which sustain limited to moderate yield.
Ground water occurs under water table condition in the weathered residuum while it occurs
under semi-confined to confined conditions in the fractures and jointed rocks.
Unconsolidated formations
Alluvium of Recent to Sub-recent age constitutes the unconsolidated formations. The
alluvium deposits along the bank of river course form the most potential aquifer due to high
degree of porosity and permeability. The alluvium comprises an admixture of gravel, sand and
clay derived from eroded and weathered country rocks. The thickness of the alluvium in flood
plain vary from 10m to 30m.
Water bearing properties of major lithounits
Most prevalent rock types occurring in the block are granites and granite-gneisses. These
are reduced to loose kaolinised granular materials on weathering. The thickness of the
weathered mantle ranges from 5m to 15m and some times up to 20m. The weathered, fractured
and fissured granites, granite gneisses occurring on topographic low form potential aquifers.
The water yielding fracture zones are generally restricted within a depth of 100m bgl. However,
some water yielding fractures have been encountered even at a depth of 160m to 180m bgl. In
most of the bore holes two or three water bearing fractures zones have been encountered within
100m depth. Bore wells up to a depth of 100m are the typical ground water structures for
fractured rocks. The yield of the well depends upon the thickness of the water saturated zones
as also numbers of intersecting fractures tapped.
Nature of aquifer
Groundwater in the study area occurs mainly in (i) weathered mantle (ii) fractured zone
of hard rocks and (iii) narrow zone of unconsolidated sediments consisting of younger alluvium
along river valleys. Groundwater occurs under water table condition mainly in the weathered
mantle and narrow zones of unconsolidated sediments along river valley. The weathered zone
(saprolite) is of importance as storage zone of groundwater. The yield of individual well is
dependent largely on the saprolite and for the deeper rocks well yield is dependent upon
intensity of spatial extent of interconnected fractures. Large diameter dug wells of depth up to
15m are the typical groundwater extraction structures for weathered rocks. The open wells may
sustain yield of 3 to 18 LPS. The average thickness of weathered zone ranges from 5m to 15m.
The more productive wells are generally limited to highly weathered, jointed and fractured
rocks. In less productive wells, saprolite is generally underlain by massive rocks or bedrocks
with meager fractures. Groundwater occurs under semi-confined to confined condition in the
fractured rocks depending on the depth. The water yielding fracture zones are generally
restricted within a depth of 100m bgl. However, some water yielding fractures have been
encountered even at a depth of 160-180m bgl. In most of the boreholes two or three water

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bearing fractures zones have been encountered within 100m depth. Bore wells up to a depth of
100m are the typical groundwater structures for fractured rocks. The discharge varies from 2 to
27 LPS.
Status of water table
The depth to water table during pre and post monsoon period varies form 2.75m to 9.6m
bgl and 0.33 to 2.45m bgl respectively. Seasonal fluctuation in the wells located in upland areas
in higher than that in the low laying areas. The value of seasonal fluctuation of water table
varies from 2.1m to 7.5m. Most of the areas show fluctuation between 3 to 6m. The water
table contours are generally in conformity with the topography. The water table gradient varies
from 1.9m/km to 2.85m/km. The groundwater flow direction do not show any definite trend but
is highly influenced by topographic and geologic setting. In general, the groundwater flow
direction is towards SE.
Groundwater Potential Zones
Integrating all the above mentioned information such as geology, geomorphology,
drainage, lineament, and aquifer system, Digapahandi block has been classified into different
groundwater potential zones viz. “High”, “Moderate” and “Low” (Table 2).
A perusal of the map showing groundwater potential zones indicates that the potentiality
of aquifer system for groundwater development is moderate to good in 60% of the study area
(Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Groundwater potential zone map of the study area

High potential areas are scattered throughout the area in pockets. In areas of high and
moderate potential, groundwater can be exploited with suitable abstraction structures like dug
wells, dug-cum-bore wells and bore wells. Where the groundwater potential is low, water table
is more than 7-8m bgl and dug wells go dry during summer, the existing dug wells can either be
deepened or bore well can be drilled to meet the water requirement. Further, rainwater
harvesting and artificial recharge techniques should be implemented effectively to augment the
groundwater resources. The groundwater potential zones map can form the base map for the
concerned authorities to take necessary action in planning of land use and to identity sites for
groundwater exploitation in future.

