International Journal of Play

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Putting play in its place: presenting a continuum

to decrease mental health referrals and increase
purposeful play in classrooms

Karyn A. Allee-Herndon, Dalena Dillman Taylor & Sherron Killingsworth

Roberts

To cite this article: Karyn A. Allee-Herndon, Dalena Dillman Taylor & Sherron Killingsworth
Roberts (2019): Putting play in its place: presenting a continuum to decrease mental health
referrals and increase purposeful play in classrooms, International Journal of Play, DOI:
10.1080/21594937.2019.1643993

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Published online: 11 Aug 2019.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLAY
https://doi.org/10.1080/21594937.2019.1643993

Putting play in its place: presenting a continuum to decrease

mental health referrals and increase purposeful play in
classrooms
a
Karyn A. Allee-Herndon , Dalena Dillman Taylorb and Sherron Killingsworth Roberts b

a
Tift College of Education, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia; bSchool of Teacher Education, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Recent shifts in elementary instruction over the past few decades Received 16 February 2019
have resulted in less play-based engagement in schools. Accepted 5 July 2019
Simultaneously, children are being referred for counseling or
KEYWORDS
mental health services at startling rate. As members of elementary School counselors;
school leadership teams, counselors are often in a unique position purposeful play; play therapy;
to advocate for the best interests of children’s overall well-being mental health; child
and to support school faculty in best meeting their needs. This development
article presents a Continuum of Play inclusive of play-based
mental health services for children and instructional play
approaches facilitated by classroom teachers. This continuum is
intended to be a tool for school counselors to aid teachers in
deciphering appropriate levels of developmentally appropriate,
play-based classroom interventions with children who may
present with academic or behavioral challenges before
recommending a clinical therapeutic approach. We believe when
children have more opportunities to engage in age-appropriate
playful learning, the need for mental health supports may decrease.

Play has been controversial for educational researchers, policymakers, and practitioners
alike. While agreement largely persists that play is developmentally appropriate for chil-
dren and that children need play for social, emotional, cognitive, language, and physical
growth, many teachers in the field believe that play and structured academic learning
are mutually exclusive. The reauthorization of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Edu-
cation Act as the 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act continues a trend of focusing increas-
ingly on federal prescriptions for school improvement with an emphasis on standards-
driven reform and test-based accountability (Hunt Institute, 2016). In the past two
decades, the general view of play in school has shifted in the wake of an increased focus
on high stakes testing with direct instruction, worksheets, scripted curricula, and
regular assessment monitoring in an effort to leave no child behind (Bassok, Latham, &
Rorem, 2016; Fisher, Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Singer, & Berk, 2010). In the early 2000s,
Paley (2004) accentuated this ‘misplaced academics of kindergarten’ (p. 46) to highlight
the shifting emphases on testing and standards. She noted, ‘It turned out to be not so

CONTACT Karyn A. Allee-Herndon allee-herndon_ka@mercer.edu Tift College of Education, Mercer University,

3001 Mercer University Drive, 30341-4155, Atlanta, Georgia
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 K. A. ALLEE-HERNDON ET AL.

