Measurementt

M
Error
o
Physical Measurement Method
(Metode Pengukuran Fisika)
SF 091306

Gatut Yudoyono
Physics department

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No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy,
but it is important to find out what the accuracy actually is
and how different errors have entered into the measurement.

Errors may come from different sources and are usually classified
under three main headings:
g

Gross Errors : Largely human errors, among them misreading of

instruments, incorrect adjustment and improper application
of instruments, and computational mistakes.
Systematic
y Errors: Shortcomings
g of the instruments,, such as
defective or worn parts, and effects of the environment on the
equipment or the user.
Random Errors: Those due to causes that cannot be directly
established because of random variations in the parameter
or the system of measurement.
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 Gross Errors/ personal bias
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in
reading or using instruments and in recording and calculating
measurement results.
One common gross error, frequently
committed by beginners in measure
measure-
ment work, involves the improper use
of an instrument.

The position of pencil changes with

respect to a mark on the background.
Parallax error is
introduced as we may
read values at an angle.
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 For example, a well-calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading reading
when connected across two points in a high-resistance circuit.

A voltmeter, having a sensitivity of 1,000 /V, reads 100 V on its

150-V scale when connected across an unknown resistor in
series with a milliammeter.
When the milliammeter reads 5 mA, calculate
a) apparent resistance of the unknown resistor,
b)) actual resistance of the unknown resistor,,
c) error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.
Solution
a) The total circuit resistance equals
a).The

Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of the unknown

resistor is RX = 20 kΩ
b). The voltmeter resistance equals

Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can write

c).
) Error

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 If the milliammeter reads 800 mA and the voltmeter reads 40 V on
its 150-V scale
scale.

Solution
a).The
) Th total
t t l circuit
i it resistance
i t equals
l

Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of the unknown

resistor is RX = 50 Ω

b). The voltmeter resistance equals

Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can

write

c). Error

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Systematic
y Errors
This type of errors is usually divided into three different
categories:
1. instrumental errors,, defined as shortcomings
g of the
instrument;
2. environmental errors, due to external conditions
affecting the measurement.
3. Procedural error/measuring error

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I t
Instrumental
t l errors are errors inherent
i h t iin measuring
i iinstruments
t t
because of their mechanical structure.

For example,
‰ A zero error
‰ In the d’Arsonval movement, friction in bearings of various moving
components may cause incorrect readings.
readings
‰ Irregular spring tension, stretching of the spring, or reduction in
tension due to improper handling or overloading of the instrument
will result in errors
‰ A calibration errors,, causing
g the instrument to read high
g or low
along its entire scale.

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Instrumental errors may be avoided by:
1. selecting
g a suitable instrument for a p
particular measurement
application;
2. applying correction factors after determining the amount of
instrumental error;
3. calibrating the instrument against a standard.
4. replacing the instrument or by making a change in the design
of the instrument.

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Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the
measuring device, including conditions in the area surrounding the
instrument, such as the effects of changes in temperature, humidity,
barometric pressure, or of magnetic or electrostatic fields.

Thus a change in ambient temperature at which the instrument is

used causes a change in the elastic properties of the spring in a
moving-coil mechanism and so affects the reading of the
i t
instrument.
t

C
Corrective
ti measures to
t reduce
d these
th effects
ff t include
i l d air
i conditioning,
diti i
hermetically sealing certain components in the instrument, use of
magnetic shields,
shields and the like.
like

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Procedural error
A faulty measuring process may include inappropriate physical
environment, procedural mistakes and lack of understanding of the
process of measurement.
measurement

For example, if we are studying magnetic efect of current, then it

would be erroneous to conduct the experiment in a place where
strong currents are owing nearby.

Similarly, while taking temperature of human body, it is important

to know which of the human parts is more representative of body
temperature.

This error type can be minimized by periodic assessment of

measurement process and improvising the system in consultation with
subject expert or simply conducting an audit of the measuring process
in the light of new facts and advancements.

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Systematic errors can also be subdivided into static or dynamic errors.

‰ Static
St ti errors are caused
dbby limitations
li it ti off the
th measuring
i d device
i or
the physical laws governing its behaviour.

A static error is introduced in a micrometer when excessive pressure

is applied in torquing the shaft.
shaft

‰ Dynamic errors are caused by the instrument

instrument’s
s not responding fast
enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.

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Random Errors
These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when all
systematic errors have been accounted for.
for

In well-designed
well designed experiments
experiments, few random errors usually occur
occur, but
they become important in high-accuracy work.

Suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is

read at half
half-hour
hour intervals. Although the instrument is operated
under ideal environmental conditions and has been accurately
calibrated before the measurement,, it will be found that the
readings vary slightly over the period of observation.

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Random error unlike systematic
y error is not unidirectional.

™ Some of the measured values are greater than true value; some are
less than true value.
™ The errors introduced are sometimes positive and sometimes
negative with respect to true value.

It is possible to minimize this type of error by repeating

measurements and applying statistical technique to
get closer value to the true value.

No human being can repeat an action in

exactly the same manner.

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1. Least count error

Least count error results due to the inadequacy of resolution of the

instrument.
instrument

The least count of a device is equal to

the smallest division on the scale.

Consider the meter scale that we use. What is its least count? Its
smallest division is in millimeter ((mm).
) Hence,, its least count is 1
mm i.e. 10-3 m i.e. 0.001 m. Clearly, this meter scale can be used to
measure length from 10-3 m to 1 m.

It is worth to know that least count of a vernier scale is 10-4 m and

that of screw gauge and spherometer 10-5 m.
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 Generally, the accepted level of error in reading the
smallest division is considered half the least count
count.

For example, let us read the measurement of a piece of a given rod.

One end of the rod exactly matches with the zero of scale. Other end
lies at the smallest markings at 0.477 m (= 47.7 cm = 477 mm). We
may argue that measurement should be limited to the marking which
can be denitely relied. If so, then we would report the length as 0.47 m,
because we may not be denite about millimeter reading.

Be more precise and accurate

by reporting measurement as 0.477 ±
some agreed
d llevell off anticipated
ti i t d error.

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If we report the measurement in centimeter
centimeter,

If we report the measurement in millimeter

millimeter,

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2. Mean value of measurements

It has been pointed out that random error, including that of least count
error can be minimized by repeating measurements.
error, measurements

If we take average of the measurements from the repeated

measurements, it is likely that we minimize error by canceling out
errors in opposite directions.

Here, we are implicitly assuming that measurement is free of

systematic errors.
errors The averaging of the repeated measurements
measurements,
therefore, gives the best estimate of true value.

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