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Table 2. Groundwater Potential Zones of the study area

Groundwater Characteristic features of the Areal Important Locations

Potential Zone zone distribution
(Approx.)
Deeply weathered buried Ganeswarpur, Denkari, Gokarnapur,
pediplain, flood plain, high Digapahandi, Khamarigam, Pentha,
lineament density, Intersection 30% Santarapur, Bhismagiri, Jakamari,
HIGH points of lineaments, flat to gentle Sahadeb, Gajapatipatna, Padmanavpur,
slope, depth to water table 1m to Bajragumma, Jakarapali,Sanakelajhori,
5m bgl Jakar, Dekali and Bomkei
Shallow weathered buried
Talapada, Talasingi, Bhusanda,
pediplain, moderate lineament
Ankorada, Kusapada, Jharipadar,
MODERATE density, moderate slope, depth to 32%
Turubudi, Komarada, Karapada,
water table 5m to 8m bgl,
Dharmapada, Nandagaon,Sidheswar,
extension of lineament to
Kotinada and Shyamasundarpur
pediment.
Gumma, Engarsing Padmapur,
Rajghada, Badapur Bidyadharpur, Tada,
Pediment without lineaments,
38% Dhepaguda, Kusaput, Kinchirida,
depth to water table greater than
LOW Allalingi, Dhamanapadar, Mahulpaa,
8m bgl, high to moderate slope
Rangaputa, Arakhapada, Keshapur,
Kuruma, Damapur and Mahulapada

Groundwater Resource Conservation and Augmentation

Keeping in view the above facts, groundwater conservation and augmentation is
considered to be the only solution to maintain a balance between the annual recharge and
discharge. Artificial recharge techniques play a major role for conservation of groundwater [19-
26]. The main source of groundwater recharge is rainfall, which is mostly lost as surface runoff
and hence the only alternative to replenish the groundwater is by artificial means.
Groundwater Recharge Zones
Digapahandi block can be grouped into 4 natural groundwater recharge zone based on
the porosity, permeability and runoff characteristics of the land. The landforms, lithology,
presence of lineaments, slope factor, land use/land cover and surface water bodies available
play an important role to select these natural recharge sites (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Ground water recharge zone map of the study area

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Zone 1. The fracture controlled small valleys filled with unconsolidated sediments, buried
pediments with thick weathered zones and areas with good vegetative covers in the
foothill regions are the zones of good recharge. These areas are very gently sloping
and are mostly cultivated land, which help in the retention of surface water.
Zone 2. This zone occupies the shallow weathered pediplains adjacent to the zone 1, with good
concentration of lineaments. The recharge rate is good to moderate.
Zone 3. This zone represents the higher slope area of buried pediments with scanty vegetation
and structural hills traversed by fractures and fissures. The groundwater recharge rate
is moderate to low.
Zone 4.The denudational and residual hills of the study area which have only open and
degraded forest cover with steep slope are runoff zones and categorized as zone 4,
where the minor fractures are the only linear area through which percolation may take
place.

Artificial Recharge
Considering the hydro geological set-up, natural recharge conditions, groundwater
potential, future optimal use of groundwater, soil and slope of the area, prevailing land use and
cropping pattern in the study area, suitable sites for specific water harvesting structures/
artificial recharge structures such as percolation tank, check dam, gully plugs have been
demarcated. Besides these, sites for agriculture- related measures which will aid artificial
recharge have also been shown in the map. The construction of artificial recharge structures will
not only augment groundwater resources, but also will help in solving geo-environmental
problems like land degradation by soil erosion and loss of soil moisture (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Proposed artificial recharge structure map of the study area

Percolation Tank
Percolation tanks are shallow tanks constructed at appropriate places in natural or
diverted stream courses and provided with a waste weir to allow excess water to continue its
course. The ideal site for construction of percolation tanks are gently slope, terrain of light
soils, weathered materials of moderate thickness and fractures zones. However, these tanks
need scraping of bottoms once in a year or two depending on the rate of accumulation of fine
sediments at the bottom of the tank. Percolation tank is the most suitable structure for
recharging groundwater in the hard rock areas, because in addition to artificial recharge it
contributes directly to irrigation from the stored water. Percolation tanks in the study area may