much the academics we were adding, but the time we subtracted … ’ (p. 46). Elkind (2007)
echoed these concerns about the dynamic of time needed for play: ‘Play is not a luxury, but
rather a crucial dynamic of healthy physical, intellectual, and social-emotional develop-
ment at all age levels.’ (p. 4). However, common practice has persisted into schools redu-
cing or even eliminating outdoor, gross motor play during recess periods to increase focus
on tested subject areas (Barros, Silver, & Stein, 2009).
Additionally, the children who often end up losing out on guided play in the classroom
or outdoor recess the most are children of color, children in low-income or poor house-
holds, and children who live in urban areas (Barros et al., 2009; Copple & Bredekamp,
2009). These children are also more likely to begin school without prerequisite social-
emotional skills and foundational content knowledge which begins a trend of widening
the predictable school achievement gap throughout their kindergarten through 12th
grade (K-12) experience (i.e. Ackerman, Brown, & Izard, 2004a; Ackerman, Brown, &
Izard, 2004b; Apthorp et al., 2012; Bernhard, Winsler, Bleiker, Ginieniewicz, &
Madigan, 2008; Blair & Raver, 2015, 2016; Huang & Invernizzi, 2012; Paley, 2004;
Raver, Blair, & Willoughby, 2012; Sood & Jitendra, 2013). The lack of high-quality play
and skills and knowledge necessary for success in school compounds the academic, behav-
ioral, and social-emotional challenges in school for the most vulnerable students (i.e.
Allee-Herndon & Roberts, 2018; Bartlett, 2011; Fisher et al., 2010; Gilbert, Harte, &
Patrick, 2011; Pellis, Pellis, & Himmler, 2014; Weisberg, Hirsh-Pasek, & Golinkoff, 2013).
Elementary school counselors play an important role in schools, often serve on the
school’s official or de facto leadership team, influence decision-making at the school,
and support both classroom teachers and students. School counselors are uniquely
positioned, to advocate for instructional approaches that maximize social-emotional
development as well as cognitive, academic, and physical development. As such, school
counselors may be uniquely positioned to advocate for the Continuum of Play that sup-
ports all children but may particularly benefit children experiencing classroom-based
challenges.
In this paper, the authors provide needed background research on play in development,
define the types of play therapy for children with mental health referrals along with the
types of play possible in elementary school classrooms, and link connections between the
two realms to provide school counselors the needed justification to recommend various inter-
vention strategies that include play. Following this, the authors present the Continuum of
Play, modified and expanded from the work of others, to aid counselors and teachers in deci-
phering appropriate levels of intervention with children who may present with academic and/
or behavioral challenges. To be used as a tool for school counselors, the Continuum of Play is
inclusive of play therapy as well as purposeful, instructional play in the classroom. The ulti-
mate goal of this piece is to provide practical information for school counselors and their col-
leagues to advocate for developmentally appropriate classroom interventions to include
purposeful play in classrooms, so as to mitigate the need for therapeutic interventions.

A rationale for play

Play is considered by many researchers and theorists to be essential for human develop-
ment. The study of play tends to concentrate on three interdependent areas: the influence
of play on problem-solving and creativity, the relationship between pretend play and the
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLAY 3

development of language and symbolic thinking, and perhaps most studied, the effects of
play on the development of prosocial behaviors, but can be ambiguous to define as a con-
struct (Fisher, 1992; Larsen, 2015; Sutton-Smith, 1997/2001; White, 2013). The National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) stated an experience must
be comprised of five aspects to be considered play: child choice or decision-making, intrin-
sic motivation, immersive, spontaneous, and enjoyable (NAEYC, n.d.). Pellegrini (2013)
declared play to occur in locomotor, object, social, and pretend play domains, while
White (2013) stated play includes social, object, pretend, physical, and media play.
Others suggest that, for the purposes of reaching instructional goals aligned to rigorous
academic standards while still maintaining developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)
(Copple & Bredekamp, 2009), play must be guided, purposeful, and driven by adults
(Weisberg, Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Kittredge, & Klahr, 2016).
Despite the variety of definitions, Bodrova and Leong (2003) point out that play is ordinarily
comprehended as an important and valuable activity, and high-level play is perceived as both
fun and developmentally valuable. Optimally, play in educational situations not only pro-
vides a real medium for learning and development, but also enables knowledgeable adults
to learn about children and their needs. Unfortunately, it often happens that a hard and
fast distinction is made between play and learning, whereby play is seen as spontaneously
initiated by the participants themselves and not subject to external constraints, and learning
is seen as a teacher-directed activity with specific goals, making it seem very much like work.
(Tsai, 2017, p. 153)

While play may seem to many an obvious way for children in elementary school to spend
their time, in our current educational climate, play is often seen as mutually exclusive to
academic learning; and teachers in early elementary (kindergarten through 3rd grade; K-3)
are engaging in purposeful play far less during the school day than they did just 30 years
ago (Bassok et al., 2016). Among play researchers, however, play is critically important,
not just as a vehicle for developing self-regulation and executive function, but also to
promote social competence and emotional literacy, language and literacy development,
cognition and content-related concept building, creativity and imagination, empathy
and resilience, cooperation and collaboration, and persistence and intelligence (Copple
& Bredekamp, 2009; Fisher, 1992; Fisher et al., 2010; Lillard et al., 2013; Pellegrini,
2013; White, 2013).
The positive impacts of physical activity on learning and academic outcomes are evident
in the research literature (e.g. Armin et al., 2017; Barros et al., 2009; Blom, Alvarez, Zhang, &
Kolbo, 2011; James-Burdumy et al., 2013; Jarret, 2002; Massey et al., 2017; Mullender-
Wijnsma et al., 2015). Additionally, play, both physical play outdoors as well as guided
and free play in the classroom, has been shown to improve children’s executive function
and self-regulation skills as well as improve their social-emotional skills (e.g. Bartlett,
2011; Bell, 2014; Lillard et al., 2013; McArdle, Harrison, & Harrison, 2013; McClelland,
Pitt, & Stein, 2015; White, 2013). Further, research seems to point to particular benefits
(e.g. increased social-emotional aptitude, improved attention to academic tasks, increased
physical wellness) for children from at-risk backgrounds (e.g. Barros et al., 2009; Blom
et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2010; Massey et al., 2017; McArdle et al., 2013).
As stated, the most vulnerable students are most at risk when play is absent from school
and learning. Researchers found strong statistical correlations among poverty, stress,
and chaos that diminish capacity in executive functions (EF), self-regulation (SR), and
4 K. A. ALLEE-HERNDON ET AL.

social-emotional development (SED) (i.e. Ackerman et al., 2004b; Blair & Raver, 2015,
2016; Fitzpatrick, McKinnon, Blair, & Willoughby, 2014; Hassinger-Das, Hirsch-Pasek,
& Golinkoff, 2017; Lally & Mangione, 2017; Raver et al., 2012; Shonkoff, 2011, 2017).
EF, SR, and SED are integral to school readiness and positive approaches to learning
(i.e. Blair, 2016; Blair & Raver, 2015; Brown & Low, 2008; Fitzpatrick et al., 2014;
Rathbun & West, 2004; Zill & West, 2001), as well as for developing language skills, foun-
dational early literacy skills, and early conceptual math skills (i.e. Ackerman et al., 2004a;
Bernhard et al., 2008; Engle & Black, 2008; Huang & Invernizzi, 2012; Sood & Jitendra,
2013; Yoshikawa et al., 2013).
Based on kindergarten entry assessments and primary grades determinations of chil-
dren’s social-emotional behaviors, approaches to learning, foundational academic knowl-
edge, and abilities to meet the expectations of school, educators quickly identify children as
either ready and capable or not. Additionally, poor SR and social-emotional skills contrib-
ute to overrepresentation in exceptional education programs (Moreno & Gaytan, 2013;
Raines, Dever, & Kamphaus, 2012), to higher frequencies of behaviors not conducive to
learning and lead to exclusionary discipline practices (Bodovski, Nahum-Shani, &
Walsh, 2013; Christofferson & Callahan, 2015; Wyman et al., 2010). Further, poor SR
and SEL skills also contribute to increased grade-level retention and school dropout
rates (Child Trends Data Bank, 2016; Duncan, Yeung, Brooks-Gunn, & Smith, 1998;
Engle & Black, 2008). When children are spending excessive time in timeout, referred
to administration, suspended from school, or even missing school because of a persistent
lack of success, these factors set in motion a vicious cycle of reduced instructional time and
diminished learning. The sad result is the further widening of an already alarming aca-
demic achievement gap between at-risk children entering school unready and their
more advantaged peers in the primary elementary grades that continues to be com-
pounded throughout students’ K-12 experiences (Blair & Raver, 2015; Engle & Black,
2008; Frost, 2012).

The role of play in elementary school

The current debate over the most appropriate pedagogical approach for teaching children
in elementary school is often seen erroneously as a purely dichotomous one. The misper-
ception is that teachers either choose to implement standards and accountability-driven
instruction that is prescribed, detailed, academic, and rigorous, or that teachers allow
young children complete choice and autonomy to define both what and how they want
to learn with little adult interference or guidance. The goal of purposeful play-based
instruction in the classroom lies between these two ends of the spectrum to combine
adult guidance and facilitation focused on specific learning goals related to standards
with the joyfulness of children’s autonomy to choose and explore and is influenced by
the constructivist theories of Dewey (1904), Montesssori (1912), Piaget (1977), and
Vygotsky (1978).
The foundational belief of purposeful or guided play, which is a common mode of play-
based learning in elementary classrooms, is that learning should support the development
of the whole child and allows for active manipulation of learning materials to extend chil-
dren’s understandings and enhances their interest in the disciplinary subject matter
(Bodrova & Leong, 2007; McDonald, 2018; Mraz, Porcelli, & Tyler, 2016; Riek, 2014).
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLAY 5