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be selected at comparatively higher elevations with creation of embankments only on sideways

and on down slope sides. The upslope sides should remain open for easy entry of surface runoff
water. Within the study area such structures may be constructed around Kotinada,
Ganeswarpur, Sidheswar, Basudevpur, Gokarnapur, Jagannathpur, Bhusanda and Dekhali.
Percolation - Cum- Irrigation Tank
The main purpose of this tank is for collection of surface runoff to facilitate percolation
and to hold flow of silt. In addition, the stored water is used for cultivation in the nearby areas
through field canals. This type of tank is usually created on the upstream side of first order
stream having a good catchments area for sufficient entry of runoff water. Accordingly suitable
sites can be selected around the villages Ramachandrapur, Digapahandi, Samantarapur,
Jharipadar, Jakar and Bajraguma.
Check dam
The purpose of check dam is to reduce runoff velocity, to minimise erosion and to allow
percolation of surface water. Sites for check dams have been selected on lower order stream (up
to 3rd order) with catchments area of about 40ha, where the level of groundwater fluctuation is
high and slope is moderate. Such structures can be of help around villages Dhepaguda,
Kinchirida, Guma, Kesapur, Sahabeda, Santarapur and Dharmapadar.
Subsurface Bund/ Artificial Dyke
Artificial subsurface dykes are feasible in hard rock areas in narrow gently sloping
valleys where bedrock occurs at shallow depth and valley fills consists of about 4 to 8m of
pervious materials. Groundwater reservoirs can be created by constructing subsurface dykes
across the flow direction of groundwater. Subsurface dykes of 1 to 4m height are found to be
effective in augmenting the groundwater resources particularly in hard rock areas underlain by
fractured aquifers. By keeping the top of the dyke 1m below the land surface, the riparian rights
of the farmers downstream are not violated and water logging or salt accumulation on the
upstream side of the dam is prevented. The dyke can be constructed with materials like clays,
bitumen, polythene sheets besides bricks and concrete depending on local conditions.
Contour Bunding
Contour bunding is the construction of small bunds across the slope of the land on a
contour. Each contour bund acts as a barrier to the flow of water and check the runoff water,
thus contributing a part to recharge of groundwater through water spreading. In the study area
suitable sites are in upland and hilly regions of Digapahandi block. The upslope of the
cultivated lands may be selected for contour bunding to save the cultivated areas from soil
erosion and to facilitate groundwater recharge.
Gully Plugging
In the hard rock areas particularly in plateau regions, formation of numerous gullies is a
common phenomenon and the study area is not an exception to that. The main cause of
formation of such gullies is large-scale deforestation followed by heavy soil erosion due to
surface runoff creating waste land on both sides of the stream courses. In such a rocky area,
where scope for cultivation is limited, the land suitable for agriculture is being converted to
waste land rapidly. In the study area there is an urgent need for plugging the gullies with the use
of locally available materials. By adopting such measures, the top soil can be protected as well
as the rate of infiltration of water can be increased.

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Hydro-fracturing
The unconventional technique of hydro-fracturing may be undertaken for improving the
yields of bore wells in hard rock areas. This technique has the following advantages.
1. Widening of existing fractures
2. Removal of clogging in the fracture connectivity.
3. Creation of interconnection of fractures
4. Extending the length of the old fractures
5. Creation of new fractures in the aquifers.

Conclusions

Since the block is drought prone, there is an urgent need of ground water exploitation to
save the crops and provide safe drinking water. The ground water abstraction through open
wells restricted up to the weathered mantle can not meet the requirements of the inhabitants
throughout the year. Most of the wells go dry during summer. The only alternative is to get
water from fracture zones through suitable ground water structures, which may be helpful for
the development of the agrarian based poor socio-economic conditions of the people in the
study area, because till now mostly dug/ open wells are being utilized for domestic and
agricultural purpose. The present study emphasizes on the need and scope for artificial recharge
to augment groundwater, scientific well siting on the basis of the result of the present hydro
geological studies aided by remote sensing and GIS techniques. Optimal and judicious
utilization of ground water through properly designed abstraction structures constructed at
suitable locale with accompanying protection, augmentation and conservation measures can
being about laurels to the agrarian economy of the area and can mitigate the problems of
drinking water scarcity faced during summer.

Acknowledgements

The author is thankful to UGC, Government of India for providing financial assistance to
carry out the works. Thanks are due to my colleague, friends and Sri D. Nandi for helping me in
preparing this manuscript.

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Received: May 31, 2016

Accepted: February 26, 2017

156 INT J CONSERV SCI 8, 1, JAN-MAR 2017: 145-156