Purposeful learning happens when teachers hold both content and play pedagogy under-
standings to design learning spaces that are interactive, intentional, investigative, person-
alized to interests and needs, scaffolded to support discovery and connections to prior
learning, and aligned to academic goals and learning standards. Guided play classrooms
do not simply provide opportunities for children to play, but also encourage children to
challenge themselves, reflect on their own understanding, tap into their interests and
unique needs or talents to make connections to learning, and to develop self-efficacy as
learners.
Yet, why should teachers engage in play-based teaching? This type of teaching often
takes significantly more time, effort, and commitment than teaching from the teacher
guide or the district curriculum framework. Play-based teaching may even be considered
oppositional to school or district instructional expectations. Experts in various academic
disciplines as well as those more focused on social-emotional development agree that play
is a foundational way for young children to engage with the world and others around them
to learn and develop conceptual and practical knowledge (i.e. Cook, Goodman, & Schulz,
2011; Dore, Smith, & Lillard, 2015; Han, Moore, Vukelich, & Buell, 2010; Massey, 2013;
Ramani & Siegler, 2008). Some researchers even go so far as to say that play is imperative
in the healthy development of young children’s cognition, neural plasticity, readiness to
work within social norms, and meeting desired learning outcomes (i.e. Bartlett, 2011;
Fisher et al., 2010; Frost, 2012; Gilbert et al., 2011; Jarvis, Newman, & Swiniarski, 2014;
Pellis et al., 2014; Weisberg et al., 2013). And last, but quite possibly not least, playful peda-
gogy makes learning more fun and children more engaged in the process, which, in turn,
may help decrease the challenge behaviors that teachers can perceive as mental health
issues. At school, children who present with these types of challenges are frequently
referred to school counselors and other mental health care providers for various types
of therapy, including play therapy.

Play therapy for children

According to the Association for Play Therapy (2018), play therapy is ‘the systematic use
of a theoretical model to establish an interpersonal process wherein trained play therapists
use the therapeutic powers of play to help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial difficul-
ties and achieve optimal growth and development’ (para. 1). Children utilize their natural
language of play within a supportive, therapeutic relationship to overcome presenting
issues through the development of self-esteem, self-control, and increased coping skills.
Researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of play therapy regardless of age,
gender, or presenting issue (Bratton, Ray, Rhine, & Jones, 2005; Lin & Bratton, 2015).
Several modalities of play therapy have been deemed evidenced based (e.g. Adlerian
Play Therapy, AdPT [effective], Child-Centered Play Therapy, CCPT [promising],
Child Parent Relationship Therapy, CPRT [effective], Substance Abuse and Mental
Health Service Administration, SAMHSA, 2015). Further, Ray, Armstrong, Balkin, and
Jayne (2015) found strong evidence for the use of CCPT in schools.
Mental health professionals, including school counselors, social workers, school psy-
chologists, and mental health counselors, receive advanced training and credentials to
practice play therapy effectively. Play therapy is effective with a variety of presenting con-
cerns such trauma, behavioral problems, grief and loss, attention deficit and hyperactivity
6 K. A. ALLEE-HERNDON ET AL.

disorder (ADHD), anxiety, depression, autism, academic problems, developmental delays,

conduct disorders, and others. As the understanding of the importance of play is elevated,
one may hope that play therapy referrals will likely increase, and the overuse of psycho-
tropic medications may decrease. Further research is needed to evaluate this link.

Counseling and classroom connections

With the decline of play in elementary schools, both as a pedagogical approach to learning
in the classroom and with outdoor gross-motor play, teachers have been witness to an
increasing number of disciplinary referrals and expulsions, even at the prekindergarten
levels, and reports of children unable to meet behavioral and learning expectations in
the general education classroom (Bowman-Perrott et al., 2013; Brown & Steele, 2015;
Burke, Oats, Ringle, Fichtner, & DelGaudio, 2011; McLear, Trentacosta, & Smith-
Darden, 2016; Parker, Paget, Ford, & Gwernan-Jones, 2016; Razza, Martin, & Brooks-
Gunn, 2015, 2016; Skiba et al., 2011). Also concerning is the overrepresentation of children
from low-income, second language, immigrant, or racial and ethnic minority households
in both exclusionary disciplinary practices and the exceptional education system which is
frequently directly correlated with the aforementioned lack of essential social-emotional,
self-regulatory, and language skills considered acceptable in schooling (i.e. Daunic, 2013:
Graham, Taylor, & Hudley, 2015; Graves et al., 2017; Skiba et al., 2011). Subsequently, the
Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2018) reported nearly 2 million (11% of
the population surveyed) additional children were diagnosed with ADHD from 2003 to
2016, with 62% taking medications for ADHD. Nearly two-thirds of these children with
an ADHD diagnosis also have another mental, emotional, or behavioral disorder (CDC,
2018). However, Panksepp (2007) noted a common belief that only 4% of children are
born with ADHD, while other children develop this condition based on environmental
influences, reflecting a ‘cultural illness’ (i.e. lack of play time). As noted previously, play
can be a strong protective factor for those children without predispositions to develop
mental health problems. By understanding the importance of play, educational pro-
fessionals can implement play across a continuum to intervene with children at the
level of their needs, recognizing that not all children need therapeutic or psychological
interventions, but all children need play to grow, develop, and mitigate stressors.

The continuum of play

Play Therapy United Kingdom (n.d.) created a visual model of the levels of play therapy on
a continuum of intensity of intervention. Similarly, Pyle and Danniels (2017) operationa-
lized classroom-based play into five categories ranging from significant teacher influence
on the play through increasing levels of child agency on the play in the classroom. Building
upon this work, we created the Continuum of Play which includes the play therapy
elements as well as the classroom-based play elements moving inward from the most
intensive adult interventions or direction at the far ends of the continuum to the most
child-directed behaviors in the middle (Figure 1). This Continuum of Play is intended
to support professional school counselors and classroom teachers as they consider the
most appropriate, least restrictive interventions for children who exhibit concerning
behaviors.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLAY 7

Figure 1 Continuum of play: From therapy to teaching.

For example, prior to assuming that therapeutic or pharmaceutical measures are an

appropriate next step for a child, school counselors may use this Continuum of Play to
encourage classroom teachers to explore the potential benefits of using play-based class-
room interventions to mediate problematic behaviors without a counseling intervention.
Further, in situations where needed, school counselors can make the case to administra-
tors to allow classroom teachers to enact more developmentally appropriate play in class-
rooms. In simpler terms, would the child benefit from engaging in developmentally
appropriate play-based learning experiences in the classroom? Is therapy, play-based or
otherwise, truly warranted? Inclusive of its purpose to enhance children’s development,
each component of the Continuum of Play is outlined below. School counselors and tea-
chers are encouraged to review each component and its purpose to appropriately refer the
specific child to additional types of play or intervention if their needs will not be met in the
current structure of classroom instruction. For example, a first grade teacher reported a
child was having behavioral outbursts in the classroom. The school counselor observed
the class during a ‘learning through games’ lesson. During this lesson, the identified
child grew frustrated and threw the chair next to him when he could not figure out
how to participate in the game. This structure of instruction is helpful for children to
learn when they are fully present; however, this specific student needed additional
support to express his emotions more appropriately, and thus, was referred to a
method further along in the model (i.e. play work).

The continuum of play in therapy

Within the child counseling literature, experts agree that play is the natural or first
language of children across cultures, ethnicities, and socioeconomic levels (www.a4pt.
org; Landreth, 2012; Ray, 2011). The authors believe that many referral rates for
therapy are increasing due to the lack of free play and other types of developmentally
appropriate instructional play in classrooms. While school counselors are likely familiar
with the types of therapy to which children are referred, the Continuum of Play includes
them to illustrate the range of the continuum and to support the counselor in providing
information to classroom teachers, school administration, and families when recommend-
ing an intervention or course of action for children presenting with classroom-related
challenges. Even within the realm of therapy, the level of intervention varies based
on the severity of the presenting concern (Play Therapy United Kingdom, n.d.).
8 K. A. ALLEE-HERNDON ET AL.

The information below is organized from the most therapist-directed to the most child-
directed as illustrated in the Continuum of Play above.

Child psychiatry
At times, children’s concerns warrant the attention of a child psychiatrist, although this
level of treatment is represented at the most intensely adult-driven within the Continuum
of Play. The child psychiatrist should work with the treatment team for the child, support-
ing the treatment plan outlined by the play therapist, school counselor, or child counselor.
Many parents skip the play therapy or filial step on this continuum and seek support from
the child’s pediatrician. Based on level of expertise and education, school counselors might
encourage parents and caregivers to elicit help from a trained child psychiatrist if a psy-
chiatric evaluation is deemed necessary. Child psychiatrists are trained in child develop-
ment and psychiatric treatment. Therefore, they are the best resource for understanding
the clinical needs of a child; whereas, a pediatrician is a generalist, much in the way
one would not seek help from a general practitioner if diagnosed with cancer.

Play therapy
Play therapy is the first language of children. Within the realm of play therapy, therapists
can elect, on a continuum, to present as directive or non-directive within the session. In
non-directive sessions, the therapist believes in the child’s innate ability to overcome
struggles and trials within a supportive, nurturing, therapeutic relationship (Landreth,
2012; Ray, 2011). The playroom is set in a consistent manner including toys in various
categories (e.g. nurturing, realistic, aggressive, creative) to provide opportunities for the
child to explore different thoughts, feeling, and behaviors. Play therapists support the
assumption that ‘toys are used like words by children, and play is their language’ (Land-
reth, 2012, p. 12). Therefore, the designated playroom needs to include a wide range of
toys and materials. Within more directive play sessions, the therapist selects the materials
and toys based on the child’s presenting issue and directs the child in a therapeutic manner
to work through a particular concern (Knell, 1998). For most children, engaging in play
therapy can mitigate issues related to their presenting concerns. Therefore, we encourage
most parents, teachers, or significant others to seek out help using play therapy as a step-
ping stone for therapeutic intervention prior to usage of medication.

Filial/child parent relationship therapy

In previous research, parents or caregivers are seen as therapeutic agents of change for
their child (Bratton et al., 2005). In this step, counselors involve the parents in the thera-
peutic process. Filial therapy is a therapeutic approach to teach parents/caregivers child-
centered play therapy skills in order to respond differently to their child and elicit behav-
ioral or emotional change; child–parent relationship therapy (CPRT) is a modified 10-
week version of the filial therapy model (Landreth & Bratton, 2006). Previous studies
have demonstrated this model to be effective in individual or group sessions (Bratton
et al., 2005). Over time, children are likely to understand and express their feelings in
more socially appropriate ways, gain confidence and self-control in solving or addressing
problems, reduce problematic behaviors, and strengthen their relationship with their
parent (Landreth & Bratton, 2006). In addition, parents also exhibit positive gains in
understanding their child’s problems and emotions better, learning positive parenting
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLAY 9

skills and responses to encourage, support, and respond to their child’s needs, enjoying
play with their child, providing positive attention, listening carefully and responding
with open communication, and developing greater self-confidence as a parent (Landreth
& Bratton, 2006). Morrison and Helker (2010) modified filial to include teachers in a
school-based mental health intervention given that power of the child–teacher relation-
ship. Therefore, teachers can also serve as the primary agent of change while at school
within this model (Okonofua, Paunesku, & Walton, 2016).

Play work
Fred Rogers is attributed to the statement, ‘Play is often talked about as if it were a relief
from serious learning. But for children, play is serious learning. Play is really the work of
childhood’ (Moore, 2015, para. 4). Although this statement is not unanimously agreed
upon within the play therapy domain, children naturally are drawn to make sense of
their world through play. With new experiences or events, often parents and teachers
report that children will play out scenes or scenarios freely or without restrictions (e.g. vis-
iting a doctor, going to school for the first time). Therefore, play work is therapeutic for
children, although this type of play can occur without the presence of a trained therapist
or counselor, such as in a classroom setting. It is important for teachers and school coun-
selors to note this behavior if occurring in the classroom. If the play-based behavior
appears repetitive and consistent for extended periods of time, the child may be stuck
and struggling to integrate this new experience into their worldview. If the teacher deter-
mines this struggle to be true, a referral for more intense play therapy is warranted. Tea-
chers can refer students to school counselors for a further assessment. School counselors
can make a determination if they can observe that more extensive therapy is needed; and
they can refer out to a local play therapist.

The continuum of play in classrooms

Given that our current educational climate has a strong focus on standardization of out-
comes and assessment-driven instruction, classroom teachers feel forced to instruct in
increasingly didactic ways, often without purposeful play, nor in consideration of
children’s developmental needs. In particular, the growing population of high needs
children who lack social-emotional skills, self-regulation skills, or executive function
skills are especially likely to struggle with behavioral issues in this type of learning
environment (Bredekamp & Copple, 2009; Fisher, 1992; Fisher et al., 2010; Lillard
et al., 2013; Pellegrini, 2013; White, 2013). Therefore, school counselors who already
see the benefits of play, may be excited to know that teachers can be encouraged
toward purposeful play in their classrooms as a means of reducing negative behavior
and increasing support. Similarly, classroom teachers may be referring children with
negative behaviors to play therapists, yet they may not yet possess the professional
knowledge to see the benefits of play or feel the agency within their classrooms to
infuse play-based learning. In this way, the Continuum of Play, comprehensive in
scope and intent, can support school counselors and their school and classroom partners
in advocating for research-based, developmentally appropriate play to simultaneously
reduce behavioral issues and improve instruction. The following components, clearly
effective instructional strategies and less therapeutic interventions, are described
10 K. A. ALLEE-HERNDON ET AL.

below: free play, inquiry play, collaboratively designed play, playful learning, and learn-
ing through games.

Free play
The play work level of play therapy, the most child-directed form, is most closely related to
free play in the classroom. Free play is almost entirely child-directed and has little to no
teacher involvement in the design or architecture of play. Pyle and Danniels (2017) suggest
that when learning and play are seen as dichotomous, the result is often more teacher-
directed instruction in whole and small groups or free play with little middle ground.
Free play can support social-emotional skill development and self-regulatory development
(Barnett et al., 2008; Berk & Meyers, 2013; Fisher, Hirsh-Pasek, Newcombe, & Golinkoff,
2013; Holt, Lee, Millar, & Spence, 2015; Weisberg et al., 2013). Teachers, or school coun-
selors, can use this opportunity to observe children to note patterns, wants, or needs that
are expressed within free play to better adapt their approach to meet the needs of each
child.

Inquiry play
Inquiry play is similar to free play in that the locus of the decision-making is principally
driven by the child. Per Pyle and Danniels (2017), this type of play, while initiated by chil-
dren, is capitalized upon and extended by cognizant teachers to connect to relevant aca-
demic standards by supporting conversations, providing books and resources, and
facilitating learning enhancement opportunities related to the interests that children
express during play. If, for example, a teacher notices children seem especially interested
in insects, he can provide nonfiction books on various insects, tools for safely catching and
observing insects, materials to record data, and use math skills to analyze results. Teachers
can also use child-directed play for observation. Children are likely to present their pro-
blems/needs innately when they direct their own play. Teachers can observe the play
process to note patterns (i.e. throws things when frustrated) in order to intervene prior
to the child’s behavioral outburst. If a teacher can become aware that a specific child,
for example, struggles with transitions, that teacher can provide time warnings to the
child discreetly to help prepare them for the upcoming transition. Many of these patterns
can be noted in child-directed play, and the teacher can take an active approach to sup-
porting the child’s needs within the classroom setting.

Collaboratively designed play

Collaboratively planned play, as the name implies, derives from both student and teacher
input and control, and appears similar to playful learning. Children drive the play within
these spaces or activities, they work together with teachers to help design the experience,
and teachers regulate the experience such that the learning aligns to grade level standards
and allows children to develop the necessary academic skills. In collaboratively planned
play, a teacher might know she is required to teach children science concepts like living
and nonliving, food webs, and habitats. She can collaborate with children to decide how
this can be incorporated into the learning space using play, and they might decide together
to set up a pretend zoo or pet nursery and determine what elements need to be included.
The children, once in the space, direct their own play with teacher scaffolding and
resources provided to support the required learning concepts.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLAY 11

Playful learning
In playful learning, a teacher takes a direct role in planning for experiences that channel
children toward using academic skills or knowledge they would not necessarily devise
independently, such as practicing solving mathematical equations or using particular
writing strategies (Pyle & Danniels, 2017). The teacher is designing and facilitating
playful experiences aligned to instructional standards and learning targets, but there are
fewer rules or constraints to the play than in learning through games. Examples of
playful learning might include dramatic play opportunities that intentionally include
opportunities to practice writing, solve problems, apply new vocabulary, or practice
using specific skills such as using a pan balance.

Learning through games

Teacher-directed play, or what Pyle and Danniels (2017) call learning through games, occurs
when the amount of children’s choice is much more constrained, and the play is highly
associated with specific learning targets or skills aligned to standards (i.e. practicing spelling
rules). Learning through games helps to develop discrete disciplinary skills such as phonics
patterns, mathematical operations, vocabulary, and scientific concepts. In this most teacher-
designed play-based experience, teachers attempt to meet academic standards using instruc-
tional approaches that are more engaging and playful for students, but children have little
choice in how they engage in this type of play. Pyle and Danniels (2017) differentiate this
end of the continuum as play-based learning and define play as being on the child-directed
end of the continuum (or in the middle of our Continuum of Play in Figure 1).

Conclusion
No doubt, elementary schools are seeing an increase in students presenting concerns that
lead to a corresponding increase in pediatric diagnoses (i.e. ADHD), therapeutic referrals,
and disciplinary referrals for elementary-aged children (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2017; U.S. Department of Education, 2017). This piece supports practitioner
knowledge, both for counselors and educators, of basic child development needs, the
risks to academic and social success at-opportunity students present in school, and the
benefits of play to children could help boost academic outcomes as well as increasing
social-emotional skills/behaviors for improved wellness overall. Therefore, the authors
applied the research contextualized across the fields of counselor education and teacher
education so as to create a unique and useful Continuum of Play for school counselor
use. Illustrated by examples for each element of the continuum, the authors hope to
support school counselors in identifying and advocating for developmentally appropriate
classroom interventions that can perhaps mitigate the need for therapeutic interventions
for children presenting with age-appropriate classroom-related challenges. Therefore, the
authors recommend classroom interventions that begin with trying the authentic, devel-
opmentally matched play-based approaches. Using the Continuum of Play as a guide and
partnering with classroom teachers and administrators to infuse play in our classrooms,
before prescribing medication or professional therapy and before diagnosing children,
may see a reduction in referrals for behavioral issues (i.e. Barros et al., 2009; Blom
et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2010; NCES, 2017; Yogman, Garner, Hutchinson, Hirsh-Pasek,
& Golinkoff, 2018). In many cases, problematic behavior could simply result from
12 K. A. ALLEE-HERNDON ET AL.

children’s normal, daily developmental needs not being met coupled with increasingly
didactic instruction rather than an underlying physical or mental health issue. A recent
clinical report from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP; Yogman et al., 2018) sup-
ports the benefits of playful learning and a balanced, less didactic curriculum to ‘promote
social-emotional, cognitive, language, and self-regulation skills that build executive func-
tion and a prosocial brain’ (p. 1). The AAP also encourages prescribing play for children’s
healthy development, particularly children trying to manage toxic stress, such as stress
from chronic poverty.
The overwhelming support of play and play-based interventions for typically develop-
ing healthy children, and especially vulnerable children, seems obvious to provide oppor-
tunities to move, to talk, to negotiate, to plan, to explore, and to engage with content,
concepts, and to explore the processes of learning in order to grow cognitively (Piaget,
1977; Vygotsky, 1978). The authors are confident that the Continuum of Play can
support school counselors as they both advocate for and educate practitioners and families
on the health and learning benefits of purposeful play in classrooms. Adding elements of
play from our Continuum of Play may help increase academic outcomes, reduce behav-
ioral disruptions, and minimize the number of children referred for mental or physical
diagnoses. Yet, future research must be pursued to examine the relationship between
reduced play and mental health/educational problems as well as measuring the impor-
tance of experimental studies to validate the efficacy of the Continuum of Play model.
The Continuum of Play is a theoretical model grounded in empirical evidence. Effectively
advocating for increased play in schools, however, may require examining the efficacy of
this model within various school contexts. By using the Continuum of Play to meet chil-
dren’s developmental needs intentionally in our classrooms, school counselors can encou-
rage teachers to use research-based, play-based strategies to support children’s
development and reduce behavioral problems.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors
Dr. Karyn Allee-Herndon earned her PhD at the University of Central Florida in Elementary Edu-
cation, and she is an Assistant Professor of Early Childhood Education at Mercer University’s Tift
College of Education. Dr. Allee-Herndon’s research focuses on how poverty affects cognitive devel-
opment, executive function and self-regulation as predictors of school readiness and achievement,
and instructional strategies (including play) to reduce achievement gaps. Dr. Allee-Herndon has
been published in International Journal of the Whole Child, The Reading Teacher, and Journal of
Research in Childhood Education. She is a member of multiple professional organizations like
the American Educational Research Association and National Association for the Education of
Young Children.
Dr. Dalena Dillman Taylor is an Associate Professor at the University of Central Florida in the
Department of Counselor Education & School Psychology/Counselor Education Program. She
earned her doctoral degree in Counseling and completed her masters degree in Counseling from
the University of North Texas. Dr. Dillman Taylor’s primary research interests include: advance-
ment of Adlerian Play Therapy field towards evidence-based practice; counseling and educational
services for high need children and families; and counselor development and supervision.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PLAY 13

Dr. Sherron Killingsworth Roberts the Robert N. Heintzelman Literature Scholar and a professor of
language arts and literacy in the School of Teacher Education in the College of Community Inno-
vation and Education at University of Central Florida. Published in Reading Teacher, Journal of
Teacher Education, Journal of Research in Childhood Education, Journal of Adult and Adolescent
Literacy, Journal of Poetry Therapy, and Reading Horizons among others, her research considers
literacy as social practice, content analyses of children’s literature, and innovative pedagogy in
teacher education, such as technological applications, literature study groups, and writing circles.
Additionally, she continues to explore the uses of poetry as a reservoir for qualitative analyses,
for therapy, and for creating a peaceful classroom.

ORCID
Karyn A. Allee-Herndon https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0764-4792
Sherron Killingsworth Roberts http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1340-4333

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